ACTIVITY 3

TAMAYO, Julia Francine P.

2 CED PSE

A. describes the characteristics of each of the specific disabilities;

B. identifies and explain the causes of each of the specific disabilities; and
C. name and describe the assessment procedures to identify each of these
disabilities;
D. identifies red flags in young children; and
E. enumerates and describe the educational approaches and strategies in the
classroom for young children and with each of these disabilities.

1. Speech and language Impairments

2. Autism Spectrum Disorder
3. Visual and Hearing Impairment
4. Physical Disabilities
5. Intellectual Disabilities
6. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
7. Learning Disabilities
8. Exceptionally Bright

1. Speech and Language Impairments

Characteristics:
- The characteristics of speech or language impairments will vary depending upon the
type of impairment involved. There may also be a combination of several problems.
When a child has an articulation disorder, he or she has difficulty making certain
sounds. These sounds may be left off, added, changed, or distorted, which makes it
hard for people to understand the child. Leaving out or changing certain sounds is
common when young children are learning to talk, of course. A good example of this
is saying “wabbit” for “rabbit.” The incorrect articulation isn’t necessarily a cause for
concern unless it continues past the age where children are expected to produce
such sounds correctly. (4) (ASHA’s milestone resource pages, mentioned above,
are useful here.) Fluency refers to the flow of speech. A fluency disorder means that
something is disrupting the rhythmic and forward flow of speech—usually, a stutter.
As a result, the child’s speech contains an “abnormal number of repetitions,
hesitations, prolongations, or disturbances. Tension may also be seen in the face,
neck, shoulders, or fists.” (5) Voice is the sound that’s produced when air from the
lungs pushes through the voice box in the throat (also called the larnyx), making the
vocal folds within vibrate. From there, the sound generated travels up through the
 spaces of the throat, nose, and mouth, and emerges as our “voice.” A voice disorder
involves problems with the pitch, loudness, resonance, or quality of the voice.
(6) The voice may be hoarse, raspy, or harsh. For some, it may sound quite nasal;
others might seem as if they are “stuffed up.” People with voice problems often notice
changes in pitch, loss of voice, loss of endurance, and sometimes a sharp or dull
pain associated with voice use.

Some characteristics of language disorders include:

• improper use of words and their meanings,

• inability to express ideas,
• inappropriate grammatical patterns,
• reduced vocabulary, and
• inability to follow directions.

Children may hear or see a word but not be able to understand its meaning. They
may have trouble getting others to understand what they are trying to communicate.
These symptoms can easily be mistaken for other disabilities such as autism or
learning disabilities, so it’s very important to ensure that the child receives a
thorough evaluation by a certified speech-language pathologist.

Definition:
- The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines speech
and language impairments as “a communication disorder such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely
affects a child’s educational performance.” Each point within this official definition
represents a speech and language subcategory. “A communication disorder such
as stuttering” provides an example of a fluency disorder; other fluency issues
include unusual word repetition and hesitant speech. “Impaired articulation”
indicates impairments in which a child experiences challenges in pronouncing
specific sounds. “A language impairment” can entail difficulty comprehending
words properly, expressing oneself and listening to others. Finally, “a voice
impairment” involves difficulty voicing words; for instance, throat issues may cause
an abnormally soft voice.

Causes:
- Some causes of speech and language disorders include hearing loss, neurological
disorders, brain injury, intellectual disabilities, drug abuse, physical impairments
such as cleft lip or palate, and vocal abuse or misuse. Frequently, however, the cause
is unknown.

Assessment Procedure:
- Assessing, describing, and interpreting an individual's communication ability
requires the integration of a variety of information gathered in the evaluation
process. ASHA's Preferred Practice Patterns for the Professions of Speech-Language
 Pathology (2004) indicates that comprehensive speech-language pathology
assessment includes these components:

• Case history, including medical status, education, socioeconomic, cultural, and

linguistic backgrounds and information from teachers and other related service
providers
• Patient/client/student and family interview
• Review of auditory, visual, motor, and cognitive status
• Standardized and/or non-standardized measures of specific aspects of speech,
spoken and non-spoken language, cognitive-communication, and swallowing
function, including observations and analysis of work samples
• Identification of potential for effective intervention strategies and compensations
• Selection of standardized measures for speech, language, cognitive-
communication, and/or swallowing assessment with consideration for
documented ecological validity and cultural sensitivity
• Follow-up services to monitor communication and swallowing status and ensure
appropriate intervention and support for individuals with identified speech,
language, cognitive-communication, and/or swallowing disorders

Red Flags of a Child:

• Following instructions
• Understanding abstract concepts
• Concentration
• Understanding stories, both written and spoken
• Understanding metaphorical language
• Making friends
• Listening to others

Educational Approaches and Strategies:

1. Encourage and accept all forms of communication

- Learners with speech and language difficulties are often lacking in confidence and
shy about speaking in public, so avoid asking them to repeat mispronounced
words or finish their sentences for them. It is better to model the correct form in
your response. Concentrate on the message the learner is trying to communicate
rather than the grammar. Allow alternative ways of communicating like gestures,
writing or drawing.
2. Be conscious of your own communication style
- Make sure your language is clear and direct and face the class so that learners
can see your expressions and read your lips if necessary. Give instructions one at a
time in the order you want them to be carried out, using visual cues and gestures
 to support them. If you say the learner’s name before asking them a question they
will know you want their attention. Try to avoid ambiguous language and always
be prepared to repeat anything the learner does not understand.
3. Teach active listening skills
- Explain to the whole class that it is important to be attentive and look at someone
when they are talking to you, and not to interrupt. You can teach turn-taking by
having a special object which is the ‘speaker’s token’. The holder of the object is the
only person who may speak. When they have finished they pass it on.
4. Give time to think and respond to questions
- All learners can benefit from this. Using the ‘think, pair, share’ model in class
provides the time needed to process information and organize thoughts before
having to answer.
5. Use sound discrimination exercises
- We know that phonemes are the building blocks for language. You can help
learners who have difficulty recognising and decoding phonemes through
multisensory activities like clapping and stomping out syllables in new
vocabulary or colour-coding the different groups of phonemes. Rhyming bingo
and card games where the learner can match the same sounds can be really
helpful.
6. Help with sequencing and word order
- If the learner has difficulty explaining things or telling stories in the right
order, just ask them to give bullet points of what they want to say and put them
in the correct sequence on a timeline. It is also helpful to cut up stories so they
can practice putting them in order - you can use pictures for younger learners.
7. Build vocabulary

- Use pictures, objects and photos to help understand and remember new
vocabulary. Encourage learners to use their visual memory by making a personal
vocabulary box of key words on picture cards.

8. Help build self-esteem

- Make sure to notice and praise good interactions and speech. Describe what
they do well and identify and work with their other strengths, such as creativity
and physical talents.
9. Help learners to make their needs known
- Always check that the learner has understood the task and clarify any
misunderstandings. Encourage them to let you know if they have not understood
by using a pre-arranged signal.

2. Autism Spectrum

Characteristics:
 • problems with social interaction with others. This may include problems talking
back and forth, working, or playing with others.
• unusual interest in objects
• need for sameness
• great variation in abilities
• under or over reaction to one or more of the five senses: sight, touch, taste,
smell, or hearing
• repeated actions or body movements
• unusual emotional reactions and expressions

Children with ASD usually have difficulty with social interaction. Some parents have
said that before their child’s diagnosis of ASD, they thought their child was just very
shy.

Children with ASD may have an unusual interest in objects. They may play with toys
in different or unusual ways. For example, they may be able to tell you everything you
need to know about car engines. Or they may be able to sit for hours spinning the
wheels on a toy vehicle.

Children with ASD often have a need for sameness. They may have difficulty with
changes in routines, clothes, food, caregivers, and other parts of their environment.

Children with ASD may have great ability in one area and great difficulty in another.
But not all children with ASD have the same abilities. For example:

• A child with ASD may have difficulty holding a pencil but have a strong memory
for the words of songs or movies. On the other hand, they could be fabulous
artists or have perfect pitch.
• A child may have difficulty knowing how to play a game with a peer but may
have a very good understanding of how computers work.
• A child who does not speak may be able to build complex structures out of
Lego.

Definition:

- Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a group of complex neurodevelopment

disorders characterized by repetitive and characteristic patterns of behavior
and difficulties with social communication and interaction. The symptoms are
present from early childhood and affect daily functioning.

Causes:
- Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the
disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many
causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role.
 10. Genetics. Several different genes appear to be involved in autism spectrum
disorder. For some children, autism spectrum disorder can be associated with a
genetic disorder, such as Rett syndrome or fragile X syndrome. For other
children, genetic changes (mutations) may increase the risk of autism spectrum
disorder. Still other genes may affect brain development or the way that brain
cells communicate, or they may determine the severity of symptoms. Some
genetic mutations seem to be inherited, while others occur spontaneously.

11. Environmental factors. Researchers are currently exploring whether factors

such as viral infections, medications or complications during pregnancy, or air
pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.

Assessment Procedure:
- The aim of the diagnostic assessment (Autism Assessment) is to determine whether
an individual meets the criteria for autism and to provide information about their
presentation and support needs.
- The diagnostic process includes assessment of social and communication skills,
and restricted and repetitive interests and stereotyped patterns of behaviour.

The diagnostic assessment includes:

• A comprehensive parent interview using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-

Revised (ADI-R)
• Formal observation using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule - Second
Edition (ADOS 2)
• Assessment of adaptive functioning (everyday living skills and independence)
• Information from preschool or school staff
• A feedback session outlining the assessment outcomes, including an
opportunity for questioning and clarification
• Recommendations for services that will best serve the individual needs of the
person receiving the diagnosis
• Summary report within one month of the assessment date (full reports are also
available at an additional cost)
- For someone who has autism, a diagnosis can help them and those close to them
to understand the behaviors that were isolating, confusing and often upsetting.

Red Flags of a Child:

• Fails to respond to his or her name or appears not to hear you at times
• Resists cuddling and holding, and seems to prefer playing alone, retreating into
his or her own world
• Has poor eye contact and lacks facial expression
 • Doesn't speak or has delayed speech, or loses previous ability to say words or
sentences
• Can't start a conversation or keep one going, or only starts one to make
requests or label items
• Speaks with an abnormal tone or rhythm and may use a singsong voice or
robot-like speech
• Repeats words or phrases verbatim, but doesn't understand how to use them
• Doesn't appear to understand simple questions or directions
• Doesn't express emotions or feelings and appears unaware of others' feelings
• Doesn't point at or bring objects to share interest
• Inappropriately approaches a social interaction by being passive, aggressive or
disruptive
• Has difficulty recognizing nonverbal cues, such as interpreting other people's
facial expressions, body postures or tone of voice

Educational Approaches and Strategies:

1. Create an environment that is not over stimulating. The child will do better if
there is no loud music playing in the background, as it distracts an autistic
child from concentrating.
2. Create a structured environment with predictable routines. This is where the
picture schedule so often used in autistic classrooms comes into play. The daily
routine should be the same from day t day, only differing for special occasions.
At such times, an appropriate picture representing that event should be placed
on the child's schedule.
3. Give fewer choices. If a child is asked to pick a color, say red, only give him two
to three choices to pick from. The more choices, the more confused an autistic
child will become.
4. Select repetitive motions when working on projects. Most autistic classrooms
have an area for work box tasks, such as putting erasers on pencils or sorting
colors into colored cups.
5. Keep voice low and clear when teaching. Autistic children become agitated and
confused if a speaking voice is too loud. Excess talking between staff members
should be kept to a minimum.
6. Limit physical contact. While this is a good strategy for all children, autistic
children cannot properly interpret body language and touch, so minimal body
physical contact is best
7. Allow students to stand instead of sit around a table for a class demonstration
or for morning or evening meeting. Many children do better when allowed to
stand. Many rock back and forth and this allows them to repeat those
movements while still listening to teacher instruction.
8. Encourage and promote one to one interaction with students to promote social
skills. Since autistic children have a problem with social skills and appropriates
social behavior this is very important. Opportunities for social interaction might
 have to be structured at first, but with practice, they will start to understand
social interactions.
9. Eliminate stress. Again, the autistic child needs to learn in a calm and quiet
classroom. IF staff members are experiencing too much stress, leave the
classroom until you feel better. Autistic children pick up on emotions very
easily.
10. For visual learners, be sure to use signs and pictures, such as the pictures from
the Board maker program. This is the beginning of communication skills for
these children.

3. Visual and Hearing Impairment

Characteristics:
- Visual impairment is essentially an umbrella term used to describe the loss of
sight that can be a consequence of a number of different medical conditions.
Some common causes of visual impairment are glaucoma, retinopathy of
prematurity, cataracts, retinal detachment, macular degeneration, diabetic
retinopathy, cortical visual impairment, infection and trauma. These are just a
handful of dozens of conditions impacting sight, and each condition has its own
unique characteristics and clinical features. In addition, the impact of the visual
impairment on individual learning is also tied to the onset, the severity, and the
type of visual loss, as well as to any coexisting disabilities that may be present in
the child. For this reason, all classroom accommodations, modifications, and
strategies must be designed with the individual needs of each student with a
visual impairment in mind. There is no one-size-fits-all model.

In addition to decreased visual acuity and visual field, a number of other vision
problems may also impact the visual functioning of the student with visual
impairment. There may be issues with sensitivity to light or glare, blind spots in
their visual fields, or problems with contrast or certain colors. Factors such as
lighting, the environment, fatigue, and emotional status can also impact visual
functioning in many of these students throughout the day. Students who have
the same visual condition may use their sight quite differently. To ensure
accessibility to classroom instruction, it is essential that you know how your
student is using his/her vision. A specially trained teacher of students who have
visual impairments, working with the IEP team members, can help determine
the best adaptations and learning media to use with each student.
Definition:

- A visual impairment is any visual condition that impacts an individual’s ability

to successfully complete the activities of everyday life. Students with visual
impairments are infants, toddlers, children and youths who experience
impairments of the visual system that impact their ability to learn.

There are three classification systems for individuals with visual impairment
that are used by education professionals. To be declared legally blind, an
individual must have visual acuity of 20/200 or less, or have a field of vision
restricted to 20 degrees or less at the widest point. However, this federal
classification system is used primarily to determine eligibility for adult agency
services.
For educational purposes, a specially trained teacher must determine that the
visual impairment impacts the child’s ability to learn, and this professional
determination, with the agreement of the IEP team ensures access to special
education services. To implement appropriate classroom accommodations for
students with visual impairment, these students are also classified according to
their level of functional vision:

▪ Low vision – students use their vision as their primary sensory channel
▪ Functionally blind – students can use limited vision for functional tasks but
need their tactile and auditory channels for learning
▪ Totally blind – students use tactile and auditory channels for learning and
functional tasks
A third classification system exists is based on the advent of the visual impairment
itself:
▪ Congenital – occurs during fetal development, at birth or immediately
following birth; visual impairment is present before visual memory has been
established
▪ Adventitious – occurs after having normal vision either through a hereditary
condition or trauma; visual memory may remain.
Students with congenital visual impairment typically have more difficulty mastering
visually strengthened concepts such as spatial orientation and many environmental
concepts.
Causes:
 - There are many causes that may lead to loss of vision or lead to impairment of
vision.
Common causes that lead to vision loss or visual impairment include injury to
the eye, inherited conditions, infections and so forth. (1-4)

Injury to the eyes

- Injury to the eyes while playing or at work or due to accidents may result in
vision loss and impairment.
Particularly injuries to the cornea are the commonest cause of vision loss.

Inherited conditions of blindness and vision impairment

- Retinitis pigmentosa is the most common cause of inherited blindness.
Infections of the eyes
- Sometimes if the mother has had a viral infection like German measles that is
transmitted from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy the baby
may be born with blindness or visual impairment.
- Trachoma of the eyes caused by contagious microorganism called Chlamydia
trachomatis may also damage eye sight. This is seen in the developing and
underdeveloped countries with poor water and sanitation facilities.

Assessment Procedure:
- Assessment and evaluation of progress among children who are deaf or hard of
hearing is a complex process. Challenges often go undetected by individuals
unfamiliar with the hidden impact of a hearing loss. Challenges to professionals
in the field of D/HH education are particularly notable in the areas of
information access, communication modalities, language, selection and
application of assessment tools, technology, and access to highly qualified
personnel. The local educational agency (LEA) continues to be responsible for
providing a team comprised of a) qualified professionals and b) the parents to
collect multiple sources of information relevant to determining eligibility for
specialized services and then developing an educational program that is not only
individualized but leads to measurable increases in learning. For the first time,
general education accountability legislation has had significant connection to
children with disabilities, including children who are deaf and hard of hearing.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) has had an impact on the title as well as language
in the 2004 re- authorization of the federal special education law. The 2004
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (also known as
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act or IDEA) clarified or modified various
aspects of its original language on evaluation since this manual was last revised.
These modifications include: a) requirements for highly qualified personnel, b)
the types of measurement tools or technology approved for use, c) the relevance
of general education information, d) the role and responsibilities of parents, e)
 the impact of student transfers within or outside a state, f) when re-evaluation is
required, and g) access to general education instruction in reading and other
selected curriculum areas. Effective teachers of students who are deaf or hard of
hearing have always understood the link between evaluation and instruction
that results in increased learning, however, never before have these teachers
faced the current level of mandates related to measuring their students’
academic achievement levels, rate of progress, and the reporting of their
assessment results to so many constituencies. This manual is intended to
support teachers in meeting their obligations to appropriately evaluate their
students who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Red Flags of a Child:
• Severe, sudden eye pain.
• Recurrent pain in or around the eye.
• Hazy, blurred, or double vision.
• Seeing flashes of light or sudden bright floating spots.
• Seeing rainbows or halos around lights.
• Seeing floating “spider webs”
• Seeing a “curtain coming down” over one eye.
Educational Approaches and Strategies:
- Classroom accommodations will be quite varied and should be individualized according
to the specific needs of the student. However, there are some basic best practices that
can guide the development of the most effective adaptations.

One thing to always consider is that it is often difficult for these students to become as
fully independent as they are capable of being. The classroom teacher should encourage
independence as often as possible to avoid the trap of “learned helplessness.”
Encourage the student to move independently through the classroom, and organize your
classroom accordingly. Materials, desks, and other objects in the classroom should be
maintained in consistent locations. Ensuring that cabinets are fully closed, chairs pushed
in, and doors are not left half ajar will help with safety in navigating the classroom. Part of
becoming independent for students with a visual impairment is learning when to advocate
for assistance. Not all instructional tasks will be immediately possible for a student with a
visual impairment, even with accommodations. The key is to design your instruction so
that the student has the most opportunity to act independently. The student’s orientation
and mobility specialist and teacher of students with visual impairments can assist with
room arrangements and room familiarization.

4. Physical Disabilities

Characteristics:
 - A physical disability is a physical condition that affects a person’s mobility,
physical capacity, stamina, or dexterity. This can include brain or spinal cord
injuries, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, respiratory disorders, epilepsy, hearing
and visual impairments and more.
Definition:
- Impairment in a person's body structure or function, or mental
functioning; examples of impairments include loss of a limb, loss of vision or
memory loss. Activity limitation, such as difficulty seeing, hearing, walking, or
problem solving.

Causes:
- The causes of a physical disability are also varied. They usually fall into one of
two categories:
• Hereditary/Congenital – where a person has been born with a physical
disability or developed one due to inherited genetic problems, has suffered
an injury at birth, or has issues with their muscles.
• Acquired – An acquired physical disability could be due to an accident,
infection or disease, or as a side effect of a medical condition.

Acquired brain injuries

Acquired brain injuries result in physical disabilities. They occur after birth as a result
of damage to the brain through accidents, strokes, tumours, infections, degenerative
neurological diseases, or lack of oxygen.
These occurrences can cause damage to the cognitive, physical, emotional and sensory
functions of the brain resulting in minor or profound disabilities that can be
temporary or permanent.

Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological condition that triggers recurring unprovoked seizures. The
causes of epilepsy are not always known, but brain trauma, strokes, brain cancer and
drugs and alcohol are thought to be significant factors.
Some people are able to treat their Epilepsy with medication, surgery and lifestyle
changes. However, unfortunately, epileptic seizures can sometimes result in brain
damage, causing physical disabilities.

Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral Palsy affects the way the brain controls the body’s muscles resulting in
speech, movement and posture difficulties. In most cases it is caused by brain injury
or abnormal development that occurs before birth or before one month of age.
Cerebral Palsy is non-life threatening, however it can vary in severity, ranging from
minor interference with motor-skills, to quadriplegia.

Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a hereditary genetic condition, inherited when the gene is
carried by both parents. It affects more than one million people in Australia.
CF affects the respiratory, digestive and reproductive systems, because of a
malfunction in the mucus and sweat glands which causes mucus to thicken and build
up, resulting in recurrent infections in important bodily organs. From birth, a person
with CF undergoes constant medical treatments and physiotherapy.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a is an autoimmune disorder causing damage to nerve cells.
This results in diminished brain and spinal cord function, manifesting in various
ways. Symptoms can range from fatigue and numbness to paralysis and vision loss.
It affects women twice as often as men and no two people will experience the same
symptoms. The progress and severity of MS can be difficult to predict.

Spina Bifida (SB)

Spina Bifida (SB) refers to a range of developmental birth defects that affect the spinal
cord, leaving nerves open to damage.
The severity of the symptoms depends on the location of opening in the spine. People
with SB often develop learning difficulties, mobility symptoms and paralysis, muscle
wastage, scoliosis, and bowel and bladder symptoms.

Prader-Willi Syndrome(PWS)
Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS) is a rare, non-hereditary genetic disorder that affects
development and growth. Characteristics may include growth and skeletal
abnormalities, eye problems, intellectual disability, emotional instability and excessive
eating, which often leads to obesity.
An abnormality of chromosome 15 is seen in most people with PWS. There is no cure,
but treatments can improve quality of life.
-
Assessment Procedure:
Testing and Assessment
• Guideline 13: In assessing persons with disabilities, psychologists strive to
consider disability as a dimension of diversity together with other individual and
contextual dimensions
• Guideline 14: Depending on the context and goals of assessment and testing,
psychologists strive to apply the assessment approach that is most
psychometrically sound, fair, comprehensive, and appropriate for clients with
disabilities
• Guideline 15: Psychologists strive to determine whether accommodations are
appropriate for clients to yield a valid test score
• Guideline 16: Consistent with the goals of the assessment and disability-related
barriers to assessment, psychologists in clinical settings strive to appropriately
balance quantitative, qualitative, and ecological perspectives, and articulate both
the strengths and limitations of assessment
• Guideline 17: Psychologists in clinical settings strive to maximize fairness and
relevance in interpreting assessment of data of clients who have disabilities by
applying approaches which reduce potential bias and balance and integrate data
from multiple sources
Red Flags of a Child:
- When children miss important physical and motor milestones, they may be
showing early signs of a developmental delay or physical disability. The following
are typical signs that may suggest a physical disability or motor delay. Child
care providers should pay attention if a young child:

• has unusually tight muscle tone and resists sitting up or bending the knees
• has unusually loose muscle tone and cannot hold his head up after about 3
months
• does not reach for toys
• has trouble releasing objects voluntarily
• does not reach across the body during play
• reaches only with one hand, even when feeding himself
• doesn’t put hands out to catch himself if falling
• has poorly developed hand or finger coordination and cannot pick up or hold
objects
• has poor balance or stumbles and trips frequently

Educational Approaches and Strategies:

• Use mnemonics such as SLANT (Sit up, lean forward, ask questions, nod your
head, track the teacher).
• Consider environmental issues: seating placement in classroom, workspace free
from distractions, proximity seating, student remove all non-related materials
from space.
• Use textured mats under worksheets and manipulatives to stabilize work area.
• Provide a paper stabilizer (clipboard, non-slip writing surface).
• Use colored highlighters to direct attention to key information.
• Use digital timer to help pace student while working.
• Use a line or a place-marker.
• Provide adapted paper (bold line, raised line, enlarged spacing).
• Use colored sticky notes to draw attention or clarify important information.
• Use large pencils and/or pencil grips/weighted pencils.
• Use adaptive equipment for posture: booster seats, arm rests, etc.
• Use computers with touch screen capabilities.
• Demonstrate all concepts with manipulatives.
• Provide copies of work that is presented on the board or textbook to cut down
on. “copying” for students.
• Vary group size for instruction.
• Provide large-print handouts of text.
• Provide a bookstand for books and assignment pages.
• Provide specifically lined/oriented paper.
• Make available computer speech-enhanced text and lessons.
• Use drawings and real-life examples such as lunch counts and class lists.

* For students with cognitive or physical disabilities, educators must involve

instructional strategies that are accessible throughout the daily schedule. The
classroom environment and educational staff must consider changes and
accommodations to increase student participation and enhance learning. When
teachers and students adapt effective instructional strategies, individual and groups of
students gain the tools necessary to become successful learners. Below are suggested
strategies to support students with cognitive and physical disabilities, and are
applicable to use within all classroom settings and with all children.

5. Intellectual Disabilities

Characteristics:
- There are a number of common characteristics that may have a significant impact
on an individual's learning, including: difficulty understanding new
information. difficulties with communication and social skills. slow cognitive
processing time.

Definition:
- Intellectual disability1 involves problems with general mental abilities that
affect functioning in two areas: intellectual functioning (such as learning,
problem solving, judgement) adaptive functioning (activities of daily life such as
communication and independent living)

Causes:
• trauma before birth, such as an infection or exposure to alcohol, drugs, or other
toxins
• trauma during birth, such as oxygen deprivation or premature delivery
• inherited disorders, such as phenylketonuria (PKU) or Tay-Sachs disease
• chromosome abnormalities, such as Down syndrome
• lead or mercury poisoning
• severe malnutrition or other dietary issues
• severe cases of early childhood illness, such as whooping cough, measles,
or meningitis
• brain injury

Assessment Procedure:
- The many causes of ID are discussed in another section.
Previously, we reviewed intellectual disabilities are defined by two major
symptoms. First, there are limitations in intellectual functioning (mental abilities).
Second, there are limitations in adaptive functioning or life skills. These life skills
include conceptual, social, and practical skills. Therefore, a medical evaluation is
 just the beginning of the assessment process. A thorough assessment usually
includes the following:

▪ comprehensive medical exam;

▪ possible genetic and neurological testing;
▪ social and familial history;
▪ educational history;
▪ psychological testing to assess intellectual functioning;
▪ testing of adaptive functioning;
▪ interviews with primary caregivers;
▪ interviews with teachers;
▪ social and behavioral observations of the child in natural environments

As mentioned, intellectual functioning and adaptive functioning are the primary

diagnostic criteria. In the next section, we discuss various tests used to assess
intellectual functioning and adaptive functioning. Since significant limitations in
these two areas are the defining features of intellectual disabilities, these tests are
essential to the diagnostic process.

Red Flags of a Child:

• inability to understand or comply with requests or instructions
• possible immobility
• incontinence
• very basic nonverbal communication
• inability to care for their own needs independently
• the need of constant help and supervision
• having an IQ of less than 20

Educational Approaches and Strategies:

- These five methods offer simple, effective ways to incorporate elements of ID-suitable
guidelines into any classroom, with minimal disruption and excellent results:
1. Use baby steps
Start by breaking each lesson down into its simplest, most vital components. These
steps can be provided to ID students alongside teaching a wider class to ensure they
can keep up and develop the same understanding as their peers. To reduce frustration
and encourage participation, this method is highly effective.

2. Incorporate more physical learning experiences

Whether it’s using physical items to support learning in sciences or maths or simply
offering a direct way for students to connect their learning to the real world, this
method can be invaluable for all your students to help them develop their knowledge
in a more well-rounded way.

3. Start a feedback book or chart

Students with ID can greatly benefit from immediate and consistent feedback. Using a
feedback book or chart can create a record of that feedback, allowing the student to
look back and see their development in black and white.

4. Encourage music in the classroom

Music can be a vital part of learning and development for any student, but for those
with ID, it can be an especially powerful motivator. Using music alongside concepts or
lessons can help them retain information and offer greater engagement of the subject
at hand.

5. Provide visual stimulus

Whether it’s simply drawing the concept you’re describing on a whiteboard, or
providing students with video or photographic content to study, ID students find it
easier to focus when they are visually involved in the learning process.

With an intellectual disability such a common difficulty for many students, it’s vital to
ensure that they receive the same level of care and attention when it comes to their
education as any other student. At the same time, it’s vital that teachers, educators,
and parents work together to ensure they are providing the best environment for every
student.

6. Attention Deficit/ Hyperactive Disorder

Characteristics:

1. Self-focused behavior
A common sign of ADHD is what looks like an inability to recognize other people’s
needs and desires. This can lead to the next two signs:
• interrupting
• trouble waiting their turn

2. Interrupting
Self-focused behavior may cause a child with ADHD to interrupt others while they’re
talking or butt into conversations or games they’re not part of.
Definition:

- ADHD, also called attention-deficit disorder, is a behavior disorder, usually first

diagnosed in childhood, that is characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and, in some
cases, hyperactivity. These symptoms usually occur together; however, one may occur
without the other(s).

The symptoms of hyperactivity, when present, are almost always apparent by the age
of 7 and may be present in very young preschoolers. Inattention or attention-deficit
may not be evident until a child faces the expectations of elementary school.

Causes:
- Doctors do not know what causes ADHD, but they have identified some risk factors,
including:

• a family history of ADHD

• brain injury
• exposure to stress, alcohol, or tobaccoTrusted Source during pregnancy
• exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy or from a young age
• a low birth weight, according to a 2018 meta-analysisTrusted Source
• possibly preterm birth, according to a 2018 study

Assessment Procedure:
- There's no single test to diagnose ADHD. Instead, doctors rely on several things,
including:

• Interviews with the parents, relatives, teachers, or other adults

• Personally watching the child or adult
• Questionnaires or rating scales that measure symptoms of ADHD
• Psychological tests

The doctor needs to see how much a person’s symptoms are affecting their daily moods,
behavior, productivity, and lifestyle habits. And they need to rule out other conditions.
With children, the doctor will talk with the parents about ADHD symptoms they have
seen. The doctor will want to know what age the behaviors began and where and when
the child shows symptoms. The doctor may ask for a behavior report from the child's
teacher, report cards, and samples of schoolwork.

Red Flags of a Child:

 • Inattention:
o Short attention span for age (difficulty sustaining attention)
o Difficulty listening to others
o Difficulty attending to details
o Easily distracted
o Forgetfulness
o Poor organizational skills for age
o Poor study skills for age
• Impulsivity:
o Often interrupts others
o Has difficulty waiting for his or her turn in school and/or social games
o Tends to blurt out answers instead of waiting to be called upon
o Takes frequent risks, and often without thinking before acting
• Hyperactivity:
o Seems to be in constant motion; runs or climbs, at times with no
apparent goal except motion
o Has difficulty remaining in his/her seat even when it is expected
o Fidgets with hands or squirms when in his or her seat; fidgeting
excessively
o Talks excessively
o Has difficulty engaging in quiet activities
o Loses or forgets things repeatedly and often
o Inability to stay on task; shifts from one task to another without bringing
any to completion

Educational Approaches and Strategies:

ADHD impairs both social and cognitive functioning in everyday life. A child with
ADHD will likely demonstrate some of the following behaviours:

• Impulsiveness – acting before thinking, interrupting conversations, and little or

no sense of danger.
• Hyperactivity – being unable to sit still, constantly fidgeting, and excessive
movement.
• Inattentiveness – having a short attention span, being easily distracted,
unable to concentrate on tasks, constantly changing activity or task, appearing
as unable to follow instructions, and forgetfulness.

Working with children with ADHD can be a challenge at times. It’s particularly difficult
in a classroom environment, where the characteristics of fidgeting, being unable to sit
still, and all aspects of inattentiveness are especially noticeable.
REFERENCES:

- https://classful.com/students-with-an-intellectual-disability/
- https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-retardation
- https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/intellectual-disability/what-is-
intellectual-
disability#:~:text=Intellectual%20disability1%20involves%20problems,as%20comm
unication%20and%20independent%20living)
- https://childcare.extension.org/physical-disabilities-signs-of-concern/
- https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/servicesandsupport/physical-
disabilities
- https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-
20350889
- https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/adhdadd
- https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323667#causes-and-risk-factors
- https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/signs#self-focused-behavior
- https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/managing-adhd-in-the-classroom/