Mathematical Language: Bruno Carpentieri Bruno - Carpentieri@unibz - It

Mathematical Language
Bruno Carpentieri
bruno.carpentieri@unibz.it
3rd floor - Room 3.10 - Phone +39 047 101 6027
Course: Preparatory Course Mathematics

Academic year: 2021-2022
Version: September 21, 2021
B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 1 / 51

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Variables Statements Sets Subsets Operations on Sets Powerset
Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Variables
4 Mathematical statements are constructed using variables , sets , relations and

functions .
4 Variables are basic constructs as placeholders for values. They are denoted by
letters such as x, y , z, etc. They are of two kinds, existential and universal.
4 Existential variables : such a variable can have one or more values but we don’t
know what they are. It allows us to give a temporary name to what we are seeking
so that we can perform concrete computations with it and find its possible values.
4 Example. Consider the question “Is there a number with the following property:
doubling it and adding 3 gives the same result as squaring it ? ”
Here we can introduce a variable x to replace the potentially ambiguous word “it”:
“Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x 2 ”.

Variables
4 Universal variables : they are not restricted to have a particular value; whatever
we say about, such variable shall be equally true for all elements in a given set.
4 Example. Consider the statement “No matter what number might be chosen, if it
is greater than 2, then its square is greater than 4.”
Again, we can introduce a variable x to replace the ambiguous word “it”:
“No matter what number x might be chosen: if x > 2, then x 2 > 4.”
Here, introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the (arbitrary) number

we might choose enables us to maintain the generality of the statement.

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Statements
We can classify mathematical statements of three different types: universal statements,

conditional statements and existential statements.
4 A universal statement establishes that a certain property is true for all elements
in a set.
Example. All positive numbers are greater than zero.
4 A conditional statement establishes that if one thing is true then some other
thing also has to be true.
Example. If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
4 An existential statement establishes that, given a property that may or may not
be true, there is at least one thing for which the property is true.
Example. There is a prime number that is even.

Statements
4 Combinations of universal statements, conditional statements, and existential

statements are possible.
4 Example. A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

universal and conditional. (“For all animals x, if x is a dog, then x is a mammal ”).
4 Example. A universal existential statement is a statement that is both universal

and existential. (“Every real number x has an additive inverse, or negative, −x ”).
4 Many mathematical theorems are stated as universal conditional statements:

• Fixing a domain (What things do we talk about?)
• A precondition for a theorem (what is the context?)
• A claimed property for the objects in question (For example: Theorem:
“For all natural numbers n, if n is divisible by 4, then n is divisible by 2”).

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Sets
4 A set is simply a collection of elements . The order of the elements is irrelevant,
and duplicates are not counted.
4 Example. If C is the set of all countries that are currently in the United Nations,
then Italy is an element of C.
4 Example. If I is the set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the number 57 is an
element of I.

Example 1: the Set-Roster Notation
4 Consider the following problems.
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2}, and C = {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3}. What are the elements
of the sets A, B, and C ? How are A, B, and C related?
2. Is {0} = 0 ?
3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?
4. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, –n}. Find U1 , U2 , and U0 .

Solutions to Example 1
4 Solutions.
1. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore, A, B,

and C are simply different ways to represent the same set.
2. {0} 6= 0 because {0} is a set with one element, namely 0, whereas 0 is just the
symbol that represents the number zero.
3. The set {1, {1}} has two elements: 1 and the set whose only element is 1.
4. U1 = {1, −1}, U2 = {2, −2}, and U0 = {0, −0} = {0, 0} = {0}.

Important Sets
4 Certain sets are so frequently referred to that they are given special symbols .
Symbol Set
R set of all real numbers
Z set of all integer numbers
Q set of all rational numbers = quotients of integers
Z+ , Znonneg all positive elements of the set Z
(Z can be replaced with R and Q )
Z− all negative elements of the set Z
(Z can be replaced with R and Q)
Z+
0 all positive elements of the set Z including 0
(Z can be replaced with R and Q )
N set of all natural numbers sometimes Z+ 0,
sometimes Z+
∅ The empty set

Sets
4 The real number line is called continuous , because it is imagined to have no
breaks.
4 The set of integers is a collection of points located at fixed intervals on the real
number line.
4 Thus every integer is a real number, and because the integers are all separated
from each other, the set of integers is called discrete .
4 Another way to specify a set is the so-called set-builder notation .

Example 2: the Set-Builder Notation
4 Given that R denotes the set of all real numbers, Z the set of all integers, and Z+
the set of all positive integers, describe each of the following sets:
1. {x ∈ R | −2 < x < 5}
2. {x ∈ Z | −2 < x < 5}
3. {x ∈ Z+ | −2 < x < 5}

4 Solutions.
1. Solution 1: {x ∈ R | −2 < x < 5} is the open interval of real numbers (strictly)

between -2 and 5. It is pictured as follows:
2. Solution 2: {x ∈ Z | −2 < x < 5} is the set of all integers (strictly) between -2

and 5. It is equal to the set {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
3. Solution 3: Since all the integers in Z+ are positive,

{x ∈ Z+ | −2 < x < 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Subsets
4 A basic relation between two sets is the subset relation ⊆ .
4 For a set A not to be a subset of a set B means that there is at least one element
x in A (x ∈ A) that is not an element of B (x 6∈ B). Symbolically: A 6⊆ B.

Example 3: Distinction Between ∈ and ⊆
4 Which of the following are true statements?
1. 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
2. {2} ∈ {1, 2, 3}
3. 2 ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
4. {2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
5. {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}}
6. {2} ∈ {{1}, {2}}

4 Solutions.
1. Only (1), (4), and (6) are true.
2. For (2) to be true, the set {1, 2, 3} would have to contain the element {2}. But
the only elements of {1, 2, 3} are 1, 2, and 3, and 2 is not equal to {2}. Hence (2)
is false.
3. For (3) to be true, the number 2 would have to be a set and every element in the
set 2 would have to be an element of {1, 2, 3}. This is not the case, so (3) is false.
4. For (5) to be true, every element in the set containing only the number 2 would
have to be an element of the set whose elements are {1} and {2}. But 2 is not
equal to either {1} or {2}, and so (5) is false.

Example 4: Subsets
4 Example. Let A = {1} and B = {1, {1}}.
(a) Is A ⊆ B?
(b) If so, is A a proper subset of B?
4 Solution.
(a) Because A = {1}, A has only one element, namely the symbol 1. This
element is also one of the elements of B. Hence every element of A is in B,
and so A ⊆ B.
(b) B has two distinct elements, the symbol 1 and the set {1} whose only
element is 1. Since 1 6= {1}, the set {1} is not an element of A, and so there
is an element of B that is not an element of A. Hence A is a proper subset
of B.

Wrap-up
Let S be a set. Then:
4 a ∈ S means that a is an element of S.
4 a 6∈ S means that a is not an element of S.
4 set-roster notation : S = {1, 2, 3} (finite set) or {1, 2, 3, . . .} (infinite set).
4 set-builder notation : If P(x) is a property that elements of the set S may

or may not satisfy, then a set A may be defined by writing
A = {x ∈ S | P(x)} which is read “the set of all x in S such that P of x”.

Wrap-up
The subset relation can be defined as a formal universal conditional statement.
4 Let A and B be sets, A is a subset of B means:

A ⊆ B ⇔ ∀x, if x ∈ A then x ∈ B .
4 The negation is, therefore, existential:

A 6⊆ B ⇔ ∃x such that x ∈ A and x 6∈ B
4 A proper subset of a set is a subset that is not equal to its containing set, i.e.
A is a proper subset of B:
A ⊂ B ⇔ A ⊆ B, and there is at least one element in B that is not in A

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Set Equality
4 Recall that two sets A and B are equal if, and only if, they have exactly the same
elements (this property is called the axiom of extension ).
4 This version of the definition of equality implies the following:

“ To know that a set A equals a set B, we must know that A ⊆ B and we must
also know that B ⊆ A ”.

Operations on Sets

Operations on Sets
4 If A and B can be represented as regions in the plane, relationships between A and

B can be represented by pictures, called the Venn Diagrams .

Example 5: Operations on Sets
4 Example. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f , g } be the universal set and A = {a, c, e, g } and

B = {d, e, f , g }. Find the following sets:
1. A ∪ B.
2. A ∩ B.
3. B − A.
4. Ac .

4 Solutions.
1. A ∪ B = {a, c, d, e, f , g }
2. A ∩ B = {e, g }
3. B − A = {d, f }
4. Ac = {b, d, f }

Relating R, Q, and Z
4 Z, Q, and R denote the sets of integers, rational and real numbers, respectively.
4 Z is a proper subset of Q because every integer is rational (any integer n can be

written in the form n1 ). There are rational numbers that are not integers (e.g., 21 ).
4 Q is a proper subset of R because every rational number is real (any rational

number can be represented
√ as a length on the number line). Not all real numbers
are rational (e.g., 2).

Real Number Intervals
4 Important subsets of real numbers are intervals . They are defined as follows:
4 Note: observe that in mathematics the notation for the interval (a, b) is identical
to the notation for the ordered pair (a, b) that will be discussed later. However,
context makes it unlikely that the two will be confused.

Example 6: Intervals
4 Example. Let the universal set be the set R of all real numbers and let
A = (−1, 0] = {x ∈ R | −1 < x ≤ 0} and B = [0, 1) = {x ∈ R | 0 ≤ x < 1}
Find the following sets:
1. A ∪ B,
2. A ∩ B,
3. B − A,
4. Ac .

4 Solutions.
1. A ∪ B = {x ∈ R | x ∈ (−1, 0] or x ∈ [0, 1)} = {x ∈ R | x ∈ (−1, 1)} = (−1, 1)
2. A ∩ B = {x ∈ R | x ∈ (−1, 0] and x ∈ [0, 1)} = {0}

3 B − A = {x ∈ R | x ∈ [0, 1) and x 6∈ (−1, 0]} = {x ∈ R | 0 < x < 1} = (0, 1)
4 Ac = {x ∈ R | it is not the case that x ∈ (−1, 0]}

= {x ∈ R | it is not the case that (−1 < x and x ≤ 0]}
= {x ∈ R | x ≤ −1 or x > 0}
= (−∞, −1] ∪ (0, ∞)

Unions and Intersections
Sn Tn
4 Also, i=0 Ai = A0 ∪ A1 ∪ A2 ∪ . . . ∪ An and i=0 Ai = A0 ∩ A1 ∩ A2 ∩ . . . ∩ An .

Example 7: Unions and Intersections
4 Example. For each positive integer i, let {x ∈ R | − 1i < x < 1i } = Ai = (− 1i , 1i ).
Find:
(a) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ,
(b) A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ,
S∞
(c) i=1 Ai ,
T∞
(d) i=1 Ai .

4 Solutions.
(a) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 = x ∈ R | x is in at least one of the intervals (−1, 1), or − 12 , 12 ,

or − 13 , 13 } = {x ∈ R | −1 < x < 1} = (−1, 1).

(−1, 1), and − 12 , 12 , and

(b) A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3= x ∈ R | x is in all of the intervals
− 13 , 13 } = x ∈ R | − 31 < x < 13 = − 13 , 13 .

S∞
Ai = x ∈ R | x is in at least one of the intervals (− 1i , 1i ), where i is a

(c) i=1
positive integer} = {x ∈ R | −1 < x < 1} = (−1, 1) .
T∞
Ai = x ∈ R | x is in at least one of the intervals − 1i , 1i , where i is a

(d) i=1
positive integer} = {0}.

Empty Set
4 A set is defined by the elements that compose it. A set without elements is called
an empty set (or null set) and is denoted by the symbol ∅.
4 The definition of empty set facilitates operations with sets, such as

- take the intersection of two sets, or
- define a set by specifiying a property,
as the result of such operations may sometimes be a set without elements.
4 Example. {1, 3} ∩ {2, 4} = ∅ and {x ∈ R | x 2 = −1} = ∅ are two different

descriptions of the empty set.

Empty Set is a Subset of Every Set

Empty Set is Unique
4 Note that whereas ∅ is the set with no elements, the set {∅} has one element, the
empty set.

Partition of Sets
4 In many applications of set theory, sets are divided up into nonoverlapping (or
disjoint) pieces. Such a division is called a partition .

Example 8: Disjointness
4 Exercises.
(a) Let A1 = {3, 5}, A2 = {1, 4, 6}, and A3 = {2}.

Are A1 , A2 , and A3 mutually disjoint?
(b) Let B1 = {2, 4, 6}, B2 = {3, 7}, and B3 = {4, 5}.
Are B1 , B2 , and B3 mutually disjoint?
4 Solution.
(a) Yes. A1 and A2 have no elements in common. A1 and A3 have no elements

in common and A2 , A3 have no elements in common.
(b) No, B1 and B3 both contain 4.

Partition of Sets
4 Suppose A, A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 are the sets of points represented by the regions shown

below. Then A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 are subsets of A and A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪A4 .
Suppose further that boundaries are assigned to the regions A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 in such

a way that these sets are mutually disjoint. Then A is called a union of mutually
disjoint subsets. The collection of sets {A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 } is called a partition of A .
Question. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A1 = {1, 2},

A2 = {3, 4}, and A3 = {5, 6}. Is {A1 , A2 , A3 } a
partition of A?
Answer. Yes. By inspection, A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 and
the sets A1 , A2 , and A3 are mutually disjoint.

Partition of Sets
4 The definition extends to the case of an infinite collection of nonempty sets

{A1 , A2 , A3 , . . .}, as given in the definition below.

Outline
Variables
Statements
Sets
Subsets
Operations on Sets
Powerset

Powerset
4 There are various situations in which it is useful to consider the set of all subsets
of a particular set. The power set axiom guarantees that this is a set.
4 Example:
Find the power set of the set {x, y }. That is, find P({x, y }).
4 Solution:
P({x, y }) is the set of all subsets of {x, y }, hence:
P({x, y }) = {∅, {x}, {y }, {x, y }}.

The Number of Elements of the Powerset
Sketch of a proof.
Take a set with only two elements, for example X = {1, 2}. It has 22 = 4 subsets,
namely P(X ) = {∅, {1}, {2}, X }. Now add a new element, 3, to get
Y = X ∪ {3} = {1, 2, 3}.
The four subsets of X are also subsets of Y , but you get new subsets - those which
contain 3, e.g. {1, 3}. But each of these is one of the ones you already had together
with the new element added: {3}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}.

Partition of Sets

Partition of Sets
Here, the symbol ⇔ means “if and only if”

Set Identities

Set Identities

Mathematical Language: Bruno Carpentieri Bruno - Carpentieri@unibz - It

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3rd floor - Room 3.10 - Phone +39 047 101 6027

Course: Preparatory Course Mathematics

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 1 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 2 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 3 / 51

4 Mathematical statements are constructed using variables , sets , relations and

“Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x 2 ”.

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 4 / 51

Again, we can introduce a variable x to replace the ambiguous word “it”:

Here, introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the (arbitrary) number

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 5 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 6 / 51

We can classify mathematical statements of three different types: universal statements,

Example. All positive numbers are greater than zero.

Example. If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.

Example. There is a prime number that is even.

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 7 / 51

4 Combinations of universal statements, conditional statements, and existential

4 Example. A universal conditional statement is a statement that is both

4 Example. A universal existential statement is a statement that is both universal

4 Many mathematical theorems are stated as universal conditional statements:

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 8 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 9 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 10 / 51

Example 1: the Set-Roster Notation

4 Consider the following problems.

3. How many elements are in the set {1, {1}}?

4. For each nonnegative integer n, let Un = {n, –n}. Find U1 , U2 , and U0 .

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 11 / 51

1. A, B, and C have exactly the same three elements: 1, 2, and 3. Therefore, A, B,

4. U1 = {1, −1}, U2 = {2, −2}, and U0 = {0, −0} = {0, 0} = {0}.

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 12 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 13 / 51

4 Another way to specify a set is the so-called set-builder notation .

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 14 / 51

Example 2: the Set-Builder Notation

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 15 / 51

1. Solution 1: {x ∈ R | −2 < x < 5} is the open interval of real numbers (strictly)

2. Solution 2: {x ∈ Z | −2 < x < 5} is the set of all integers (strictly) between -2

3. Solution 3: Since all the integers in Z+ are positive,

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 16 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 17 / 51

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 18 / 51

Example 3: Distinction Between ∈ and ⊆

4 Which of the following are true statements?

5. {2} ⊆ {{1}, {2}}

6. {2} ∈ {{1}, {2}}

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 19 / 51

1. Only (1), (4), and (6) are true.

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 20 / 51

4 Example. Let A = {1} and B = {1, {1}}.

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 21 / 51

Let S be a set. Then:

4 a ∈ S means that a is an element of S.

4 a 6∈ S means that a is not an element of S.

4 set-roster notation : S = {1, 2, 3} (finite set) or {1, 2, 3, . . .} (infinite set).

4 set-builder notation : If P(x) is a property that elements of the set S may

B. Carpentieri (UniBZ) Preparatory Course in Mathematics 20-21 22 / 51

The subset relation can be defined as a formal universal conditional statement.

4 Let A and B be sets, A is a subset of B means:

4 The negation is, therefore, existential: