J. Coat. Technol. Res.
, 15 (1) 41–49, 2018
DOI 10.1007/s11998-017-9972-z
Evaporation of clearcoat solvents from a rotary bell atomizer
and its relationship with bell speed, flow rate, and electrostatic
potential
R. Ray, P. Henshaw
Ó American Coatings Association 2017
Abstract The relations between evaporation of clear-
coat solvents and various operating parameters of the
spray from a rotary bell atomizer were measured using
a particle dynamic anemometer (PDA). The robot arm
holding the spray applicator was moved relative to the
PDA so that the volume flux at different parts of the
spray could be measured. The difference in total flux
between two planes, perpendicular to the spray axis,
was considered to be equal to the evaporation. Eva-
poration was found to increase with increasing bell
speed. Evaporation also increased with increasing
coatings flow rate from 100 to 200 cm3/s flow rate,
but not for a further increase to 300 cm3/s. Higher
electrostatic potential, bell speed, and lower flow rate
decrease the mean particle diameter. Particle mean
velocity increases with increasing bell speed and flow
rate. Coatings flow rate, bell speed, electrostatic
potential, and the interaction between flow rate and
bell speed were significant factors affecting evapora-
tion rate. Of the former three, coatings flow rate was
the most influential.
Keywords PDA, Paint spray, Evaporation, Bell
speed, Flow rate, Clearcoat, DOE
Introduction
In spite of their varieties of uses, all coatings contain
materials that eventually form a film on the target
surface. The coating may be pigmented or unpig-
mented. One type of unpigmented coating is called
clearcoat and is widely used in the automotive industry
over a color basecoat. It is used to seal the latter and
R. Ray, P. Henshaw (&)
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
e-mail: henshaw@uwindsor.ca
provide a smooth, glossy surface as well as UV and
weather protection. A variety of technologies are used
including acrylic melamines, polyurethanes, epoxy
acids, and melamine–carbamates. A shiny exterior
finish is very important to the industry as it is one of the
key factors for customer satisfaction.
The automotive industry has been striving for a
uniform spray of atomized paint for a long time.
Appearance is a major selling feature in this industry,
and better appearance is directly related to the
uniformity of spray. The knowledge of how atomiza-
tion parameters affect the spray droplet size can be
used to maintain the optimum size in the face of
changing process conditions. In addition, droplet size
affects the alignment of flakes in modern automotive
paints, again affecting appearance. The industry is also
fighting to reduce volatile organic compound (VOC)
emissions during coating. The painting process ac-
counts for around 80% of the overall VOC emissions
in the automotive industry. VOC emissions can be
reduced by using different formulations of paint (e.g.,
high solids paint) and/or using less paint. Less paint
may be used if the transfer efficiency (fraction of
sprayed paint that adheres to the vehicle) is maxi-
mized, and/or the paint is applied such that it provides
the desired appearance with minimum thickness. An
optimized painting process not only limits the VOC
emissions, but also reduces the painting cost for the
industry. Understanding the relationship between
rotary bell atomizer (RBA) process parameters and
evaporation of paint solvents is important to optimize
finish. A thorough investigation was required to
develop a relation between the various paint applica-
tion parameters with the evaporation from the coating.
Bell speed (BS), shaping air (SA), coating flow rate
(CFR), and electrostatic potential (EP) of the spray
medium are major operational controlling factors
which may affect the evaporation of paint solvents.
These factors are known to affect droplet size, and
41
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018
previous studies have shown them to affect appear-
ance. Generally, it was always assumed that smaller
droplet sizes led to greater in-flight evaporation, but
evaporation was never measured. In this work, evap-
oration of solvents from a paint spray was measured by
the difference in droplet flux between successive planes
in the path of the spray.
Literature review
An early investigation determined that a liquid sheet is
formed during atomization in a RBA. A spinning cup was
used with an impinging air stream flowing perpendicular
to the spray.1 They showed that the impinging air stream
does not have an immediate impact on breaking the liquid
sheet. The resulting drop size from the breaking of liquid
sheet was a function of the sheet thickness. This was true
for a wide range of operating conditions.
An investigation of the relation between bell speed,
flow rate, and mean drop size was conducted.2 Lower
mean drop sizes were found at higher values of
parameters like bell speed, centrifugal force, and
Coriolis force. Higher mean droplet sizes resulted
from higher liquid flow rates and lower bell speeds.
They also reported a broad distribution of drop sizes at
higher flow rates but at a constant bell speed. The
mean drop size distribution widened with increasing
bell speed and constant flow rate.
Wang3 used different types of nozzles to find a
relationship between droplet size, surface area, and
evaporation of water at a constant pressure and
temperature. Using a shooting water jet, he found that
the evaporation decreases with increasing droplet size.
With increasing axial distance, the droplet diameter
increased with decreasing particle velocity.
The particle size characteristics of metallic solvent-
borne and waterborne paint sprayed from a RBA were
measured using shadowgraphy.4 A CCD camera was
used to calculate the particle size. Within the 30–
50 krpm bell speed range, the Sauter mean particle size
(D32) decreased with increasing bell speed, while the
effect of shaping air was found significant only below
50 krpm bell speed, even though experiments were
performed up to 70 krpm.
Infrared thermography was used to investigate
droplet properties for different flow rates and bell
speeds by Akafuah et al.5 A steady increase of Sauter
mean diameter was observed for an increase in flow
rate from 100 to 400 cc/min. They also reported that
the Sauter mean diameter decreased with increasing
bell speed.
The relationship between different parameters: flow
rate, bell speed, shaping air, electrostatic potential, and
the appearance of the paint, was investigated by Di
Domenico and Henshaw.6 They observed that increas-
ing the bell speed, and in some cases decreasing the paint
flow rate, resulted in less surface waviness. Changing
these process parameters in this way had been shown in
42
the literature to result in smaller droplets, which are
commonly associated with greater in-flight evaporation
of solvents, resulting in a drier deposited film. However,
a drier film has a higher viscosity and therefore should
not level as easily; yet the drier spray conditions led to
smoother cured surfaces. It was postulated that lower
amounts of solvent-driven resin migration in drier films
resulted in a smoother cured film. In order to decompose
the relationship between atomizer process parameters
and cured surface appearance, the evaporation of spray
particles in-flight needed to be measured to confirm that
evaporation increased when particle sizes were de-
creased. Once this was confirmed, the theory of resin
migration leading to surface roughness would be more
viable.
The use of a PDA to measure spray flow rates had
limited success in the past. Schwarzkopf et al.7 calcu-
lated the difference between calculated and PDA-
measured flow rates to be up to 30% for flow rates in
the dilute range of the spray. Though they described
the methods to minimize the difference to 20%, the
ability to use a PDA to determine the evaporation by
subtracting the mass flow rates at two different planes
in the spray required improved precision. In water
sprays, Ray et al.8 measured the mass flux at two planes
perpendicular to the spray (perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the RBA). The difference was less than the
uncertainty of the measurement. Further experiments
with water established that the lower flow rate and bell
speed increased the evaporation rate.9 In this case,
shaping air was not a statistically significant factor, and
electrostatic potential was not used when spraying
water. Unfortunately, the PDA was not able to
accurately measure opaque (basecoat) sprays,10 so
clearcoat must be used as a surrogate. In this work,
the same setup was used to measure the evaporation of
clearcoat.
Experimental setup and measuring techniques
The liquid clearcoat was fed into a high-speed bell
atomizer (ABB RB1000) which was attached to a
computer-guided robotic arm system (ABB IRB-
5500X). PPG NCTX clearcoat was used (62.7% solids
concentration and 1.25 kg/L density, tested in FCA
Canada Materials Laboratory). A PDA system (Dan-
tec Dynamics A/S, Denmark) was used to compute the
volume flux, particle diameter, velocity, and particle
size distribution at a fixed point in space. The robot
arm moved the RBA so that various points in the spray
could be measured. The whole system was controlled
from the outside of the spray booth. The PDA system
has a receiving optics, a processor, and the BSA (Burst
Spectrum Analyzer11) software package. A nebulizer
(Airlife-002002) was used to align the PDA and robotic
arm initially. The spray booth was maintained with a
constant temperature of 24 ± 0.6°C (75 ± 1°F) and
65% ± 2% humidity. The booth had a constant and
 J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018

uniform, mostly vertical, downward air velocity of minimize this influence, the PDA was placed at the
2.1 m/s. However, the air had a tendency to flow center of the booth. The major processing parts of the
toward the outer wall of the booth. In order to PDA, which included the operating computer, laser,
and photodetectors, were located outside of the spray
booth. The transmitting and receiving optics of PDA
Bell Atomizer
can easily attract the highly charged clearcoat, result-
Y ing in coating on the lenses. To avoid this problem,
several precautions were taken. All parts of the PDA
were ground, and special chutes were attached to both
X
the transmitting and receiving optics. The chutes were
pressurized with compressed air, which constantly blew
Transmitter Z air away from the optics. A schematic diagram of the
Detector experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. This avoided any
chance of clearcoat deposition on the lenses. Further,
instead of spraying into space, a grounded, bare metal
Bare metal surface
surface was placed 90 cm from the bell cup. The metal
plate was replaced after every experiment. It helped
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of experimental setup (adopted
from Dantec Dynamics)
the particles to be attracted downward rather than to

0.025
Volume flux (cm 3 /cm 2 /s)

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
−12.5 −10 −7.5 −5 −2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5

Radial distance (cm)

Axial target distance 22.5 cm Axial target distance 37.5 cm

(a)
0.025

0.02
Volume flux (cm 3 /cm 2 /s)

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
−12.5 −10 −7.5 -5 −2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
−0.005
Radial distance (cm)

Axial target distance 22.5 cm Axial target distance 37.5 cm

(b)
Fig. 2: Volume flux along a traverse of the spray (a) 200 cm3/s flow rate; (b) 300 cm3/s flow rate with 200 L/min air flow rate,
40 krpm bell speed, and 70 kV electric potential

43
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018
2.00
1.80
Total evaporation (cm3/s)
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
100
Fig. 3: Total evaporation of spray (cm3/s) for various bell speeds at various flow rates with 70 kV electric potential and
200 L/min shaping air flow rate
the PDA itself. The plate also mimicked a target
surface in the paint booth. Ray et al.8 described how
the experimental setup used for this current investiga-
tion was used to measure the evaporation in water
spray.
The z-direction was set equal to the axis of bell cup
rotation. Measurements were taken in two x–y planes,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the bell cup (axial
planes). Points in the spray were sampled in 2.5-cm
intervals along the x-axis by moving the robot arm
horizontally relative to the fixed PDA probe and receiver.
Two axial planes, at 22.5 and 37.5 cm from the bell
cup, were selected. The total flux of liquid droplets was
calculated for each plane, and the difference was
calculated as the total evaporation (cm3/s) between
those planes. The clearcoat flow rate (CFR) varied
between 100, 200 and 300 cubic centimeters per min-
ute (cm3/min) with a constant 200 liters per minute (L/
min) shaping airflow rate (SA). Bell speed (BS) was 30,
40, or 50 krpm, and electrostatic potential (EP) was set
to 60, 70, and 80 kilovolts (kV). A full factorial matrix
for all of the variable parameters was completed.
The PDA system was used to calculate the average
volume flux (cm3/cm2/s) in both planes. Software is
included with the system (BSA Flow Software v.4.10)
which can calculate the average flux as well as diameter
(lm) and velocity (cm/s). The setup parameters for the
current test for PDA are given in ‘‘Appendix.’’ The
maximum number of particles was found at the center
of the spray, and the number decreased with radial
distance. To ensure that the reasonable maximum time
was allowed to detect any particles in the extreme
distal vicinity of the spray, a maximum 5-s acquire time
was set for the machine, and 10,000 was set as the
maximum particle count to avoid system overloading.
The volume flux along the x-direction traverse,
which passed through the centerline of the spray, was
measured for the extended visible range of spray
(x = +45.72 to 45.72 cm). But to ensure statistical
44
BS 30 krpm BS 40 krpm BS 50 krpm
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Flow rate (cm 3/min)
validity, the PDA can calculate different measure-
ments only if a minimum 1500 particle count is present.
A set of preliminary tests indicated that this threshold
was only achievable at a radial distance of 12.5 cm, and
hence, measurements up to 12.5 cm on each side of the
spray were taken, with a 2.5-cm interval. Symmetry in
the x and y directions was assumed.
Results and discussion
Because of low particle counts, any flux measured
beyond 12.5 cm from the axis of the spray was
neglected. The volume of the neglected droplet flux
was estimated to be a maximum of 3.5% and 1.2% of
the total flux at 22.5 and 37.5 cm axial distances,
respectively. The maximum diameter of the particles
instead of the average diameter was used in this
estimate so that it would be conservative. Therefore,
neglecting the flux at radial distances greater than
12.5 cm resulted in a small error.
The average droplet volume flux increased from the
center (x = 0) to a radius of 2.5 cm and decreased
thereafter (Fig. 2). The spatial configuration of the
spray is a hollow cone because of the initial radial
displacement and component of velocity. The initial
confinement of the spray is due to the constant shaping
air which blows downward from an annulus above the
bell cup. The droplet volume flux increased with an
increasing coating flow rate (CFR). A higher flux rate
was found within a 5 cm radial distance of the
centerline using water spray compared to the same
region using clearcoat.9
Figure 3 shows the total evaporation for different
bell speeds and flow rates with a constant 200 L/min
shaping air flow. Evaporation increased with increased
bell speed. Basu et al.4 found that within the 30–
50 krpm bell speed range, with 180 L/min, shaping air,
and 65 kV electric potential, the Sauter mean diameter
 J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018

35
BS 30 krpm
BS 40 krpm
30 BS 50 krpm

Mean diameter (μm)

25

20

15

10
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00
Radial distance (cm)

(a)
35
BS 30 krpm
BS 40 krpm
30 BS 50 krpm
Mean diameter (μm)

25

20

15

10
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Radial distance (cm)

(b)
Fig. 4: Particle mean diameter, D32 (lm), with increasing bell speed for (a) 100 cm3/s flow rate; (b) 200 cm3/s flow rate at
200 L/min air flow rate and 70 kV electric potential

(D32) decreased with increasing bell speed. At
30 krpm, the mean particle size (D32) was around
38 lm and it decreased to 32 lm at 50 krpm bell speed
under the same conditions. The decrease in mean
particle size means that the liquid coating was divided
among a higher number of smaller particles, resulting
in a higher surface area for evaporation. They also
found that the rate of decrease of mean particle size
with bell speed was higher for bell speeds above
50 krpm. However, within a specific air flow rate (128–
240 L/min), mean particle size did not significantly
change for different airflow rates within this range. Ray
et al.9 and Di Domenico and Henshaw6 also found that
airflow rate had very little impact.
Figure 4 indicates that the relationship between bell
speed and particle size found by previous researchers is
also applicable to clearcoat. A higher bell speed has a
direct relation to decreasing mean particle diameter.
For clearcoat, with a 100 cm3/s flow rate, 200 L/min
shaping air, 70 kV electric potential, and at z = 22.
5 cm, the mean diameter at the center of the spray was
around 30 lm for a 30 krpm bell speed and decreased
to 25 lm for a 50 krpm bell speed. The mean diameter
also gradually decreased with the radial distance of the
spray. A lower flux due to lower particle numbers and a
higher travel distance combined to decrease the mean
diameter of the particles at higher radial distances. A
higher flow rate also increased the mean diameter for
the same conditions. At 200 cm3/s coatings flow rate,
the mean diameter at the center of the spray was
around 32 lm for a 30 krpm bell speed, and it
decreased to 26 at a 50 krpm bell speed.

45
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018

35
EP 60 kV
30 EP 70 kV
EP 80 KV

Mean diameter(μm)
25

20

15

10

5
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Radial distance (cm)

(a)
35
EP 60 kV
30 EP 70 KV
EP 80 kV
Mean diameter (μm)

25

20

15

10

5
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Radial distance (cm)

(b)
Fig. 5: Particle mean diameter, D32 (lm) with increasing electric potential for (a) 100 cm3/s flow rate; (b) 200 cm3/s flow rate
at 200 slpm air flow rate and 40 krpm bell speed

Akafuah et al.5 reported that Sauter mean diameter
decreased around 5 lm with an increase of bell speed
from 30 to 40 krpm at a constant 100 cm3/min flow
rate. A further increase to 50 krpm decreased the
Sauter mean diameter only 2 lm. At 40 krpm bell
speed, Sauter mean diameter increases with an increas-
ing flow rate. A 3-lm increase was reported for a flow
rate increment of 100–200 cm3/min flow rate. Any
further increase had a moderate effect on the Sauter
mean diameter (around 1 lm per 100 cm3/min in-
crease). They used water as a working fluid, and
electrostatic charge was not used.
Basu et al.4 found that mean diameter also
decreased with increasing electric potential. They
found that within the 30–50 krpm range, at 180 L/min
shaping air, the mean diameter decreased by around
2 lm for a 10 kV electric potential increase. The
current research has found a decrease of particle
diameter of 2–3 lm as a result of rising the EP from 60
to 70 kV at a 200 cm3/s CFR, but an exact number
cannot be confirmed due to the uncertainty of the
measurement (Fig. 5a). A higher mean diameter was
also found for 200 cm3/s coating flow rate at the same
electric potential (Fig. 5b).
Wang3 figured out that the radial droplet velocity
decreased from the center of the spray to its edge along
the radial distance. Higher bell speeds were observed to
increase the vertical droplet velocity (Figs. 6a and 6b) in
this research. As the velocity increased, the particles
travelled through more air which resulted in an increase
in the heat exchange, which increased the evaporation
of the droplets. Coincidentally, the mean particle
diameter increased with higher flow rate (Figs. 5a and
5b). Basu et al.4 also found that the mean particle
diameter increased with increasing coating flow rate. An
increase in mean particle diameter with an increase in

46
 J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018

5
BS 30 krpm
4.5
4 BS 40 krpm

3.5 BS 50 krpm

Velocity (m/s)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Radial distance (cm)

(a)
5
BS 30 krpm
4.5
4 BS 40 krpm

3.5 BS 50 krpm
Velocity (m/s)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
−15.00 −10.00 −5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Radial distance (cm)

(b)
Fig. 6: Axial velocity (m/s) with increasing bell speed for (a) 100 cm3/s flow rate; (b) 200 cm3/s flow rate at 200 L/min air flow
rate, 40 krpm bell speed, and 60 kV electric potential

flow rate may indicate a higher rate of agglomeration of
smaller particles into larger particles, which eventually
decreases the average particle velocity. According to
the law of conservation of momentum, the velocity of a
particle decreases after agglomeration with a lower
velocity one. No significant change in the mean velocity
was found at ±5 cm radial distance, which indicates less
agglomeration in that area.
A four-factor, full-factorial design of experiments
(DOE) using flow rate, shaping air, voltage, and bell
speed as the variables was created by Di Domenico
and Henshaw6 at the 95% confidence level. Basecoat
application zones were maintained at 22.8°C and 63%
humidity with a coatings flow rate of 500 mL/min.
Through analysis of variance (ANOVA), they found
that voltage alone had no effect on the surface
waviness, but there were several significant interactive
effects: (flow rate) 9 (shaping air), (shaping air) 9
(bell speed), (flow rate) 9 (bell speed), and (flow
rate) 9 (voltage). The ANOVA is a technique where
variances are used to determine whether the means are
different by comparing the variance between different
factor means vs the variance within factors. It explains
whether the factors are all part of one larger popula-
tion or separate populations with different character-
istics. On the other hand, a regression analysis
determines the influence of one or more input vari-
ables on an outcome variable.
In this work, an ANOVA was initially applied to the
results to determine which factors were significant (p
value less than 0.05) using Minitab 16 software
(Minitab, State College, PA, USA). The evaporation
rate was used as the output and the process parame-
ters: coatings flow rate (CFR), bell speed (BS), and

47
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (1) 41–49, 2018

electrostatic potential (EP) as input factors. For these
data, evaporation shows a strong correlation with the
variables: CFR, BS, and the combination FR*BS, for
which the p values of these significant variables are less
than 0.16. Electric potential was also significant, but
with p = 0.048 a weaker relationship is indicated.
A regression analysis was then performed on the
variables: CFR, BS, and EP. The significant interaction
found in the ANOVA was not included because
regression analysis requires that the variables be
independent. The variables were coded, such that the
middle level of each variable was entered as a value of
zero, the lowest level was coded to -1, and the highest
level was mapped to +1. Coding the input data in this
way does not affect the R2 (goodness of fit) for the
regression, but it does allow the coefficients to indicate
the relative importance of the variables. The resulting
regression equation is:
Evaporation ¼ 2040 CFR þ 1220 BS þ 1236 EP
þ 4880
The positive coefficients indicate that as each variable
increases, the evaporation rate increases. In addition,
the larger coefficient for CFR indicates that this
variable has more effect on the evaporation than the
others. The R2 for this regression is 0.790, which
indicates that these three variables account for 79% of
the variation in evaporation rate.
Since decreasing coatings flow rate increases evap-
oration, and decreasing coatings flow rate was previ-
ously shown to produce less surface waviness,5 then it
follows that a drier film is less likely to result in surface
waviness. This implies that the cause of surface
waviness is solvent-related and adds strength to the
postulation that surface waviness in curing automotive
paints is caused by solvent-driven resin migration.
Conclusion
The total evaporation of solvent from clearcoat
sprayed from a rotary atomizer was measured. Evapo-
ration increased with increasing bell speed. Evapora-
tion from the clearcoat increased with increasing flow
rate from 100 to 200 cm3/s but decreased with a further
increase to 300 cm3/s. The mean diameter (D32) of
particles decreased with increasing bell speed, electric
potential, and lower flow rate. The axial velocity of
particles increased with increasing bell speed. ANO-
VA revealed that the significant applicator parameters
affecting evaporation were: coating flow rate, bell
speed, electrostatic potential, and the interaction of
flow rate and bell speed. A regression analysis indi-
cated that coating flow rate has the most influence on
evaporation, followed by bell speed and electrostatic
potential. The results of these experiments lend
credence to the theory that waviness in automotive
coatings (within the ranges of parameters tested)
results from solvent-induced resin migration.
Acknowledgments University of Windsor/Chrysler
Canada Automotive Research and Development
Center provided the necessary training, equipment,
and facilities to do the testing. Funding was provided
by FCA Canada Inc.
Appendix
See Table 1.

Table 1: Configuration of properties in PDA and spray properties

Properties Values Properties Values

Wavelength 532 Max. particle diameter 179.3

Focal length 400 Particle name Clearcoat
Beam diameter 1.35 Particle refractive index 1.334
Expander ratio 1 Particle specific gravity 1.04
Beam Spacing 38 Part. kinematic viscosity 160.5 (cp)
Frequency shift 4.00E + 07 Medium name Air
Number of fringes 35 Medium refractive index 1
Fringe spacing 5.606 Medium specific gravity 1
Beam half-angle 2.72 Med. kinematic viscosity 0.001
Probe volume dX 0.2009 Window type None
Probe volume dY 0.2007 Eff. scattering angle 30
Probe volume dZ 4.23 Eff. scattering mode Refraction
Receiver type Fiber PDA Phase factor P12 2.757
Scattering angle 30 Phase factor P13 1.379
Receiver focal length 400 Relative refractive index 1.334
Recv. expander ratio 1 Eff. spatial filter width 0.32
Fringe direction Positive Critical angle 82.88
Scattering mode Refraction Brewster angle 73.71
Aperture mask Mask A Rainbow angle 138

48

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