Physics 4AL FAQ

Yong Wang

(Updated on March 6, 2010)

Notes: The information provided here is “as is”. There is absolutely NO warranty.

Questions on Policies
0.1 What does curve-grading mean in this class?
The grade for lab report is curve-based. That means for each experiment there will be 5-6 P+, 5-6 P– and 10 P.
Your grade does not only depend on your own report but also depend on your classmates’ reports. If about 15
people is better than you, you get a P– even you did not so bad. More detailedly, When I grade your report, I will
mark on your report to show where I take points off or give points to you. If you get -6 points, you might get a
No-Pass. If unfortunately you are among those who get the lowest scores, you get P–. For example, if 3 people get
+2, 2 people get +1, 12 people get 0, 3 people get -1, 1 person gets -2, 1 person gets -6; then there will be 5 P+,
12 P and 4 P– and 1 NP. Another example: 5 people get +5, 10 get +2 and 5 get 0; then there will be 5 P+, 10 P
and 5 P–.
Note: this policy is made by Professor Slater William in order to make grade-distributions for all sections more or
less the same.

0.2 No make-ups?
No make-ups. However, if you cannot make it for one experiment, you could email other TAs to see if you could
attend his/her section. And of course you have to include the TA’s signature when you turn in your report.

0.3 How can I convert word to pdf ?

There are many ways to convert doc file to pdf. For example, If you are using Mac/Linux/Unix, then you could
use CUPS. There are cups-pdf on both linux and mac. If you are using Windows, a good choice might be Cutepdf
Writer, which is free.
In addition, there are a lot of online converters such as http://convert.neevia.com, http://www.freepdfconvert.com/,
http://www.pdfonline.com/convert-pdf/, etc.
I am using open source cups-pdf and used cutepdf before. They work great. I tried these online converters, which
are based on google search. They work well. But if you are not comfortable with online converters or are worried
about privacy or anything, DO NOT use them. Use online stuffs at your own risk.

1 Experiment I
1.1 How do I calculate the uncertainty of the predicted acceleration?
Use the error propagation formula,
s 2  2
∂ap 2 ∂ap 2
σap = σM + σm (1)
∂M ∂m

1
then calculate the direvatives
∂ap −mg
=
∂M (M + m)2
∂ap Mg
=
∂m (M + m)2

It is a good idea to simplify the formula before you plug in the numbers for calculation.

1.2 What does “within error” mean?

Verify if
|ap − am | < σap + σam
holds or not! If it holds, then your result is within error.

1.3 I am using Excel 2007, How can I find “regression”?

You can find the answer in many classic books. One book I recommend is Excel 2007 Bible. Figure 1, from Excel
2007 Bible, shows the instructions on how to use regression in Excel 2007.

2 Experiment II

2.1 What are the random error sources of D and d?

Instead of answer this specific question, I would like to give you some hints on RANDOM ERRORS in general.
Random errors arise from the fluctuations if you are making multiple trials of a given measurement. The key word
here is “FLUCTUATION”. There are several common sources of random errors: 1) Uncontrollable fluctuations in
initial conditions in the measurements. 2) Limitations imposed by the precision of your measuring apparatus, and
the uncertainty in interpolating between the smallest divisions. 3) Lack of precise definition of the quantity being
measured. The length of a table in the laboratory is not well defined after it has suffered years of use. 4) Sometimes
the quantity you measure is well defined but is subject to inherent random fluctuations. Such fluctuations may be
of a quantum nature or arise from the fact that the values of the quantity being measured are determined by the
statistical behavior of a large number of particles.
No matter what the source of the uncertainty, to be labeled "random" an uncertainty must have the property that
the fluctuations from some "true" value are equally likely to be positive or negative. This fact gives us a key for
understanding what to do about random errors. You could make a large number of measurements, and average the
result. If the uncertainties are really equally likely to be positive or negative, you would expect that the average of
a large number of measurements would be very near to the correct value of the quantity measured, since positive
and negative fluctuations would tend to cancel each other.

2.2 What should I do for Post-Lab Question 6?

Well, in the data analysis, we calculated the error of g from the distances D and d, using
s 2  2
∂g 2 + ∂g
σg = σD σd2 (2)
∂D ∂d
In Q#6, you are asked for calculating the error of g from the times t1 and t2 by
s 2  2
∂g 2 ∂g
σg = σt1 + σt22 (3)
∂t1 ∂t2
where σt1 = σt2 = 0.1ms.

2
 Figure 1: Regression in Excel 2007

2.3 Extra Credit

What is the relation between the measured acceleration due to gravity g and the height of the second photogate D
if there is air friction f = −bv?
Well, first of all, write Newton’s second law:
Fnet = mg0 − bv (4)
2
where g0 is the real acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s ) when there is NO friction. The measured g is the
acceleration due to Fnet , therefore
Fnet = mg (5)
Combine the two equations above, we have
b
g = g0 − v (6)
m
Recall the defination of acceleration
dv
g= (7)
dt
we have an equation of v,
dv b
= g0 − v (8)
dt m

3
If you can solve this equation and get v = v(t), then you can calculate

g(t) = dv
Rdtt (9)
D(t) = 0 vdt

after which you can extract the relation between g and D.

So the essential step is to solve eq. (8). To solve it, the first step is to introduce an auxiliary variable u,
mg0
u=v− (10)
b
then
du d mg0


dt = dt v− b
dv (11)
= dt

The eq. (8) becomes

du dv b  mg0  b
= = g0 − u+ =− u (12)
dt dt m b m
This equation is very easy to solve by separating variables
du b
= − dt (13)
u m
⇒
b
ln(u) = − t + const (14)
m
Therefore,
b
u(t) = const × e− m t (15)
b mg0
v(t) = const × e− m t + (16)
b
Appy the initial condition to the solution,
v(0) = 0 (17)
one can determine the const, which is − mg 0
b .

mg0
v(t) = (−e−bt/m + 1) (18)
b
As long as you get v(t), you can calculate g and D.
dv(t)
g(t) = dt
b (19)
= g0 e− m t
Rt
D(t) = 0
v(t)dt
mg0 (20)
= b t + c1 e−bt/m + c2
After some time t, the major term of D(t) is the first term,

D(t) ≈ mg0 t/b (21)

Then
g(D) ≈ g0 × e−b/m×Db/mg0 (22)
or
b2
− D
m 2 g0
g(D) ≈ g0 e (23)

4
3 Experiment III

3.1 What uncertainties should I calculate?

For this experiment, at the end you should get the uncertainties of spring constant k, friction f , and coefficient of
friction µ.
σk : regression (F vs x)
σf : regression (Etot vs x) r 2  2
∂µ 2 + ∂µ
σµ : error propagation formula, σµ = ∂M σM ∂f σf2 , where σM = 0.1g

3.2 How do you know if the resolution of timer acounts for the scatter in KE points?

Well, there are many ways to get it done. A simple way is to change the times by 0.1ms (σt = 0.1ms), calcualte
the velocities and KE’s once again and then calculate the difference between the original KE curve and the current
KE curve. Then see if the difference is large enough to account for the scatter.
Another way is to calculate the error of KE from the timer by
s 
2  
∂v 2 ∂v
σv = σt = | σt | (24)
∂t ∂t
 
∂KE
σKE = | σv | (25)
∂v
then see if the error is large enough or not.

3.3 Does the summary table include all runs?

Yes, in the summary table, you need to include all three runs.

3.4 What does it mean by “the comb is sliding in the groove of the glider”?

In our experiment, the comb is fixed in the groove of the glider, so ideally the comb is moving with the glider and
therefore the velocity of the comb is the same as that of the glider. However, as some of you may notice, the comb
is NOT tightly fixed in the glider, which introduces a possibility that the comb can slide in the groove of the glider,
then the velocities are different.

3.5 How do I decide which run is the “best” one?

It is required in this experiment to extract the friction f and coeffecient of friction µ from the best run. It depends
on how you define “best”.
1) You can use the one where the R2 value is the closest to 1 (in excel, when you add a trendline, check the box in
the Options tab so that R2 value is shown).
2) You can also use the run with the smallest coeffecient of friction.
I personally prefer the first one because the coeffecient of friction should be constant for all runs ideally.
Of course, you could calculate all the three µ’s, as well as their uncertainties, to gain possible points.

5
4 Experiment IV

4.1 Extra Credit

The extra credit part for this experiment is to apply Simpson’s rule to
Z
I = F dt (26)

In numerical analysis, Simpson’s rule is a method for numerical integration,

Z b    
b−a a+b
f (x)dx ≈ f (a) + 4f + f (b) (27)
a 6 2

It is hard to use it for the whole range of measurement, therefore we first need to do some calculations.
Rt
I = 0 M F dt
PN −1 R tn+1
= F dt
Pn=0 tn
N −1 R tn+1 (28)
= n=0 tn αVcorect dt
N −1 R t
= α n=0 tnn+1 Vcorrect dt
P

Now apply Simpson’s rule,

Z tn+1    
tn+1 − tn tn + tn+1
Vcorrect dt = Vcorrect (tn ) + 4Vcorrect + Vcorrect (tn+1 ) (29)
tn 6 2

Recall
Vcorrect (tn ) = Vcorrect,n = Vn − Vbaseline (30)
and assume  
tn + tn+1 Vcorrect (tn ) + Vcorrect (tn+1 )
Vcorrect = (31)
2 2
then you make use Simpson’s rule now.

4.2 What’s the unit of α?

To answer this question, you need to understand what α is. α is the conversion factor from voltage to force.

F = αV + β (32)

Therefore, the unit of α should be

[F ]
[α] = = N/m (33)
[V ]

4.3 What is the effect of an unleveled air track?

First of all, for simplicity, let’s denote the first time when the glider goes through the photogate by tp1 , the second
time when the glider comes back by tp2 .
For the momentum change, since we measured the velocities directly, the momentum change is the real change in
momentum.
However, the impulse I will change because we only take into account the force from the force transducer. The real
impulse I 0
I0 =
R
(F + mg sin θ) dt
R tp2 (34)
= I + tp1 mg sin θdt

6
4.4 What is “Constant is zero” box?

The question in the lab manual is out of date. In Excel 2003, there is no such a box. Instead, there is a box saying
“Set Intercept to _” in the “Option” Tab when you add a trendline. If you check this box, the excel will fix the
intercept during fitting. Of course it is not correct to check this box since there is a voltage baseline.

5 Experiment V

5.1 What does Report Guideline #1 mean?

It is asking the relation between F and ∆x when ∆x is large. Ignore “the coils touch”.

5.2 How can I tell if the force is proportional to velocity?

The force means the damping force fdamp . You can tell if fdamp ∝ v by fitting the amplitudes of the oscillation.
The solution
bt
V (t) = V0 e− 2m cos (w0 t + ϕ) (35)
is based on the assumption that fdamp ∝ v. If the amplitudes are not decaying exponentially, then the assumption
is incorrect.

5.3 Reproducibility of frequencies?

Reproducibility is one of the main principles of the scientific method, and refers to the ability of a test or experiment
to be accurately reproduced, or replicated, by someone else working independently.

6 Experiment VI

7 Experiment VII

7.1 What is the wave equation (in post-lab questions) I need to derive?

Basically, it’s
d2 y d2 y
T 2
=µ 2 (36)
dx dt