4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1

Maxwell’s Equations
(
~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ/0 Gauss0s Law
~ ·B
~ =0 (1)
∇ No Magnetic Monopoles
(
∇ ~ = − ∂ B~
~ ×E Faraday0s Law
∂t (2)
∇ ~ − 12 ∂ E~ = µ0J~
~ ×B Ampere0s Law
c ∂t

Charge Conservation
∂ρ ~ ~
+∇·J =0 (3)
∂t

where
~ x, t) Electric Field (Volt/meter)
• E(~
~ x, t) Magnetic Induction (Tesla)
• B(~
• ρ(~x, t) Charge Density (Coulomb/meter3)
~ x, t) Current Density (Ampere/meter2)
• J(~
• µ0 magnetic permeability (4π · 10−7 Ampere·meter
Volt·sec
)
• 0 free space permittivity (8.85·10−12 Coulomb2/N·meter2)
√
• c = 1/ µ00 speed of light (2.998 · 108 meter/sec)
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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

What is Vacuum?

It is a space in which the sources of the electric and

~ x, t) are “ideal” ... ie are well
magnetic fields ρ(~x, t) and J(~
defined
Single electron in space Single atom

− −
+

On the other hand in a solid

• The number of individual charges (electrons and protons)

is too large to be handled (∼ 1024)

• For a “macroscopic” observation the drastic change of the

fields at the atomic scale is irrelevant

Then

Macroscopic Maxwell Equations

Maxwell Equations in Matter

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Coulomb Force

Qb

Qa rab
QaQb r̂ab
F~ab = 4π0 · |~rab|2

Superposition Principle
X QiQj ~xi − ~xj
F~i(~xi) = ·
4π0 |~xi − ~xj |3
j6=i

Electric Field
Force on Qb generated by the presence of Qa
F~ab = E
~ aQb ⇒ ~ a = Qa · r̂ab
E
4π0 |~rab|2
~ is the electric field. A field is a “modification” of the
E
space induced by a “source”.
The superposition principle is valid also for electric fields

X Qj ~xi − ~xj X
F~i = QiE
~i ⇒ ~i =
E · = ~ ij
E
4π0 |~xi − ~xj |3
j6=i j6=i
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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Two Protons in free space

Qproton = 1.6 × 10−19 C

mproton = 1.67 × 10−27 Kg

Compare gravitational and Coulomb forces

m2p m 2
p
Gravitational FG = G 2 = 6.67 × 10−11 2
r r

Q2p
Coulomb FC =
4π0r2

Then

FC Q2p 1 1
= ∼ 4.2 × 1042
FG 4π0 G mp

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Gauss’s Law
~ x, t) through a closed surface S
It relates the flux of E(~
(arbitrary drawn) to the total charge enclosed by the surface
R
~ dA= Q
E·n̂
S 0

n
E

Q
S

Because of the superposition principle

Z X Qi Z
~ 1
E · n̂ dA = = ρ dV
S i
0 0 V

Using divergence Theorem

Z Z
~ · n̂ dA =
E ~ ·E
∇ ~ dV
S V

~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ
0
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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Magnetic Field (Induction)

The magnetic induction B ~ is the modification of the space

caused by electric charges “in motion”

Biot-Savart’s Law
Z ~ 1 × (~r2 − ~r1)
~ r2) = µ0
B(~
I1dl
4π C |~r2 − ~r1|3

I
r2 −r1
dl1
r2
C
r1

Lorentz’s Force

F~ = Q(E
~ + ~v × B)
~

~ Tesla = Volt·second
|B| meter2

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Generalization of the Biot-Savart’s Law to an arbitrary

current density J~

µ0
Z
I1
~ 1 × (~r2 − ~r1)
dl
~ r2 ) =
B(~ =
4π |~r2 − ~r1|3
Z ~ C
µ0 J(~r1) × (~r2 − ~r1) 3
= 3
d r1
4π |~r2 − ~r1|

dl
dA ~ 1 = J(~
I1dl ~ r1) · dA dl1 = J(~
~ r1 ) · d 3 r 1

Now take ∇ ~2
" #
µ 0
Z ~ r1) × (~r2 − ~r1)
J(~
~ 2 · B(~
∇ ~ r2 ) = ~2·
∇ d 3
r1 =
4π |~r2 − ~r1|3
 
~ 2 × ~r2 − ~r1
Z
µ0 ~ r1 ) · ∇ 3
=− J(~ 3
d r1 =
4π |~r − ~r1|
Z  2 
µ0 ~ r1 ) · ∇
~2×∇ ~2 1
= J(~ d 3 r1 = 0
4π |~r2 − ~r1|
Then

~ ·B
∇ ~ =0
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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

In the last derivation we have used the following relations:

     
~ · F~ × G
∇ ~ = −F~ · ∇
~ ×G
~ +G ~ × F~
~· ∇

 
~ × ∇f
∇ ~ =0
They both can be demonstrated by writing the curl using the
Ricci’s tensor (ijk ) notation:
X
(F~ × G)
~ i= ijk Fj Gk
jk

and remembering that iij = 0 (Ricci tensor vanishes if the

indexes are the same) and ijk = −ikj (the Ricci tensor is
antisymmetric for pairwise indexes exchange).

For example the second is simply

h
~ × ∇f
~
 i X X ∂ 2f
∇ = ijk ∇j ∇k f = ijk =
i ∂xj ∂xi
jk jk

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
= ijk + ikj =0
∂xj ∂xk ∂xk ∂xj

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

~ ·B
Interpretation of ∇ ~ =0

Also for the magnetic field we can define the flux

Z
Φ= ~ · n̂ dA
B
S

This in general is not zero. However for a closed surface S we

can apply the divergence theorem
Z Z
~ · n̂ dA =
B ~ ·B
∇ ~ dV = 0
S V

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero

This means:

1. The lines of force of the magnetic field are CLOSED

2. There are no magnetic monopoles

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4009 Electromagnetic Theory: Lecture 1 Stefano Sanvito

Summary and Main Formulae

Qa Qb
• Coulomb’s Force F~ab = 4π0 · |~rr̂ab|2
ab

~ · n̂ dA = Q
R
• Gauss’s Law S
E 0

• I Maxwell’s equation ~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ
0

~ 1 ×(~
I1 dl r2 −~ r1 )
~ r2 ) = µ0
R
• Biot-Savart’s Law B(~ 4π C |~ r 1 |3
r2 −~

~ r1 )×(~
J(~ r2 −~ r1 ) 3
~ r2 ) = µ0
R
• General Biot-Savart’s Law B(~ 4π |~ r 1 |3
r2 −~
d r1

• Lorentz Force F~ = Q(E

~ + ~v × B)
~

• II Maxwell’s equation ~ ·B
∇ ~ =0

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