Senior High School

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 1 - Module 3
Chemical Bonding and Structural Formula

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

General Chemistry 1- Grade 11
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 3: Chemical Bonding and Structural Formula
First Edition, 2020

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i
 Senior
Senior High
High School
School

General
Chemistry 1
Quarter 1 - Module 3
Chemical Bonding and Structural Formula

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ii
 Table of Contents

What This Module is About…………………………………………………………………………iv

What I Need to Know………………………………………………………………………………..iv

How to Learn from this Module………………………………………………………………….....v

Icons of this Module………………………………………………………………………………….v

What I Know………………………………………………………………………………………….vi

Lesson 1: Chemical Bonding………………………………………………………..1

What I Need to Know…………………………………………………………….....1

What’s New: Let’s Sort It Up……...………………………………………………..1

What Is It…………………………………………………………………………….. 2

What’s More: Ionic or Covalent ……………………………………………………4

What I Have Learned: Let’s Explore…...………………………………………….4

Lesson 2: Writing Lewis Electron Dot Structures…...………………….5

What’s In……………………………………………………………………………...5

What’s New: Matching Type...…...………………………………………………...5

What Is It……………………………………….. …………………………………...5

What’s More: Draw It ……………………………………………………………...11

What I Have Learned: Let’s Reflect...……………………………………………11

Lesson 3: Structural Models………………………………………………………..12

What’s In…………………………………………………………………………….12

What’s New: Word Search ……...………………………………………………..12

What Is It……………………………………………………………………………13

What’s More: Matching Type……………………………………………………..15

What I Have Learned: Draw It Yourself …………………………………………15

What I Can Do: Make a Model…………………………………………………...16

Assessment: (Post-Test)…………………………………………………………………………...17
References…………………………………………………………………………………………..18

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 Module 3
Chemical Bonding and Structural Formula

What This Module is About

This module demonstrates your understanding of the mathematical relationship
between the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas. It also tackles the partial
pressures of a gas and its quantitative relationships of the reactants and products in a
gaseous reaction and behaviour and properties of gases at the molecular level

This module has three (3) lessons:

 Lesson 1: Chemical Bonding
 Lesson 2: Writing Lewis Electron Dot Structures
 Lesson 3: Structural Models

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Understand the octet rule and why atoms create bonds with one another.
2. Differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions, and give examples (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-
e-20)
3. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas, and models
(STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-21)
_

iv
How to Learn from this Module
To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

Know are set for you to learn as you go along the
module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand,
meant specifically to gauge prior related
Knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that
of the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented
to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

way to deepen your discovery and under-
standing of the concept.

What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

tended for you to practice further in order to
master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you

Learned have learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

case your skills and knowledge gained, and
applied into real-life concerns and situations.

v
 What I Know
Multiple Choice. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the
best answer. Write your answers on the space provide before the number.

1. Which of the following compounds is ionic?

A. HF(g) C. CO2
B. CO D. KCl
2. Which of the following compounds is covalent?
A. CaF2 C. HF(g)
B. RbBr D. NaCl
3. Which bond is formed by the overlapping of s-orbitals?
A. Pi bond C. Power bond
B. Sigma bond D. Summa bond
4. Which bond is formed by the overlapping of p-orbitals?
A. Pi bond C. Power bond
B. Sigma bond D. Summa bond
5. In Lewis Electron Dot Structure, how many dots should there be to consider an atom
stable?
A. 1 C. 6
B. 4 D. 8
6. How is formal charge calculated?
A. Group Number – Number of Bonds + Non-bonding Electrons
B. Valence Electrons + Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
C. Valence Electrons – Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
D. Group Number + Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
7. Which of the following are not exempted to the octet rule?
A. Those with odd valence electrons
B. Those from Period 3 downwards
C. Those with even valance electrons above Period 3
D. Those belonging to Group 3A
8. Which of the following is a good structure?
A. Those with formal charges close or equal to zero
B. Those with formal charges far from zero
C. Those with many lone pairs
D. Those with formal charges closer to 10 or -10
9. What is the most probable molecular geometry for a compound following an AX2 formula?
A. Bent C. T-Shaped
B. Trigonal D. Linear
10. Which of the following formulas would yield to a tetrahedral?
A. AX4 C. AX2E
B. AX4E D. AXE2

vi
 Lesson
Chemical Bonding
1
What I Need to Know

The universe is a massive

slurry of atoms, compounds, and
ions. These things exist to form
essential things we see and touch
in our lives. Have you ever
wondered why these particles
interact with each other and
create bonds?

In this lesson, you will learn why

atoms try to form bonds in

different ways and how they do it. Figure 1. Water molecule represented in a cartoon. Illustrated by
the author.

What’s New

Let’s Sort It Up. Using your previous knowledge about the periodic table, sort the
following elements listed below according to their group number. You may use your
periodic table in answering this activity.

H O P B F S
Cl Li Al Ar He Be
C Mg N Na Si Ne

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1A (1) 2A (2) 3A (13) 4A (14) 5A (15) 6A (16) 7A (17) 8A (18)

1
 What Is It

Why do atoms form bonds?

Each atom or element has its own

number of electrons that orbit around its
nucleus in different shells and orbitals.
The number of electrons on the
outermost shell of the atom depends on
its element’s electron configuration and
this can be easily visualized in an orbital
diagram as shown in Figure 2. Each
arrow in the diagram represents an
electron.

Based on the diagram, the non-

noble gas elements like nitrogen,
oxygen, and fluorine do not have a
Figure 2. Orbital diagram of certain elements.
complete set of electrons as shown by (Quizover.com n.d.)
the lack of electrons occupying the 2p
orbital, whereas neon, a noble gas, has a complete set of electrons in all its orbitals.
This makes neon or any noble gas structurally more stable than those with an
incomplete set of electrons. This is the basis of the Octet Rule. This rule states that
an atom would try to possess the electron configuration of a noble gas or “complete
its octet” by forming bonds. There are two main ways an atom can form bonds:
1) By either giving off or receiving an electron and forming an ionic bond
2) By sharing electrons with one another in a covalent bond
Ionic Bonding
This type of bond typically occurs between a metal and a non-metal. Let us

Figure 3. Helium, Lithium, Fluorine, and Neon. Illustrated by the author.

take fluorine and lithium as our example.

2
 Fluorine is a member of the halogens, which are all in Group 7A. Halogens
are one step away from being noble gas since they have 7 electrons in their
outermost shell. This makes halogens like fluorine electronegative since it badly
needs that one electron to be considered stable, so it will attract any electron that is
willingly given to it to become like its neighbor, neon. However, gaining an electron
means that there now more electrons than there are protons in the atom. This makes
a neutral atom become an anion or a negatively charged particle.

Lithium, on the other hand, is an alkali metal in Group 1A, which has only one
valence electron on its outermost shell. The closest noble gas neighbor to lithium is
helium, which conveniently has 2 electrons that fill its first shell. Therefore, lithium
has a higher possibility of giving its only valence electron away. However, by giving
its electron away, lithium would now possess the electron configuration of neon but
at the same time, lose a negatively charged particle that can neutralize the positive
charge of the protons at the nucleus. This then makes lithium become a cation, or a
positively charged ion.

Since lithium and fluorine

have opposite charges, these two
get attracted to one another and
form an ionic bond.

All ionic bonds follow the

same process as our example
here. The bonds that are produced
are due to the attraction of the
charged particles, hence, if an
ionic substance is dissolved in a Figure 4. Ionic bond between Li and F. Illustrated by the author.
solvent such as water, these ions
can separate as separate ions.

Covalent Bonding

Let us take hydrogen and

oxygen as our example. Hydrogen
requires just one more electron while
oxygen requires two more electrons.

To create a covalent bond, the

atoms involved will overlap their
orbitals to share an electron. Figure 5 Hydrogen and Oxygen. Illustrated by the author.
Depending on which orbitals overlap,
the bond formed when this happens can either be a sigma bond or a pi bond.
Sigma bonds are formed when the s-orbitals overlap whereas p-orbitals overlapping
forms a pi bond. An easier way to remember this is s for sigma, p for pi.

The overlap causes the other electrons to occupy the remaining blank spots in
the other atom while still occupying their original orbitals. Covalent bonds are
typically described as the ‘sharing of electrons’ which is brought by the overlapping
of the orbitals.
3
 In hydrogen and oxygen’s case, there are many ways for them to complete
their octet. The most common example is the formation of water where 2 atoms of
hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen form 2 sigma bonds to each other. This then allows
each atom in a water molecule to reach its octet.

This type of
bonding is commonly
found between
nonmetals. Covalent
bonds can reach up to
triple bonds. Singly Figure 6. Covalent Bonding in Water. Illustrated by author
bonded covalent bonds
have one sigma bond. Doubly bonded covalent bonds have one sigma bond and
one pi bond. Triply bonded covalent bonds have one sigma bond and two pi bonds.

What’s More
Ionic or Covalent? Identify the bonds that exist in the compounds listed
below. Write Covalent if the compound has a covalent bond and Ionic if it contains
an ionic bond.

1. LiF 6. CaF2
2. NH3 7. CO2
3. CH4 8. CaCl2
4. NaCl 9. KCl
5. HF(g) 10. O2

What I Have Learned

Let’s Explore. Have a tour around your house. List five (5) ionic
compounds and five (5) covalent compounds that you can find in your house and
give their common name and their chemical formula.

4
 Lesson
Lewis Electron Dot Structures
2
What’s In

In the previous lesson, you have learned ionic and covalent bonds. You may
have also enjoyed the illustrations that depict each type of bonding. But there is an
easier way to present the bonds that occur between atoms.

In this lesson, you will learn about the Lewis Electron Dot Structure and to
how write them.

What’s New
Matching Type. Match the following elements in Column A with the
right number of valence electrons found in Column B.

1. Magnesium A. 1 electron
2. Arsenic B. 2 electrons
3. Tellurium C. 3 electrons
4. Lithium D. 4 electrons
5. Radon E. 5 electrons
6. Silicon F. 6 electrons
7. Boron G. 7 electrons
8. Selenium H. 8 electrons

What Is It

Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

Lewis Electron Dot Structures, also known as electron dot structures, are
diagrams that describe the chemical bonding between atoms in a molecule. They
also display the total number of lone pairs (i.e. unpaired electrons) present in each of
the atoms that constitute the molecule. These structures were named after the
American chemist, Gilbert Newton Lewis, who suggested that a chemical bond is a
pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms.

In these structures, only the valence electrons are seen as well as the bonds
between atoms. Therefore, to use the Lewis Electron Dot Structure, one must know

5
the valence electrons of the atom(s) they are going to write. Below are examples of
the LEDS of the first ten elements of the periodic table.

Figure 7. Sample LEDS of Hydrogen to Neon. Structures generated via (WolframAlpha n.d.)

As you may observe, the traditional group number (i.e. 1A, 2A, etc.) where the
element belongs is also the number of valence electrons in the element which also
corresponds to the number of dots around the element. Unfortunately, the grouping
style was changed by IUPAC to eliminate the confusion hence it was re-numbered to
Groups 1-18. Nonetheless, most periodic tables show both the traditional grouping
convention and the new grouping convention. There is another way of knowing the
number of valence electrons in an element and that is using its electron
configuration. The number of electrons in the last shell is the number of valence
electrons.

There is no official rule as to

how you are supposed to distribute
the dots around the element;
however, the dots are generally
found in 4 places only: the top, the
bottom, the left, and the right side of
the element. No side must have
more than two dots. As a
convention, most chemistry
teachers instruct their students to
write them in a specific manner—
this manner being writing a dot on Figure 8. LEDS of Carbon and Oxygen with a sample
each side first before putting double numbered dotting for reference.
dots on one side (see Figure 8). There are some who prefer dotting clockwise, but it
truly depends on your teacher’s preference.

Writing LEDS is very convenient since the idea of the

structures is to easily see whether an atom has completed its
octet or not by looking at each side of the element. There
should be at least two valence electrons on each side to form a
complete octet (or in hydrogen’s case, only one side). When
one side lacks a dot, you can connect another lone dot from
another element with a line. A line denotes 2 valence electrons
in a covalent bond. Let us take water in Figure 9 as our
example. The hydrogens both have one line each, this means Figure 9. LEDS of water.
they reached helium’s electron configuration of 2 electrons Lone pairs encircled.
each, and both are satisfied. oxygen, on the other hand, has 2

6
lines and 4 dots which means it has 4 bonded electrons and 4 unbonded electrons,
which total to 8 electrons—this means that oxygen has also reached its octet.

As you go along writing compounds’ LEDS, you will come to realize that some
valence electrons are not intended for pairing. These electrons are called lone pairs.
These lone pairs play a huge role in the actual structure of the molecule. These pairs
create a balloon that pushes down the bonds in a molecule, creating bond angles. A
perfect example of that would be the water molecule which has a bent shape due to
the lone pairs in oxygen as illustrated in Figure 9. It is important that lone pairs are
identified to help you understand their structure better.

How to Write Lewis Dot Electron Structures

LEDS can be used to write atoms, ions, and molecules. While it is easy to
write LEDS for atoms, it can get tricky for ions and molecules—especially when it is a
molecular ion such as the sulfate ion, SO42-.

Below are convenient steps that can guide you in constructing your LEDS:

1. Arrange the atoms to show specific connections. When there is a central

atom, it is usually the least electronegative element in the compound.
Chemists usually list this central atom first in the chemical formula (as in
CCl4 and CO32−, which both have C as the central atom), which is another clue
to the compound’s structure. Hydrogen and halogens are almost always
connected to only one other atom, so they are usually terminal rather than
central.
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or
ion. Add together the valence electrons from each atom. (Recall that the
number of valence electrons is indicated by the position of the element in the
periodic table.) If the species is a polyatomic ion, remember to add or subtract
the number of electrons necessary to give the total charge on the ion. For
CO32−, for example, we add two electrons to the total because of the −2
charge.
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent atoms
to give a single bond. In H2O, for example, there is a bonding pair of
electrons between oxygen and each hydrogen.
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electrons to each atom
to give each atom an octet (two for hydrogen). These electrons will usually
be lone pairs.
5. If any electrons are left over, place them on the central atom. There are
some exceptions to the octet rule and these usually are the elements found in
Group
6. If the central atom has fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs from
terminal atoms to form multiple (double or triple) bonds to the central
atom to achieve an octet. This will not change the number of electrons on
the terminal atoms.
7. If the molecule is an ion, put them all in a bracket and put its charge
outside the brackets.
Source: (Petrucci 2020)

7
 Let us try writing the LEDS for a neutral molecule and a charged molecule as
a practice.

For our neutral molecule, let us write the LEDS for formaldehyde (CH2O):

Step 1: Arrange the atoms to show the connection.

Step 2: Determine the total number of valence electrons.

( ) ( ) ( )
Step 3: Place a bonding pair between each adjacent atom.

Electrons left = 12 – 6 = 6

Step 4: Add electrons to each atom to give each atom an octet.

Electrons left = 6 – 6 = 0

Step 5: Place leftover electrons on the central atom.

(There are no leftover electrons)

Step 6: Use lone pairs to form multiple bonds to the central atom if the central
atom has an incomplete octet.
Carbon has a complete octet
after adding a pi bond
(second bond) with oxygen.

There are times where a LEDS may not violate the octet rule but not all
structures that can be made are stable. This is often noticeable in molecular ions
where extra electrons are added into the mixture. To determine the most stable
structure, we must determine the formal charge of each atom. Each atom in the
molecule must be closer to or equal to zero to say that the structure is stable.

The formal charge can be calculated using the equation below:

( )

Where: V = number of valence electrons of the atom

N = number of non-bonding electrons
B = number of bonds (lines attached to the atom)

To test this, let us try to write the LEDS of the dichromate ion (Cr2O72-)

8
 Step 1: Arrange the atoms to show the connection.
Step 2: Determine the total number of valence electrons + extra electrons
since it is a negatively charged particle (if it is a cation, subtract the charge)

( ) ( )
Step 3: Place a bonding pair between each adjacent atom.

Electrons left = 56 – 16 = 40

Step 4: Add electrons to each atom to give each atom an octet.

Electrons left = 40 – 40 = 0

Step 5: Place leftover electrons on the central atom.

(There are no leftover electrons)

Step 6: Use lone pairs to form multiple bonds to the central atom if the central
atom has an incomplete octet.
(Every atom has a complete octet)

Step 7: Put brackets and the charge.

As we can see, the structure we managed to make has a lot of lone pairs.
This alone is a red flag. As mentioned above, lone pairs bend bonds. The existence
of too many lone pairs in a structure causes it to be very unstable. Let us see the
formal charge of each atom:

9
 Each chromium atom in the current structure is the same, therefore the
calculations are the same for each:

( )

Each terminal oxygens have the same connections as well, therefore the
calculation is true to all terminal oxygens:

( )

For the oxygen in the center:

( )
In the figure below, we can see that only one atom has a formal charge of 0.
This means that this structure is unstable.

This kind of instance brought about the exemptions in the octet rule. Elements
falling under these conditions are the exemptions to the rule:
1. When there is an odd number of valence electrons. Elements like boron,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and the elements in Groups 3A and 5A.
2. When there are too few valence electrons. This is usually common with
beryllium, aluminum, and boron compounds.
3. When there are too many valence electrons. Elements found in Period 3
and below.

Since chromium belongs to Period 4, it is one of the exemptions of the octet

rule. To stabilize this structure, we must convert some of the lone pairs into bonding
pairs. Upon trial and error, we can see this structure has the most stable formal
charges:

Since it is a charged molecule, it is natural that not all atoms have a formal
charge of 0 since the sum of the formal charges of each atom must equal its charge.
Here, we can see that all atoms apart from the two oxygens have a formal charge of
0 and the sum of all the formal charge is equal to the ion’s charge.

10
 What’s More

Draw it. It’s your turn to create your LEDS. Draw the LEDS of each molecule listed
below. Calculate the formal charges of each atom in each item and show your
complete solution.

1. CO2
2. PO43-
3. MnO4-
4. N2
5. NH2CH2COOH (the way it is written is a hint!

What Have I Learned

Let’s Reflect. Write an essay based on the guide questions below.

1. Why do we have to find the most stable structures possible?

2. What do you think would happen if things were left unstable?
3. Do you have any similar experiences where you think you need stability in
life? If yes, what did you do to attain it?

11
 Lesson
Structural Models
3
What’s In

In the previous lesson, you have learned how to create Lewis Electron Dot
Structures. It was briefly mentioned earlier that based on the LEDS, the geometry of
the molecules can be determined.

In this lesson, you will learn about the VSEPR Models or the Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion Model which determines the shape of the molecules in 3D.

What’s New
Word Search. There are ten words that are related to the VSEPR
Model. You may read ahead to help you search for the words. Once you find them,
put them in the lines beside the puzzle. They can go horizontally, vertically, and
diagonally.

1. _____________

2. _____________

3. _____________

4. _____________

5. _____________

6. _____________

7. _____________

8. _____________

9. _____________

10. ____________

12
 What Is It

VSEPR Model
VSEPR Model or the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Model is widely used to illustrate the molecular geometry of compounds
based on the bonds that exist in the molecule.
Knowing the geometry of molecules is vital to understanding their reactions.
VESPR provides a simple method of predicting the geometries of main group
compounds. The theory is applied when predicting the combinations of electron
doubles around atoms in simple and symmetric molecules. In them, central atoms
attach to two or more other atoms. The shapes of these key atoms and the non-
bonding electron doubles influence the shape of the larger whole (VSEPR Theory
(Molecular Shapes) Chart n.d.).
How to Use a VSEPR Chart
Using a Molecular Shape Chart helps to identify the connection between the number
of places where valence electrons are situated and to understand the electron
geometry around an atom.
A VSEPR Shape Chart consists of columns and rows. The description of the
columns and their usage is as follows:
1. Total domains. This column contains numbers from 1 to 6 (also called
"numbers of electron domains" or "steric numbers"). The steric number is
usually indicated as SN. To calculate this number, you should sum up X and E
that atom A has in a molecule. Electron domains include bonded atoms, lone
pairs of electrons, and unpaired electrons. You should consider multiple
connections as one electron domain.
2. A generic formula. It reflects the electron pairs circling a central atom. The
basic formula is AxnEm, where A is the central atom, X denotes atoms circling
A, and E denotes lone pairs of electrons on the A (central atom).
3. A picture of the electron-group shape represents the appearance of the
molecule.
4. Bonded atoms. This column contains the number of connected atoms. To
calculate this number, you should summarize all the X in the generic formula.
5. Lone pairs. This column represents the number of lone pairs, which is a
place with non-bonding electrons. To calculate this number, you should
summarize all the E in the generic formula.
6. Molecular shape.
7. Electron geometry. This column contains the general molecular shape and
other parameters, such as lengths and angles of bonds that demonstrate the
location of each atom.
8. An example of the compound.
9. Hybridization. This column contains hybridization. If you may determine the
angles between hybrid orbitals, it will help to explain to you a molecule shape,
because these angles are nearly equal to the angles between bonds. There
are several types of hybridization: sp, sp2, sp3.
10. Bond angles. A bond angle is a theoretical angle between two adjoining
bonds. It differs depending on the shape of the molecule.

13
Figure 10. VSEPR Model. Image from (VSEPR Theory (Molecular Shapes) Chart n.d.)

14
 What’s More
Matching Type. Match the generic formulas found in Column A with the
molecular shapes in Column B.

1. AX A. Tetrahedral
2. AX3 B. T-shaped
3. AX2E C. Trigonal Planar
4. AX4 D. Octahedral
5. AX3E E. Trigonal pyramidal
6. AX4E F. Square pyramidal
7. AX3E2 G. Square planar
8. AX6 H. Linear
9. AX5E I. Sawhorse
10. AX4E2 J. Bent

What Have I Learned

Draw it Yourself. Apply what you have learned and draw the molecular
shapes of the following compounds.

1. CH4
2. SeH4
3. SeCl6
4. AlBr3
5. ICl3

What I Can Do
Make a Model. Using any resources, you have available at home, make
a 3D model of whatever compound you wish to recreate. Make sure it follows the
VSEPR Model. It should follow the rubric found below.

Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Poor

(100%) (90%) (80%) (75%) (70%)
Content 50 pts The material The material The material The material The material
The following creatively only only only only
should be clearly contains five creatively creatively creatively creatively
seen from the (5) or more contains four contains contains two contains one
output: required (4) of the three (3) of (2) of the (1) of the
a. Name of outputs. total required the total total required total required
compound outputs. required outputs. outputs.
b. Molecular outputs.
formula of the
compound
c. The central atom
d. The atoms

15
 bonded to it
e. The lone pairs
f. Molecular
geometry
Resourcefulness The material Only 80% of Only 60% of Only 40% of Less than
30 pts is fully using the materials the materials the materials 30% of the
The content matter materials used are used are used are materials
shows the found at found at found at found at used are
student’s home and/or home and/or home and/or home and/or found at
resourcefulness. recycled recycled recycled recycled home and/or
materials. materials. materials. materials. recycled
materials.
Timeliness 20 pts The output The output The output The output The output
was was was was was
submitted submitted submitted submitted submitted
earlier or on three (3) five (5) days seven (7) more than
the given days after after the days after seven (7)
deadline. the given given the given days after
deadline deadline deadline the given
deadline
TOTAL ____/100 pts

Assessment: (Post-Test)

Multiple Choice. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the
best answer. Write your answers on the space provided before the number.

1. Which bond is formed by the overlapping of s-orbitals?

A. Pi bond C. Power bond
B. Sigma bond D. Summa bond
2. Which bond is formed by the overlapping of p-orbitals?
A. Pi bond C. Power bond
B. Sigma bond D. Summa bond
3. Which of the following compounds is ionic?
A. HF(g) C. CO2
B. CO D. KCl
4. Which of the following compounds is covalent?
A. CaF2 C. HF(g)
B. RbBr D. NaCl

5. Which of the following is a good structure?

A. Those with formal charges close or equal to zero
B. Those with formal charges far from zero
C. Those with many lone pairs
D. Those with formal charges closer to 10 or -10
6. In Lewis Electron Dot Structure, how many dots should there be to consider an atom
stable?
A. 1 C. 6
B. 4 D. 8

16
7. How is formal charge calculated?
A. Group Number – Number of Bonds + Non-bonding Electrons
B. Valence Electrons + Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
C. Valence Electrons – Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
D. Group Number + Number of Bonds – Non-bonding Electrons
8. Which of the following are not exempted from the octet rule?
A. Those with odd valence electrons
B. Those from Period 3 downwards
C. Those with even valance electrons above Period 3
D. Those belonging to Group 3A

9. What is the most probable molecular geometry for a compound following an AX2 formula?
A. Bent C. T-Shaped
B. Trigonal D. Linear
10. Which of the following formulas would yield to a tetrahedral?
A. AX4 C. AX2E
B. AX4E D. AXE2

References

n.d. https://www.quizover.com/chemistry/course/6-4-electronic-structure-
of-atoms-electron-configurations-by-openstax?page=3.
n.d.
https://www.wolframalpha.com/widgets/view.jsp?id=689aa5a01c216d8b16ed0
250cebdc702.
Chang, Raymond. 2010. Chemistry. 10th. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Department of Education Central Office. 2020. Most Essential Learning
Competencies (MELCS). Manila.
Department of Education. 2016. EASE/OHSP II. Learning Resource Management
Development Team.
Mapa, Amelia, Trinidad Fidelino, and Lilia Rabago. 2001. Chemistry Textbook in
Science and Technology. Quezon City: SD Publications.
Patalinghug, Wyona C., Vic Marie I. Camacho, Fortunato B. Sevilla, and Maria
Cristina D. Singson. 2016. General Chemistry 1: Teaching Guide for Senior
High. Manila.
Petrucci, et.al. 2020. Chemistry. August 25.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Genera
l_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et_al.)/10%3A_Chemical_Bonding_I%3A_Basic_Conc
epts/10.4%3A_Writing_Lewis_Structures.
n.d. VSEPR Theory (Molecular Shapes) Chart. Accessed May 30, 2021.
https://www.templateroller.com/template/86292/vsepr-theory-molecular-
shapes-chart.html.

17
 Senior High School

General Chemistry 1
Quarter 1 – Module 4
Determining Molar Mass and
Chemical Formulas

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18
General Chemistry 1- Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 – Module 4
Determining Molar Mass and Chemical Formulas

Second Edition, 2021

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Schools Division Superintendent: Dr. Cherry Mae L. Limbaco, CESO V

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19
 Table of Contents

What This Module is About ........................................................................................................... i

What I Need to Know ..................................................................................................................... i
How to Learn from this Module ................................................................................................... .ii
Icons of this Module ...................................................................................................................... .ii

What I Know.................................................................................................................................. ..iii

Lesson 1:
Determining Molar Mass and Molecular Mass .....................................

What’s In ............................................................................................................... 1

What is it: Defining the Mole ............................................................................. 1

What’s More 1: Let’s Practice .......................................................................... ..3

What’s More 2: Calculating Molecular Mass .................................................. ..3

What I Have Learned: My Understanding ...................................................... ..5

What I can Do: Enrichment Exercises ............................................................ ..5

Lesson 2:
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula ............................................

What’s In ............................................................................................................... 6

What’s New: What Am I Made of ..................................................................... ..6

What is it: Percent Composition by Mass ....................................................... ..6

What’s More: % Composition Exercise .......................................................... ..7

What is it: Empirical and Molecular Formula .................................................. ..8

What’s More: Formula Computation .............................................................. ..10

What I have learned: Tell Me What You Know .............................................. .10

Summary ..................................................................................................................................... .10

Assessment: (Post-Test) ........................................................................................................... .11

References ................................................................................................................................... .14

20
What This Module is About
Chemical transformations are happening in everyday life. It is not enough to
describe matter and the changes it undergoes qualitatively. They often need more
accurate, quantitative observations. In chemical reactions, a huge number of atoms
and molecules are involved. Instead of dealing with particles that cannot be seen,
chemists work with bulk of matter. These observations use measurable quantities
and calculations that are essential in understanding chemical reactions. This module
contains discussions and activities that will explain and illustrate this topic.

What I Need to Know

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds (STEM_GC11S-Ie-28);

2. Calculate the percent composition of a compound from its formula (STEM_GC11PC-
If-31)
3. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound
(STEM_GC11PC-If-32); and
4. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass (STEM_GC11PC-If-33).

iii
 What I Know: (Pre-Assessment)

PRE-TEST: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is the average atomic mass of Ca?

A. 40.08 g/mol C. 12.01 g/mol
B. 40.08 amu D. 12.01 amu

2. The molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO2, is 44.01 amu. What is the molar mass of
CO2?
A. 44.01 g C. 44.01 mol
B. 44.01 g/mol D. 6.022 x 1023

3. Which is heavier: 0.500 mole of Zn, or 0.250 mole of Pb?

A. Lead C. Phosphorus
B. Zinc D. They have the same mass

4. How many atoms are there in 16.3 g of Sulfur, S?

A. 32.07 atoms of S C. 16.3 atoms of S
B. 6.022 x 1023 atoms of S D. 3.06 x 1023 atoms of S

5. What is the mass in grams of 2.06 x 1023 atoms of Potassium, K?

A. 14.3 g C. 39.1 g
B. 13.4 g D. 31.9 g

6. What is the percent composition by mass of Cr in CrF 3?

A. 52.3% C. 47.7%
B. 52.03g D. 47.7g

For items 7-8, refer to the problem below:

A compound is found to contain 25.56% potassium (K=39.1 g/mol), 35.41%
chromium (Cr=52 g/mol), and the remainder oxygen (16 g/mol).

7. How many moles oxygen does it contain?

A. 0.67 moles C. 0.70 moles
B. 2.3 moles D. 1.6 moles

8. What is the empirical formula?

A. K2Cr3O7 C. KCrO3
B. K2Cr2O8 D. K2Cr2O7

9. A compound contains 5.9265% H and 94.0735% O. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?
A. H2O C. HO
B. H3O D. H2O2

10. If the molar mass of the compound in question 9 is 34.01468 g/mol, what is its molecular
formula?
A. H2O C. HO
B. H3O D. H2O2

iii
 Lesson Determining Molar Mass and
1 Molecular Mass

What’s In

All the ideas in this lesson will rely on your understanding of the key concept to a unit
called the mole. In daily life, we measure things by counting or by weighing: we weigh rice
and flour, but we count eggs or ballpens. But how exactly can we count or weigh atoms,
ions, molecules, or formula units when all of them are minute objects? As you’ll see,
chemists have devised a unit called the mole, to count chemical entitles by weighing them.

What Is It

Defining the Mole

The mole (mol) is the SI unit for the amount of substance. It is defined as the amount
of a substance that contains the same number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. This number,
called Avogadro’s number (in honor of the Italian physicist Amadeo Avogadro), is enormous:
One mole 1(mol) contains 6.022x1023 entities

Thus, 1 mol of carbon-12 contains 6.022x1023 carbon-12 atoms. 1 mol of H2O

contains 6.022x1023 H2O molecules. One mol of NaCl contains 6.022x1023 NaCl
formula units.

Knowing the amount (in moles), the mass (in grams), and the number of entities
becomes very important as we mix different substances to run a reaction. The central
relationship between masses on the atomic scale and on the macroscopic scale is the same
for elements and compounds.

The mass in atomic mass units (amu) of one atom of an element is the same numerically
as the mass in grams (g) of 1 mole of atoms of the element. Each atom of an element is
considered to have the atomic mass given in the periodic table.

16

S
32.07
Thus, 1 atom of Sulfur has a mass of 32.07 amu and 1 mol (6.022x1023 atoms) of
Sulfur has a mass of 32.07g. Similarly, the atomic mass of Br is 79.90 amu while its molar
mass is 79.90 g/mol. While it is true that 1 mole of different elements contains exactly the
same number of atoms (6.022 x 10 23), they will not weigh the same. Just like 1 dozen of

3
eggs and 1 dozen of airplanes have the same number (12 units) but will not weigh the same.
Figure 1 is an illustration of 1 mole of different elements.

Figure 1. Mass in grams of 1 mole of different elements

Source: Albert McLaughlin https://bit.ly/3pas4SA

The Avogadro’s number can also be used to convert from atomic mass unit to the
number of moles and mass in grams.

Calculating the Molecular Mass of a Compound

Using the periodic table and the formula of a compound, we calculate the molecular
mass (also called molecular weight) of a formula unit of the compound as the sum of the
atomic masses:
Molecular mass = sum of atomic masses

For example, the molecular mass of a water molecule (using atomic masses to four
significant figures from the periodic table) is calculated as;

Molecular mass of H2O = (2 x atomic mass of H) + (1 x atomic mass of O)

= (2 x 1.008 amu) + 16.00 amu = 18.02 amu

Another example would be calculating the molecular mass of tetraphosphorus trisulfide.

First, we write the formula, then multiply the number of atoms of each element by its atomic
mass (which we can find from the periodic table), and find the sum.

Formula: P4S3
Molecular mass = (4 x atomic mass of P) + (3 x atomic mass of S)
= (4 x 30.97 amu) + (3 x 32.07 amu) = 220.09 amu

In ionic compounds, it doesn’t consist of molecules so the mass of a formula unit is

termed as the formula mass instead of molecular mass. To calculate the formula mass of a
compound with a polyatomic ion, the number of atoms of each element inside the
parentheses is multiplied by the subscript outside the parentheses. For barium nitrate,
Ba(NO3)2:

The formula mass of Ba(NO3)2

= (1 x atomic mass of Ba) + (2 x atomic mass of N) + (6 x atomic mass of O)
= (137.3 amu + (2 x 14.01 amu) + (6 x 16.00 amu) = 261.3 amu

4
 From the molecular mass or formula mass, we can determine the molar mass of a
molecule or compound. Simply put, the molar mass (in grams) of a compound is numerically
equal to its molar mass in amu. In the same examples above, the molar mass of H 2O is
18.02 g/mol, P4S3 is 220.09 g/mol, and Ba(NO3)2 is 261.3 g/mol.

The mole is the basis of quantitative chemistry. It helps us convert easily between the
mass of a substance and the number of individual atoms, molecules, or formula units of that
substance. It also enables us to calculate the mass of a substance needed to obtain the
desired number of atoms, molecules, or formula units. The flowchart below will help us in the
conversion:

Figure 2. Conversion of mass, number of moles, number of atoms, molecules, or formula units.
Source: https://bit.ly/3i6ctlh

What’s More

Activity #1: Let’s Practice!

Directions: Familiarizing ourselves with the atomic mass will be a great help in
finding out the molecular mass of a compound. Take out a copy of your periodic
table. Locate and write the average atomic mass of the following elements in the
space provided.
Atom Average Atomic Mass Atom Average Atomic Mass
1. Cl 6. F
2. N 7. Mg
3. O 8. Al
4. Ca 9. Si
5. P 10. S

5
 What’s More #2

Activity #2: Calculating Molecular Mass

Directions: Now that you are familiar with the atomic mass, let us calculate the
molecular mass of the different compounds. First, write the formula then afterward
you can write your solutions on the space provided and encircle your final answer. (5
points each number)
1. Hydrogen peroxide
Formula: _____________

2. Cesium chloride
Formula: _____________

3. Sulfuric acid
Formula: _____________

4. Potassium sulfate
Formula: _____________

5. Sodium oxide
Formula: _____________

6. nitrogen dioxide
Formula: _____________

6
 What I Have Learned
My Understanding
Directions: Explain briefly in 2-3 sentences the following questions. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What is atomic mass unit?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. What is meant by the statement “the atomic mass of gold is 197.0 amu”?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the difference between atomic mass, molecular mass, molar mass, and formula
mass?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do

Enrichment Exercises
Expand your understanding and enhance mastery of the lesson by doing the enrichment
exercises found in the links below. Write your complete solution on a separate sheet of
paper, and follow the proper way of writing units and significant figures.
https://bit.ly/34uW41V
https://bit.ly/2To0B3P

7
 Lesson Empirical Formula and
2 Molecular Formula

What’s In

You have learned from the previous lesson that a molecular mass is the sum
of the masses of all the elements of the compound. This is determined easily if we
know the chemical formula of the compound and the molar mass of each of the
elements present. This is not always the case in the real world. More often, chemists
can only experimentally determine the mass of the compound and the mass of each
element present in the compound, but the chemical formula of the compound is
unknown. How they determine the percent composition, the empirical formula, and
the molecular formula of the compound is what we are going to explore in this
lesson.

What’s New

Activity 1: What Am I Made of?

Directions: From the given components of each group, determine its composition,
percentages, and ratio. See the example in the first row. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
Composition Components % of each Component
G11 Section A: Females: 30 Females: 60%
Females: 30 Males: 20 Males: 40%
Males: 20 Total: 50 Total: 100%
1. G12 Section B planned courses
Engineering: 15
Chemistry: 6
Nursing: 12
Biology: 7
Pharmacy: 10
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

3. Glucose (C6H12O6)

8
 What Is It

Percent Composition by Mass

You have learned that the chemical formula of a compound shows which
elements compose it and how many atoms of each element does it comprise. In
cases where the chemical formula of a substance is unknown, measuring the mass
of each component element makes way for the determination of its formula. The
percent composition by mass is the ratio of the mass of each element to the total
mass of different elements present in the compound multiplied by 100.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:

Where n = the number of moles of the element in a single mole of the compound.

For example, in 1 mole of water (H2O), there are 2 moles of Hydrogen and 1 mole of
Oxygen. Using your periodic table, we will know the following molar masses:
Oxygen: 16.00 g/mol, Hydrogen: 1.008 g/mol, and H 2O: 18.02 g/mol. We can then
determine the percent composition of water as:

Adding the 2 percentages, we get 99.98%. The discrepancy from 100% is due to the
rounding off numbers in the molar masses.
When the actual mass of a compound is given and you know the percent
composition of every element in the compound, we can also compute for the actual
mass of each element in the given amount of substance. For example, if there is 320
kg of Sodium chloride (NaCl), we can obtain the amount of Na in the given amount of
salt. The molar mass of Na is 22.99 g/mol, Cl is 35.45 g/mol, and NaCl is 58.44
g/mol. The percent composition on Na is:

The amount of Na in 320 kg of NaCl will be:

The two steps can be compressed into:

9
 What’s More

Activity #2: % Composition Exercises

Directions: Answer the following practice exercises. Write your complete solution
and answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Calculate the percent composition of BaCl2.
2. The molecular formula of Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is C6H8O6. Determine its
percent composition.
3. Which of the following commonly used fertilizer is the richest source of nitrogen on
a mass percentage basis?
a. Urea, (NH2)2CO
b. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
c. Ammonia, NH3

What Is It

Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

The percent composition of a compound as mentioned earlier is usually
obtained experimentally. Once it is identified, you will then be able to determine the
empirical formula of a compound. The word “empirical” literally means “experimental”
hence, only the identity of the elements in the substance is determined and not the
exact number. The molecular formula, on the other hand, shows the correct number
of each element in the compound. Table 1 below shows a comparison of the
molecular and empirical formula of some compounds.

Table 1. Molecular and Empirical Formula of Compounds

Name Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
Benzene C6H6 CH
Acetylene C2H2 CH
Ammonia NH3 NH3
Butane C4H10 C2H5
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

As shown in the table, you will notice the following:

1. The molecular formula and empirical formula can be the same.
2. The empirical formula is reduced to the lowest terms by a factor of whole
numbers.
3. The molecular formula subscripts are the actual number of each element of the
compound.
The following steps will serve as your guide in determining the empirical
formula:
1. Percent to Mass - When the percentage is given, we can assume the amount of
substance to 100g and convert the % into grams.
2. Mass to Mole - Convert the mass in grams to moles using the atomic mass of the
element. Get the smallest value.
3. Divide by Small - Divide all the values in step 2 to the smallest value.

10
4. Multiply ‘till Whole - Round off the subscripts in step 4 to closest whole number
ratio. If the ratio is still not a whole number, multiply the subscripts by a number to
get the smallest whole number (Adapted from https://bit.ly/3vBM02).
Let us practice the steps in this example from (Patalinghug, 2016). A compound
contains 7.81% C and 92.19% Cl. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
Step 1: 7.81% to 7.81 g C; 91.19% to 92.19 g Cl.
Step 2:
;
Step 3:

Step 4: The empirical formula of the compound = C1Cl4 or CCl4

The molecular formula of a compound can be obtained from the empirical

formula and the molecular mass of the compound. To find the molecular formula, we
follow the steps below:
1. Calculate the mass of the empirical formula.
2. Divide the given molar mass by the molecular mass computed from the empirical
formula.
3. Multiply the number by the subscripts of the empirical formula to get the subscripts
for the molecular formula (https://bit.ly/3i9yaBj).
Let us have another example from Patalinghug (2016), to illustrate the steps
above. A compound with a molar mass of 283.88 g/mol was found to contain 43.64%
P and 56.36% O. What is the empirical formula and molecular formula of the
compound? Atomic mass of P= 30.97 g/mol, O= 16.00 g/mol
In the above example, we will have to follow the steps for getting the empirical
formula first.
 Percent to mass: P: 43.64 g O: 56.36 g
 Mass to Mole:

56.36
 Divide by Small:

 Multiple ‘till whole:

P: 1 x 2 = 2 O: 2.5 x 2 = 5

The Empirical formula is P2O5

To find the molecular mass, compare the mass of the empirical formula to the molar
mass (given):
Mass of P2O5 = 141.94 g/mol
Molar mass = 283.88 g/mol

Therefore, the molecular formula is (P 2O5)2 or P4O10.

11
 What’s More

Activity 3: Formula Computation

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. Show your
calculations where applicable. Observe the use of significant figures for calculations
and indicate the appropriate units. The use of the periodic table is advised.
1. The molecular formula of Aspirin is C9H8O4.
a. What is the %C by mass in aspirin?
b. What is the %O by mass in aspirin?
2. An oxide of Chromium is made up of 5.20 g Chromium and 5.60 g Oxygen. What
is the empirical formula of the oxide?
3. An oxide of Nitrogen contains 63.1% Oxygen and has a molar mass of 76.0 g/mol
a. What is the empirical formula for the compound?
b. What is the molecular formula of the compound?

What I Have Learned

Tell Me What You Know
Based on what you have learned from this lesson, briefly discuss questions 1 and 2.
Limit your answers to 3-5 sentences. Use a separate paper for your answers.
1. How does the knowledge of percent composition by mass help us identify an
unknown compound?
2. Explain the difference between empirical formula and molecular formula.
3. Make a diagram of the process of determining the empirical formula and molecular
formula.

SUMMARY

- A mole of a substance is the amount that contains Avogadro’s number

(6.022 x 1023) of chemical entities (atoms, molecules, or formula units)
- The mass (in grams) of a mole of the entity has the same numerical value
as the mass (in amu) of the individual entity. Thus, the mole allows us to
count entities by weighing them
- Percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in
a compound.
- The Empirical formula gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of
the smallest ratio of the number of atoms present.
- The Molecular formula gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of
the actual number of atoms present.

12
 Assessment: (Post-Test)

Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which is heavier: 0.500 mole of Zn, or 0.250 mole of Pb?

A. Lead C. Phosphorus
B. Zinc D. They have the same mass

2. Which of the following is the average atomic mass of Ca?

A. 40.08 g/mol C. 12.01 g/mol
B. 40.08 amu D. 12.01 amu

3. The molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO2, is 44.01 amu. What is the molar mass of
CO2?
A. 44.01 g C. 44.01 mol
B. 44.01 g/mol D. 6.022 x 1023

4. What is the percent composition by mass of Cr in CrF 3?

A. 52.3% C. 47.7%
B. 52.03g D. 47.7g

5. How many atoms are there in 16.3 g of Sulfur, S?

A. 32.07 atoms of S C. 16.3 atoms of S
B. 6.022 x 1023 atoms of S D. 3.06 x 1023 atoms of S

6. What is the mass in grams of 2.06 x 1023 atoms of Potassium, K?

A. 14.3 g C. 39.1 g
B. 13.4 g D. 31.9 g

7. A compound contains 5.9265% H and 94.0735% O. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?
A. H2O C. HO
B. H3O D. H2O2

8. If the molar mass of the compound in question 7 is 34.01468 g/mol, what is its molecular
formula?
A. H2O C. HO
B. H3O D. H2O2

For items 9-10, refer to the problem below:

A compound is found to contain 25.56% potassium (K=39.1 g/mol), 35.41%
chromium (Cr=52 g/mol), and the remainder oxygen (16 g/mol).

9. How many moles oxygen does it contain?

A. 0.67 moles C. 0.70 moles
B. 2.3 moles D. 1.6 moles

10. What is the empirical formula?

A. K2Cr3O7 C. KCrO3
B. K2Cr2O8 D. K2Cr2O7

13
REFERENCES:

Chang, Raymond. 2010. Chemistry. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Department of Education Central Office, Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCS),

Manila, 2020.

“3.4: Determing an Empirical and Molecular Formula”. Chemistry LibreTexts. Retrieved from
https://bit.ly/34vJv6y

“Empirical Molecular Formulas Empirical Formula a formula which”. Slidetodoc.com.

Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3i9yaBj

Mass and Mole Relations Exercises. Www2.southeastern.edu. Retrieved from

https://bit.ly/2To0B3P

McLaughlin, A. (2016). Figure 1 slide 3. Retrieved from

https://slideplayer.com/slide/10009759

“Molecular Formulas and Nomenclature”. Chem.fsu.edu. Retrieved from

https://bit.ly/3wLm1qi

Patalinghug, Wyona C., Camacho, Vic Marie I., Sevilla, Fortunato B., Singson, Maria
Cristina D. Teaching Guide for Senior High School: General Chemistry I. Commission on
Higher Education. Quezon City, Philippines, 2016

Practice Problems: Moles. Chemistry.wustl.edu. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/34uW41V

“The Relationships among Moles, Masses, and Formula Units of Compounds in the
Balanced Chemical Reaction for the Ammonium Dichromate Volcano”. Retrieved from
https://bit.ly/3wLkW1o

“Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas”. Saylordotorg.github.io. Retrieved from

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