ITP REVIEWER
Rene Descartes – French mathematician; revived
LESSON 1: PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology
- scientific study of mind and soul
- Greek “psyche” meaning soul. Before, they cannot
distinguish mind and body.
• Psyche is most beautiful and was worshiped as a
deity. Aphrodite orders Eros to use his arrow to
make Psyche fall inlove with a hideous person.
Eros found Psyche most beautiful and
accidentally wounded himself with his own
arrow. He fell in love. No one loved Psyche, her
sisters gotten married. Oracle of Delphi – God
Appollo through a pythoness “perversed
winged-being” left of the edge od abyss in
matrimonial attire. Breeze – God Zephyr west
wind. Luxurious mansion, invisible servants. The
cloak of Nyx the goddess of the night.
• Her sisters convinced her to kill Eros
• She saw he’s pretty, wax fell on his chest, he
hated her
• She went home and worked at the temple of
Demeter – offer with humility and submission
• Aphrodite Tasks (1) separate grain seeds, ants
helped (2) gather gold wool from dangerous
sheep, pick the wool stuck on thorns (fill jug of
water from river Styx, eagle of Zeus helped (4)
bring back some beauty of Persephone in a box,
gave 2 coins to Caron ferryman banks of Acheron
river of souls, Cerberus barley and honey bread
with slee4ping pill, saw her reflection opened the
box black mist that made her almost die. Eros
saved her, begged Zeus to convince Aphrodite.
Psyche and Eros opened got married in Olympus,
nectar and ambrosia divine foods that bestow
immortality.
• Hedone – deity of pleasure.
- Study all aspects of human experience, multifaceted
discipline
- Critical thinking, tend to develop communication
skills
Goals:
• Describe – what happens or response
• Explain – why?
• Predict – how will he/she react?
• Chang/Control – treatment
History
1. Plato and Aristotle – Greek; rationalism – states that
true knowledge comes only through correct
reasoning and not through senses
2. St. Augustine – theologian and philosopher;
Confessions: discussed the theological basis of
memory, emotion and motivation. (what drives a
person?)
3.
Plato’s proposition that reasoning was the best
means of gaining true knowledge. (Due to
conceptualizing or logical reasoning)
4. John Locke – (thomas reid?) empiricism – the idea
that all knowledge comes from experience; tabula
rasa – states that a person is born like a blank tablet
or slate on which life experiences conveyed through
the senses are written
5. Hermann Von Helmholtz – German; physiology and
psychophysics; measured the speed of neural
impulse and explored the physiology of hearing and
vision. (Our senses deceive us and are not a mirror of
the external world)
6. Ernst Webber and Gustav Fechner – psychophysics
– new science of psychology; introduced methods for
measuring the relationship between physical stimuli
and human perception.
Schools of Psychology
1. Structuralism – sought to analyze the mind and its
part by studying conscious mental experiences
• Wilhelm Wundt – German; Father of
Psychology; wrote a book entitled Principles of
Physiological psychology; established the field of
experimental psychology by serving as a strong
promoter of the idea that psychology be an
experimental field
• Edward Titchener – introduced structuralism to
USA when he joined the faculty of Cornell
University; Analytical Introspection –
structuralists presented a stimulus to the subject
who was asked later on to report the mental
experiences evolved by the stimulus in the form
of images, feeling, and sensations (reaction,
response)
2. Functionalism – based on Charles Darwin’s theory of
evolution; focused on how mental activities helped
on organism fit into its environment
• William James – principles of psychology – first
ever publication; professor in Harvard. stated
that psychology is the “science of mental life, the
science of feelings, desires, reasoning, decisions
and the like; the conscious mind is a stream of
thought flowing like a river that cannot be
broken into parts. Wundt and James contributed
to modern psychology, Psychological Popes of
the Old and New World from Berlin Newspaper
• G. Stanley Hall?
3. Psychoanalysis – (iceberg theory) focuses on the
role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early
childhood experiences
• Sigmund Freud – psychic determinism –
unconscious psychological conflicts in the human
mind usually related to sex and aggression that
motivate both normal and abnormal humas
behavior. (largely affect and contribute to the
personality of a person, most controversial
 psychologist of all time because of sex; ex. Water
in dream means orgasm)
4. Behaviorism - approach of observing and controlling
behavior
• John Watson – stated that psychology has a
purely objective experimental branch of natural
science which its theoretical goal was to predict
and control behavior
• Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning; gave
credence to observable behavior and not mental
experiences as the appropriate subject matter
for psychological research.
• Burros Frederick Skinner – operant conditioning
– rewards and punishment; stated that mental
psychic events lack the dimensions of physical
science should be rejected as basis in
understanding human behavior.
5. Gestalt – deals with the fact that although sensory
experience can be broken down into individual
parts, how those parts relate to each other as a
whole is often what the individual responds to in
perception
• Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler
Contemporary Perspectives
1. Evolutionary – mental processes evolve through
natural selection
2. Psychodynamic – introduced the concept of
unconscious determinants of motivation and
behavior (Sigmund freud)
3. Biological – focuses on the biological influences on
behavior are associated with underlying bodily
activities and processes
4. Behavioral – focuses on how behavior is acquired or
modified by environmental consequences such as
rewards and punishments
5. Cognitive – how we acquire process, remember and
use information about ourselves and the world
around us
6. Humanistic – promoted a positive view of human
nature and maintained that people are in control of
their lives (Maslow’s hierarchy of need; Karl rogers
emphatic listening)
7. Sociocultural – roles of social and cultural influences
on human behavior and mental processes
Psychologist will typically do the following:
• Conduct scientific studies to study behavior and
brain functions (neuropsychologist)
• Collect information through observations,
interviews, surveys, tests, and other methods
• Find patterns that will help them understand and
predict behavior
• Use their knowledge to increase understanding
among individuals and groups
• Develop programs that improve schools and
workplaces by addressing psychological issues
• Work with individual, couples, and families to help
them make desired changes to behaviors
• Identify and diagnose mental, behavioral, or
emotional disorders
• Develop and carry out treatment plans
• Collaborate with physicians or social workers to help
treat patients
Methods of Research in Psychology
• Quantitative and Qualitative
• Correlational (relationship), Descriptive (description)
and Experimental (effects)
• Case Study – qualitative; involves an observation of
one individual or a group of individuals over a length
of time
• Experiment – most often used method and there are
principles involved in its employment. One is the
presence of control and experimental group, and
another principle is the control of variables. (one
group with teddy bear while sleeping other has not,
then compare their reactions)
• Observational study – naturalistic or controlled;
systematic and carefully recording; goal is to identify
and describe a variable of even a set of variables
• Survey – shotgun approach; depends upon self-
reported data, and so can be highly subjective
• Content analysis – looking at media such as print,
television, radio and others for the repetition of
specific words or phrases, even ideas
Ethics in Psychological Research
• Informed Consent – statement that participation is
voluntary and that refusal to participate will not
result in any consequences or any loss of benefits
that the person is otherwise entitled to receive;
purpose of research, foreseeable risks and
discomforts, procedures, benefits to society and
individual human subject, length of time, person to
contact, confidentiality
• Debrief/Debriefing – participants must be told if
they have been deceived and given reasons why.
They must be asked if they have any questions and
must be answered honestly and fully.
• Protection of Participants – ensure that those taking
part in research will not be caused distress; must be
protected from physical and mental harm (John
Watson, little albert, every time a rat appears, there
is a loud noise causing albert to develop mental
illness as he age, incentive is only 1 dollar)
• Deception – participants are misled or wrongly
informed about the aims of the research
a. Deliberate misleading
b. Deception by omission
• Confidentiality – participants and the data gained
from them must be kept anonymous unless they give
their full consent
• Withdrawal from an investigation – participants
should be able to leave a study at nay time if they
feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to
withdraw their data.
 LESSON 2: BIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Nervous System
- Capable of receiving and processing information,
making decisions, and relaying the required
command for action (nadedertmine yung specific
part for a response to occur)
- Allows organisms to sense, organize, and react to
information in the environment (function)
➢ Neurons – serves as interconnected information
processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the
nervous system. Central building blocks of the
nervous system and is 100B strong neurons (atvert?),
consists of different parts each serving a specialized
function, outer surface is made up of made up of
semipermeable membrane
➢ Glial cells – provide scaffolding on which the nervous
system is built, help neurons line up closely with each
other to allow neuronal communication, provide
insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste
products, and mediate immune responses. (neurons
have main functions, glial cells support neurons)
Process of transmitting Information
1. Receptor neurons receive stimulus or sense
information from the environment through the
sense organ. (napaso)
2. Interneurons or internuncial relay the stimulus or
sense information receive by the receptor neurons
from one neuron to another. They conduct messages
from one part of the nervous system to another.
(bridge, relay info)
3. Motor neurons send out the direction(s) ordered by
the brain as signaled by the corresponding stimulus.
Consequently, these neurons produce body
movements or responses accordingly. (papaga)
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrite – networks of short fibers or filaments
branching out from the cell body or converging to the
cell body which accepts the stimulus signaled by the
neurons (receiver)
2. Cell body – contains the nucleus to provide the
energy for transmitting stimulus received from the
dendrites to the axon, and then to another neuron
3. Axon – a long single fiber that carries away the
stimulus signaled by the cell to another neuron
(connects neurons to neurons, carry away signal) at
the end of axons are terminal buttons which
contains synaptic vesicles that house
neurotransmitters which are the chemical
messengers of the nervous system. Range in length
from a fraction of an inch to several feet.
4. Myelin Sheath – covers and protects the axons and
is responsible for the rate of transmission of signaled
stimulus (oil, pampabilis ng transmission of
information. Terminal button nandun yun Synaptic
vessel kung saan nadun yung mga neurotransmitter.
Pag disabled hind mabilis ang pagdaloy ng neuronal
signal)
5. Nodes – interruption on the myelin sheath that
control the speed of transmission of information of
stimulus on the neurons. Also serve as break on the
momentum of speed. (bumps, pampabagal)
6. Synapse – a very small space between two neurons
and is an important site where communication
between neurons occur.
7. Receptors – proteins on the cell surface where
neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with
different shapes “matching” different
neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
- Chemical substances released by one neuron
through the synapse and affecting another neuron
- Generates excitatory current when the neuron’s
charge increases upon connection through synapse
and inhibitory current for decreasing charge
- Responsible for sensation, perception, cognitive, and
motor behavior
- Related to psychotropic medication - drugs that
treats psychiatric symptoms by restoring
neurotransmitter balance. Tend to be (1) agonist,
chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the
receptor site and strengthen its effect (depressed
people have low dopamine); (2) antagonist, blocks or
impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at
the receptor (e.g. schizophrenic patients have high
dopamine)
1. Acetylcholine
https://www.facebook.com/100009640930188/videos/1632095233661478/
Primary Function: Muscle control, memory
formation, sensory response. Excitatory. (Increase
arousal and enhance cognition.)
Locations: Neuromuscular junctions, CNS
Receptors: Nicotinic muscarinic
 https://www.facebook.com/100009498603461/videos/561514635297280/
Definition: one of the most common very well
studied. A major player in memory. Imbalances Primary function: blood pressure regulation
cause twitching or paralysis. Location: CNS, Kidney
2. Serotonin Receptors: TA1
https://www.facebook.com/100070429742206/videos/1252662731843888/ Definition: amino acid, minor neurotransmitter that
Primary Function: Intestinal movement control, is largely not understood
mood regulation, appetite, sleep, muscle control 10. Glutamate
https://www.facebook.com/100012925777051/videos/287447902717189/
Location: gut (masakit pag sinuntok), CNS
Receptors: 5-HT Primary function: long-term potentiation, memory
Definition: most antidepressants mimic the effect of Locations: CNS, PNS
serotonin. Most narcotics affect its release or Receptors: NMDA, others
reuptake. (modulated mood and suppressed Definition: most common
appetite kapag greatly affected) 11. Beta endorphins
https://www.facebook.com/100007303877880/videos/892504834805895/
3. Dopamine Primary Function: pain and pleasure, effect is
https://www.facebook.com/100004405504180/videos/976627393160515/
Primary Function: Reward pathways, cognition, decrease anxiety and tension
voluntary motion
Locations: Hypothalamus “too much of anything is not good”
Receptors: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 schizophrenia has high dopamine
Definition: imbalances cause Parkinson’s Disease, anxiety low dopamine
cocaine and opiates have a significant effect of its happy high serotonin
release. (mood, sleep, learning, high dopamine depression low dopamine and serotonin
increase pleasure, sometimes suppressed appetite,) in love high dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin
4. Norepinephrine fight of flight high norepinephrine and epinephrine
https://www.facebook.com/100012114107034/videos/842695353074292/
Primary Function: fight or flight response (increased
Nervous System
heart rate, increased glucose in bloodstreams,
Central – brain and spinal cord
increased oxygen to brain and muscles)
Peripheral – connects the CNS to the rest of the body
Location: Adrenal medulla
Receptors: Andrenergic Central Nervous System
Definition: produced from dopamine in the adrenal Primary function: the integration and processing of
glands (on kidneys) (increased arousal and sensory information. Synthesizes sensory input to
suppressed appetite) compute an appropriate motor response, or output.
5. L-Dopa
https://www.facebook.com/100005655516701/videos/553001815817989/ • Spinal Cord
Primary Function: Precursor to dopamine – not only routes messages to and from the brain
Locations: Hypothalamus but it also has its own system of automatic
Receptors: N/A processes called reflexes
Definition: Able to cross the blood-brain barrier – functionally organized in 30 segments,
making it an excellent pharmaceutical for treatment corresponding with the vertebrate
of Parkinsons or Depression – where integration happens and connect the
6. Tryptophan brain to the outside world or makes an action
https://www.facebook.com/100003036513660/videos/534609374265337/
from sensory neurons to the motor neurons,
Primary Function: Precursor to serotonin
smart relay station (nape to the rib cage below)
Locations: blood
– protected by vertebrate
Receptors: n/a
• Brain
Definition: essential amino acid
– the body’s main control center
7. GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric Acid)
https://www.facebook.com/100008152085359/videos/979374652629951/
– made up of 3 main sections: forebrain, midbrain,
Primary Function: inhibits CNS and hindbrain
Locations: Brain – Protected by skull
Receptors: GABA-A, GABA-B – Left hemisphere – logical reasoning
Definition: Mediates muscle tone, receptors – Right hemisphere – creative side
susceptible to alcohol which creates CNS depression
(decrease anxiety or decrease tension)
8. Glycine
https://www.facebook.com/100011416705274/videos/2055137241316540/
Primary function: inhibits signals
Locations: spinal cord, brain stem
Receptors: NMDA
Definition: amino acid
9. Tyramine
 automatic functions, like breathing, heart
rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion,
and blinking

A. Forebrain – is the largest and most complex part

of the brain and is responsible for cognition,
motivation, and action (feelings and motives)
a. Cerebrum – (cerebral cortex, largest part,
folds ang grooves tell how intelligent you
are) contains the information that A. Frontal Lobe – control movement of voluntary
essentially makes us who we are: our skeletal muscles; responsible for elaboration of
intelligence, memory, personality, emotion, conscious thought; (noo is frontal)
speech, and ability to feel and move B. Parietal lobe – responsible for the sensations of
(cerebral palsy) temperature, touch, pressure and pain from skin
b. Corpus Collosum – that enables the two C. Temporal love – responsible for hearing and smelling
sides (connects right and left halves, called D. Occipital love – responsible for visual (eyes
hemispheres) to communicate ophthalmology)
c. Thalamus – carries messages from the
sensory organ like the eyes, ears, nose, and Peripheral Nervous System
fingers to the cortex (sensory messages) - made up of thick bundles of axons called nerves,
d. Hypothalamus – controls body temperature, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and
thirst, appetite, sleep patterns and other the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the
processes in our bodies that happen body
automatically (motives and emotions; like a A. Somatic Nervous System – associated with activities
relay center, triggers the pituitary gland to traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary;
release hormones, like pag kinikilig or in involved in the relay of sensory and motor
love,143 from the bottom of my pituitary information to and from the CNS; therefore, it
gland) consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons
B. Midbrain – located underneath the middle of B. Autonomic nervous system – controls our internal
the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator for all organs and glands and is generally considered to be
the messages going in and out of the brain to the outside the realm of voluntary control (automatic)
spinal cord. (security guard, serves primarily as a
reflex center for orienting the eyes and the ears,
passageway for left to right hemisphere)
C. Hindbrain – (lowest part) sits underneath the
back end of the cerebrum and it consists of the
cerebellum, pons, and medulla (primary function
is to perform routine, housekeeping functions
that keep the body working properly)
a. Cerebellum – also called the “little brain”
because it looks like a small version of the
cerebrum; is responsible for balance,
movement, and coordination
b. Brain stem – the pons (involved in the
balance, hearing and some parasympathetic
function) and the medulla (reticular a. Sympathetic nervous system – involved in preparing
formation and arousal, responsible for the body for stress-related activities
breathing, variety of reflexes, sleeping and b. Parasympathetic nervous system – associated with
attention), along with the midbrain; takes in returning the body to routine, day-to-day
sends out and coordinates all of the brain’s operations; promotes bodily maintenance and
messages; also controls many of the body’s energy conservation and storage under stressful
 conditions (relaxing, normal heartrate, symp before G. Placenta – formed during pregnancy and is
parasymp) important in the maintenance of pregnancy;
(releases placental hormones and chorionic
Endocrine System
gonadotropin (hCG) seen in pee that determines
- consists of a series of glands that produce chemical
pregnancy)
substances known as hormones
H. Pineal – its hormone (melatonin) helps the pituitary
gland in regulating its function; support pituitary

A. Pituitary gland – often referred to as the “master

gland” because its messenger hormones control all
the other glands in the endocrine system, although it
mostly carries out instructions from the
hypothalamus; (triggered by hypothalamus)
B. Thyroid gland – releases hormones (thyroxine) that
regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite (high
thyroxine results to hyperthyroidism demonstrate a
very active behavior resulting to loss of weight and
insomnia, underactivity low thyroxine, hypo, results
to goiter, inaantok, pagod weight gain)
C. Adrenal gland – sit atop our kidneys and secrete
hormones involved in the stress response, such as
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
D. Gonads – secret sexual hormones, which are
important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual
motivation and behavior androgen-M; estrogen and
progesterone-F

E. Parathyroid – its hormone (parathormone) regulates

the utilization of calcium and phosphorus in the
blood level of the body; stimulate bones resorption
F. Pancreas- an internal organ secretes hormones that
regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon
(part of secretion or urinary system; diabetic people
take insulin shots)
 LESSON 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation
– process by which we receive information from the
environment (from our sensory receptor to the
thalamus)
• Stimulus is a detectable input from the environment:
Light, Sound, Chemicals, Pressure, temperature,
pain, and Orientation and balance
• Environmental information (stimuli) exists in many
forms:
1. A physical stimulus must first be introduced
2. Our senses respond to a limited range of
environmental stimuli.
• Some physical stimuli that our bodies are sensitive
to:
1. Light as experienced through vision
a. Visible light is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum
b. Properties of light: Intensity, wavelength
(hues), complexity or purity (saturation of
the colors)
2. Sound as experienced through audition:
a. Properties: intensity (loudness of softness),
frequency (pitch), wave form (timbre)
(As noted above, there is not one to one
relationship between physical properties and
perceptual experience. For example, intensity
can also influence perception of speech.)
• Sensory process are the initial steps to perception.
Sense muna bago maperceive
• Transduction
- process of converting energy of a stimulus into
neural activity. The stimulus is recorded as a
neural pattern (converted in a message in the
neuron)
- can be affected by our experiences, such as
through adaptation: (ginagawa through
transduction which is also perceptual not just
sensory) a constant level of stimulus results in a
decreased response over time.
Perception
– process of selecting and identifying information from
the environment
– interpretation of information from the environment
so that we can identify its meaning
– determination of what a stimulus is
– sensation (physical process) involves sensing the
existence of a stimuli, perception (psychological
process) involves determination of what stimulus is
– our knowledge about the world allows us to make
fairly accurate prediction about what should be
there
1. Bottom-up process – (bottom up to the brain)
involved in identifying a stimulus by analyzing the
information available in the external stimulus. Also
refers to information processing that begins at the
receptor level that continues to higher brain
processes.
2. Top-down process – involved in identifying a
stimulus by using the knowledge we already possess
about the situation. (experience)
• Sensory Adaptation – we often don’t perceive
stimuli that remain relatively constant over
prolonged periods of time (although our perceptions
are built from sensation, not all sensation results in
perception)
• Attention – plays a significant role in determining
what is sensed versus what is perceived (super ganda
nung crush kaya di napansin si teacher)
• Inattentional blindness – failure to notice something
that is completely visible because of lack of attention
• Our perceptions can also be affected by our beliefs,
values, prejudices, expectations, and life
experiences.
Psychophysics
– Study of the mathematical or functional relationship
between physical energy and psychological
experience
– psychological experience na pinag aarlan
– Tell us that the amount of change needed depends
on the initial intensity
– Additional lights sa classroom tas mas namotivate sa
class or nadistract
Absolute Threshold
– the least quality and quantity of a stimulus that can
be sensed and perceived consequently.
– The smallest intensity of energy that can be
perceived 50% of the time
✓ Light – sees a candlelight 30 miles away on a clear,
dark night
✓ Sound – hears the tick of a watch 20 feet away under
silent situation
✓ Touch – feels wing of a fly 1cm away from the cheek
✓ Taste – taste the sweetness of one teaspoon of sugar
in 2 gallons of water
✓ Smell – smells the scent of one drop of perfume
diffused in a 3-room apartment
Differential Threshold (Ernst Webber)
– the minimal change in simulation that can be reliably
detected 50% of the time
– minimum difference in intensity between two small
stimuli when caused by a smallest change
– does not only determine the presence or absence of
stimulus but also detect whether two small stimuli
are different or the same
– also called the just noticeable difference (jnd)
1. Signal-detection theory – suggests how individuals
are able to detect a minimal stimulus (signal) among
other background stimuli (noise) (matamis na lasa
kahit spicy ang kinain)
2. Ability to identify stimulus when it is embedded in a
distracting background
Receptor Sensitivity is subject to change
1. Sensory adaptation: a decline in receptor activity
when stimuli are unchanging
2. Habituation or adaptation – a decline in response
due to repeated and happens in the neural level
Waves
– the amplitude of a wave is the height of a wave as
measured from the highest point on the wave (peak
or crest) to the lowest point of the wave (trough)
– wavelength refers to the length of a wave from one
peak to the next, directly related to the frequency of
a given waveform
– frequency refers to the number of waves that pass a
given point in a given period of time and is often
expressed in terms of Hertz or cycles per second
– Longer wavelengths will have lower frequencies and
shorter wavelengths will have higher frequencies
Vision
– begins with light entering the eye
1. Human photoreceptors in the eye are sensitive to
wavelengths of light energy called the visible
spectrum
2. The visible spectrum ranges from red to violet
(ROYGBIV)
Pano pumapasok ang light sa eye
1. light enters cornea
2. After the cornea we have anterior or front chamber
with contains a watery fluid called the aqueous
humor to provide nutrients and keeps the cornea
moist.
3. then in the pupil (yung gitna na parang butas) this is
a small hole at the center of the black circle on the
eye and behind the chamber, controls the amount of
light by constricting or closing on too much light or
dilating or opening under dark conditions (also
responsible for emotional arousal)
4. iris the colored muscles of the eye responsible for
contracting or dilating the size of the pupil
5. lens for accommodation, changes its shape upon
focusing the near-image or far-image in process,
bends light rays in order to focus a clear image to the
retina
6. crosses a clear fluid called the vitreous humor, here
the light rays are bent by the lenses to the meet to
the point to the retina front, kapag near sighted,
behind kapag far sighted
7. retina intricate network of cells with neuron
ganglion, and photoreceptors. Where visual
transduction happens (the conversion of light energy
to neural activity so that the stimulus can be
transferred to the brain)
8. photoreceptors which are the rods and cones.
Contain photopigments chemicals that can respond
to light. Cones bright. Rod low light. Connected to
retinal ganglion cells. This area is where origin of
visual response occurs, registration of presence of
light, transmit to 1milion ganglion cells,
9. axon carry all the visual information to the brain by
first converging to the optic disk (blind spot)
10. leave the 2 eyeballs at meet at a junction to as the
optic chiasm rerouted
Structure
1. Sclera – mostly the “white part” of the eye that
provides protection and structure
2. Cornea – specialized, transparent portion of the
sclera through which light enters
3. Iris – pigmented muscle that gives the eye its color
and regulates the size of the pupil
4. Pupil – opening in iris
5. Lens – transparent, shape changing convex structure
that focuses images on the retina
6. Retina – layer containing two types of
photoreceptors (rods and cones) that transduce light
energy to electrochemical energy
a. Rods – capable of receiving light energy in low
light
b. Cons – involved with color perception in bright
light
c. Both rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells
d. The blind spot is where the optic nerve connects
to the eye
Coding Information in the retina
1. A receptive field is an area in the retina to which
aparticular neuron is sensitive. Receptive fields are
made up of only rod or cones receptors which send
visual signals to a ganglion cell in the retina
2. In the retina, there are sets of receptor cells
connected to ganglion cells
a. On-center, off-surround
b. Off-center, on-surround
 c. Receptive fields are described by their response
properties. For example, an on-center, off-
surround receptive field’s ganglion cell will
respond maximally to light projected in the
center of the field (on-center) as long as no light
is projected on the surrounding region (off-
center). There reverse is true for off-center, on-
surround cells.
The visible spectrum is the portion of the larger
electromagnetic spectrum that we can see. The visual
spectrum in humans is associated with wavelengths that
range from 380-740 nm nanometer. A very small
distance. Since a nm is billion of meter. Other species can
detect portions of EM spectrum. Humans – color. Red has
longer wavelengths, green-intermediate relax, blues and
violets are shorter in wavelength. Amplitude of light
waves is associated with our experience of brightness or
intensity of color with larger amplitudes appearing
brighter.
Depth Perception
– our ability to perceive spatial relationship in 3D space
– we can describe things as being in front, behind,
above, below, or to the side of other things
a. binocular cues – rely on use of both eyes
b. monocular cues – require only one eye
c. linear perspective – refers to the fact that we
perceive depth when we see two parallel lines that
seem to converge in an image
Audition
– begins with sound entering the ear
1. Sound is mechanical energy typically caused by
vibrating objects (vocal cords)
2. Vibrations produce movement of air molecules
3. Moving one’s head helps in detecting the source of a
sound
Structure
1. Pinna – external (visible) flap of skin and cartilage
2. Auditory canal – part of outer ear along with pinna,
leads to tympanic membrane
3. Tympanic membrane – also called eardrum,
separates outer ear from middle ear and vibrates
with reception of sound
4. Ossicles – 3 bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus,
stapes or hammer, anvil, stirrup) set in motion by ear
drum that transmit sound vibrations to the cochlea
5. Cochlea – part of the inner war, contains fluid and
receptors
a. Basilar membrane
b. Hair cells
Characteristics of Sound
1. Frequency corresponds to the perceptual term
pitch; measure in Hertz (Hz)
2. Amplitude corresponds to the perceptual term
loudness (volume)
3. Complexity corresponds to the perceptual term
timbre (quality)
Sound waves – high-frequency sound waves are
perceived as high-pitched sounds, while low-frequency
sound waves are perceived as low-pitched sounds. The
audible range of sound frequencies is between 20 and
20,000 Hz, with greatest sensitivity to those frequencies
that fall in the middle of this range
Auditory Theories
1. Place Theory – differences in pitch result from
stimulation of different areas of the basilar
membrane
2. Frequency theory – differences in pitch are due to
rate of neural impulses traveling up the auditory
nerve (sound goes to neurons dun sasabihin ng brain
na sintunado)
Gustation
Taste cells are chemical-sensitive receptors located in
tastebud clusters
1. Taste buds and papillae are located on the tongue,
in the throat, and on the soft palate
2. For a stimulus to be tasted, it must be dissolved
Receptors are sensitive to 5 basic taste qualities
1. Sweetness
2. Saltiness
3. Sourness
4. Bitterness
5. Umami – glutamates – given the complexities and
recent discovery of umami, its classification as a fifth
taste quality is a source of current debate
Types of tasters
Based on work of Linda Bartoshuk who differentiated diff
types of tasters based on the density of taste buds on
their tongues (sensitivity to diff taste)
1. Non-tasters – unable to tase chemical
propylthiouracil or prop, a bitter compound
2. Medium tasters – average number of tastebuds
and taste prop bitter at an average or medium
level or content
3. Supertasters - this are extremely sensitive to
some taste test, high number of taste buds,
highly sensitive sa bitterness, women
Olfaction
Receptors for smell are located on the olfactory
epithelium, a thin membrane found in the upper nasal
cavity
1. Olfactory cells carry information to the olfactory bulb
2. Olfactory receptor neurons have a life cycle of about
30 days and are continually created
3. Olfactory cells in the olfactory epithelium are
stimulated by gases dissolved in the fluid converging
the membrane
4. For a stimulus to be smelled, it must be dissolved
Odors or scents stimulate the olfactory epithelium
1. Odors can evoke highly emotional memories
2. On average, women detect odors more readily than
men. Also, brain responses to odors are stronger in
women than in men
Somesthesis
– refers to the mechanical senses, including kinesthesis,
vestibular sensation, and the skin senses
• Kinesthesis – communicates information about
movement and location of body parts; receptors
found in joins and ligaments
• Vestibular Sense (equilibratory sense) – receptors
are in semicircular canals and vestibular sacs found
in the inner ear. This is concerned with the sense of
balance and knowledge of body position
• Skin senses – include cold, warmth, pressure and
pain
• Touch Plasticity – when an area of the skin is used a
lot, it becomes more sensitive, and the receptors
actually “take over” more brain space in the
corresponding sensory region of the brain
• Pain – the experience evoked by a harmful stimulus,
directs our attention toward a danger and holds our
attention
• Pain relief – endorphins block the release of
Substance P in the spinal cord and brain stem
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Gestalt Psychology
– Wertheimer. Demonstrating that individuals
perceived motion in rapidly flickering static images –
an insight that came to him as he used a child’s toy
tachistoscope
– Reflects the idea that the whole is different from the
sum of its parts
– The brain creates a perception that is more than
simply the sum of available sensory inputs, and it
does so in predictable ways
A. Figure-ground relationship – we tend to
segment our visual world into figure and ground.
Figure is the object or person that is the focus of
the visual field, while the ground is the
background.
B. Principle of Proximity – asserts that things that
are close to one another tent to be grouped
together (friends)
C. Principle of Similarity -things that are alike tend
to be grouped together (friends, personality)
D. Law of Continuity – suggests that we are more
likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing
lines rather than jagged broken lines
E. Law of Closure – states that we organize our
perceptions in to complete objects rather than a
series of parts
F. Pattern Perception – our ability to discriminate
amount different figures and shapes, occurs by
following the principles described above.
G. Perceptual hypothesis – educated guesses that
we make while interpreting the sensory
information
 LESSON 4: CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness
– refers to your individual awareness of your unique
thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and
environments. Aware sa environment at sa sarili.
Subjective and unique to you and if you can describe
something you experience in words, then it is part of your
consciousness. Awareness of external stimuli (light,
warmth, voice) and being aware of your thoughts and
emotions (internal stimuli). Constantly shifting and
changing.
William James – early person to analyze consciousness.
Functionalism conscious mental processes. Ginamit ang
introspection sa pagtest ng conscious mental experience
Normal waking awareness includes at least 3 varieties:
1. Directed consciousness – during such experience,
our conscious awareness is focused, ordered and
one-tracked. This is the state of awareness you are in
when you pay close attention.
2. Flowing awareness – our awareness drifts from one
thought to another, from reading to daydreaming
and vice versa (lutang ka gOrl?)
3. Daydreaming – period of focused, directed thinking
and feeling about fantasies (ito pala ang tunay na
lutang) Mind Wondering
4. Divided consciousness – characterized by the
splitting of two conscious activities that occur
simultaneously, like performing two activities at the
same time. (multitasking)
Some different states of consciousness include:
o Dreams
o Hallucinations
o Hypnosis
o Meditation
o Sleep
o States induced by psychoactive drugs
Altered types of consciousness include: more unusual
and less familiar realm of conscious experience
o Coma
o Confusion
o Delirium
o Disorientation
o Lethargy
o Stupor
Freud’s 3 levels of mind: Iceberg Theory
1. Conscious Mind – aware
2. Preconscious mind – subconscious (dreams)
3. Unconscious mind – di talaga alam, core of self
pwedeng deepest desires or triggers
Sleep
– state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity
and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from
periods of rest that occur during wakefulness
Wakefulness – characterized by high levels of sensory
awareness, thought, and behavior
Biological Rhythms – internal rhythms of biological
activity (pattern, umaga gising gabi tulog, menstruation)
in the hypothalamus suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
1/3 asleep
Sleep – include mention of the interplay of the circadian
and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep
Brain – thalamus (reglates slow-wave sleeps),
hypothalamus (SCN – biological clock, in conjunction,
support sa thalamus), pons (regulating REM). our sleep-
wake cycle seem to control by multiple brain areas acting
in the conjunction of one another.
Hormones – melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone
Sleep is associated to secretion and regulation of
hormones for several endocrine glands. Melatonin –
stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light, also
involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms
in the immune system. Follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) – together with luteinizing hormone during sleep,
pituitary gland secretes this, and it is important in the
regulation of reproductive system. Pituitary gland –
when we sleep it secretes growth hormone, responsible
for physical growth, maturation, other metabolic
processes
Sleep debt – utang sa tulog
Sleep rebound – kailangan bawiin ang tulog
Cognitive Function of Sleep
1. Sleep deprivation results in disruption in cognition
and memory deficits (forgetful) and leading to
impairments in our abilities to maintain attention,
make decisions, and recall long term memories.
(sabaw)
2. Slow wave sleep after learning a new task can
improve a result and performance on than task an
seems essential for effective memory formation
3. Increased capacity for creative thinking language
learning, and inferential judgment
4. It is possible that even the processing of emotional
information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep
Stages of Sleep
1. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep – characterized
by darting movements of the eyes under closed
eyelids. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very
similar to brain waves during wakefulness.
2. Non-rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep –
subdivided into 3 stages distinguished from each
other and from wakefulness by characteristic
patterns of brain waves.
A. Stage 1 sleep
- transitional phase that occurs between
wakefulness and sleep, the period during
which we drift off to sleep
- during this time, there is a slowdown in both
the rates of respiration and heartbeat, it
involves a marked decrease in both overall
muscle tension and core body temperature
- associated with both alpha waves (relatively
low frequency 8-13 Hz, high amplitude
patterns of the electrical activity, waves that
become synchronize, resembles that of
someone who is very relaxed yet awake) and
theta waves (even lower frequency 4-7 Hz,
higher amplitude brain waves, easy to wake
and people often report that they have not
been asleep if they are awoken)
a. Hypnagogic state – relaxed state of
dreamlike awareness between wakefulness
and sleep, pass into twilight state that is
neither sleeping nor daydreaming.
b. Myoclonia – an abrupt movement that
sometimes occurs during hypnagogic state in
which the sleeper often experiences a sense
of falling or sudden jerk
B. Stage 2 sleep
- The body goes into a state of deep relaxation
- Theta waves still dominate the activity of the
brain, but they are interrupted by brief
bursts of activity known as sleep spindles –
rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves
that may be important for learning and
memory
- Associated with the appearance of k-
complexes – very high amplitude pattern of
brain activity that may in some cases occur
in response to environmental stimuli; might
serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal
in response to what is going on in our
environments
C. Stage 3 sleep
- Often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave
sleep because these stages are characterized
by low frequency (less than 3Hz), high
amplitude delta waves
-Our heart rate and respiration slow
dramatically, much more difficult to awaken
someone than before, do not feel refreshed
upon waking regardless of how long they
sleep
D. Stage 4 sleep
- Deepest level of sleep
- Associated with this stage of sleep are very
similar to those observed when a person is
awake, as shown in and this is the period of
sleep in which dreaming occurs
- often referred to as paradoxical sleep
because of this combination of high brain
activity and lack of muscle tone (tulog pero
mataas ang brain function na parang gising)
Dreams
Characteristics of Dreams
1. Dreams are made up of succession of usually vivid
and colorful visual images (like the reality)
2. Often accompanied by emotions
3. Dreams are products of our imagination
Interpretation of Dreams
1. Psychodynamic approach Sigmund Freud:
Manifest content – actual content, storyline
Latent content – hidden meaning
Collective unconscious – Carl Jung; theoretical
repository of information he believed to be shared
by everyone (seek for approval and attention)
2. Biological approach
- Activation synthesis hypothesis (ASH): J.A.
Hobson and Arl McCarley (?), biopsychosoial
theory of dreaming; dream state of REM sleep is
generated with the area of brainstem known as
pons
Altering Consciousness
1. Hypnosis
- state of extreme self-focus and attention in
which minimal attention is given to external
stimuli (dig deep within)
- Also used to draw out information believed to be
buried deeply in someone’s memory
Dissociation theory – hypnosis is effectively a
dissociated state pf consciousness
Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis – sees people in
hypnotic states as performing the social role of a
hypnotized person
Placebo effect
Franz Anton Mesmer (mesmerism)
- Australian physician, threated patients with
medical or psychological problems in what he
called magnetic energy
 - Actually did was he lulled his patients into a deep
state of relaxation and made them believe
deeply in his healing powers
- King of France, passing of “magnetized” hands
over pain, having the patient touch rods that
produce form of a large tub
2. Meditation
- Act of focusing on a single target (such as breath
or repeated sound) to increase awareness of the
moment (prayer)
- Meditative state, as shown by EEG recordings of
newly practicing meditators, is not an altered
state of consciousness per se; however, patterns
of brain waves exhibited by expert meditators
may represent a unique state of consciousness
- A practice that trains attention in order to bring
mental process under greater voluntary control
- Has religious roots
Psychotic Drugs
– alter conscious experiences and have powerful effects
that can be very addictive for a person
1. Depressants – a large class of psychoactive drugs
that influence conscious experience by depressing
parts of the central nervous system
a. Alcohol
- Most widely abused drug to which most
individuals are physiologically addicted
- Works principally as a depressant, though it
stimulates sociability and exuberant activity,
serves to depress inhibitory mechanisms in
the brain nagpipigil sayo
- Impairs visual judgement and motor control,
induces sleepiness
- Worsen negative moods, particularly
deepening depression making it more likely
that anger will result in verbal and physical
aggression
- Can rapidly result in psychological
dependence and physiological addiction
known as alcoholism
b. Sedatives
- Downers, depressants that in mild doses
generally produce a state of calm relaxation
- Prescribed to aid sleep and sometimes to
combat anxiety
- Common trade names are Seconal, Tuinal,
and Nembutal Overdose as well as small
intake with alcohol can be highly dangerous
- “Too much of everything is not good”
c. Tranquilizers
- Milder drugs that are similar to sedatives,
produce a sense of calm relaxation for a brief
period of time
- Common trade names are Valium, Librium,
Ativan, Miltown, and Equanil
d. Narcotics
- Opium, derived from the opium poppy,
dates back at least 7,000 years in the Middle
East
- Derivatives of opium, including morphine,
heroine, and codeine are powerful narcotic
drugs that dramatically alter consciousness
- They generally relieve pain and induce a
sudden, rushing high, followed by a relaxed
lethargic drowsiness
- Common trade names such as Demerol,
Percodan, and Methadone
2. Stimulants – uppers; drugs that increase the activity
of the central nervous system, providing a sense of
energy and well-being
a. Amphetamines
- Trade names are Dexedrine, Benzedrine, and
Methedrine
- Stimulant drugs that generally produce a
conscious sense of increased energy,
alertness, enthusiasm, and a euphoric high
- Not physically addictive but produce rapid
intense psychological dependence
b. Cocaine
- Made from leaves of the coca plants is like
amphetamines (Lahey, 1989)
- Comes in many forms, but is commonly
inhaled as powder or smoked in the
dangerous powerfully from known as crack
and the poor man’s cocaine known as shabu
- Produces alertness, high energy, optimism,
self-confidence, happiness, and
talkativeness. It raises body temperature,
breathing rate, and desire for food and
sleep. At times after repeated or prolonged
use, the high is followed by anxiety,
irritability, and depression
3. Hallucinogens
– drugs that can most powerfully alter consciousness
are hallucinogens or psychedelics such as lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin
– typically alter perceptual experiences, but only large
doses cause vivid hallucinations
– produce drug-induced states (trips) both pleasant
and frightening (bad trips)
4. Other drugs
a. Marijuana (weed)
- Popular consciousness-altering drug that
generally produces a sense of relaxation and
well-being
- Alters a sensory experience and the
perception of time
- Decreases the efficiency of cognitive
processing, weakens the body’s immune
system, decreases the action of male sex
hormones, and increase risk of lung cancer
b. Inhalants
- Substances that when inhaled produce a
sense of intoxication
- Toxic (poisonous) substance such as glue,
cleaning fluid, paint, and others are typically
placed in paper or plastic bags and inhaled
(sniffed)
 LESSON 5: LEARNING
Learning
- a relatively permanent change in immediate or
potential behavior or mental process that results
from past experiences or practice (behavior,
response)
- involves encountering signals from the senses;
attending to them; looking for connections and
meanings; and framing them so that we may act
(sensation is also related to learning)
- an adaptive function by which our nervous system
changes in relation to stimuli in the environment,
thus changing our behavioral responses and
permitting us to function in our environment (able
permit and send signlas to the other parts of the
body)
Instincts - are innate behaviors that are triggered by a
broader range of events, such as aging and the change of
seasons (gutom)
Reflexes - are a motor or neural reaction to a specific
stimulus in the environment (napaso)
Habituation - -the simplest kind of learning, accounts for
learning to ignore a stimulus that has become familiar
and has no serious consequences (adapt, nasanay na)
Types of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
3. Social Learning
4. Cognitive Learning
5. Associative learning – central to all basic learning
processes; occurs when an organism makes
connection between stimuli or events that occur
together in an environment
Classical Conditioning
- a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus
(CS) becomes associated with an unrelated
unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a
behavioral response known as a conditioned
response (CR) [CS US=CR)
- organisms learn to associate events—or stimuli—
that repeatedly happen together
Ivan Pavlov
- Russian scientist whose work with dogs has been
influential in understanding how learning occurs
- A physiologist, digestive system ng dogs
- through his research, he established the theory of
classical conditioning
Basic components of Pavlov’s experiment:
1. natural reflex (salivation of the dog when food was
placed on its tongue)
2. Neutral stimulus (the sound of the buzzer)
Phases of the Classical Conditioning
Phase 1 - It confirmed that when meat powder was
placed in the dog’s tongue, the dog salivated, but it did
not respond to the sound of the buzzer
Phase 2 - Pavlov sounded the buzzer and then quickly put
the meat powder in the dog’s mouth. The dog salivated.
This was brought about by the repeated pairing of the
buzzer which was followed immediately by meat
powder.
Phase 3 - The buzzer was sounded alone and the dog
salivated again even though no meat powder was
presented. In short, the buzzer by itself now elicited
salivation
Basic Principles of the Classical Conditioning
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - the stimulus elicits
the response without conditioning. usually, a
biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain
that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) from the
start (meat powder)
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR) - the automatic,
unlearned reaction to the stimulus (salivate on meat
powder only)
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - refers to the previously
mental stimulus, after paired with the unconditioned
stimulus-usually neutral and produces no particular
response at first, but after conditioning it elicits the
conditioned response. (bell)
4. Conditioned Response (CR) - the response it elicits
from the conditioned stimulus-the learned response
to the previously neutral stimulus (salivate on bell)
Basic Processes of the Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition - During this stage, repeated pairings of
the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) are said to strengthen or reinforce the
association between the two (UCS- jowa mo; CS –
mcdo; binreak ka ng jowa mo sa mcdo, kaya pag
nakikita mo ang CR mcdo nasasaktan ka) TIMING is
important
2. Stimulus Generalization - This is the individual’s
ability to react to novel stimuli that are similar to
familiar ones (lahat ng mcdo, nasasaktan ka)
3. Stimulus Discrimination - This is a process
complementary to generalization. If generalization is
 a reaction to similarities, discrimination is a reaction
to differences. (Jollibee ka masaya)
4. Extinction - This is the individual’s response that will
gradually diminish if the association is not reinforced,
meaning the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is
omitted repeatedly (nakamove-on ka na)
Higher order/ second order conditioning – may
pangalawa ka pang kinokondisyon, sa aso bukod sa bell
ay hinahawakan sa head, so kahit sa pagpet po sa aso,
nagsasalivate na rin sya, pero dapat sabay sabay
ginagawa para mag elicit yung response. Di daw effective
kapag one at a time
Spontaneous recovery – return of previously
distinguished condition response following a rest period,
narbings up ng bff tas nasaktan ka ulit
Applications
✓ John Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment – anak
nung worker yung subject for 1 dollar. White rat plus
loud sound. Kahit anong furry animals
✓ Phobias – dahil sa classical conditioning (aso)
✓ PTSD – severe anxiety disorder because of a
traumatic event (veterans)
✓ Drug use – conditioning comes into play with people
recovering from substance use disorder,
unconsciously conditioned to pleasure, avoid relapse
Operant Conditioning
- a theory of learning that focuses on changes in an
individual’s observable behaviors. In operant
conditioning, new or continued behaviors are
impacted by new or continued consequences.
- derived from the Edward Thorndike’s law of effect
(states that behaviors are modified by their positive
or negative consequences) result=learning
B.F. Skinner
- psychologist who saw that classical conditioning is
limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively
elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviors
- believed that behavior is motivated by the
consequences we receive for the behavior: the
reinforcements and punishments
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning
1. Operant - a response that operates that has some
effect on the world (behavior)
2. Reinforcer - increases the probability that an operant
behavior will occur again (chocolate)
Negative – unwanted stimulus removed by behavior
Positive – rewarding stimulus presented by behavior
Reinforcement good=increase (+) add, present,
provide, magalang kay may chocolate (-) take away
something, magalang kaya bawas assignment
Punishment bad=decrease (+) pinalo, homily (-)
tinatanggal na gusto, umiyak sa public kukunin ang
toy, pag nag-aaway ang magkapatid ang sabi ng
magulay ay ito ang kutsilyo sige magpatayan kayo!!!
Punishment if given immediately is more effective,
but reinforcement is better to use to change
behavior.
3. Discriminative stimulus - refers to stimulus that
signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain
response is made (Nakita mo na pamalo sayo, pili ka
patpat, hanger, tambo; mag-aaral ka pag nakita mo
si crush ay si teacher pala)
4. Stimulus control - generalization and discrimination
of operantly conditioned responses play an
important role in human behavior; indicating that
certain stimuli often gain control over behavior
Schedules of Reinforcement
✓ Continuous reinforcement schedule - the times
when a reinforcer is delivered every time a particular
response occurs (response=bigay)
✓ Partial/intermittent reinforcement schedule -
happens when reinforcement is administered only
some of the time (kapag 5 times na perfect, saka lang
may reward na ibibigay)

Fixed – number of responses between reinforcements,
or amount of time between reinforcements which is set
and unchanging
Variable - number of responses/amount of time
between reinforcements, varies/changes (go lang ng go)
Ratio - schedule is based on number of responses
between ratio (response)
Interval – time between reinforcement (time)
1. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule - provides reinforcement
following a fixed number of responses (nakabenta ka
3 times, bibigyan kita ng bonus)
2. Variable-ratio (VR) schedule - gives reinforcement
only after making a certain number of responses but
that number varies predictably (slot machine, naiiba
kaya magrespond lang ng magrespond, lotto). Most
productive and most resistant to extinction)
3. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule - gives reinforcement for
the first response that occurs after some fixed time
has passed since the last reward, regardless of how
many responses have been made during the interval
(salary, last Friday of the month ang scholarship)
least productive and easiest to distinguish
4. Variable-interval (VI) schedule - provides
reinforcement for the first response after some
period of time, but the amount of time varies
(naglinis ka ng bahay nyo tas after 5 hours saka
binigyan gn pagkain, after 3 hours may dessert)
Use of Negative Reinforcement
1. Escape learning - an organism increases a particular
behavior to end or escape from an aversive stimulus
(para di mapagalitan, di ka na magiging tamad,
nakipagbreak ka sa jowa mo kasi bawal)
2. Avoidance learning - a warning stimulus signals an
aversive stimulus and the organism learns to avoid it
(Nakita mo may hanger kaya tatago ka na)
Punishment
- can be an effective means to eliminate undesirable
behavior and to ensure its effectiveness: intense,
immediate and, alternative behavior must be
positively reinforced
Social Learning
- Albert Bandura; highlights the fact that people can
learn from the experiences of others (comparing)
- Bobo doll experiment – violent shown to child who
copied it.
Process of Learning
1. Vicarious learning - a process of learning by seeing
or hearing about the consequences of other people’s
action (LJ Reyes XD, lalayo ka sa kalbo)
2. Observational learning - a process of learning by
watching what others are doing; occurs through
observing the behaviors of others and imitating
those behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement
at the time (model, may higher being or hinger one
na nilolook-up, fangirl)
Four Conditions for Observational Learning:
1. Attention - Observers cannot learn unless they
pay attention to what is happening around them.
2. Retention/Memory - Observers have to not only
recognize the observed behavior, but also
remember it. (narerecognize at naalala)
3. Initiation/Reproduction - Observers must be
physically and intellectually capable of producing
the act. (paint, may resources)
4. Motivation - an observer must be motivated to
reproduce the actions they have seen. You need
to want to copy the behavior, and whether or not
you are motivated depends on what happened
to the model.
Cognitive Learning
- holds that learning is not simply an automatic
process (nasa brain yon na pinoprocess natin)
- maintains that important cognitive or mental
processes occur between the stimulus and the
response (mainit kaya iwasan)
Latent Learning
- occurs without any obvious conditioning or
reinforcement of a behavior, illustrating a cognitive
component to learning
- learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior
until there is a reason to demonstrate it (hatid sundo
ka, natutunan mo ang daan, now na angdadrive ka
na, kahit hindi ituro sayo ay alam mo na)
Edward Tolman
- according to him, all organisms, including animals,
are capable of thinking and this capacity must be
considered in any explanation of learning
- further believes that in learning, the organism takes
in information about its surroundings and attempts
to use this information to adapt to its environment
Insight Learning

- occurs when a new behavior is learned through

cognitive processes rather than through interactions
with the outside world (natutunana at naisip)
- there is no gradual shaping or trial and error
involved; instead, internal organizational processes
cause new behavior
two phases:
1) Initial phase -involves problem-solving to derive
a solution (anong gagawin ko kapag gabi tas may
sumusunod, pepper spray plus call a friend)
2) Second phase -the solution is stored in memory
and retrieved whenever a similar problem
situation exists (game na ito na)

Wolfgang Kohler

- suggests that cognitive processes play an important

role in learning, even with animals
- according to him, insights are formed suddenly and
transferred immediately to other similar problems
- insights ay mahalaga para makasolve ng similar
problems
- proponents for gestalt psychology
 LESSON 6: MEMORY
Memory
- remembrance of things past and future
- the ability to retain information or a representation
of past experience, based on the mental processes of
learning or encoding, retention across some interval
of time, and retrieval or reactivation of the memory
- specific information or specific past experience that
is recalled
- hypothesized part of the brain where traces of
information and past experiences are stored
The scientific study of memory began with Herman
Ebbinghaus, who tried to study pure memory, not
relating to feelings and thoughts.
But in the real world, these associations shape what
people remember. (mas naaalala mo yung fave color ng
bf kesa sa classmate mo)
Basic Types of Memory:
1. Episodic memory - is any memory of specific event
that happened while you were present. (dapat
andun sa event na yun)
c. Automatic processing – yung walang kaeffort-
effort (nung nag-away kayo ng jowa nyo)
encoding of details like time, space, frequency
and meaning of words
d. Effortful processing – ginagamit kapag nag-aaral
2. Semantic memory - contains generalized knowledge
of the world that does not involve memory of a
specific event (explanation, meaning, definition)
3. Procedural memory - also called skill memory
because it involves how to do things; consists of a
complicated sequence of movements that cannot be
described adequately in words (ride, bake, cook)
Processes of Memory
(Information-Processing Model of Memory)
1. Encoding
- the process of receiving, processing, and
combining information
- allows information from the outside world to
reach our senses in the forms of chemical and
physical stimuli (sensory processes)
- automatic & effortful processing
- self-reference effect is the tendency for an
individual to have better memory for
information that relates to oneself in
comparison to material that has less personal
relevance
2. Storage
- -the creation of a permanent record of the
encoded information
- second memory stage or process in which we
maintain information over periods of time
- process of passing through the 3 distinct stages
(sensory, short and long term)
- proposed by Richard Atkinsons ad Richard Sinfrin
(??)
3. Retrieval
- -the calling back of stored information in
response to some cue for use in a process or
activity
- Recall or recognition and the third process,
- We must locate it and return it into our
consciousness
Three Ways You Can Retrieve Information:
A. Recall -is what we most often think about when
we talk about memory retrieval: it means you
can access information without cues
B. Recognition -happens when you identify
information that you have previously learned
after encountering it again; it involves a process
of comparison
C. Relearning -involves learning information that
you previously learned
4. Forgetting - refers to the inability to recall a
particular piece of information accurately
Kinds of Memory/Stages of Memory
1. Sensory memory - allows individuals to retain
impressions of sensory information after the original
stimulus has ceased. From the senses tnakukuha
yung stimulus, kunwari nakita ng mata mo na ito pala
yung color code. (fast moving lights during the night,
the light appears to leave a trail and because of the
iconic memory or visual sensory store. Our sensory
memory is to provide a detailed representation of
entire sensory experience form which relevant
pieces of information are extracted by the short term
memory and processed by working memory.)
Stroop effect – formulated by Stroop, a scientist.
A. Iconic Memory (the visual sensory store) - has a
duration of about 100 ms
B. Echoic Memory (the auditory sensory store) - is
capable of holding a large amount of auditory
information, but only for 3–4 seconds; replayed
in the mind for this brief amount of time
immediately after the presentation of the
auditory stimulus
C. Haptic memory (the tactile sensory store) - used
when assessing the necessary forces for gripping
and interacting with familiar objects; seems to
decay after about two seconds
2. Short-Term Memory
- also known as working memory
- holds only a few items (research shows a range
of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20
seconds
- reason we tend to forget our dreams
- Rehearsal – information can be moved from
short term to long-term memory
 - According to George Miller, may capacity to
store 6-9
• Working Memory – holds temporary data in the
mind where it can be manipulated
• Phonological Loop – auditory and verbal
information. Auditory memory traces are subject to
rapid decay, 2 seconds without rehearsal.
Articulatory loop that can revive these memory
traces, we can replay them internally to keep them
in working memory
• Visuospatial Sketchpad – information about position
or properties of objects that ca be stored (nasa book
yon e, dito sa part na to)
• Central Executive – connects the phonological loop
to visuospatial and coordinates with their activity,
also links the working memory to the long term
memory, control storage of LTM and manages
memory retrieval form storage
• Transport to Long-Term Memory – this greater
retention is owed to an enhanced synaptic response
within the hippocampus (essential for memory
storage) the limbic system of the brain including the
hippocampus and amygdala is not necessarily
directly involved in the LTM but selects particular
information from STM and consolidates these
memories by playing them like a continuous tape
Rehearsal – process in which information is kept in
the STM by mentally repeating it, when it is
repeated, each time that information is re-entered in
the STM thus keeping it for another 10-20 seconds,
distractions cause disturbances and this accounts the
desire to complete a task held in the STM as soon as
possible
3. Long-Term Memory
- all the memories we hold for periods of time
longer than a few seconds; long-term memory
encompasses everything from what we learned
in first grade to our old addresses to what we
wore to work yesterday
- has an incredibly vast storage capacity, and some
memories can last from the time they are
created until we die
A. Explicit or declarative memory - requires
conscious recall; it consists of information that is
consciously stored or retrieved
B. Procedural or implicit memory - memories are
not based on consciously storing and retrieving
information, but on implicit learning; employed
in learning new motor skills. (motor, application)
Types of Forgetting
1. Trace Decay Theory
- states that all memories fade automatically as a
function of time (kapag di mo ginagamit)
- Under this theory, you need to follow a certain
pathway, or trace, to recall a memory. If this
pathway goes unused for some amount of time,
the memory decays, which leads to difficulty
recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory.
2. Interference Theory
- Transience refers to the general deterioration of
a specific memory over time. Under interference
theory, transience occurs because all memories
interfere with the ability to recall other
memories. (blockage)
- Forgetting is due to the influences of other
learning
A. Proactive Interference - occurs when old
memories hinder the ability to make new
memories. In this type of interference, old
information inhibits the ability to remember new
information, such as when outdated scientific
facts interfere with the ability to remember
updated facts. (mas naaalala ang past)
B. Retroactive Interference - occurs when old
memories are changed by new ones, sometimes
so much that the original memory is forgotten.
This is when newly learned information
interferes with and impedes the recall of
previously learned information. (dito ay present)
3. Cue-Dependent Forgetting
- our current mood thus will affect the memories
that are most effortlessly available to us, such
that when we are in a good mood, we recollect
good memories, and when we are in a bad mood,
we recollect bad ones
- also known as retrieval failure, is the failure to
recall information in the absence of memory
cues:
a. Semantic cues are used when a memory is
retrieved because of its association with another
memory.
b. State-dependent cues are governed by the state
of mind at the time of encoding. (emotion)
c. Context-dependent cues depend on the
environment and situation. Memory retrieval
can be facilitated or triggered by replication of
the context in which the memory was encoded.
4. Absentmindedness
- involves problems at the point where attention
and memory interface
- common errors of this type include misplacing
objects or forgetting appointments
5. Blocking
- when the brain tries to retrieve or encode
information, but another memory interferes
with it
- a primary cause of the tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon. This is the failure to retrieve a
word from memory, combined with partial recall
and the feeling that retrieval is imminent
6. Amnesia - the inability to recall certain memories,
often results from damage to any of a number of
regions in the temporal lobe and hippocampus
A. Amnesia from Brain Damage - typically occurs
when there is damage to a variety of regions of
 the temporal lobe or the hippocampus, causing
the inability to recall memories before, or after,
an (often traumatic) event.
a. Retrograde Amnesia - the inability to recall
memories made before the onset of
amnesia
b. Anterograde Amnesia - the inability to
create new memories after the onset of
amnesia, while memories from before the
event remain intact
B. Childhood Amnesia - also called infantile
amnesia, is the inability of adults to retrieve
memories before the age of 2–4. This is because
for the first year or two of life, brain structures
such as the limbic system (which holds the
hippocampus and the amygdala and is vital to
memory storage) are not yet fully developed
C. Neurocognitive Disorders - are a broad category
of brain diseases typical to old age that cause a
long-term and often gradual decrease in the
ability to think and recall memories, such that a
person’s daily functioning is affected. (dementia,
Alzheimer’s)
Biology of Memory
1) Ingram – Carl Lashley, groups of neurons that serves
as physical representation of a memory, rat test
2) Hippocampus
- it plays an essential role in both the formation of
new memories about experienced events and
declarative memory (which handles facts and
knowledge rather than motor skills)
- is critical to the formation of memories of events
and facts
- is integral in consolidating memories from short-
term to long-term memory (memory
consolidation)
- involved in memory, specifically normal
recognition memory as well as spatial memory
(when the memory tasks are like recall tests)
- to project information to cortical regions that
give memories meaning and connect them with
other connected memories
3) Amygdala
- involved in memory consolidation, specifically,
in how consolidation is modulated
- involved in mediating the effects of emotional
arousal on the strength of the memory of an
event
- helpful in enhancing the memory of emotionally
charged event (activated kapag may amnesia)
4) Cerebellum
- plays a role in the learning of procedural memory
(i.e., routine, “practiced” skills), and motor
learning, such as skills requiring coordination
and fine motor control
5) Pre-frontal Cortex
- there was much more activation in the left
inferior prefrontal cortex in the semantic task
(according to PET scans in a study)
- In another study, encoding was associated with
left frontal activity, while retrieval of information
was associated with the right frontal region
6) Neurotransmitters
- there also appear to be specific
neurotransmitters involved with the process of
memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine,
serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine
- strong emotions = strong memories;
weaker=weaker memories (arousal theory) at
the same time as neurotransmitters and
hormones which strengthen the memory, an
emotional event memory is better than non-
emotional event
- kaya mas natatandaaan ang pain, kapag very
strong ng emotions
- flash bulb memory - exceptionally clear
recollection of an important event
- STM is supported by brief patterns of neural
communication that are depended on the
regions of pre-frontal cortex frontal lobe and
parietal lobe. Hippocampus essential for
memory consolidation, however it does not
seem to store information itself, receives input
from diff parts of cortex and send output to
various areas, neural connections after 3
months, spatial and declarative memory as well
- LTM maintained by stable and permanent
changes in the neural connections, process of
consolidating and storing is particulay associated
with prefrontal cortex, cerebrum, frontal,
medial, temporal lobe. Permanent storage after
consolidation appears to depend upon the
connections between neurons with more deeply
processed memories having stronger connection
LESSON 7: THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLEGENCE
THINKING
Cognition
-thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated
with perception, knowledge, problem solving,
judgment, language and memory
Concepts
-are categories or groupings of linguistic information,
images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences
Prototype
-is the best example or representation of a concept
Schema
-a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection
of related concepts
-a cognitive behavior in which ideas, images, mental
representations, or other hypothetical elements of
thought are experienced or manipulated. In this sense,
thinking includes imagining, remembering, problem
solving, daydreaming, free association, concept
formation, and many other processes-have two defining
characteristics:
(a) it is covert—that is, it is not directly observable but
must be inferred from actions or self-reports; and
(b) it is symbolic—that is, it seems to involve operations
on mental symbols or representations, the nature of
which remains obscure and controversial
TYPES OF THINKING
1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:
the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is
perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation according to
one’s experience
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:
makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and
When we set ourselves to solve a problem but fail to
solve it in-spite of our strain, putting more efforts to
thinking and persistent thinking, it is better to lay aside
the problem for some time and relax for a while or
engage in some other activity. During this interval a
solution is evolved to that specific problem through the
efforts of our unconscious mind. This phenomenon of
incubation is helpful.
languages, it is regarded as being superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and
problem-solving.
3. Reflective Thinking:
aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires
reorganization of all the relevant experiences to a
situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with
that experiences or ideas
4. Creative Thinking
associated with one’s ability to create or construct
something new, novel or unusua
5. Critical Thinking:
helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal
beliefs, prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths
and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic
belief system
6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking:
reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing
uncontrolled activities
DEVELOPMENT OF THINKING
1. ADEQUACY OF THE KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE:
considered to be the background of systematic thinking
so care should be taken to help the children with
adequate knowledge and experiences which can be
done by:
(a) Training the children to enhance the process of
sensation and perception to gain better knowledge and
experience to improve critical thinking.
(b) A person should be provided with opportunities for
gaining adequate experiences and should be
encouraged for self-study, discussion and participation
in healthy and stimulating activities.
2. ADEQUATE MOTIVATION AND DEFINITENESS OF
AIMS:
one should try to think on definite lines with a definite
end or purpose, the problems we solve should have
intimate connection with our immediate needs and
basic motives, and such thinking should be directed on
creative and productive activities
3. ADEQUATE FREEDOM AND FLEXIBILITY:
Thinking should not be obstructed by imposing
unnecessary restrictions and narrowing of the field of
thought process. If the past experiences or habitual
methods do not help in solving the problem we should
strive for new association, relationships and possibilities
for arriving at satisfactory results.
4. INCUBATION:
When we set ourselves to solve a problem but fail to
solve it in-spite of our strain, putting more efforts to
thinking and persistent thinking, it is better to lay aside
the problem for some time and relax for a while or
engage in some other activity. During this interval a
solution is evolved to that specific problem through the
efforts of our unconscious mind. This phenomenon of
incubation is helpful.
5. INTELLIGENCE AND WISDOM:
Intelligence is defined as the ability to think properly,
and thus proper development of intelligence is essential
for bringing adequate thinking. Proper care should be
taken to use intelligence, wisdom and other cognitive
abilities for carrying out the process of thinking.
6. PROPER DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS AND
LANGUAGE:
Language is a highly developed system of symbols in
which words within a grammar can be written or
spoken in different combinations. Much of the thinking
depends upon language although some imaging are also
present. Concepts, symbols, signs, words and language
are the vehicles as well as instruments of thought.
Without their proper development one cannot proceed
effectively on the path of thinking.
7. ADEQUACY OF REASONING PROCESS:
Thinking is also influenced by the mode of reasons one
adopts. Illogical reasoning often leads to incorrect
thinking. Logic is the science of correct reasoning which
helps to think correctly. Therefore, we should cultivate
the habit of logical reasoning among our children.
LANGUAGE
-THE PRINCIPAL MEANS USED BY HUMAN BEINGS TO
COMMUNICATE WITH ONE ANOTHER, IS DEFINED AS “A
SYSTEM OF VOLUNTARILY PRODUCED SYMBOLS BY
WHICH MEMBERS OF A COMMUNITY INTERACT AND
COMMUNICATE IN TERMS OF THEIR COMMON
EXPERIENCES AND EXPECTATIONS”
-IS A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM THAT INVOLVES USING
WORDS AND SYSTEMATIC RULES TO ORGANIZE THOSE
WORDS TO TRANSMIT INFORMATION FROM ONE
INDIVIDUAL TO ANOTHER
LEXICON
-REFERS TO THE WORDS OF A GIVEN LANGUAGE
-a language’s vocabulary
SYMBOL
-”A WORD, GESTURE OR OBJECT THAT STANDS FOR
INTERNAL MEANINGS THAT PEOPLE IN A GIVEN
LANGUAGE COMMUNITY HAVE ASSIGNED TO IT
ACCORDING TO WELL-UNDERSTOOD AND SHARED
RULES.”
GRAMMAR
-ESTABLISHES STANDARD WAYS FOR LINKING AND
MODIFYING CLASSES OF SYMBOLS (LIKE NOUNS, VERBS,
PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES) TO GIVE MORE
PRECISION AND FLEXIBILITY TO THEIR USE IN COMPLEX
MESSAGES
PRONUNCIATION
-A SOCIALLY ACCEPTED WAY TO MAKE THE SOUNDS
REQUIRED FOR WORDS
VOCABULARY
-A SET OF MORPHEMES OR WORDS WITH MEANING
DICTATED BY SEMANTICS
PHONEME
-A BASIC SOUND UNIT OF A GIVEN LANGUAGE, AND
DIFFERENT LANGUAGES HAVE DIFFERENT SETS OF
PHONEMES
MORPHEMES
–FORMED AS COMBINATIONS OF PHONEME, WHICH
ARE THE SMALLEST UNITS OF LANGUAGE THAT CONVEY
SOME TYPE OF MEANING
SEMANTICS
-THE PROCESS BY WHICH WE DERIVE MEANING FROM
MORPHEMES AND WORDS.
SYNTAX
-THE WAY WORDS ARE ORGANIZED INTO SENTENCES
IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES THAT UNDERLIE THE USE OF
SYMBOLS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND
REQUIRES PERFORMANCE OF THE FOLLOWING
ACTIVITIES:
1. NEURAL ACTIVITIES OF THE BRAIN
The brain is immensely involved in human
communication. First, it controls the motor and neural
processes involved in speech and hearing. The sender
uses his voice box and lips to send the right sounds.
Second, the brain is the locus of human memory, which
is critical in storing meaning.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF LEARNING,
PERCEPTION AND RECOGNITION OF MEANING
The sender and the receiver must both learn, perceive,
recognize and consequently, construct the meanings of
words in their own consciousness. Thus, human
communication depends largely on these internal,
subjective experiences.
3. CULTURAL ACTIVITIES OF SHARING COMMON
MEANINGS AND RULES
Communication is a social rather than a solitary activity.
It is dependent on the use of shared rules of language
and linking of words and meanings by convention.
4. SOCIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES GOVERNING WHO WOLL
COMMUNICATE WHAT, WHEN AND WHERE
Human communication is a patterned social interaction
taking place within a system of norms, roles, ranks and
social controls, which effectively limit who can speak to
whom, under what conditions, and about what topics.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
OPERANT CONDITIONING
-They thought that some of the sounds babies are
reinforced by their parents’ smiling, fondling or other
forms of approval. Hence, development of speech in
babies is largely a function of reward or reinforcement
1. MOTHER-REWARD THEORY
-holds that the mother’s immediate reinforcement of
the baby’s production of speech sounds that she
considers similar to conventional words is instrumental
in furthering the development of her baby’s capacity to
speak
2. BABBLE-LUCK THEORY
-assumes that babies have been lucky enough to make
sounds that resemble words in their early babbling
-they babble because they derive satisfaction from it,
not realizing that some of the sounds they make are
actually words
3. CHOMSKY’S THEORY
-the human brain is wired in such a way that we are
born equipped with some kind of an innate mechanism
for learning and using a language, which enables us as
children to do some rapid information-processing on
the language we hear spoken by our elders
-holds that we cannot help learning a language and
using it the way we do
INTELLIGENCE
-THE SUM TOTAL OF ALL COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND
SKILLS
-REFERS TO THE ABILITY OF AN INDIVIDUAL TO LEARN
FROM EXPERIENCE, TO REASON WELL, AND TO COPE
WITH THE DEMANDS OF SOCIAL LIVING
CHARLES SPEARMAN’S
G FACTOR
Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general
factor, called g, which could be measured and
compared among individuals
RAYMOND CATTELL’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
-two components:
A. Crystallized intelligence
-is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability
to retrieve it.
-When you learn, remember, and recall information,
you are using crystallized intelligence
B. Fluid intelligence
-encompasses the ability to see complex relationships
and solve problems.
-Navigating your way home after being detoured onto
an unfamiliar route because of road construction would
draw upon your fluid intelligence.
ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
-intelligence as comprised of three parts:
A. Practical Intelligence
-sometimes compared to “street smarts.”
-Being practical means you find solutions that work in
your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your
experiences
B. Analytical Intelligence
-closely aligned with academic problem solving and
computations
-demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge,
compare, and contrast
C. Creative Intelligence
-is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a
problem or situation
ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
HOWARD GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
THEORY
-each person possesses at least eight intelligences
-among these eight intelligences, a person typically
excels in some and falters in others
1. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
-People who are strong in linguistic
-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both
when writing and speaking. These individuals are
typically very good at writing stories, memorizing
information, and reading
Neurological Systems location in the Brain:
Left temporal lobe and frontal lobes
(Broca’s/Wernicke’s Area)
-Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence
are good at being aware of their own emotional states,
feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-
reflection and analysis, including daydreaming,
exploring relationships with others, and assessing their
personal strengths.

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Neurological Systems location in the Brain:

-People who are strong in logical-mathematical frontal lobe, parietal lobes, limbic system
intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
8. Naturalistic Intelligence
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend
to think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and -According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this
patterns. type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and
are often interested in nurturing, exploring the
Neurological Systems location in the Brain:
environment, and learning about other species. These
Left parietal lobes individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle
changes to their environments.
3. Musical Intelligence
Neurological Systems location in the Brain:
-People who have strong musical intelligence are good
at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They have Right temporal lobe
a strong appreciation for music and are often good at
musical composition and performance.

Neurological Systems location in the Brain:

Right temporal lobe

4. Bodily kinesthetic Intelligence

-Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are

said to be good at body movement, performing actions,
and physical control. People who are strong in this area
tend to have excellent hand-eye coordination and
dexterity.

Neurological Systems location in the Brain:

Cerebellum, basal ganglia, motor cortex

5. Visual spatial Intelligence CREATIVITY

-People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are -the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas,
good at visualizing things. These individuals are often solutions, and possibilities
good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and
-often assessed as a function of one’s ability to engage
pictures.
in divergent thinking.
Neurological Systems location in the Brain:
A. Divergent thinking -can be described as thinking
poster region of the right hemisphere “outside the box;” it allows an individual to arrive at
unique, multiple solutions to a given problem.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence
-In contrast, convergent thinking describes the ability to
-Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are provide a correct or well-established answer or solution
good at understanding and interacting with other to a problem
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the
emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those
around them.

Neurological Systems location in the Brain:

frontal lobes, temporal lobe (especially right

hemisphere), limbic system

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence