Meso; . Potainia, the Cradle of History writ- Geographical Setti them to keep i tting. M4 - iting which enabled ay tab- Two bea req) means “Lang Beton tenresonds inscribed on baie sinc ttwinriven :, His a huge valley of the lets, Their writing was cae characters. flow from geet and Euphrates ~ which because of its wedge-shape sin calcu the Persian ey 1 metian Highlands nae This name comes from the Latin cune the famouse oe oms parr meaning “wedge” and forma, EPO ji i Scent,” Which is a With the Sumerian invention of wnBng, arent elena Of crescent shape, man's historic period began. ae ig from i a ; een terranean coast. Be (Persia) to the Medi. be said that history beg: n a Cause of its Strategic location, fertile soil, ang favorable cli- mate, Mesopotamia became the birth- Place Of history and civilization, Sumerians, First Builders of Civilization, Shortly before 4000 BC, the farming tribes from the Iranian moun. tains settled in the southem part of Meso. Potamia. These tribes- men, called Sumerians Were the first inhabi- tants of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians es- tablished ‘independent city-states, each ruled by a priest-king. They cultivated the fertile land and tamed the floods of the twin rivers by constructing canals and dikes as drainage. During the dry season, they utilized the river waters to irrigate their farms. About 3500 B.C., they invented Mesopotamia. . pale from writing, the Sumerians invented the plow and the wheel. They built the first cities, the first schools and, temples, and wrote the first books on history, poetry, epics, fables and prov- erbs. They also wrote the world’s first law” Codes, which was promulgated by Ur- Nammu, Sumerian king of ‘the.city-state& ~ | of Ur, about 2050 B.C. e © 18 wortD story ‘The Sumerians knew ¢ astronomy, and mathemati known city map inthe world is tne Nippur, a Sumerian city. 1 yee, ae oy a Sumerian cartographer about 1500 B.¢¢ The Sumerians were also the fing _ eople inthe world to mix copper and thereby producing bronze, a metal whi harder and moze durable than copper 'y were the first people to use breve ipons in war and to make bronze oma, Mentals and tools for everyday use, ‘The Akkadian Empire (2334- B.C.), World’s First Empire ‘About 3000 B.C. the nomadic Akkadians mi- Brated to Mesopotamia and founded the city-state of Akkad in a region north of Sumer. Later, at about 2334 B.C., King “Sargon of Akkad (2334-2279 B.C’) con. quered the Sumerian city-states, Byafeatofarms, Sargonextendedhis conquests beyond Sumer’s borders, east- ward to the Persian Gulf and westward to the Mediterranean Coast. He created the world’s first empire — the Akkadian Empire — which lasted nearly two centuries (2334-2154 B.C.). Sargon's succes- sors proved to be weak monarchs. After the downfall of Sargon’s dynasty, Mesopotamia was plunged into chaos. The Babylonian Empire (1792-1595 BC.).Toward the end of 2000 B.C., the ria, Amorites, a Semitic people fom Ic invaded Mesopotamia and cOndUer land, Their leader, Sumuabum Ney 1880 B.C.), became the first KiNB 01 5 kingdom of Babylonia, SO cee his de- Babylon, the capital city. One Of éndants, Hammurabi, proved 10 2% mighty conqueror. He extended his ra dom to Syria in the north, Elam in i south, and the Mediterranean seaboard in the west. In so doing, he founded the Babylonian Empire. More than a great conqueror, Ham- ‘murabi was an able statesman. During his reign (1792-1750 B.C.), Babylonia at- tained the peak’of her splendor. He fos- tered trade with Palestine, Phoenicia, and other countries. His government was a model of efficiency and honesty. He pa- tronized arts. and letters. Because his greatest achievement was the promulga- tion in 1750 B.C. of a written law code, historians called him the “Lawgiver of Babylonia.” The Standard of Ur, a mosaic treasure showing the Sumerian hing and his army at war. A Sumerian klng, named Ur-Nammu wrote the, firet legal code about 2050 B.C. aThe Hammurabi Co, murabi Code (c. 1750B.C. real ona Dlack stone eight feet high. Itconsists OF 285 laws pertaining to family relations coe cat gehts: marriage, divorce, adop. tion of children, labor, crimes, commerce, and rabi Code From the Hammurabi Code’ orig nated such laws as “an eye for an eye," a life for a.life,” etc., and the rights of women to own and inherit property and to work or do business. Society and Social Classes. Babylo- nian society was stratified into three so- cial classes, as follows: (1) the nobles, who included the king, aristocrats, Priests, and rich landlords, (2) the free- men, composed of farmers, merchants, soldiers, and artisans; and (3) the slaves, ‘The women occupied a high position in Babylonian society. They could inherit and own property, engage in business, and receive an education. Some women kept stores and others camed a living as scribes. A woman could separate from her husband, ifhe was cruel or unfaithful, and Tetum to her parents, with her property. Economic Life. Farming was the ief industry of ancient Babylonia. The plow was known to the Babylonians as ay 19 onan, THE CRADLE OF STO MESOPOTAMIA. B.C. The farm 1S, wheat, barley, figs, dates, 0 ction by tables. They increased Lads oemnertime, irrigating their fields during: js-Euphrates using the waters of the Tee a Rivers. To supplement the oes raised donkeys for transpo B a for war, and coi and other animals r food. Their other industries were PO! ia brickmaking, mining, metallurgy, al manufacture, and the making of arms. a Many Babylonians engaged in busi ness and trade, They transported their trade goods between cities and villages on donkeys or camels. Exports to Palestine, Syria, Persia and other foreign lands were carried by camel caravans. They were professional moneylend- ers, who lent money to merchants and craftsmen at usurious rates of interests. The ancient Babylonians had no coinage, So they used gold, silver, and copper as money. ers raised early as 1400 and vege~ Religion, The ancient Babylonians. worshipped as many as 65,000 gods. The Principal ones were Shamash, god of the sun; Marduk, god of war; Ishtar, goddess of love; Bel, god of the earth; Eh, god of water; and Tiamat, goddess of chaos. The most feared deity in ancient Babylonia ° was Nergal, god of death, Prayers and sacrifices were offered the gods to gain their favor or appease their anger. Temples were erected in their honor. The priests were rich and power. ful. + . The Babylonians did not believe" heaven, hel, andl purgatary. Homes they believed in life after death. Their other world was a cheerless region, where the souls ofall men, good as Well as evi were dressed in birds’ feathers and ac dust.20 Wortiy stony Associ i were black nt With Babyionian religion oe belie” i Superstitions, The Was to drive atte, Power of magic 8 Huck ine AY Evil spits oF to They love gambling, and busi- chara a tsed many amulets and thom are, ieee from de- Writing and Literature. The Bab; Jonians had a system of writing called uneiform, which they borrowed from the Sumerians, The Babylonians wrote on Soft clay tablets with a. sharp stylus as pen. ese clay tablets were baked in ovens to make them hard like bricks. brin, For many centuries, scholars could not decipher the Babylonian writing, It was finally deciphered and made known to the world by Henry Rawlinson, a Brit- ish scholar, in 1847, because of his dis- covery of the Behistun Rock which was the key to Babylonian writing. This Be- histun Rock is on a 91.4 meter cliff near the mountain village of Behistun, Iran, on which are inscribed the accounts of the victories of King Darius I of Persia in three languages — Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian. A ziggurat: ancient Babylonian skyscraper and temple. Babylonian literature was tich in tales, fables, and poems. The greatest lit- erary classic of ancient Babylonia was the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, a forerun- nor of the “Great Flood” in the Old Testa- ment. Arts. The greatest architectural achievement of Babylonia was the ziggurat. A ziggurat was an edifice of several stories on a huge platform, cach story being smaller than the one below it; on top of the last story was a small shrine for the god, to whom religious rites were offered. A large stairway or ramp led to the shrine. The ziggurat was surrounded by courtyards, school rooms, living quar- ters for the priests, and storerooms for food and wines. Sciences. The Babylonians excelled in mathematics. They invented the sexa- gesimal system of calculation by sixties, ‘They were the first people in history to divide the circle into 360 degrees, or six 60s, They also divided the hour into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. Astronomy and astrology made the Babylonians famous. Their priests knew the stars and the heavenly bodies, ‘They believed that every planet was a god- Jupiter was Marduk, Venus was Ishtar, Mercury was Nabu, the sun was Shamash, and ‘Mars was Nergal. Asearly as 2000 B.C,, they charted the position of the stars and made accurate re- cordings of the planet Venus. Because of their belief that the stars and planets affected the lives of men, they developed astrology. They were the first people in the world to devise the twelve signg.pf the zodiac which is used unti'to- day to make horoscopes.The Rise of Assyria. About 2900 B.C., a Semitic people called Assyrians settled the region north of Babylonia They established their capital city on the bank of the Tigris River and named it Assur after their war god (Ashu) They were a warlike and cruel people. ap ning te yon grt Aftcrleaming the usc of iron from the Hittites, the Assyrians revolutionized the art of warfare. They made iron weapons, organized the horse-drawn war chariots into.a mobile cavalry unit, and itnproved the fighting tactics of the armored archers and pikemen, An engineering comps was cstablished to manage the siege machines (battering rams used for destroying the walls of encmy cities). Camels and horses were utilized to carry army provisions and MESOPOTAMIA, THE CRADLE OF HISTORY 21 camp paraphemalia, Because of their superior armaments, advanced military tactics, and fierce courage, the Assyrians became the best warriors in Asia during their time, The Assyrian Empire. In 1115B.C., shortly afier conquering Babylonia, Phoenicia, and Syria, Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 B.C.) founded the Assyrian Empire. Flushed by his victories in wars, he haughtily ordered his chief archer to dip his arrow in the waters of the Mediter- ranean Sea as a symbol that the sea be~ onged to Assyria. The height of Assyrian power was reached during the reign of Tiglath- Pileser III (744-727 B.C.), the greatest Assyrian emperor. A military genius who never losta battle, he conquered Armenia, Syria, Egypt, and other lands. For the first, time, the diverse kingdoms of the Middle East were welded into an empire, whose frontiers extended o Iran in the east and to the Mediterranean Sea. . One of Tiglath-Pileser III's succ7s- sors was Sennacherib (704-681 B.C. who transferred Assyria’s capital to Nii eyeh, (named after the goddess Nina, Assyrian goddess of love). Despite the might of her arms, Assyria began to decline during the reign The Assyrians used iron weapons and chariots to become the best hunters and warriors in ancient Asia. Stone relief shows King Askurbanipal hunting lions.a WORLD History of " anreatbanipal (668-627 B,C.). Ashut- wae gay hated war and loved peace. He esa took to fight, but he preferred 10 In 612 BC. Ni H 5. ineveh (capital of ois fell before the attack of com- bined Chaldean-Medes armies. With the mae Of this city, the Assyrian Empire re lapsed. News of the downfall of Assyta elicited great jubilation among le peoples of the Middle East. Rise and Fall of Chaldea. From the nuins of the Assyrian Empire rose the Chaldean Empire, also known as the Second Babylonian Empire (612-539 B.C.), It was founded in 612 B.C. by Nabopolassar, Chaldean conqueror of Nineveh, ‘The Chaldeans, a Semitic people from the Arabian Desert, entered Babylo- nia at about 1100 B.C. and conquered the Jand. The Chaldean Empire reached the height of its grandeur during the reign of its greatest monarch, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.),the son of Nabopolassar. His dream was to revive the glory of the first Babylonian Empire. During his reign, he conquered the neighboring king- doms, including Phoenicia, Syria, and Egypt. In 586 B,C. he captured Jerusalem and carried the Jews off into Babylonian captivity. ‘After Nebuchadnezzar’s death, the empire rapidly disintegrated, The last Chaldean ruler, Nabonidus (555-539 B.C),neglected the affairs of state, forhe ‘th century B.C. Baby’ jogical in archacol? pabylon (capital 0} susie ea ‘Empire) the Pel rendered will sian invaders: jlonian signs of the zodiae in astrology. Chaldean Civilization. The splen- dorof Chaldean civilization was symbol- ized by Babylon, which was one.of the finest cities inthe world. It was a gorgeous city with splendid temples, palaces, and gardens. Towering over the roofs of the city dwellings was the famous Tower of Babel, which was built by Nebuchadnez- zar, It was a majestic ziggurat of seven stories. According to the Old Testament, it was never completed by the workers because God confused their tongues so that they would not be proud.‘The crowning glory of Babylon was the fabulous Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was builtby Nebuchadnezzarto please his favorite wife. Mesopotamia’s Contributions to Civilization. As the first region in the world to witness the dawn of history, Mesopotamia enriched the heritage of mankind. First, it invented writing as early as 3500 B.C., thereby usheringinthe historic period. This writing was called cuneiform and was inscribed on clay tab- lets. Chane — Gates, ony _ Seco, it invented the plow which improved farming, and the wheel that gave birth to pottery and revolutionized Jand transportation. Third, it produced the world’s first written literature consisting of epic Poems, prose.stories, fables, and prov- erbs. The most famous of the Meso- potamian epics was the Epic ‘of Gil- gamesh. Fourth, it gave mankind the earliest written law codes, including’ the Ur- Nammu Code (ca. 2050 B.C.) and the Hammurabi Code (ca. 1750 B.C). Fifth, it introduce the sexagesimal system in mathematics, that is, counting by 60s. Under this system, aminute has 60 seconds, an hour has 60 minutes, and a circle is divided into 360 degrees or six 60s. Sixth, it developed astrology with the zodiac of 12 signs, in the belief that the Planets and stars affectthe destiny of men, B This painting shows how ancient Babylon Ea] looked about 550 B.C., with the hanging garden on the right, Today Babylon is only a ruin . And seventh, it gave mankind the first cities, schools, libraries, temples (ziggurats), hanging gardens (Hanging Gardens of Babylon), palaces, and sculp- tural objects. ‘ GQ TO YOUR STUDENT WORKBOOK REFERENCES Chiera, Edward, They Wrote on Clay, - Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938, Frankfort, Henri, The Birth of Civilization in the Near East. New York: Putnam, 1956, Kramer, Samuel N., History Begins at Sumer. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1959, Macqueen, James G., Babylon. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964, Oppenheimer, A. Leo, An {amia: Fortrait of a Dead Civilization, Chi, ‘cago: University of Chicago Press, 1977,