LEARNING KIT 1

Saint John School GENERAL PHYSICS 1

Lesson: Newton’s Law of Motion
of San Juan, San Ildefonso, Bulacan, Inc.
Date: August 30 – September 3, 2021

Name: _____________________________________ Grade Level & Section: _____________________

Things to Learn
At the end of this learning kit, you will be able to:
1. Define inertial frames of reference;
2. Identify action-reaction pairs;
3. Draw free-body diagrams;
4. Apply Newton’s 1st law to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions about the contact and noncontact forces acting on a
body in equilibrium;
5. Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction.
Think about It
Complete the agree-disagree checklist below.
Topics Agree Disagree Reason
Force is any action that can change the state of
rest or motion of a particular body.
The surface exerts an upward force on the book
at the top of the table to support the weight of
the book.
To keep an object moving, you need to apply
force continuously.
Weight refers to the amount of matter that is
contained in the object.
Force can change the speed and direction of a
moving object.

Tackle it Out

THE CONCEPT OF FORCE

Force is a push or pull exerted on an object. It is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction. Whenever
there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no
longer experience the force.
Two Types of Forces
1. Contact Forces - are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are perceived to be physically contacting
each other.
Examples: frictional force, tension force, spring force, applied force
2. Field Forces - are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each
other yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical separation.
Examples: gravitational force, magnetic force

Task to Do no. 1
Give two examples of the following types of contact force.
Frictional force Tension Force Spring Force Applied Force
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

Force Diagramming
The forces acting on an object can be identified by drawing a free-body diagram (FBD). Free-body diagrams are diagrams
used to show the relative magnitude and direction of all forces acting upon an object in a given situation.
Examples:
a book on a table a wrecking ball
 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s first law of motion is the law of inertia. Generally, inertia
refers to the resistance of any physical object to possible changes in the state
of motion. Changes in state of motion may mean making an object at rest
move or making a moving object stop or change its velocity.
Mass is a measure of inertia, the greater the mass, the greater
the inertia. The greater the inertia, the harder it is to change the state of
motion of a body.
Newton’s law of inertia states that “an object at rest remains at rest,
and an object in motion remains in motion at constant speed and in a straight
line unless acted on by an unbalanced force.”

Task to Do no. 2
Experiment Time!
Perform the “Coin Drop” activity as stated in the video. Using your mobile phones or digital cameras, record yourself while
doing the activity. Link: https://www.stevespanglerscience.com/lab/experiments/the-coin-drop-sick-science/

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law of motion is the law of acceleration. Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity over the change
in time. This means that any change in velocity constitutes an acceleration or deceleration.
Law of acceleration describes how acceleration is related to two factors: force and mass. Acceleration is claimed to be directly
proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass. As the force exerted on the object increases, the acceleration also increases and
vice versa. While the greater the mass of the object, the lesser would be the acceleration compared to lighter objects.
Newton’s law of acceleration states that “the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force exerted on the object
and inversely proportional to its mass.”

Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s third law of motion is known as action-reaction, or the law of interaction. The
law states that “for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.”
It means that forces always occur in pairs, they are equal in magnitude but acts on opposite
directions. These action and reaction forces act on different bodies. The force exerted on an object
is the action while the force exerted by the object is the reaction.

Task to Do no. 3
Experiment Time!
Perform the “Balloon Rocket” activity. Record it using your cellphones or cameras. Then answer the following questions in
the worksheet. The procedures and questions will be posted on the LMS.

FRICTION
Friction is a contact force that opposes motion. It resists motion between materials in contact. It acts on the opposite direction
in which the object is moving. It exists in all types of materials.
Factors affecting Friction
 surface on which the object is moved or the nature of the surface
 the weight of the object or the amount of force on the surface by the object.
Types of Friction
 Static friction – is the frictional force between the surfaces in contact of two objects at rest.
 Kinetic friction or sliding friction – is the force that opposes the motion of an object that slides against another object.
 Rolling friction - occurs when one surface rotates as it moves over another without sliding nor slipping at the area of contact.
 Fluid friction is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid. It is also known as "drag" or "air resistance".
Laws on Friction
The following are the laws governing kinetic friction and static friction.
1. Static friction is greater than kinetic friction in magnitude.
2. Friction acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and in a direction to oppose motion.
3. Friction is independent of the area of contact.
4. Kinetic friction is independent of the velocity of the body.
5. Friction is proportional to the normal force.
6. Friction depends on the type of the surfaces in contact.
Formula for Static Friction Formula for Kinetic Friction
fs = 𝝁s Fn fk = 𝝁k Fn
where: fs = static friction where: fk = kinetic friction
𝝁s = coefficient of static friction 𝝁k = coefficient of kinetic friction
 Fn = normal force Fn = normal force
Example: If you use a horizontal force of 30.0 N to slide a 12.0 kg wooden crate across a floor at a constant velocity, what is the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the floor?
𝑓 30 𝑁
Given: Fa = Fk = 30.0 N Find: 𝜇 K Solution: 𝜇 K = 𝑘 = = 0.26
𝐹𝑛 117.6 𝑁
Fn = W = (12.0 kg)(9.8 m/s2) = 117.6 N

Task to Do no. 4
Solve the following problems. Show your solution at the back of this page.
1. A boy exerts a 36-N horizontal force as he pulls a 52-N sled across a cement sidewalk at constant speed. What is the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the sidewalk and the metal sled runners? Ignore air resistance.
2. A force of 48.0 N is required to start a 5.0 kg box moving across a horizontal concrete floor. What is the coefficient of static friction
between the box and the floor?

Things to Ponder
After one week, what have you learned in this learning kit? How can you relate the concepts of Newton’s Law to your day-to-day
activities? What is the importance of friction? What specific situations can you apply the concepts of law of motion and friction?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Test Yourself
I. Write FACT if the statement is true and if not, underline the word/s that make the sentence incorrect and write the correct
answer on the space provided.
_______________ 1. Friction depends on the area and smoothness of their surfaces.
_______________ 2. Friction acts perpendicular to the surface in contact.
_______________ 3. If the force applied on the object increases, the acceleration decreases.
_______________ 4. If the object has a bigger mass, its acceleration is greater.
_______________ 5. The more massive the object, the greater its inertia.
_______________ 6. The lesser the inertia, the easier to change the state of motion of an object.
_______________ 7. Friction acts in the same direction as to the motion of the object.
_______________ 8. Action and reaction forces acts on the same body.
_______________ 9. The most common method in increasing friction is by lubrication.
_______________ 10. Static friction is usually less than sliding friction.
II. Explain the following situations using the concepts of Newton’s Laws of Motion.
1. Why does your foot hurt if you kick a wall?

2. A passenger sitting in the rear of a bus claims that she was injured as the driver slammed on the brakes, causing a suitcase to
come flying toward her from the front of the bus. If you were the judge in this case, what disposition would you make? Why?

III. Solve the following. Show your complete solution at the back of this page.
1. A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is required to set the block in motion.
After it is in motion, a horizontal force of 60.0 N is required to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficients
of static and kinetic friction from this information.

2. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between a 35-kg crate and the floor is 0.30, what horizontal force is required to move the
crate at a steady speed across the floor? What horizontal force is required if 𝜇 k is zero?
 LEARNING KIT 2
GENERAL PHYSICS 1
Saint John School Lessons: Application of Newton’s Law,
of San Juan, San Ildefonso, Bulacan, Inc. Equilibrium and Dot or Scalar Product
Date: September 6 – 10, 2021

Name: _____________________________________ Grade Level & Section: _____________________

Things to Learn
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Apply Newton’s 2nd law and kinematics to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions about the velocity and acceleration
of one or more bodies, and the contact and noncontact forces acting on one or more bodies;
2. Solve problems using Newton’s Laws of motion in contexts such as, but not limited to, ropes and pulleys, the design of mobile
sculptures, transport of loads on conveyor belts, force needed to move stalled vehicles, determination of safe driving speeds on
banked curved roads;
3. Calculate the dot or scalar product of vectors;
4. Determine the work done by a force acting on a system.

Think about It
Activity Time! Doing Work!
1. Lift a book
2. Push a chair
3. Answer the following questions:
a. Did you apply force in lifting the book? in pushing a table? ________________________________________________
b. If yes in each case, in what direction did you apply force? _________________________________________________
c. Did the objects move? _________________________
d. If yes, in what direction was the book moved? In what direction was the table moved? ___________________________

Tackle it Out

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the net force acting upon
it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
𝑭
a=
𝒎
The second law of motion is a very useful tool in analyzing problems that involve force and motion.
Example 1: A 873-kg (1930-lb) dragster, starting from rest, attains a speed of 26.3 m/s (58.9 mph) in 0.59 s. (a) Find the average
acceleration of the dragster during this time interval. (b) What is the magnitude of the average net force on the dragster during
this time?
v −v 26.3 m/s−0 m/s
Given: vf = 26.3 m/s t = 0.59 s Find: a = ? Solution: a = f i = = 45 m/s2
t 0.59 s
vi = 0 m/s m = 873 kg Fnet = ? Fnet = ma = (873 kg) (45 m/s2) = 39,285 N
Example 2: A constant net force of 240 N is exerted to accelerate a cart from rest to a velocity of 55 m/s in 12 s. What is the mass of
the cart?
vf −vi 55 m/s−0 m/s
Given: Fnet = 240 N t = 12 s Find: vf = ? Solution: a = = = 4.58 m/s2
t 12 s
𝐹 240 𝑁
vi = 0 m/s vf = 55 m/s m= = = 52.40 kg
𝑎 4.58 𝑚/𝑠 2

Task to Do no. 1
Solve the following. Show your complete solution at the back of this page.
1. What average force is needed to accelerate a 7.00-gram pellet from rest to 125 m/s over a distance of 0.800 m along the barrel
of a rifle?
2. A 0.140-kg basketball traveling 35.0 m/s strikes the catcher’s mitt, which, in bringing the ball to rest, recoils backward 11.0
cm. What was the average force applied by the ball on the glove?

EQUILIBRIUM
When all the forces that act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to be in a state of equilibrium. The forces are
considered to be balanced if the net force acting on an object is equal to zero. However, this does not necessarily mean that all forces
are equal to each other.
45 N 15 N

20 N 20 N 60 N 60 N These two objects are at equilibrium since the forces

are balanced.

45 N 15 N
 Equilibrium is a condition where there is no change in the state of motion of a body. An object at equilibrium is either: (a) at
rest and staying at rest, or (b) in motion and continuing in motion with the same speed and direction.
 If the object in equilibrium is at rest, then the object is in static equilibrium.
 If the object is moving with constant velocity, then the object is in dynamic equilibrium.
First Condition of Equilibrium
For an object to be in equilibrium, the net external force on the system must be zero and it must be experiencing no acceleration.
Using Newton’s second law of motion, we can express the condition for equilibrium as:
𝚺 F = ma = 0
In component form,
𝚺 Fx = 0 and 𝚺 Fy = 0

DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT OF VECTORS

In physics, there are many quantities that can be defined in terms of vector multiplication. Since vectors are not ordinary
numbers, so ordinary multiplication is not directly applicable to vectors. One of the products of vectors is called the scalar product.
The scalar product of two vectors A and B is denoted by A • B. Because of this notation, the scalar product is also called the
dot product. Although two vectors are being multiplied, the product is a scalar quantity. The dot product is written and defined as
A • B = AB cos 𝜽
O O
where 𝜃 is the angle (0 to 180 ) between A and B. The dot product of two nonzero vectors may be positive, negative or zero, depending
on the angle between them. Since the dot product of two vectors is scalar, then the dot product is commutative, that is,
A•B=B•A
Scalar product in component forms
Two vectors in component forms are written as :
a = axi + ayj + azk b = bxi + byj + bzk
In evaluating the product, we make use of the fact that multiplication of the same unit vectors is 1, while multiplication of different unit
vectors is zero. The dot product evaluates to scalar terms as :
a • b = (axi + ayj + azk) • (bxi + byj + bzk)
⇒a • b = axi • bxi + ayj • byj + azk • bzk
⇒a • b = axbx + ayby + azbz
Example 1: Find A • B Example 2: Find A • B
A = 2i + 3j + 4k A = -2i + 3j - 4k
B = 3i + 3j + 4k B = -i + 3j + 5k
Solution: A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz Solution: A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
= (2)(3) + (3)(3) + (4)(4) = (-2)(-1) + (3)(3) + (-4)(5)
= 31 = -9

Task to Do no. 2
Determine the dot product of the following vectors. Show your solution at the back of this page.
1. A = -2i + j + 7k 2. A = 6i + 8j 3. A = i + j + k
B = 3i + 4k B = 3i + 4k B = 5i + 2j – 4k

WORK
Work is done whenever a force produces movement. In order to say that there is work done, there are three conditions that
must be met:
1. There must be a force acting on the object
2. The object has to move a certain distance
3. There must be a component of the force in the direction of the motion
When we apply force on the object, it may either move or not. If the object moves in the same direction as the force you applied,
therefore you are doing work. But, if you pull or push an object and it does not move; therefore you did not do work on the object.
 The work done on an object is said to be positive work when force and displacement are in same direction.
 When force and displacement are in opposite direction, the work done on the object is said to be negative work.
 The work done is said to be zero work when force and displacement are perpendicular to each other or when either force or
displacement is zero.
F
Positive No Work d F Negative d
d
Work Work
F

Task to Do no. 3
Give two situations where work done is positive, zero, and negative.
Positive Work Zero/No Work Negative Work
 Things to Ponder
After one week, what have you learned in this learning kit? How does force and mass affect acceleration? What are the conditions to be
met for an object to be in equilibrium? How can we say that we do work on an object?
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Test Yourself
A. Complete the table below by applying the law of acceleration.
Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s2)
10 20
15 3
48 13
57 8
180 75
34 17
96 9
61 4
125 44
30 11

B. Calculate the dot product of the following vectors. Show your complete solution.
1. A = -3i + 2j + 5k 4. A = -7i – 5k
B = 6i – 4j – 7k B = 9j + 2k

2. A = 9i – 2j + k 5. A = 2i – 8j
B = -3i – 5j – 4k B = -4i + 5k

3. A = 4i + 2j – 6k
B=i–j-k
 LEARNING KIT 3
GENERAL PHYSICS 1
Saint John School Lesson: Work, Energy,
and Energy Conservation
of San Juan, San Ildefonso, Bulacan, Inc.
Date: September 13 – 17, 2021

Name: _____________________________________ Grade Level & Section: _____________________

Things to Learn
At the end of this learning kit, you will be able to:
1. Define work as a scalar or dot product of force and displacement;
2. Interpret the work done by a force in one dimension as an area under a Force vs. Position curve;
3. Relate the gravitational potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of the system;
4. Relate the elastic potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of the system;
5. Explain the properties and the effects of conservative forces.

Think about It
Complete the K-W-L chart below. In the K column, list down the things that you already know about work and energy. In the W column,
write the things that you want to know and in the L column, write the things that you’ve learned after the discussion.
What I KNOW What I WANT to know What I have LEARN

Tackle it Out
WORK AS A DOT PRODUCT
Work is defined as the product of force and a displacement that is along the direction of the force. Mathematically, work is
defined as follows:
W = F • d = Fd cos 𝜽
Work is a scalar quantity, there is no direction associated with work. The SI unit of work is newton-meter (N • m), also called
the Joule (J) in honor of James Prescott Joule.
J = Nm = kg m2/s2
Example 1: A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum cleaner with a force of 43 N at an angle of 32.0° with the horizontal. Calculate the
work done by the force on the vacuum cleaner, as the vacuum cleaner is displaced 3.00 m to the right.
Given: F = 43 N 𝜃 = 32.0° Find: W = ? Solution: W = Fd cos 𝜃 = (43 N)(3.00 m)(cos 32o)
d = 3.00 m = 109.40 J
Example 2: Two students together exert a force of 825 N in pushing a car 35 m. How much work do they do on the car?
Given: F = 825 N d = 35 m Find: W = ? Solution: W = Fd = (825 N)(35 m) = 28,875 J

Task to Do no. 1
Solve the following. Show your solution at the back of this page.
1. A 0.180-kg ball falls 2.5 m. How much work does the force of gravity do on the ball?
2. A forklift raises a box 1.2 m doing 7.0 kJ of work on it. What is the mass of the box?

WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

So far, we have assumed that the force that does work in an object is
constant in both magnitude and direction. However, this assumption does not often
apply to real-life situations. More often than not, the forces vary in magnitude and
direction during the displacement of the body on which it acts.
The total amount of work done by varying force may be solved graphically
or analytically by calculus. We will focus on the graphical method of solving the
work done on an object. Given a graph of force versus displacement along the
direction of force, the work done is the area bounded by the graph and the x-axis.
 ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. A system that possesses energy has the ability to do work on another. Without energy, no
work can be done. Energy can produce light, heat, motion, sound, and growth and can powers technology. The SI unit of energy is
Joules (J). Energy, like work, is a scalar quantity.
Mechanical Energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do work. It is the energy in an object
due to its motion or position, or both. It occurs when a force acts upon an object and the object uses the transferred energy as movement.
If an object is moving, it is using mechanical energy.
Potential Energy
It is stored energy and the energy of position. It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or configuration.
 Gravitational potential energy - is energy associated with gravity. It is energy due to the position of an object relative to Earth’s
ground. A raised object possesses gravitational potential energy. If it falls back to its original level, it can do work.
GPE = mgh
 Elastic potential energy - is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or compressing. It is stored in
rubber bands, bow strings, slingshots, and even in clocks and watches that operates from a wound-up spring.
𝟏
EPE = kx2
𝟐
Example 1: What is the increase in potential energy of a 5-kg barbell when it is lifted by the weightlifter 2 m above the floor?
Given: m = 5 kg g = 9.8m/s2 Find: GPE = ? Solution: GPE = mgh = (5 kg)(9.8m/s2)(2 m)
h=2m = 98 J
Example 2: A spring has an extension of 20 cm. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in the spring (k = 100 N/m).
1 1
Given: k = 100 N/m Find: EPE = ? Solution: EPE = kx2 = (100 N/m) (0.20 m)2
2 2
x = 20 cm = 0.20 m =2J
KINETIC ENERGY
It is the energy possessed by a body because of its motion. It is given by
𝟏
K = mv2
𝟐
Example 1: At room temperature, an oxygen molecule, with mass of 5.31 x 10 -26 kg, typically has a KE of about 6.21 x 10 -21 J. How
fast is the molecule moving?
2𝐾𝐸 (2)(6.21 x 10−21 J)
Given: m = 5.31 x 10-26 kg Find: KE = ? Solution: v = √ =√
𝑚 5.31 𝑥 10−26 𝑘𝑔
-21
KE = 6.21 x 10 J = 483.63 m/s

Task to Do no. 2
Solve the following problems. Show your solution at the back of this page.
1. Miguel and his bike have a total mass of 75.0 kg. Miguel rides his bike 2.70 km in 25 min at a constant velocity. What is
Shawn’s kinetic energy?
2. A spring has a spring stiffness constant, k, of 440 N/m. How much must this spring be stretched to store 25 J of potential energy?

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy exists in different forms in nature such as light energy, thermal energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, and nuclear
energy.
According to the law of conservation, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, although it can be changed from one
form to another. In brief, the law of conservation of energy states that “in a closed system, i.e., a system that is isolated from its
surroundings, the total energy of the system is conserved.” A system is considered isolated if it does not absorb or release energy from
the surrounding environment at the time it is being considered.
All the forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy. It can all be converted into other forms; this process is called
energy conversion. By definition, energy conversion is the process where there is a change in energy from one form to another.
Examples:
 In a loudspeaker, electrical energy is converted into sound energy.
 When fuels are burnt, chemical energy is converted into heat and light energy.

Task to Do no. 3
Give two examples where the following energy changes would take place. Write your answer at the back of this page.
a.) Electrical to Light d.) Chemical to Thermal
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
b.) Chemical to Electrical e.) Mechanical to Electrical
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
c.) Electrical to Thermal
________________________________________
________________________________________
 CONSERVATIVE AND NONCONSERVATIVE FORCES
There are three characteristics that differentiate conservative force from a nonconservative force:
1. A conservative force is one that can be represented by a potential energy
2. The work done by a conservative force on an object depends only on the initial and final positions of the object.
3. The work done by a conservative force in moving an object through a closed loop is zero.

Things to Ponder
After one week, what have you learned in this learning kit? Why does work is considered as a dot product? What is the significance of
energy in our lives? Is there a loss in energy in an isolated system? Is there an energy loss when energy was converted to another form
of energy?
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Test Yourself
Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution at the back of this page.

1. How much work must be done to stop a 1250-kg car traveling at 105 km/h?

2. An 88-g arrow is fired from a bow whose string exerts an average force of 110 N on the arrow over a distance of 78 cm. What
is the speed of the arrow as it leaves the bow?

3. A 7.0-kg monkey swings from one branch to another 1.2 m higher. What is the change in potential energy?

4. A 1.60-m tall person lifts a 2.10-kg book from the ground, so it is 2.20 m above the ground. What is the potential energy of the
book relative to (a) the ground, and (b) the top of the person’s head?

5. A box of mass 5.0 kg is accelerated from rest across a floor at a rate of 2.0 m/s 2 for 7.0 s. Find the net work done on the box.
 LEARNING KIT 4
Saint John School GENERAL PHYSICS 1
Lessons: States of Equilibrium, Power,
of San Juan, San Ildefonso, Bulacan, Inc.
Center of Mass, and Momentum
Date: September 20 – 24, 2021

Name: _____________________________________ Grade Level & Section: _____________________

Things to Learn
At the end of this learning kit, you will be able to:
1. Use potential energy diagrams to infer force; stable, unstable, and neutral equilibria; and turning points;
2. Solve problems involving work, energy, and power in contexts such as, but not limited to, bungee jumping, design of roller-
coasters, number of people required to build structures such as the Great Pyramids and the rice terraces; power and energy
requirements of human activities such as sleeping vs. sitting vs. standing, running vs. walking;
3. Differentiate center of mass and geometric center;
4. Relate the motion of center of mass of a system to the momentum and net external force acting on the system.

Think about It
Try to do these simple exercises: (1) Face a wall. Make sure that the tips of your shoes are touching the wall. Then try to tiptoe. (2)
Stand with your back and heels pressed against the wall. Then try to bend over to touch your toes. Were you able to do both exercise?
Explain your answer.
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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tackle it Out

STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
Types of Equilibrium
1. Stable Equilibrium
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium, and it tends to come back toward equilibrium then it is said to
be in stable equilibrium.
2. Unstable Equilibrium
When a particle is displaced from equilibrium, and it tends to move away from equilibrium position then it is said to
be in unstable equilibrium.
3. Neutral Equilibrium
When a particle is displaced from equilibrium and no force acts on it then the equilibrium is said to be neutral
equilibrium.
The three types of equilibrium can be described by potential energy diagram. A
potential energy diagram is a graph of potential energy on the vertical axis and the
∆𝑈
position on the horizontal axis. The slope at any point on the graph is equal to .
∆𝑥
If the slope is zero at a point, then that point is a critical point. This critical point
can be a maximum point, a minimum point, or a saddle point. Thus, critical point must be
an equilibrium point.
The maximum points on a potential energy graph are said to be points of unstable
equilibrium. The minimum points are points of stable equilibrium. Saddle points are
points where potential energy is constant. These are points of neutral equilibrium.

Task to Do no. 1
Give three examples of stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium. You may write your answer at the back of this page.
a. Stable Equilibrium
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b. Unstable Equilibrium
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c. Neutral Equilibrium
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 POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred in a unit of time. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is
Watt (W) which is equivalent to Joule per second (J/s). Another popular unit of power is the horsepower (hp). 1 hp = 746 W.
Power is often associated with electricity. The power of an electric device gives an idea as to how much energy it can convert
to other forms in a specified amount of time.
Power can be solved mathematically using the equations,
𝐖
P= or P = Fv
𝐭
Example 1: What is the power output of an engine that is able to do 2150 Joules of work in 55 seconds?
W 2150 J
Given: W = 2150 J t = 55 s Find: P = ? Solution: P = = = 39.09 W
t 55 s
Example 2: A 77 kg person is running up the stairs at 0.340 m/s. How much power is needed to run up the stairs?
Given: m = 77 kg Find: P = ? Solution: F = mg = (77 kg) (9.8 m/s2) = 754.6 N
v = 0.340 m/s F=? P = Fv = (754.6 N) (0.340 m/s) = 256.56 W

Task to Do no. 2
Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution at the back of this page.
1. How long will it take a 1750-W motor to lift a 315-kg piano to a sixth-story window 16.0 m above?
2. If a car generates 18 hp when traveling at a steady 88 km/h, what must be the average force exerted on the car due to friction
and air resistance?

CENTER OF MASS
The center of mass of an object is the point where the mass of the object is concentrated. It is a point at which the object can
be balanced.
For regular-shaped objects with uniform density, the center of mass is at its geometric center. For example, the center of mass
of a uniform disc shape would be at its center. Sometimes the center of mass doesn't fall anywhere on the object. The center of mass of
a ring for example is located at its center, where there isn't any material.

The center of mass can be found for any one, two-, or three-dimensional object. The formula for the center of mass in one
∑𝐧
𝟏 𝐦𝟏 𝐱 𝟏 𝒎𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +⋯𝒎𝒏 𝒙𝒏
dimension is, CM = ∑𝐧
=
𝟏 𝐦𝟏 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 +⋯ 𝒎𝒏

For objects in two or three dimensions, we will find the center of mass separately for components along each axis.
𝒎𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +⋯𝒎𝒏 𝒙𝒏 𝒎𝟏 𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒚𝟐 +⋯𝒎𝒏 𝒚𝒏 𝒎𝟏 𝒛 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒛𝟐 +⋯𝒎𝒏 𝒛𝒏
XCM = YCM = ZCM = =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 +⋯ 𝒎𝒏 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 +⋯ 𝒎𝒏 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 +⋯ 𝒎𝒏
where XCM , YCM, and ZCM are the coordinates of the center of mass of the system; x1, y1, and z1 (and so on) are the coordinates of each
element making up the system; and m1, m2, and m3 (and so on) represent the mass of each element making up the system. Thus,
statistically speaking, the center of mass of a system is considered as the mass-weighted average position of the particles or elements
making up a system.
Example 1: Three 1.2 kg point particles are placed in the x-y coordinate system. Find the center of mass of this system. The respective
x- and y-coordinates of the three-point particles are shown in the table below.
Point Particle Mass (kg) x – coordinate (m) y – coordinate (m)
1 m1 = 1.2 x1 = 0 y1 = 0
2 m2 = 1.2 x2 = 1.0 y2 = 0
3 m3 = 1.2 x3 = 0 y3 = 1.0
m1 x 1 + m2 x2 +⋯mn xn 0(1.2kg)+(1.0m)(1.2kg)+0(1.2kg)
XCM = = = 0.33 m
m1 + m2 +⋯ mn 1.2kg+1.2kg+1.2kg
m1 y 1 + m2 y2 +⋯mn yn 0(1.2kg)+0(1.2kg)+(1.0m)(1.2kg)
YCM = = = 0.33 m
m1 + m2 +⋯ mn 1.2kg+1.2kg+1.2kg
Therefore, the center of mass of this three-point particle system is at (0.33 m, 0.33 m)

MOMENTUM
Momentum is the quantity of motion of an object or the “mass of an object in motion.” It is dependent on the mass and the
velocity of the object.
Any object with momentum is going to be hard to stop. The more momentum that an object has, the harder that it is to stop.
Thus, it would require a greater amount of force or a longer amount of time or both to bring such an object to a halt. As the force acts
upon the object for a given amount of time, the object's velocity is changed; and hence, the object's momentum is changed.
The linear momentum (or simply momentum) of an object is the product of mass m of the object and its velocity v. Using p
as the symbol for momentum,
p = mv
Momentum is proportional to the object’s mass and velocity. When the object’s mass or velocity increases, the momentum of
the object also increases. It is a vector quantity, with the same direction as the direction of velocity. The SI unit for momentum is kg•m/s.
Example 1: Jacob’s mass is 23.7 kg, and he has a 1.2-kg skateboard. What is the combined momentum of Jacob and his skateboard if
they are going 9.50 m/s?
Given: m = 23.7 kg + 1.2 kg = 24.9 kg Find: p = ? Solution: p = mv = (24.9 kg)(9.50 m/s)
v = 9.50 m/s = 236.55 kg•m/s
Example 2: How fast must a 1450-kg car move to have a momentum 58,500 kg•m/s?
𝑝 62 500 kg•m/s
Given: m = 1450-kg Find: v = ? Solution: v = = = 34.72 m/s
𝑚 1800 kg
p = 58,500 kg•m/s

Task to Do no. 4
Solve the following problems. Show your solution at the back of this page.
1. A compact car, mass 725 kg, is moving at 1.00 x 10 2 km/h toward the east. (a) Find the momentum of the car. (b) A second
car, mass 2175 kg, has the same momentum. What is its velocity?
2. The driver accelerates a 240.0 kg snowmobile, which results in a force being exerted that speeds the snowmobile up
from 6.00 m/s to 28.0 m/s over a time interval of 60.0 s. What is the snowmobile’s change in momentum?

Things to Ponder
After one week, what have you learned in this learning kit? How would you differentiate the three types of equilibrium? What is the
relationship of work to energy and power? How would you determine the center of mass of a regular shaped object? How about the
irregular shape object? How does force affects momentum?
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Test Yourself

A. Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution.

1. If a car generates 18 hp when traveling at a steady 88 km/h, what must be the average force exerted on the car due to friction
and air resistance?

2. Ron pushes a wheelbarrow by exerting a 145-N force horizontally. Ron moves it 60.0 m at a constant speed for 25.0 s. What
power does Ron develop?

3. Joshua pulls a 305-N sled along a snowy path using a rope that makes a 45.0 0 angle with the ground. Joshua pulls with a force
of 42.3 N. The sled moves 16 m in 3.0 s. What power does Joshua produce?

4. A 0.100-kg ball is thrown straight up into the air with an initial speed of 15.0 m/s. Find the momentum of the ball.

5. How much work can a 3.0 hp motor do in 1.0 h?