Notes on Criminalistics OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER

Legal Medicine 4. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle Meyer test) - pink in

1. Paulus Zacchias - father of legal medicine and forensic color
psychiatry. 5. Leucomalachite test (1904)- bluish green or peacock
2. Legal medicine - is a branch of medicine which deals with -blue blue
the application of medical knowledge to the purposes of 6. Precipitin test - test for human origin or not
law and in the administration of justice.
3. Forensic medicine – is a branch of medicine which 10. Criteria for determination of death:
concerned with the application of medical science to  Brain death - death occurs when there is deep
elucidate legal problem. irreversible coma, absences of electrical brain activity
4. Law of multiplicity of evidence in identification provides that and complete absence of all vital function of body
the greater the number of points of similarities and without the possibility of resuscitation
dissimilarities of two persons compared, the greater is the  Cardio-respiratory death - death occurs when there is a
probability for the conclusion to be correct. continuous and persistent cessation of heart action and
5. Points of identification that may not easily be changed: respiration
 Mental memory
 Speech 11. Kinds of death?
 Gait  Somatic death or clinical death - cessation of brain,
 Mannerism heart, lungs, which maintain life and health.
 Hand and Feet  Molecular De Cellular Death - individual cells @ cells
 Complexion last 3 to 6 hours after death.
 Changes in the Eyes  Apparent Death of "State of Suspended Animation" -
 Facies temporary cessation of the vital function due to the
 Left-Right Handedness external injury or disease as in still birth, drowning victim,
 Degree of nutrition hysteria, catalepsy, electrical shock.

6. Scientific methods of identification: 12. Signs of death:

 Fingerprinting
 Dental Identification
 Handwriting
 Determination of Sex
 Determination of Age – the age of fetus is determines by
applying Hess’ Rule: Get the square root if less than 25
cm and divide by 5 if more than.
 Identification of Blood and Blood Stains
 Identification of Skeleton – adult skeleton contains 206
bones, while infant contains 350 bones (the bones fuse
together as you grow). And more than half of your 206
bones are found in your hands and feet.
Longest bone Femur
Smallest bone Stirrup
Bone use for Skull, Femur, Sternum, Pelvic, and
comparison Humerus
7. Tests to determine sex:
 Genital Test (Presumptive test) - the presence of penis
indicates male, its absence and presence of vaginal
opening indicates a female
 Gonadal Test (Conclusive test) - presence of testes for
male and ovaries in female
8. Problems in sex determination:
 Gonadal Agenesis - sex organ (testes or ovaries) have
never developed
 True Hermaphrodism - a state of bisexuality. The
gonads of both sexes are present which may be
separated or combined as ova testis
 Tranvestism is a form of sexual deviation characterized
by an overwhelming desire to assume the attire and can
accepted as member of the opposite sex
9. Tests of blood:
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
1. Solubility Test - recent bloodshed is soluble in saline
solution, bright red in color
2. Heat test - impart a muddy precipitate
3. Luminescence test - stain or dark fabric mixed with
mud, paint, etc emit bluish white luminescence in dark
room upon sprayed by a solution
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
1. Saline Extract of the blood plus ammonia will give a
brownish tinge due to formation of alkaline hematin.
2. Benzidine Test - a piece of filter paper is pressed
firmly on the suspected stain, positive result will yield a
blue color
3. Guaiacum Test (Schombein test) - a solution of
alcoholic tincture of guaiacum is added, a positive
blood will yield a blue color
 CESSATION OF HEART ACTION AND CIRCULATION.
If there is no heart action for a period of five minutes,
death is regarded as certain.
a. Magnus test – ligature is applied around the base of
the finger with moderate tightness. If there is no
change, it is dead.
b. I card’s test – by application of injection of a solution
of fluorescence subcultaneously. If dead man, the
solution will just remain at the site of injection.
c. Diaphanous test – fingers are spread wide and
finger webs are viewed through a strong light.
Finger webs are red, if living and yellow if dead.
 CESSATION OF RESPIRATION - A person can
hold his breath for a period not longer than of 3-
1/2minutes.
- Winslow’s test - by using artificial light or sunlight.
 COOLING OF THE BODY (ALGOR MORTIS)
- 1st two (2) hours after death – rapid cooling of the
body.
- Fall temperature of 15- 20 degrees Fahrenheit is
considered as a certain sign of death.
 STAGE OF POST MORTEM RIGIDITY OR
CADAVERIC RIGIDITY, DEATH OF STIFFENING,
OR “DEATH OF STRUGGLE OF MUSCLES” OR
“RIGOR MORTIS”
- 3 to 6 hours after death the muscles gradually
stiffen.
- After 12 complete appearance in all muscles
- In temperate countries it usually appears 3 to 6 hours
and last 2 or 3 days after death, but in warm countries
it may develop earlier.
- In tropical countries rigor mortis may last 24 – 48
hours during cold weather and 18 – 36 hours during
summer after death.
 Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous Rigor – This is the
instantaneous rigidity of the muscles which occurs at the
moment of death due to extreme nervous tension,
exhaustion and injury to the nervous system or injury of
the chest.
 POST- MORTEM LIVIDITY OR CADAVERIC SPASM
OR POST- MORTEM SUGGILLATION OR POST-
MORTEM HYPOSTASIS OR LIVOR MORTIS – Blood
may remain fluid inside the blood vessels after death for
6 to 8 hours.
13. Distinguished rigor mortis from cadaveric spasm
 TIME AND APPEARANCE – rigor mortis appears 3-6
hours after death while cadaveric spasm appears
immediately after death.

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 Notes on Criminalistics
 MUSCLES INVOLVED – rigor mortis involves all
muscles of the body, while cadaveric spasm involved
only group of muscles and asymmetrical.
 OCCURRENCE – rigor mortis is natural phenomena
which occur after death, while cadaveric spasm may or
may not occurs on a person at the time of death.
 MEDICO-LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE – rigor may be utilized
by a medical jurist to approximate time of death, while
cadaveric spasm may be useful to determine the nature
of crime.
14. Chronological sequences of putrefactive changes
occurring in tropical region:
Time since Death Condition of the Body
12 hours - Present of rigor mortis all over.
24 hours - Absence of rigor mortis
48 hours - ova of flies seen
72 hours - body grossly swollen and disfigure
1 month - body skeletonized
15. Special Modifications of Putrefaction:
 Mummification - is the dehydration of the whole body that
results in the shivering and preservation of the body. This
observed when dead body is buried in hot and arid place
with dry atmosphere and with free access of hot air.
 Saponification or Adipocere formation - is a condition
wherein the fatty tissues of the body are transformed to
soft brownish-white substance. The layer of subcutaneous
tissue is the frequent site of its formation. Adipocere is a
waxy material, rancid or moldy in odor floats in water and
dissolves in alcohol. With diluted solution of copper sulfate,
it gives alight greenish-blue color.
 Maceration - Is the softening of the soft tissue when in a
fluid medium in the absence of putrefactive microorganism
which is frequently observed in the death of the fetus in the
uterus.
16. Significant of the Durations of Death:
 PRESENCE OF RIGOR MORTIS – in the Philippines
rigor mortis sets in from 2-3 hours after death. 12 hours
fully developed and last to18-36 hours
 PRESENCE OF POST-MORTEM LIVIDITY- developed
3-6 hours
 ONSET DECOMPOSITION – average time 24-48 hours
after death.
 STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION – approximate time of
death.
 ENTOMOLOGY OF THE CADAVER – the present of
flies, it is necessary to know the life cycle of the flies.
The usual time for the egg to be hatched into larva is 24
hours. Thus the present of maggots in the cadaver
determine that death occurred more than 24 hours.
 STAGE OF DIGESTION OF FOOD IN THE STOMACH
– It takes normally 3 to 4 hours for the stomach in
relation to his last meal. The approximate time of death
may be deduced from the amount of food in the stomach
in relation to his last meal.
17. Authorized to Conduct Death Investigations:
a) Provincial and city fiscal
b) Judge of Court of first Instance
c) Justice of Peace
d) Director of NBI
e) Chief of Police
f) Solicitor general
18. Authorized to Conduct Autopsies:
a) Health Officers
b) Medical Officers of law enforcement agencies.
c) Members of the medical staff of accredited
hospitals.
19. Different between autopsies from post-mortem
investigation?
The former is a comprehensive study of a dead body,
performed by a trained physician employing recognized
dissection procedure and technique, which includes
removal of tissue for further examination. While, the
latter is an external examination of dead body without
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incision being made, although blood and other fluids
may be collected for examination.
20. The primary purpose of autopsy is to determine the of
cause of death
21. Cardio-Respiratory Arrest is a terminal mechanism of
most causes of death and can never stand
indifferently as a reasonable explanation for the
fatality.
22. Pathological Causes of Death:
a) Death from Syncope – this death due to sudden and
fatal cessation of the action of the heart with
circulation.
b) Death from Asphyxia – is a condition in which the supply
of oxygen to the blood or to the tissues or both has
been recorded below normal working level.
c) Death from Coma – is the state of unconsciousness with
insensibility of the pupil and conjunctivae, and inability
to shallow, resulting from arrest of the portion of brain.
23. Length of Survivality of the Persons.
a) Human’s body without food losses 1/24th of its
weight daily and loss of 40% of weight which
resulted to death.
b) With water but without food, person cannot survive
more than 50 to 60 days.
c) Without food and water, person cannot survive more
than 10 days.
24. Methods of Disposal of Dead Bodies:
a) Embalming – is an artificial way of preserving the
body after death by injecting 6 to 8 quarts of
antiseptic solutions of formalin, per chloride of
mercury or arsenic.
b) Burial or Exhumation – the body must be buried
within forty-eight hours after death.( Now is within
24 hours, except suffered from contagious
deceases which is within 12 hours)
c) Disposing of the Dead body in the sea – dead body
thrown overboard in an open sea provided that the
deceased is not suffering from dangerous
communicable disease.
d) Cremation – is the pulverization of the body into
ashes by the application of heat.
EXCEPTION OF CREMATION
If the deceased left a written direction, that he
 Is not cremated.
 Not yet identified the deceased
 Subject for examination
e) Use of the body for scientific purposes
25. Period of Exhumation of Death Body:
Nature of Death Time Exception
Died with After 5 years of Shorter period
communicable disease interment upon opinion
of Secretary of
Without communicable After 3 years of Heath
disease interment
26. Factors Responsible for P.I. :
a) Kinetic Energy
b) Time
c) Area of Transfer
d) Other factors
27. Vital reaction is the sum total of all reactions of tissue or
organ to trauma.
a) Rubor – redness or congestion of the area due to an
increase of blood supply as a part of reparative
mechanism.
b) Calor – sensation of heat or increase in temperature.
c) Dolor – pain on account of the involvement of the
sensory.
d) Loss of function – tissue may not function normally on
account of trauma.
28. Classifications of Wound as to Instrument Used:
 Notes on Criminalistics
a) sharp-edged and sharp-pointed instrument (stab
wound)
b) sharp edged instrument – (incised wound)
c) friction of rough and hard object (abrasion wound)
d) tearing force (lacerated wound)
e) thrust of a sharp pointed instrument (punctured
wound)
f) atmospheric pressure (barotrauma)
g) heat or cold (frostbite, burns or scald)
h) chemical explosion (gunshot or shrapnel wound)
29. Classifications of Wound as to Application of Force and
Location of Injury:
a) Coup injury – located at the site of the application
force.
b) Contre-coup injury – opposite of application of force
injury.
c) Coup-contre-coup injury – both site and opposite
injury.
d) Locus Minoris Resistancia – injury not located at site
and opposite injury.
e) Extensive injury – injury involved greater area.
30. Age of Contusion:
1st day – red
2-5 days – green
6-10 days – yellow
36. Classifications of Asphyxias Death:
14-15 days – gradually disappear
31. Classifications Musculo-Skeletal Injuries:
a) Strain- the over-stretching, instead of an actual tearing
or the rapture of a muscle or ligament which may not
be associated with the joint.
b) Sprain- partial or complete disruption in the continuity
of muscular or ligamentous support of a joint. It is due
to blow, kick or torsion force.
c) Subluxation- incomplete or partial dislocation
d) Dislocation- displacement of the articular surface of
bones entering into the formation of a joint.
e) Fracture- solution of continuity of bone resulting from
violence or some existing pathology.
32. Complications of Trauma or Injury?
a) Shock – is the disturbance of fluid balance resulting to
peripheral deficiency which is manifested by the
decreased volume of blood, reduced of volume flow
and renal deficiency.
b) Hemorrhage – is the extravagation or loss of blood from
the circulation brought about by wounds in the cardio-
vascular system.
c) Infection – is the appearance growth and development of
microorganisms at the site of injury.
d) Embolism – is a condition in which foreign matters are
introduced in the blood stream causing block to the
blood flow in the finer arterioles and capillaries. The
most common emboli are fat and air embolism.
33. The odd and even rule in gunshot wounds provides that
the number of the gunshot wounds of entrance and exit
found in the body of the victim is even, the presumption
is that no bullet is lodged in the body, but if the number
of the entrance and exit wound is odd, the presumption
is that one or more bullets might have been lodged in the
body.
34. Special Considerations:
a) Souvenir Bullet - bullet has been lodged and has
remained in the body.
b) Bullet Migration - bullet that is not lodged in a place
where it was previously located.
c) Tandem Bullet - two or more bullets leaving the
barrel one after another.
d) Flame - Ignition of the propellant will cause the
production of flame. It is conical in shape with the
vertex located at the gun muzzle. The flame does
not go beyond a distance of 6 inches and in the
pistol or revolvers the flame is often less than 3
inches.
e) Smoke is one of the byproducts of complete
combustion of the gunpowder and other elements
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OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
with the propellant. It may be seen with a distance
of up to 12 inches.
f) Powder grain consists of the unburned, burning and
partially burned powder together with graphite which
comes out of the muzzle.
g) Powder burns is a term commonly used by
physicians whenever there is blackening of the
margin of the gunshot wound of entrance.
35. Classifications of burns by degree (Duputren’s
Classification)?
a) First Degree- there is erythema or simple redness of
the skin associated with superficial inflammation
and slight swelling which may subside after a few
hours or may last for several days.
b) Second Degree- there is vesicle formation with
acute inflammation.
c) Third Degree- there is destruction of the cuticle and
part of the true skin.
d) Fourth Degree- the whole skin is destroyed with
formation of slough which is yellowish-brown or
parchment-like.
e) Fifth Degree- there is involvement of the deep fascia
and muscles.
f) Sixth Degree- there is charring of the limb involving
subjacent tissues, organs and bone.
1. Asphyxia by hanging
2. Asphyxia by strangulation: Includes,
a. Strangulation by ligature- is produced by
compression of the neck by means of a ligature
which is tightened by a force other than the
weight of the body.
b. Manual strangulation or throttling- this is a form of
asphyxial death whereby the constricting force
applied in the neck is the hand.
c. Special forms of strangulation
1. Palmer strangulation- the palm of the hand of
the offender is pressed in front of the neck
without employing the fingers. The pressure
must be sufficient to occlude the lumen of the
windpipe.
2. Garroting- ligature like metal is placed around
the neck and tightened at the back. The
subject may be placed with the back to the
post and a spike may be placed in the in the
post to force into the nape of the neck when
the constricting band is tightened. This is the
mode of judicial killing in turkey during 19th
century.
3. Mugging or yoking- the forearm is applied in
front of the neck. The pressure on the neck is
brought about by the pressure of the flexed
elbow. This is common cause of death in
wrestling.
4. Compression of the neck with stick- a piece
of stick placed in front of the neck pulls with
two hands passing on both sides of the post
backwards with sufficient strength to occlude
the trachea.
3. Asphyxia by suffocation – is exclusion of air from
the lungs by closure of air opening or obstruction of
the air passageway from the external openings to
the air sacs.
a. Smothering – is a form of asphyxia death
caused by a closing of the external respiratory
orifices, either by used of hand or by other
means.
b. Choking – is a form of suffocation brought
about by the impaction of foreign body in the
respiratory passage.
4. Asphyxia by submersion or drowning
5. Asphyxia by compression
6. Asphyxia by breathing irreparable gases.
a. Carbon monoxide “Silent Killer” – incomplete
combustion of carbon fuel.
b. Carbon dioxide – is a gas blown out of the lungs
during respiration, product of incomplete
combustion of carbon.
 Notes on Criminalistics
37. Classifications Irreparable Gases Based on the
Physiological Action:
1. Lacrimator or tear gas – exposure of the eye to the
substance will gave irritation with copious flow or
tears.
2. Vesicant or blustering gas – contact with the skin
may cause bleb or buster formation.
3. Lung irritants – are released from tanks; canister
and gas shells.
4. Sternutator (nasal irritants) – any person inhaling
the air or swallowing food or water contaminated
with the chemical would be stricken with coryza,
nausea, chest and prostration.
5. Paralysants (nerve gas) – drug with cause
inactivation of cholinesterase and consequent
increase of Acetylcholine casing paralysis at the
neural junction.
6. Blood poisons – such as hydrocyanic acid and
hydrogen sulfide.
38. Kinds of Virginity.
1. Moral virginity – not knowing the nature of sexual
life and applies to children below age of puberty.
2.
2. Physical virginity – a woman is conscious of nature
of sexual life and applies to women who have
reached sexual maturity.
3. Demi-virginity – a condition wherein a woman
permits any form of sexual liberties as long as they
abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.
(Inter-fedora or inter labia)
4. Virgo Intacta – Literally the term refers to a truly
virgin woman; that there are no structural changes
in her organ to previous intercourse and that she is
a virtues woman.
39. Defloration is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a
result of sexual intercourse.
40. Parts of the Female Genitalia that must be examined to
determine defloration:
a) Condition of vulva
b) Fourchette
c) Vaginal canal
d) Hymen
41. Reddish-Brown is the color of blood when exposed to the
atmosphere
42. Arterial Blood has characteristics of bright scarlet in color,
with high oxygen content and leaves the blood vessel with
pleasure.
43. Venous Blood is dark and red in color, with low oxygen
content and usually does not spill far from the wound.
44. Menstrual Blood Blood contains a high number of
deodorliens bacillus, it does not clot and has acidic
reactions.
45. 1 and ½ Meters Deep is the prescribed depth of a grave
under PD 856, section 19 of the code of sanitation.
46. A person who died of a communicable disease must be
buried within 12 hours after death.
47. 10-15 minutes of persistent cessation in respiration,
circulation and brain function is sufficient to declare a
person clinically.
48. In tropical countries, hair and nails are detached from a
dead body for 7 Days
49. 3 Days after death maggots are seen in dead bodies
particularly in warm countries.
50. 3 to 4 hours is the average time for the stomach to empty
its content after meals.
51. 20 years is the period of time wherein human bones will
not exhibit changes.
52. The rate of growth of human hair is 0.5 to 0.6 mm./day
53. A person is considered dead if the rate of fall of the body
temperature is about 15 to 20 F
54. 2.5 to 5 cc approximate average amount of semen per
ejaculation under normal conditions.
--0--
Fingerprints (Personal identification)
1. Concept/terminology
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OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
 Dactylography - is the art and study of recording fingerprint
as a means of identification
 Dactyloscopy - is the art of identification by comparison of
fingerprints. It is the study and utilization of fingerprint
 Poroscopy - is the study of the pores found on the papillary
or friction ridges of the skin for the purpose of identification
 Pattern area – part of loop or whorl where core, delta and
ridges are found.
 Type lines – the two innermost ridges, which start parallel,
diverge and surround the pattern area
 Core – is the approximate center of the finger impression.
 Delta – is the point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest
the center of the divergence of the type lines.
It may be:
A bifurcation
An abrupt ending ridge
A dot
A short ridge
A meeting of two ridges
A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the
center and in front of the divergence of the type lines
General Fingerprint Pattern:
 Arch – (5%)
 Plain arch (60%), and
 Tented arch (40%)
 Loop – (60%)
 Ulnar loop (94%), and
 Radial loop (6%)
 Whorl – (35%)
 Plane whorl (71%)
 Double loop whorl (13%)
 Central pocket loop whorl (13%)
 Accidental whorl (3%)
 Loop - The loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which
one or more of the ridges on either side of the impression,
recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the
delta to the core, and terminate or tend to terminate on or
toward the same side of the impression from which ridge or
ridges entered.
Characteristics:
 A sufficient
recurves.
 A delta
 A ridge count across
a looping ridge.
Radial and Ulnar Loops:
The terms radial and ulnar are derived from the radius and
ulna ones of the forearm. Loops which flow in the direction of
the ulna bone (forward the little finger) are called ulnar loops
and those which flow in the directions of the radius bone are
called radial loops.
 Plain arch - The ridges enter on one side of the impression
and flow or tend to flow out from the outer with a rise of
wave in the center.
 Tented arch - Most of the ridges enter upon one side of the
impression and flow or tend to flow out upon the other side,
as in the plain arch type.
 Whorl - A fingerprint pattern in which at least two deltas are
present with a recurve in front of each.
 Plain whorl - A pattern which has two deltas and at least
one ridge making a complete circuit, which mat be spiral,
oval, circular, or any variant circle. An imaginary line drawn
between the two deltas much touch or cross at least one of
the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A
recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage
connected with it in the line of flow, cannot be construed as
a circuit. An appendage connected at that point is
considered to spoil the recurve on that side.
 Central pocket loop - A pattern which has two deltas and at
least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be
spiral, oval, circular, or any variant circle. An imaginary line
 Notes on Criminalistics
drawn between the two deltas much not touch or cross any
of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A
recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage
connected with it in the line of flow and on the delta side
cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected
at that point is considered to spoil in the recurve on that
side.
 Double loop - It consists of two separate loop formations,
with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders, and two
deltas.
 Accidental loop - Consists of a combination of two different
types of pattern, with the exception of the plain arch, with
two or more deltas. It may be a combination of loop and
tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and central pocket loop,
double and central pocket loop, or other combinations,
except plain arch.
3. Rules in the Selection of Core and Delta:
Rules to be observed when there are two or more delta:
 The delta may be located at a bifurcation which does not
open toward the core.
 When there is a choice between a bifurcation and
another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected.
 When there are two or more possible deltas which
conform to the definition, the one in the middle of a
ridge.
 The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge
running between the type lines toward the core, but at
the nearer end only.
Rules to be observed in the selection of the core:
 The core is placed upon or within the innermost
sufficient recurve
 When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no
ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders of the
loop, the core is placed on the shoulders of the loop
further from the delta.
 When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an
uneven number of rods rising as high as the shoulders,
the core is placed upon the end the center rod whether it
touches the looping or not.
 When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even
number or a rod rising as high as shoulders, the core is
placed upon the end of the farther one of the center
rods, the two center rods being treated as though they
were connected by a recurving ridge.
4. Rules in Ridge Counting and Tracing:
Rule in ridge counting:
 A white space must intervene between the delta and the
first ridge count. If no such interval exists, the first ridge
must be disregarded.
Rule in Tracing:
 Inner – if the ridge traced passes inside of above the
right delta, and three or more ridges intervene between
the tracing ridge and the delta.
 Outer – if the ridge traced passes outside below the right
delta, and three or more ridges intervene between the
tracing ridge and the right delta.
 Meeting – if the ridge whose course being from the left
delta toward the delta exactly meets the right delta or
passes inside or outside (over or under) the right delta
with not more than two ridges intervening them.
5. Principles of Fingerprint:
 Permanency/constancy – from womb to tomb
 Variation – individuality(fingerprints are not changeable)
 Infallibility – cannot be forged
6. Classification Formula:
The following symbols are used:
 Index finger in capital letters should be used for every
pattern, except the ulnar loop.
 Under all other fingers, appropriate small letters
should be used or placed for every pattern except
ulnar loop.
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 Ulnar loop in any finger designated by a diagonal line
slanting in the direction of the loop.
 Whorls in any finger are designated by letter W.
Divisions of Classification formula:
K M P S SubS F
 Primary – All fingers are involved through its numerical
value. ( loop type 1/1 and whorl type 31/31 plus 1/1=
32/32)
16 16 8 8 4
4 2 2 1 1
 Secondary – only index fingers are involved.
 Right index - numerator
 Left index - denominator
Symbols: Capital letters = ATRUW and small letters = atr
 Sub-secondary – the grouping of loops (ridge counting) or
whorls (ridge tracing). Only 6 fingers are involved, the
index, middle and ring fingers of both hands.
 Whorl – inner, meeting and outer tracing.
 Loop – index (1-9= small/I, 10 up= large/O), middle (1-
10= small/I, 11 up= large/O) and ring (1-13= small/I, 14
up= large/O)
 Major – tracing in case of whorl thumb and ridge counting
in case of loop.
 Left thumb - (1-11=small) right thumb – (1-11=S, 12-
16=M and 17up= L)
 Left thumb – (12-16=Medium) right thumb – (1-11=S, 12-
16=M and 17up= L)
 Left thumb – (17up=Large) right thumb – (1-17=S, 18-
22=M and 23up= Large)
 Final – is the number of ridge counting appearing on little
finger in case of loop and in case of whorl, the counting
shall start from left delta to core in case of right hand and
right delta to core in case of left hand.
 Key – ridge counting of the first loop appearing on the
fingerprint card, except little finger.
7. Rules on Classification of Amputated Fingers.
 One finger – Opposite finger
 Two or more fingers – Opposite finger
 Two opposite fingers – whorl type with meeting tracing
 All fingers – M 32 W MMM/ M 32 W MMM
 Both hands – footprint
8. Methods of Comparison (12 points of similarity, but
8-16 characteristics are sufficient for matching ):
 Ordinary method – marking the points of identity and
designating numbers in consecutive order and in clockwise
direction
 Osborn method – divided into square in equal sizes.
 Seymour method – skeleton tracing of the question and
standard prints by the used of reflector or side light.
 Pricking method – with the used of needle or pointed
object.
9. Methods of Producing Impression:
 Plain Method -the bulbs of the last phalanges of the finger
and thumbs are pressed on the surface of the paper after
pressing them
 Rolled method - the bulbs of the thumb and other fingers
are rolled on the surface of the paper after being rolled
(roll the thumb toward and the other fingers away from
the body)
10. Kinds of Impressions:
 Real Impression - impression of the finger bulbs with the
use of printing ink on the surface of the paper
 Chance Impression - impressed by mere chance without
any intention to produce it
7. Changes of Impressions:
 Visible Print - impression made by chance and is visible
without previous treatment. Impression made by the
fingers smeared with some colored substance
 Plastic Print - impression made by chance by pressing the
fingertips on melted paraffin
 Notes on Criminalistics
 Latent print - prints which are not visible after impression
but made visible by addition of some substances
8. Develop Latent Print
 Application of Fine Powder - the color of substance to be
used must be in contrast with the material
 Chemical Development by Fuming and Immersion - fuming
by iodine or arsenic acid or immersion in a solution of silver
nitrate may be developed
9. Fingerprint on Dead Body:
 In fresh dead bodies, use small rubber ruler
 If scaled washerwoman skin is not mature, use glycerin by
injecting with a syringe under the skin of the fingertips in
order to smoothen the surface
 Floater for longer time and friction ridges disappeared, the
skin of the finger is cut and placed in a test tube with
formaldehyde solution
---0---
Forensic ballistics is refers to the investigation and
identification of firearms by means of ammunitions fired from
the submitted suspected firearms. (Calvin H. Goddard is the
father of Modern Forensic Ballistics)
Ballistics is a Greek work, ballo or ballien means to (throw) is
the science of motion and projectile
 Interior/ internal ballistics- (while the bullet is inside the
gun)
1. Firing pin striking the primer
- Is the failure of the cartridge to explode after the firing
pin strikes the primer is called misfire
2. Ignition of priming mixture(sensitive chemical compound
located inside the primer cup)
- When a cartridge fails to explode on time or there is a
delayed in combustion due to faulty functioning of the
primer or faulty ignition of the propellant is called hang
fire.
3. Combustion of the gunpowder (exist after the primer
crushed the priming mixture against the anvil)
4. Expansion of heated gas in the chamber (there will be
equal expansion of heated gas inside the cartridge, after
the expansion of the gun powder.
- Due to its tremendous pressure inside the shell, the shell
will expand towards the wall of the chamber by force, as
the result, the individual characteristics in the wall of the
chamber will be transferred to the body of the cartridge
case, due to the theory that when two things or objects
come in contact with each other, one is received and
engraved of whatever irregularities scratches, roughness
imperfection found on the hard objects. This marking is
known as chamber markings.
5. Pressure developed, when the heated gas created by
the burning powder charge is developed, a tremendous
pressure is produced in the chamber of the firearm.
- When the cartridge case finally separate the bullet, the
cartridge case, will be pushed back to the breechface of
the firearm, the impact between the base of the firearm,
the impact between the base of the cartridge case and
the breechface of the firearm will create a marking
called, Breechface Marking.
6. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel, the bullet is driven by
the heated gas by tremendous pressure towards the
muzzle end, the bullet will rotate following the rifling’s or
lands and grooves inside the gun barrel.
- Gyroscopic stability is the stability of the flight of the
bullet within the stability of the flight of the bullet within
the effective range, due the twist of the lands and
grooves from the breech end to the muzzle end.
7. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet, the
lands and grooves, starting from the breech end up to
the muzzle end of the barrel, will engraved in the body of
the bullet, depending on the number of lands and
grooves as part of the class characteristics of the
firearm.
- Metal fowling is the metal of the bullet adhere inside the
bore of the barrel.
6
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
 Exterior/External ballistics (bullet is in flight) (movement of
the bullet when it left the gun muzzle)
1. Muzzle blast, a sound or noise created at the muzzle
end of the gun.
2. Muzzle energy,
3. Trajectory, the cured path in the horizontal flight of the
bullet, which occurred a few meters away from the
muzzle of the firearm called, wobbling.
4. Range, is the straight distance from the muzzle of the
gun to the target.
5. Velocity, is the speed of the bullet per unit of the time,
which is expressed in foot per second, this could be
determined by the used of chronograph.
6. Air resistance (aerodynamic drag)
- the bullet travel sidewise is called yaw. Hitting the target
is impossible. So the firer should use gadget known as
windage for adjustment.
7. Pull gravity, the downward reaction of the bullet towards
earth center, due to its weight.
8. Penetration
 Terminal ballistics. It refers to the effect of the impact of the
bullet on the target. The knocking power of particular powder
load of the cartridges makes a devastating lesion, caused by
the bullet especially the type of bullet that open the ogive or
nose portion, and expand when it penetrates the body of the
victim. (effect of impact on the target)
1. Terminal accuracy (to determine whether firearms has
defective front sight or rear sight)
2. Terminal energy (the energy of the bullet when it strikes
the target.
3. Terminal velocity (the speed of the bullet upon striking or
hitting the target, which is express in foot per second or
meters per second.
4. Terminal penetration (the deep entry of the bullet on the
target)
Classes of firearms:
 Based on barrel:
 Smooth bore – no rifling
 Rifled bore – with lands and groove
 Mechanism
 Single action – repeated cocking of the hummer
 Double action – one cock is required
 Caliber of projectile:
 Artillery - more than 1 inch in diameter
 Small arms – less than 1 inch in diameter (such as;
machine gun, shoulder arms and hand arms)
1. Ammunition (cartridge) – refers to a loaded shell for rifle
as, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols
from which, a ball bullet, shot, shell or other missile may
be fired by means or gunpowder or other explosives.
(The first cartridge was invented by King Gustavus
Adolphus in Sweden)
2. Parts of Cartridge
o Bullet (slug)
o Case (shell)
o Gunpowder (propellant or powder charge)
o Primer (igniter of the propellant to have a
percussion reaction)
Classification of Cartridge According to the Location of
Primer
 Pin-fire – a pocket of fulminate was place on the sidewall
of a copper case.
 Rim-fire – the fulminate was smeared into the hallow rim,
providing the powder for the ball. The priming mixture is
located in the cavity, inside and around the rim or
circumference around the base of the cartridge.
 Center-fire – the priming mixture is located or contained
in the center area of the base of the cartridge.
Bullet slug (boulette is French word, means small ball) – is
a part of a cartridge consisting of lead or jacketed projectile
propelled from a firearm by means of heated gas coming
from the burning powder charge.
 Notes on Criminalistics
Classification of bullet
1. Lead – is made of alloy or lead of
metals, tin and antimony which is slightly harder than
pure lead, in order to prevent the adherent of lead in the
bore of the barrel, lubricant should be placed on the
groove around the body of the bullets.
2. Jacketed– those made of lead
core covered with jacket of harder material, such as
gilding metal, copper alloy approximately 90% and zinc
10%. The purpose is to prevent adherence of metal
inside the gun barrel and better penetration to the target.
 Armor piercing – for vehicles
 Tracer – set fire when travel
 Incendiary – set fire on impact
Case (shell) – is made of metal, plastic or paper that holds
together the primer, gunpowder, primer and bullet.
Parts of Cartridge Case
1. Rim – the projecting rimmed and semi-rimmed cartridge
cases, serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of
cartridges into the chamber.
2. Primer pocket
3. Vent or flash hole
4. Head and body
5. Neck
6. Cannelure – are the serrated grooves, found rolled
around the neck and body of the cartridge case.
7. Crimp – is that part of the mouth of a cartridge case that
is turned in, upon the bullet. The purpose is to hold the
bullet in place and offers resistance to the movement of
the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of the
gunpowder.
8. Base
9. Shoulder
10. Extracting grooves- is the circular groove near the base
of the cartridge case or shell, designed for the automatic
withdrawal of the cartridge case after each firing.
Gunpowder (propellant or powder charge) – is an explosive
propellant which when detonated by the primer flash, will
have a heaving effects that propels the projectiles with a
tremendous pressure, from the heated gas that passes
through the bore of the barrel then, towards the target.
a) Propellant was the term used by Roger Bacon who
invented the gunpowder known as the black powder.
 Paul Vieile invented the smokeless gunpowder with
nitrocellulose, a single-base propellant, called Poudre
b) Pyrocellulose is the propellant used today with contains
less nitrogen than guncotton and is less volatile.
Types of Gunpowder:
a) Black powder
b) Smokeless powder
Primer (igniter of the propellant to have a percussion
reaction) is the upper portion of the primer cup, which is the
complete assembly of priming composition, paper, disk, anvil
and the vent. The primer cup inside the cartridge case,
contains a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound,
which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite.
Such reaction is called percussion.
The primer was conceived by Alexander John Forsyth.
Types of Primer
a. Boxer type (single large hole) – it is replaceable, since the
primer cup is removable from the cartridge.
b. Berdan type (two flash hole) – it is non-replaceable, since the
anvil of the primer, formed an integral part of the cartridge
case, and can be deformed by firing.
Parts of the Primer
 Anvil - the portion of the primer, against which the priming
mixture is crushed by the blow from the firing pin.
 Priming mixture - is a highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound contained in the primer cup.
7
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
 Disc – piece of small paper or disk of tin foil, where the
priming mixture is contained and pressed over by the impact
of the primer and the anvil.
 Primer cup – the container of the anvil, disc and the priming
mixture.
Manufacturing Processing:
 Class characteristics – are those characteristics marking that
are determinable even prior to the manufacture of the
firearms. (determinable even prior to its manufactures)
These include the following:
a. Bore diameter or caliber – is the diameter in which the
bore was reamed. The diameter of the bore, prior to
spiral cutting along the side of the lands, is the actual
caliber of the firearm. (measure from land to land by
caliber)
 American system of measurement is express in
hundredth of an inch. Example .38 or.
 European system of measurement is express in
millimeters. Example 9mm or 5.56 mm.
b. Number of lands (elevated) and grooves (depressed) –
the number of lands and grooves should always be the
same.
c. Width of lands and grooves
d. Direction of the twist – either left or right
e. Pitch of rifling
f. Depth of the grooves
 Individual Characteristics (not common to individual) – are
those characteristics marking which are peculiar in a
particular striation, and do not appear in all other firearms.
These characteristics markings are determinable only after
manufacture of the firearm.
These include the following:
a. Wear and tear
b. Mutilations
c. Corrosion is the eating away of the metal in the internal
surface of the bore of the barrel, by the formation of rust
or other process of chemical reaction, which may result,
when neglected to be cleaned after firing.
d. Erosion is the result of the breaking and wearing away of
the metal at the surface of the bore, where the rifling is
located.
Steps in making the barrel:
o Drilling operation
o Reaming operation
o Rifling operation
o Lapping operation
Markings on fire bullet
 Rifling – land and groove. These markings are found on
the cylindrical surface of the fired bullets, caused by the
rifling inside the gun barrel.
 Skid – worn out barrel
 Stripping – jumping bullet in the rifling caused by
misalignment of the chamber of the revolver and the
breech end of the barrel.
 Slippage – is caused by rotating resistance of the bullet
upon entering in the rifling of the breech end.
Markings on fire shell
o Firing pin – found on primer cup, which is the central
area of the base of the cartridges, wherein the priming
mixture is contained in the primer cup located at the
center of the base. But it would be different in rim-fire
cartridges, the firing pin strikes in any portion of the rim,
where the priming mixture is located.
o Breech face – are found on the base or shellhead of the
cartridge case and also found in the primer of the primer
cup. This is cause by the tools of the firearm called
breechface. The backward reaction of the shell after the
explosion of the gun powder, which comes in contact
with the breechface, is the subject for comparison in
firearms identification.
o Extractor – it is located in extracting grooves of the
shells, fired either from pistols, rifles, or machine guns.
The extractor will grasp the extracting grooves of the
shell by force, to remove the shell from the chamber of
the firearm.
 Notes on Criminalistics
o Ejector – are located in the rim in the base of cartridge
cases fired from automatic firearms. The purpose of this
tool called ejector, is to throw out the shell from the
ejector port, in preparation for next empty shell.
o Shearing – are sometimes called secondary firing pin
mark, which are found in the primer, near the firing pin
mark. It is just a rebound or duplication of the firing pin
marks. This can easily be detected because it is shallow,
compared to the firing pin marks.
o Chamber – are found in the body of the cartridge case. It
is cause by the irregularities, imperfection, roughness
and scratches inside the chamber of the firearm.
o Pivotal – are caused by the break type revolver. After
firing, in order to unload the empty shell in the chamber,
it must be folded downward, from the portion of the
breech end and the hand grip of the firearm. It can be
found in the base of the rim, of the rimmed type
cartridge.
Equipments used in firearms identification:
 Bullet Recovery Box – the original design is square with
8 feet long or 96 inches long, with one foot or 12 inches
on each sides, and ¼ inch thick of iron steel. (12 x 12 x
96)
 Comparison microscope (Invented by Calvin H.
Goddard)
a) Intermarriage is the position of both evidence bullet and
test bullet, wherein half of the same image of the test
bullet of the same direction, the same magnification and
the same level or plane, are merged into one image.
b) Juxta position is the critical side by side comparison of
evidence bullet and test bullet, trough the bullet
comparison microscope, to find the same feature,
structure of striations or marking from the base portion,
up to ogive or nose portion of the fire bullet, created by
the same tools of the firearm. If all the portion of
evidence bullet and test bullet are the same, then they
have congruency striations, and therefore, it is fired by
one and the same suspected firearm. means evidence
bullet and test bullet are examined and compared at the
same time, direction, magnification, image and level or
plane)
 Stereoscopic Microscope
 Shadowgraph – it contains a series of microscopic
lenses of different magnifications that can be used in
examining fired bullets or fired shells, to determine their
class characteristics and also for orientation purposes.
 Onoscope – used for internal examination on the surface
of gun barrel with camera attached
 Caliper – used to measure the diameter of bullet, bore,
barrel and other parts of the firearm.
 Helixometer – (Invented by John H. Fisher) used to
measure the pitch of rifling of firearms. Pitch of the rifling
is the distance advanced by the rifling in one complete
turn, equivalent to 360 degrees or it may mean the
distance traveled by the bullet in completing a 360
degrees rotation.
 Taper gauge – used to determine the bore diameter
 Chronograph – used to measure muzzle velocity and
striking power.
 Torsion/analytical balance –(weight of the bullets and
pellets)
Markings of evidence ( by the used of stylus)
1. Bullet – Nose/ogive or base
2. Shell – inside and near the mouth
3. Firearm – Barrel, cylinder and frame for revolver and
barrel, slide frame in case of pistol.
Eight Cycles of Automatics Firearms:
1. Firing- it takes place when the trigger is pulled and the
hammer strike the firing pin, then the firing pin strike the
primer of the cartridge that cause the explosion.
2. Unlocking – it takes places when the bolt lug is unseated
from the recess of the receiver.
2. Extracting – is the pulling out of empty cartridge case
from the chamber.
3. Ejecting – is the throwing out of empty cartridge case
from the receiver.
8
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
4. Cocking- takes place when the bolt pushed the hammer
into cock position.
5. Feeding – occurs when the bolt carrier pushed the top
round of cartridge inside the chamber, from the
magazine.
6. Chambering – occurs when the bolt carrier pushed the
round into the chamber.
7. Locking – occurs when the bolt lug fully seated on the
locking recess of the receiver.
Classification of Hand Arms and Shoulder Arms:
1. Revolver – a hand firearm in
which the rotating cylinder, successively place cartridges
into position for firing.
2. Pistol – a hand firearm applied to
a single shot weapon is designed to combine optimum
penetration with stopping power and improve accuracy.
3. Carbine – a short rifle, with barrel
measuring not longer than 22 inches.
4. Machine gun – is a weapon
designed to shoot automatic and semi-automatic. It
produce successive shoot without manual reloading by
just a single pull of a trigger.
--0--
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:
1. Definition:
 Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either
visible, partially visible that may present or ultimately
convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of
pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example
 French word “docere”, means to teach.
 Questioned –subject to scrutiny
 Questioned Document – contents are not true or being
contested either in whole or part thereof.
 Standard Document (Specimen) : "Standard" in questioned
documents  investigation its origins are known and  can be
proven  and  which can be legally used  as examples  to
compare with other matters in question.
 Exemplar - A term used by some document examiners and
attorneys to characterize known material. Standard is the
older term.
 Number: 20 sample for signature
 Number: 5 sample for few paragraphs
 Number: fewer sample for longer text
 Reference Collection - Material compiled and organized by
the document examiner to assist him in answering special
questions. .
2. Examples of Questioned Documents:
 Documents with questioned signatures.
 Questioned documents alleged to have been containing
fraudulent alterations.
 Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
 Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
Document Examination: (Restricted to “Scientific Comparison
which means that determination of authenticity, genuineness,
falsification or forgery lies on the availability of known standards
for comparison)
1. Definition:
 Document Examiner (handwriting identification experts) -
one who studies scientifically the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their source or to discover
other facts concerning them.
 Erasure - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing,
from a document is an erasure. (chemical
 Insertion or Inter-lineation’ -   additional writing
 Obliteration - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to
make the original invisible to as an addition.
2. Aspects of QD examination:
a) Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
 Whether the questioned and standard specimen of
handwriting in question has similarity in handwriting
style-block style, cursive writing or script writing.
 Notes on Criminalistics
 Whether the handwriting was written by one and same
person or written by another person.
b) Signature Identification
 Whether the signature is simple or spurious forgery,
traced forgery, simulated or free hand imitation,
genuine, authentic or known signature
c) Examination of Type writings and type prints.
 Whether size and spacing in questioned and standard
exemplars are similar or not, including the type style
 Whether they possess the same unique identifying
characteristics
d) Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
 Determine whether or not the changes were through
erasures obliterations, interlineations, substitutions,
etc.
 Whether the alterations were done during the
preparation of the document or after the execution of
the document.
e) Counterfeiting
 Determination and familiarization the basic features of
bank notes and coins.
 Examination of fake documents
f) Miscellaneous aspects
 Determination of age of documents
 Identification of stamps
 Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
3. Scientific Methods of Identification:
a) Analysis (Recognition) – the process of recognizing
handwriting characteristics takes time and ability of the
examiner to distinguish what are the style and individual
characteristics. The properties or characteristics are
properly observed or measured.
b) Comparison – Properties or characteristics of the
unknown determined thought analysis  are now
compared with the familiar or recorded properties of
known items. Careful examination and determination by
the examiner through use of instrumentation shall be
exercised and utilized to its fullest extent in order to
avoid confusion and dissolution.
c) Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or
characteristics will each have a certain value for identifi-
cation, determined by its likelihood of occurrence.
d) Findings /conclusions – examiner should offer findings
based on the results of the examined document.
4. Instrument Used in Examination:
a) Magnifying Lens.
b) Shadowgraph – a pictorial image formed by casting a
shadow, usually of the hands, upon a rightful surface or
screen.
c) Stereoscopic Microscope – a tri-dimensional (3D)
enlargement is possible.
d) Measures and Test Plates – those used for signatures
and typewriting.
e) Transmitted Light Gadget – a device where light comes
from beneath or behind glass on document is placed.
f) Ultra Violet Lamp – this is usually used in the detection
of counterfeited bills but can actually be used to detect
security features of qualified documents.
g) Infrared Viewer – primarily used to decipher writings in a
charred document.
h) Comparison Microscope – similar to that of the bullet
comparison microscope.
i) Common Tool is the “Excellent Eyesight”
5. Techniques Examination:
a) Microscopic Examination. The stereoscopic microscope
is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen
lift in a signature analysis.
b) Shadowgraph is a machine which enlarges minute
details.
c) Transmitted Light examination - In this examination, the
document is viewed with the source of illumination
behind it and the light passing through the paper.
Documents are subjected to this type of examination to
determine the presence of erasures, matching
of serrations and some other types of alterations.
d) Photographic Examination
9
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
e) UV Examination - Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and
occurs in the wave lengths just below the visible blue-
violet end of the spectrum (rainbow).  These visible rays
react on some substances so that visible light is
reflected, a phenomenon known as FLOURESCENCE.
f) Infrared Examination - This examination of documents
employs invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the
visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on
a specially sensitized photographic emulsion.
6. Miscellaneous Examination:
a) Erasures (Physical inspection or Fuming with iodine)
b) Indented Writing
c) Burned or Charred Paper
d) Adding machines - The construction of an adding
machine differs greatly from the typewriter but the
methods and principles of identification are related.
7. Handling QD
 It is a basic requirement, that when a document
becomes disputed and deposited in court or  with  the
attorney, in order to  maintain  its original condition,  it
should be kept UNFOLDED AND  IN  A  SEPARATE,
PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER. This is true
not only for the disputed documents, but for many other
important documentary evidence.
8. Handwriting Identification:
 Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of
facts, being used as whole, combination of certain forms of
visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long,
continued painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as
“visible speech.”
The art and practice of writing is known as penmanship or
calligraphy.
 Kinds of Writings:
a) Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is
joined to the next.
b) Script – separated or printed writing.
c) Block – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
Terminologies of Handwritten Identification:
 Scope/Slant - the angle or inclination of the axis of the
letters relative to the baseline.
 Alignment - Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing
or line of individual letters in words to the baseline. It is the
alignment of words. The relative alignment of letters.
 Proportion (height and width of the letters)
 Stroke - series of lines or curves written in a single letter;
one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves
within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the
paper
 Characteristics - any property or mark which
distinguishes and in document examination commonly
called to as the identifying details.
 Collation - side by side comparison; collation as used in
this text means the critical comparison on side by side
examination.
 Comparison - the act of setting two or more items side by
side(Juxta position) to weigh their identifying qualities; it
refers not only a visual but also the mental  act in which the
element of one item are related to the  counterparts of the
other.
 Disguised writing - A writer may deliberately try to alter
his usual writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity. The
results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed
disguised writing.
 Form – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the
writing looks, whether it is copybook, elaborated, simplified
or printed.
 Garland Forms – A cup-like connected form that is open
at the top and rounded on the bottom.
 Gestalt – The German word that means “complete” or
“whole”. A good gestalt needs nothing added or taken
away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting
analysis that looks at handwriting as a whole picture.
 Graphoanalysis - the study of handwriting based on the
two fundamental strokes, the curve and the straight
strokes.
 Graphometry - analysis by comparison and measurement.
 Notes on Criminalistics OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER

 Graphology - the art of determining character disposition may be identified and analyzed further in the following
and amplitude of a person from the study of handwriting. It elements:
also means the scientific study and analysis of handwriting, 1. Body main portion of the letter which remain when the
especially with reference to forgeries and questioned upper and lower projection, upstrokes and terminal
documents. strokes and diacritics are removed.
 Manuscript writing - A disconnected form of script or Example: the oval of the letter “Q” is the body, minus the
semi-script writing. This type of writing is taught in young downward stroke and the loop.
children in elementary schools as the first step in learning 2. Diacritics are elements added to a
to write. complete a letter.
 Natural writing - Any specimen of writing executed Example: letter “t” or “I”
normally without any attempt to control or alter its 3. Eye/eyelet is a minute or small
identifying habits and its usual quality or execution. loop or curve formed inside the letter.
 Movement the motion of the writing instrument Example: letter “a” or “d”
 Quality - A distinct or peculiar character. Also, “quality” is 4. Connection is the stroke which
used in describing handwriting to refer to any identifying connects two strokes or letter
factor that is related to the writing movement itself. Example: sweet
 Rhythm – The element of the writing movement which is 5. Foot is the lower part which rests on the baseline. The
marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may be small letters “m” has three feet.
classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the 6. Baseline is an imaginary line where all the letters are
flourishing succession of motion which are recorded in a supposed to be aligned.
written record. Periodicity, alternation of movement. Example:
7. Hiatus or Pen Jump is the failure to complete a junction
 Shading - Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the
of a connecting stroke without lifting the pen such
added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use
occurrence was due to speed.
of a stub pen.
Example:
 Bibliotics - is the science of handwriting analysis
8. Hook it is a minute curve or angle which often occurs at
 Bibliotists - one who has acquired special knowledge of the the end of the terminal stroke.
science of handwriting for purposes of identification. Example:
9. Initial stroke is the first element of a stroke
Handwriting Characteristics: Example:
1. General Characteristics these characteristics refer to 10. Loop is an oblong curve such as small letter “f” or “l”.
those habits are part of basic writing system or which are Example:
modifications of the system of writing found among so 11. Oval is the portion of a letter which is oval in shape.
large a group of writes that have only slight identification Example:
value. 12. Retrace is the part of a stroke which is super imposed
These include: conventional spacing, ordinary scale and upon the original stroke.
proportion and usual systematic slants. Example:
2. Individual characteristics - They are characteristics 13. Shoulder/Hump is the outside portion of the top curve;
which are the result of the writer's muscular control, the garland form of the letter as in small letter “m” has
coordination, age, health, and nervous tempera- three shoulders.
ment, frequency of writing, personality and character. Example:
These include: hook to the right and hook to the left, 14. Spur is a short horizontal terminal strokes mostly found
shape, position, size and the angles. on a small letter, short initial or terminal stroke.
Example:
Various Elements of handwriting 15. Arc/garlanded is a curve formed inside the top curve or
1. Movement and Manner of Execution. Refers to the loop.
handling position of the writing instrument that creates Example:
certain type of motion affecting the quality of writing 16. Beard/Embellishment is a preliminary embellish initial
done specifically, the skill, speed, freedom, hesitations, stroke which usually occurs in capital letters.
tremors, line quality and alignment. Example:
Kinds of Movement: 17. Buckle knot is a loop made as a flourish which is added
a) Finger movement this is done by using the thumb, to the letters.
the first and slightly the third fingers that are actual Example:
motion. (slow and labored speed) 18. Terminal stroke is the last element of a letter.
b) Hand movement or wrist movement is the action of Example:
the writs with the combination of fingers. (alignment 19. Patching/Retouching is the going back over a defective
is uneven) portion of a writing stroke.
c) Whole arm movement is the movement of the Example:
shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the 20. Pen lift is an interrupted stroke caused by removing the
table. (rapid and clear) writing instrument from the paper.
d) Forearm movement is the action of the elbow, Example:
forearm resting on the writing surface. (larger size)
Principal Factors Governing Handwriting
2. Distinctive Features in writing serve as bases of identifying Characteristics:
handwriting characteristics. These include; slope and During the process of examination, the examiner should first
slant, size of handwriting, ratio of writing, initial stroke, recognized the individual handwriting characteristics of the
connecting strokes, hiatus and among others. writer, especially on the form of writing – whether it is script,
cursive or block style and then focus on the following factors:
3. Individual Characteristics is influence by 1. Slant/slope
the following: 2. Alignment
a) Writing system 3. Proportion
b) Constant writing 4. Stroke structures
c) Personal legibility Other Factors includes:
d) Writing maturity 5. Movement in writing
6. Variation in writing
7. Line quality in writing
Other Different Individual Characteristics: 8. Influence of the writing instrument in writing
Primary basis of document examination is the individual 9. Punctuation and diacritical marks in writing
characteristics of the handwriting which with the analysis of 10. Embellishments and trademarks in writing
the form and style of individual handwriting- cursive writing, 11. Boldness
script or block style. Characteristics of individual handwriting
10
 Notes on Criminalistics
Procedures of Comparison:
1. Place the questioned and the standard specimen in a
juxta position.
2. Take note visually and mentally points of similarities
3. Never touch with a pencil, ball point, or pointed objects
the document.
Types of Handwriting Standard: (Standard signatures or
writing must be those written five (5) years before or five (5)
after the date of the questioned signature or writing)
1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting
of an individual such as signature and endorsements on
canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial,
official, public and private document and other
handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings
(or hand printings) written by an individual upon request
for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or
for specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the
subject after evidential writings have come into dispute
and solely for the purpose of establishing his
contentions.
Classes of Forged Signature:
1. Traced Forgery - the outlining of a genuine signature
from one document onto another where the forger
wishes it to appear.
2. Simulated Forgery - an attempt to copy in a freehand
manner the characteristics of genuine signature either
from memory of the signature or from a model
3. Simple/Spurious Forgery - one prepared primary in the
forger's own handwriting where the title or no attempt
has been made to copy the characteristics of the
genuine writing
Indications of Forgery:
1. Hesitations
2. Unnatural pen lift
3. Patching
4. Tremors
5. Uncertain movement
6. Lack of natural variations
7. Blunt initial and terminal strokes
8. Defective line quality
9. Presence of intercalations/interlineations
10. Among others
Point to Consider in Examining Extended Writing
(anonymous, threat, poison letters)
i. Uniformity (smooth, rhythmic, and free flowing
appearance)
ii. Irregularities (writing appear awkward, ill formed slowly
drawn)
iii. Size and proportion (determine the height of the over-all
writing as well as the height of the individual strokes in
proportion to each other)
iv. Alignment (are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill
or downhill)
v. Spacing (determining the general spacing between
letters, spacing between words, width of the left and right
margins, paragraph indentation.
vi. Degree of slant are uniformed or not
vii. Formation and design of the letters
viii. Initial, connecting and final strokes.
Alteration of Document is any one that contains some
changes either as an addition or deletion. This includes;
a. Erasure – it can be made by abrasion of the paper
surface or by chemical means.
b. Addition - it can be done by adding a phrase or number
in the document.
c. Substitution
d. Interlineations or intercalation (insertion between lines)
e. Obliteration or smeared-over writing is the blackening
out portions of writings by some opaque materials)
Paper- the earliest form of material on which was placed was
the skins of animals called parchment or vellum. It comes
from papyrus, a grass –like plant found in Egypt.
11
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
Ink - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or
printing. (Invented by Chinese)
Composition and Characteristics:
1. Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink
consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or
lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum
was added. Inks of these compositions are still on the
market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes.  
2. Log wood Inks - These inks which were
used extensively about a century ago, have now
because obsolete and are no longer manufactured.
They were made from an aqueous extract of logwood
chips and potassium chromate. These inks will be found
only on old.
3. Iron Gallotanate Inks - This ink has been
used as writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it
was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which
iron salts were added. The ink was composed of
suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
4. Ballpoint Pen Inks - The ballpoint pens
did not appear on the European market before 1945.
The development of the present pen was accomplished
during World War II because the Army and the Air Force
needed a writing instrument which would not leak at
high altitude and which supplied quick drying water
resistant writing.
Note: the oldest and first writing instrument is the Roman
Beaver.
Typewriter - A writing machine with a keyboard for
reproducing letters, figures, symbols and other
resembling printed ones; a machine that can reproduce
printed characters on papers or that can produce printed
letters and figures on paper; a machine designed to print or
impress type characters on paper, as a speedier and more
legible substitute for handwriting. .
Classification:
1. Size of type
a) Pica Type
b) Elite Type
c) Roman – larger in size than pica
2. Spacing of characteristics( Escapement)
3. Interlinear spacing
a) Pica usually
 6 lines per inch
 12 points of approximately 1/6 of an inch
 2.54mm per character
b) Elite
 12 letter per inch
 2.12 per character
--0--
Photography is the art, science and practice of creating
durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic
radiation, either chemically by means of a light-sensitive
material such as photographic film, or electronically by
means of an image sensor.
Photography - phos (light) graphia (write). The art of
reproductions of an image.
 An image (from Latin: imago) is an artifact that depicts
or records visual perception, for example a two-
dimensional picture, that has a similar appearance to
some subject–usually a physical object or a person, thus
providing a depiction of it.
 Visible light (commonly referred to simply as light) is
electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human
eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible
light has a wavelength in the range of about 380
nanometers to about 740 nm – between the invisible
infrared, with longer wavelengths and the invisible
ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths.
Different energies in the Electromagnetic spectrum;
Cosmic rays Capable of
 Notes on Criminalistics OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
Gamma rays recording 3. ISO – International Standard association. This is
X-rays 01 – 30 NN sensitized expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic
Ultraviolet rays 30- 400 materials. values.
Visible light 400- 700 Photographic
Infrared rays 700 – 1,000 rays in modern Different Emulsion Ratings:
Heat rays photography ASA 12 DIN 12% ISO 12/12
ASA 25 DIN 15% ISO 25/15
ASA 50 DIN 18% ISO 50/18
ASA 100 DIN 21% ISO 100/21
 Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a
ASA 200 DIN 24% ISO 200/24
form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged
particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels ASA 400 DIN 27% ISO 400/27
through space. ASA 800 DIN 30% ISO 800/30
ASA 1600 DIN 33% ISO 1000/33
In the market place, ASA 100 commonly referred to as the
 An image sensor is a device that converts an optical
plus X, ASA 200 as the double X, and the ASA 400 as the
image into an electronic signal. It is used mostly in digital Tri-X.
cameras, camera modules and other imaging devices.
Early analog sensors were video camera tubes, most Spectral Sensitivity:
currently used are digital charge-coupled device (CCD)
1. Blue sensitive film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue
or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) light only.
active pixel sensors.
2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays and
Camera is a device that records images that can be stored blue light only.
directly, transmitted to another location, or both. These
3. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to
images may be still photographs or moving images such as blue, green, and red light or all colors.
videos or movies. The term camera comes from the word
4. Infra-red film – sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue, green
camera obscura (Latin for "dark chamber"), an early red light and infrared rays.
mechanism for projecting images. The modern camera
evolved from the camera obscura. Granularity or graininess:
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are
Types: formed after development of an exposed film. Generally, the
 Box type - simplest type and commonly known as
size of metallic silver and the type of developing solution that
instamatic (ideal in snapshot photography is used in processing.
 Polaroid- (instant photography) – negative is develop
inside the camera. Rule: the lower emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is
 35MM rangefinder – produce a clear focus no matter
the grain and conversely, the higher the emulsion speeds
what condition of the light. rating of the film, the bigger are the grains.
 Single len-reflex – most ideal type in forensic
photography. Color Films:
 Twin-lens reflex – it has two lenses
 Ultraminiature – spy camera Color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same
 View – used in photo studio.
support or base.
a) The top emulsion is sensitive to blue light only. Since
Film – (reversal-color/slide and negative –opposite color)
green and red light passes through it without effect, the
blue light alone makes the exposure.
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, PET,
b) The middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to
nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate) coated with an emulsion red light. Like all emulsions, the middle layer is also
containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by
sensitive to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it.
gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the The exposure in this layer is therefore made by the
sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film. When the
green light alone.
emulsion is sufficiently exposed to light (or other forms of c) The bottom layer is sensitive to red light, but its
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays), it forms a latent
sensitivity to green light is so low as to be negligible.
(invisible) image. Chemical processes can then be applied to Hence, the exposure in this layer is made by red light
the film to create a visible image, in a process called film
alone.
developing. Note: this three emulsion layers are coated on a film
base which has an anti-halation backing.
Black-and-white, often abbreviated B/W or B&W, is a term
referring to a number of monochrome forms in visual arts.
Lens – A lens is transparent medium which either converge
or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. (It
1. Photo focus the light that coming from the object)
graphic emulsion is a light-sensitive colloid, such as a) Convergent (positive) or convex lens are always thicker
gelatin, coated onto a substrate. In silver-gelatin at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing
photography, the emulsion consists of silver halide through it are bended toward each other on the other
crystals suspended in gelatin, and the substrate may be side of the lens meeting at a point. It produce a real
glass, plastic film, paper or fabric. image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is
2. Gray coming from.
or anti-halation backing. A layer placed between the b) Divergent (negative) or concave lens are always thinner
emulsion and the plastic base of a film to prevent at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing
whatever light that passes through the emulsion and through it are bended away from each other as if coming
reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms from a point produce a virtual image on the same side of
a” halo” the lens where light is coming from.
3. Base.
Are made of plastic material serve as a support to the Optical aberration. Lenses do not form perfect images, and
emulsion. there is always some degree of distortion or aberration
introduced by the lens which causes the image to be an
Emulsion Speed Indicators: imperfect replica of the object. Careful design of the lens
1. ASA – American Standards Association. This is system for a particular application ensures that the aberration
expressed in arithmetical value. is minimized. There are several different types of aberration
2. DIN – Deutche Industri Normen. This is expressed in which can affect image quality.
logarithmic value.

12
 Notes on Criminalistics
1. Spherical aberration occurs when light passing through
near the central part of a converging lens are bended
more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the
rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane
nearer the lens than those coming from the central part.
- This aberration is minimized by using lenses of different
curvatures.
2. Coma is a spherical aberration but concerned with the
light rays entering the lens obliquely. The defect is
noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the
central part of the lens. If the lens has coma, circular
objects reproduced at the corners of the negative are
comet like form.
- This aberration is minimized by using lenses of different
curvatures.
3. Curvature is a defect where the image formed by a lens
comes to a sharper focus in a curved surface than a flat
surface.
- Correction in this defect is similar to spherical aberration
and coma.
4. Distortion is the incapacity to rendered straight lines
correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines an object. This
caused by the displacement of the diaphragm. If the
diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines
near the edges of the object tend to bulge outside (barrel
distortion). If the diaphragm is placed behind the lens,
straight lines near the edges tend to bend inward
(pincushion distortion).
- Placing the diaphragm in between the lens component
and the two opposite distortions will neutralize each
other.
5. Chromatic aberration is the inability of the lens to bring
photographic rays of different wave lengths to the same
focus. (inability to focus color)
- This defect is reduced by utilizing compound lenses
made up of single lens made up of glass of different
curvatures.
6. Astigmatism this defect occurs when a single point from
a subject falling near the margin of the negative will be
imaged not as a point but as a two perpendicular short
lines, one of which is always be out of focus while the
other is sharp. (Inability of the lens to focus lines running
in different directions)
- This defect is lessened by combining lenses of special
kind of glass having the correct combinations of
spherical surfaces.
Focal Length is the fundamental characteristics of a lens. It
is the distance measured from optical center of the lens to
the film plane when the lens is set of focused at infinity
position or far distance. The distance from the optical center
of the lens to the film plane is called focal distance.
Types of Lens According to Focal Length
 Wide angle – a lens with a focal length less than the diagonal
of its negative material. This lens will have wide area
coverage but produces a small image size. It is usually used
in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. If used in
outdoor, the purpose is to get panoramic view.
 Normal lens – is a lens with a focal length approximately
equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material. It is normal because its coverage
corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human life.
 Long or telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more
than twice the diagonal of its negative material. This lens
produces a bigger image of objects at far distance but its
area of coverage is smaller.
 Zoom lens is a lens with variable focal length
Lens Diaphragm
In between the lens component of camera is a metal
diaphragm which can be expanded or constricted by moving
a turning ring on the lens mount or barrel. The size of the
opening is indicated by markings of f-numbers. Each f-
number represents the ratio of the focal length of the lens
and the diameter of the opening. The common series of f-
13
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
numbers are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16 and 22. These f-
numbers indicate in succession decrease by one-half in light
intensity as the number increases. These means that an
aperture of f1.8 will admit twice more light that f2 and so on.
Conversely, light intensity will decrease by on-half as the
numerical value increases.
The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, definition and
depth of field.
Definition is the ability of the lens to form clear images of fine
details.
Depth of field is the distance from nearest to the farthest
object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or
focused on a given distance.
Factor influencing of depth of field:
1. Size of diaphragm opening. The general rule is, the
smaller the opening, the longer is the depth of field.
Conversely, the wider is the opening, the shorter is the
depth of field. The exception is the presence or effect of
diffraction when a small opening is used.
2. Focal length of the lens. The general rule, the shorter the
focal length, the wider or longer is the depth of field and
vice versa, the longer is the focal length the shorter is
the depth of field.
3. Circle of confusion. Refers to a small circle which is seen
by the eye, not as a circle but a dot or point.
4. Hyperfocal distance. Is the nearest distance at which the
lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm
opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
Focusing is the setting of the proper distance in order to
form a sharp image. It is the main factor that will determine
the sharpness of the images on a photograph.
Parallax is the change of appearance and orientation of the
objects when seen from two view points. It is also used to
refer to the distance between the viewpoints themselves.
Shutter is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an
exposure for accurately timed intervals then closes
automatically.
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that
produces a change on a material or substance sensitive to
such energy. It is quantitative; it is the product of the light
intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.
Optical filters are made either of glass or acetate. It used
primarily to control exposing energy (visible wavelengths,
ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
Particle or solution filter is used in special photographic
procedure like in infrared luminescence.
Most pictures are taken by white light falling on a colored
object. White light is the sum total of all the colors of the
rainbow while black is the absence of all the colors. White
light is composed of primary light colors- blue, green and red.
Chemical Processing:
After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or
the photographic papare during printing, the next step would
generally be chemical processing. In the black and white
processing, the steps are development, stop-bath, and
fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development,
sto-fix and stabilizer.
1. Development is the process by which an invisible latent
image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white
emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black
metallic silver. In a color emulsion, the developed silver
is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.
Component of black and white developer:
a) Solvent (water)
b) Developing agent
c) Preservative
d) Accelerator or activator
e) restrainer
 Notes on Criminalistics
2. Stop-bath it halts the developer action in appropriate
moment. It also prevents the contamination of the
developer and fixer from each other.
Stop bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic
acid.
3. Fixation. A fixer makes the developed image permanent
when it is followed by a thorough washing. The
unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are
dissolved and removed from the emulsion of the
photographic material.
Chemical component of a fixing bath:
1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener
Important things to remember in enlarging procedure for
black and white negative.
1. Immersion time of the test strips into developing
solution is 1 to 1 ½ minutes.
2. Transfer to the stop bath for at least 10 -15 seconds
(before 20 – 30 minutes) and then in the fixing bath
for a minute or more.
 Cropping is the excluding or omitting some images on
negative from the final print. Local exposure control is
achieved by either burning-in or dodging.
 Burning-in is the adding of exposure time on a
specific area to bring out details.
 Dodging is the holding back of some lights to a
specific area to make it lighter in density.
Equipments for Paper Developing:
1. Three plastics trays
2. Metal, plastic or bamboo tong
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. Tank or tray for washing prints.
Important in Color Printing Process:
1. The blue sensitive layer produces a yellow color when
developed
2. The green sensitive layer produces a magenta (color
between pink and purple/ fuchsia) color when
developed. Purple is a color between blue and red
3. The red sensitive layer produces cyan (dark blue) color
when developed.
7. An image sensor is a device that converts an optical image
into an electronic signal. It is used mostly in digital cameras,
camera modules and other imaging devices. Early analog
sensors were video camera tubes, most currently used are
digital charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary
metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensors.
8. Aperture Adjustment of the lens opening, measured as f-
number, which controls the amount of light passing through
the lens. Aperture also has an effect on depth of field and
diffraction – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening,
the less light, and the greater the depth of field, and the more
the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number
gives the effective aperture diameter.
9. Shutter speed Adjustment of the speed (often expressed
either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with
mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of
time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for
each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the
amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter
speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the
amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion
of the subject and/or camera.
Application of Photograph in Police Work:
1. Identification Purposes:
14
OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
a) Prisoners or persons subject of investigation
b) Unidentified cadavers
c) Missing persons
d) Lost or stolen properties
e) Clearances
2. Recording Investigative Data
a) Crime scene
b) Traffic accidents
c) Tracing evidences
3. Special Consideration
a) Photomicrography is the taking of photograph
through a microscope. The camera is attached to
the eyepiece and it is the lens of microscope that is
used in photographing.
b) Photomacrography or macro photography is the
taking of photograph with a short focus lens. It is an
extreme close-up of small objects to photograph to
1:1 or an actual size or slightly bigger.
c) Microphotography is the taking of photograph of
an object in a much reduced size or tiny images of
large objects.
d) Ultraviolet photography is the taking of
photograph using ultraviolet rays or more
specifically radiations having a wave length of 30-
400 nanometers of the electromagnetic spectrum
e) Infrared photography is the taking of photographs
with radiations between 700-1000 nanometers of
the electromagnetic spectrum. It varies only with the
film used, filter and focusing method.
---0---
POLYGRAPHY
o Devices which record the psycho-physiological response:
 Use of polygraph or lie detector machine
 Use of word association test
 Use of psychological evaluator stress
2. Use of Lie Detector or
Polygraph
A polygraph (popularly referred to as a lie
detector) measures and records several physiological
indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin
conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series
of questions. The belief is that deceptive answers will
produce physiological responses that can be differentiated
from those associated with non-deceptive answers.
The polygraph was invented in 1921 by John
Augustus Larson, a medical student at the University of
California at Berkeley and a police officer of the Berkeley
Police Department in Berkeley, California. According to
Encyclopædia Britannica, the polygraph was on its 2003 list
of greatest inventions, described by the company as
inventions that "have had profound effects on human life for
better or worse."
Many members of the scientific community consider
polygraphy to be pseudoscience. Nonetheless, in some
countries polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with
criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private
sector employment.
The Concept: Poly (many) graph (writing chart) – instrument
designed to record physiological responses.
 Components:
o Pneumograph (Changes of heartbeat and breathing) –
this is composed of the cord, voluted tube and beaded
chain. is made up of two unit; (1) chest assembly, is to
record the changes of the subject heart beat and (2)
abdominal assembly, is to record the changes of
breathing of the subject. This
o Galvanograph (skin resistance) – is composed of two
finger electrodes attached to the index and ring finger of
either left or right hand.
o Cardiosphymograph ( blood pressure and pulse rate) –
this composed of blood pressure cuff assembly which is
 Notes on Criminalistics OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
simply attached to the right or left upper arm of the polygraph instrument. These components are equipped
subject and pump bulb assembly which is attached with sensors that serve to collect; measure and record,
directly to the blood pressure cuff assembly and the onto polygraph charts, the examinee's physiological data
sphygmonomater obtained from three major systems in the body, as he or
o Kymograph – is motor that drives the chart paper (100 ft. she answers the set of previously formulated and reviewed
long, 6 inches wide with 20 divisions) at the rate of 6 to questions during the course of the polygraph examination.
12 inches per minute.
Components:
 Uses of Polygraph: o A blood pressure cuff that is secured around the
o Investigation examinee's upper arm and centered over the brachial
o Employment screening artery for the purpose of obtaining a continuous tracing
o Promotion of his or her cardiovascular activity (i.e., heart rate, blood
o Periodic screening pressure, blood volume);
o Two convoluted rubber tubes — called "pneumographs"
 Guidelines in the before examination — that are fastened around the examinee's chest and
o Appraise the constitutional right abdominal area for the purpose of obtaining a
continuous tracing of his or her respiratory activity (i.e.,
o Obtain consent of the subject
breathing pattern);
o Taking of personal data
o Two protruding electrodes each with an insulated
o Evaluating the psychological preparation
seating — called "galvanometers" — that are attached to
o Determine the suitability of the subject two of the examinee's fingers for the purpose of
obtaining a continuous tracing of his or her electrodermal
 Polygraph Examination Room activity (i.e., sweat gland activity).
o Free from destruction o Next, the examiner will administer a functionality or
o Spacious for two persons calibration test of the polygraph instrumentation. This is
o Well lighted and ventilated done to ensure that the polygraph is in good working
o 90% sound proof order at the time of the examination and to demonstrate
o One way mirror to the examinee that he or she is suited to being tested
using the polygraph technique.
 Requirements of examination:
o Mental fitness Question types:
o Physical fitness o relevant question
o Voluntary o irrelevant question
o Experience o control question

 Phases of examination: Once the examination is underway, the examiner will

o Initial interview administer a minimum number of three separate tests each
o Pretest interview lasting approximately 5 minutes — and a maximum number
o Actual test of six tests — wherein the examinee's physiological data will
be continuously collected, measured and recorded, onto
o Post test or interview
polygraph charts, as he or she answers the set of questions
that were formulated and reviewed during the pre-test phase
 Interview with the investigator handling the case, during
the interview conducted by the examiner to the investigator The examinee will have a two-minute relaxation period
the following must be included: between each test.
a) Obtaining and evaluation facts
b) Determining the areas of the subject need to be asked Upon completion of this phase, the examiner will analyze,
c) Other matters interpret and evaluate the examinee's physiological data
collected during the polygraph examination, after which the
 Pretest Interview - examiner must first make an informal examiner will form one of the following professional opinions:
interview of the subject, which may last, from 20 - 30
minutes  Post Test Interrogation
This examination is done after the instrument turns off. If
During this first phase, the examiner will: the polygraph test indicates deception the examiner will
then proceed to conduct short interrogation; the purpose is
1. Inform the examinee of the specific issue that is being to obtain confession; however, if the polygraph indicates
investigated; the subject is innocent, the examiner just releases his
2. Advise the examinee of his or her constitutional rights, cordially and not to forget to say thank you to the subject
of their right to an attorney and of the voluntary action after the said test.
of submitting to a polygraph examination;
3. Complete the necessary During this last phase, the examiner will give the examinee
documentation the result of the polygraph examination. If the physiological
4. Provide the examinee data recorded on the charts shows reactions on the part of
with a detailed explanation of the polygraph the examinee to the relevant questions that were asked, he
instrumentation with its components and how these or she will be given the opportunity to explain these
work; reactions.
5. Answer any questions
that the examinee may have; Once the post-test phase is finished, the examiner will
6. Obtain the examinee's provide the client with a verbal report of the polygraph
version of the facts regarding the specific issue under examination and its result. This will be followed, in a timely
investigation manner, by a written report containing a factual account of
7. Formulate and review all the information developed during the polygraph
with the examinee all the questions that will be asked procedure, as well as the examiner's professional opinion
of him or her during the polygraph examination of the examination results based on the analysis,
interpretation and evaluation of the polygraph data.
 Actual test or Interrogation and recording through the
Instrument – The subject will be asked by a standard  Supplementary Test
question (at least 10 questions are asked). The examiner a. Peak of Tension Test (subject is not informed about
will fasten various painless components to and around the the test)
examinee's body, thereby connecting him or her to the b. Guilt Complex Test (comparison test)
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 Notes on Criminalistics OROMIND SHAPERS REVIEW CENTER
c. Silent Answer Test (affirmative test) The Zone Comparison Technique is used for all polygraph
examinations. 
Formulation of Test Questions:
1. Simple and direct The polygraph charts are evaluated using a numerical
2. No legal terminology evaluation scoring system that was approved by the
3. Short and answer by yes or no Canadian Association of Police Polygraphists and the
American Polygraph Association.
Two Types of Test:
1. General QT – It is about case on hand this is a series of
relevant and irrelevant question and controlled question Computerized polygraph charts are further evaluated using a
asked in a planned order. The questions are so arranged software program called PolyScore, a sophisticated and
in order to compare the subject’s responses between highly reliable mathematical algorithm-based chart-scoring
relevant and controlled questions. system that was designed and developed by statisticians at
a) Irrelevant the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, in
b) Irrelevant Maryland.
 Weak relevant: concerns with the secondary
elements of the offense of crimes and deals mostly Chart Marking: Through the proper use of test graph
on guilty knowledge and partial involvement. marking will be able to evaluate the result of polygraph chart
(Did you enter the house of X between 6am to 10am and without marking it is impossible to evaluate the chart or
last September 2, 2012?
to arrive at any conclusion.
c) Irrelevant
 Strong relevant: it is a verbal stimulus of primary
X Beginning T Subject talk
importance projected in the form of a question which
may overcome the psychological excitement its XX Ending SW Swallow
level may cause the three major components tracing 60 Air pressure 20 km Amplifier manual
change based on the subject’s physiological form. It reading
is formulated and constructed to test the direct / / Stimulus C Coughing
involvement and specifically designed to produce L Laugh R Repeat
emotional response in a guilty subject. M Movement SN Sniff ( inhale)
(Are you one who actually stole the missing cell
phone of X?) ---0---
 Control Question: it is designed to produce
response on the innocent subject and serve as the
basis for evaluating the subject’s perceptual set.
This question must be answerable by “no” only.
They are related to the matters under investigation
but are similar in nature through less serious. They
are questions to which the subject in all probability
will lie or at least his/her answer will give some
concern with respect to their truth or accuracy.
(Did you ever steal a thing before?)
d) Irrelevant
 Evidence Connecting Question: it is designed to
stimulate the lying subject and focus his/her
attention on the probability of incriminating proof
that would tend to establish his /her guilt.
(Were the fingerprints lifted on the house of X are
yours?)
 Knowledge Question: it is designed to prove
whether the subject posses information regarding
the identity of the offender.
(Do you know who stole the cell phone of X?)
 Secondary Control Question: deals with the present
activity of the subject
(Have you ever stolen anything from your present
employment?)

2. Peak and Tension Test – it is utilized when the details of

the facts have not been established. This means that
there should be no common knowledge between the
suspect and the investigator or polygraph examiner. The
changes of a guilty perpetrator being caught are
extremely bigger. The subject is instructed to answer
“no” only.

NDI - No Deception The subject is telling the

indicated truth.
DI - Deception Indicated The subject is not telling the
truth
INC - Inconclusive The evaluation of the
physiological data is
inconclusive.

Systems and Methodology

Polygraph examinations are administered using either the
Limestone Polygraph Professional Suite from Limestone
Technologies Inc. or the Lafayette LX4000 from the Lafayette
Instrument Company, both of which are state-of-the-art
systems of computerized polygraph technology.

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