1. What are the notable research methods in Psychology?

There are several different research methods used in psychology. Broadly

speaking, there are two distinct types: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative research methodology involves the use of numerical data to
make descriptions, predict outcomes, and test potential relationships between
variables.

Qualitative research investigates the use of non-numerical data such as text,

speech, video, and the like in an attempt to gain an understanding or
interpretation of different phenomena, such as social or individual perceptions
and behaviors.

The main takeaway regarding quantitative and qualitative research is this:

quantitative research deals with numbers while qualitative research relies on
descriptions. Both types of research have their strengths and limitations,
despite the notion among some groups that quantitative research is superior.
Within the context of psychology, qualitative research is highly valued
because quantitative measures cannot measure the nuance and totality of the
human experience. It’s important to note that both quantitative and qualitative
research methods are highly technical and rigorous.

Within each of these two broad categories lie distinct methods used in
psychological research. While this list is not exhaustive, we break down five of
the most popular methodologies used in psychological research.

 Case Study
 Experiment
 Observational Study
 Survey
 Content Analysis

2. What are the major theoretical perspectives of Psychology?

There may be several different theories within an approach, but they
all share these common assumptions. The five major perspectives in
psychology are biological, psycho dynamic, behavioral, cognitive
and humanistic. You may wonder why there are so many different
psychology approaches and whether one approach is correct and
others wrong
3. Identify some of the specialties in Psychology.
Psychology is an extremely diverse academic and professional field,
providing opportunities for people with many types of interests and
strengths. Here is a list of some specialty areas within the discipline,
although it is by no means exhaustive:
Social Psychology

Social psychology is the bridge between sociological psychology. This sub-

field involves the study of social influences and their effects on people’s
behavior. It incorporates many elements of social theory to explain groups
and individuals’ situational behavior.

Clinical Psychology

This is what immediately comes to mind for most people when the word
“psychologist” is mentioned. Clinical psychologists often work in medical
environments but generally are not permitted to prescribe medication to
their patients. Instead, they devise non-medicinal treatment plans that
help patients overcome their difficulties.
Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the study of humans’ psychological

development from birth to death and at every imaginable interval in
between. This sub-field focuses on all psychology-related types of
development that take place over a person’s lifetime, including social,
emotional, perceptual, intellectual and cognitive growth.
Abnormal Psychology

If mental illnesses and other psychological abnormalities interest you, this

sub-field is definitely worth considering. Most psychologists in this sub-
field have either a PhD or MD degree, and some have both. They conduct
research on patterns of behavior and cognition among those who suffer
from severe illnesses such as schizophrenia, often devising medical
treatment plans to combat the underlying cause of the disorder.
Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the study of people’s thought processes such as

learning, memory and forgetting. Educational psychology is a sub-field of
cognitive psychology that is worth investigating if you are particularly
interested in the cognitive activity that takes place during the learning
process.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Unsurprisingly, industrial and organizational behavior is the name of the

game in this specialty. Industrial-organizational psychologists analyze
workplaces and often serve as consultants, helping to formulate
organizational or workplace policies that will maximize employee
efficiency and satisfaction while minimizing attrition. If this sounds like
something that interests you, you should make sure that you have at
least some business background before beginning your job search.
Bio psychology

Bio psychology is best conceptualized as a psychological outgrowth of

neuroscience. It is the study of the biological processes that underlie
people’s decisions and thought processes. Bio psychology is worth a closer
look if the human body’s physiology and chemistry interest you.
4.Differentiate sensation and perception.
Difference Between Sensation and Perception

Definition

Sensation is the process of receiving information via our five senses,

which can then be experienced and interpreted by the brain.
Perception is the process of interpreting the information acquired
through the five senses accordingly.

Source

The source of sensation is the stimuli obtained from sensory organs

whereas the source of perception is the information sent to the
brain through sensation.

Result

Sensation results in perception, which results in interpreting and

giving meaning to the information received.
Procedure

Whereas sensation is a general biological procedure, perception has

more psychological significance since the person’s past experiences
and ideologies affect directly.

5.What are the major processes in sensation?

Sensation is the process by which neural impulses are created by stimulation
or sensory-neurons that results in awareness of conditions inside or outside
our body. There are five main senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and
taste. In addition we also have vestibular sense and kinesthetic sense.
6. Differentiate the various perceptual organizational processes.
Understanding perceptual organization

The perceptual organization theory has been aptly explained by Gestalt

psychologists who believed that the human brain is capable of creating a
conscious perceptual experience by observing the stimulus as a whole and
not as the total of its parts. Remember, it is the stimulus that plays an integral
role in the perceptual organization theory.
Principles of perceptual organization

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization theory are based on the

following groups of rules or principles

Figure-Ground relationship –As per the principle of figure-ground

relationship the human brain can perceive a figure in a meaningful manner in
the background and the beauty of it is that it cannot be separated from that
perceived background.

Perceptual constancy – As the name suggests, the term perceptual

constancy is about stability in perception. The tendency of the human mind to
perceive objects as unchanging and stable in size and shape despite a
change in the picture we receive is referred to as perceptual constancy. The
concept of perceptual constancy depends upon numerous factors, for
instance, imagination, learning, cognitive styles, motivations, habits,
expectancy and experience. The different types of perceptual constancies are
size constancy, brightness and color constancy, shape and size constancy
etc.

Perceptual Grouping – The tendency of the human mind to group several

stimuli in an easily recognizable pattern is known as a perceptual grouping. In
this principle, the grouping is based on closure, continuity, similarity,
inclusiveness, pregnant and proximity. A detailed description of every one of
them is as follows-

7. What are the paranormal perceptions?

paranormal phenomena include extrasensory perception
(ESP), telekinesis, ghosts, poltergeists, life after death,
reincarnation, faith healing, human auras, and so forth. The
explanations for these allied phenomena are phrased in vague terms
of "psychic forces", "human energy fields", and so on.
8. Differentiate classical conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive
learning.
Classical conditioning is a reflexive type of learning; a form of
stimulus is introduced, which in turn evokes a response that was
originally induced by a different stimulus.

According to Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist suggests learning

through classical conditioning results when a stimulus is paired
alongside another stimulus that prompts a known response serves
to produce the same response when used alone.

Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely,

presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an
innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR),
respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually
the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to
produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the
conditioned response (CR) (Tina, S. 2009)

Operant conditioning involves a different se is:

There are three major forms of operant learning. In positive rries of

events, and this what we usually think of as learning. The general
patterneinforcement, an individual does something and is
rewarded. He or she is then more likely to repeat the behaviour.
For example, you buy a chocolate bar (behaviour), you like the taste
(consequence), therefore you are more likely to purchase a similar
chocolate bar in the future.

However, Punishment is the opposite. You eat the same chocolate

bar, but this time you discover it isn’t chocolate but in fact, a piece
of soap that tastes horrible (consequences). This, in turn, introduces
a negative stimulus so you will not eat it ever again (changed
behaviour).

Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, is very different from

punishment. For example, negative reinforcement is a sales person
who calls you up on the phone, trying to pressure you into buying
something you don’t want to do (aversive stimulus). You eventually
agree to buy it (changed behaviour), and the sales person leaves you
alone (the aversive stimulus is terminated as a result of
consequences of your behaviour).

Finally, cognitive learning is a result of mental processes. Cognitive

learning theory emphasises the importance of internal mental
processes. This perspective views people as problem-solvers who
utilize the information available to them from the world around
them to master their environment.

9. How do you see punishment effectiveness in bringing desired

behavior
The effectiveness of punishment depends on several factors:
Frequency of punishment, immediacy of punishment, and positive
reinforcement on positive or good behavior. However punishment
may also have serious negative effects if not carried out properly.
Such effects include avoidance or escape, alienation of the punished,
aggressiveness, and re-implementing punishment in the punished.
Research has proven that the most effective way in reducing such
criminal acts is simply through education. Inmates with at least
two years of college education have a 10% re-arrest rate compared
to a 62% re-arrest rate. Prisoners with associates degrees have a
re-arrest rate of 13.7%, 5.6% with a bachelor’s degree, and 0% for
those with a master’s degree.

So if education seems like a better and more positive reinforcement

for deterring crime, why are we still using imprisonment? What if
we focused on educating criminals in prison rather than re-
arresting criminals or extending their prison sentence? Rather than
emphasizing severe punishment, we should focus on positive
reinforcement and education. It may not entirely prevent crime,
but it will hopefully prevent prisoners from committing illegal acts.
And I think it will help us more to have a desired behaviour.

10. Know memory models and stages.