INDIAN SACRED LITERATURE

An Over View of Indian Philosophy

1
Smṛti Literature

2
Classical Systems of Indian Philosophy (Darśanas)

3
DARŚANAS
What is the meaning of Darśana?
Darśana comes from the root word ‘dṛs’ which means ‘to see’ and ‘ana’ which means
‘vision’, ‘the act of seeing itself.’ Hence, it means the instrument of seeing i.e., by which we
see. Thus Darśana means “that which enables you to see” the Reality or Brahman or Truth or
Mokśa. To attain salvation or Brahman one need to follow certain mārgas. Darśana offers
certain ways to attain mokṣa. Darśana means seeing the vision of ultimate truth. It also a
means- that by which I am able to see. The means are the schools of Philosophy.

Classification of Darśana: āstika and nāstika

Āstika: One who believes in God.
One who accepts Vedic authority.
One believes in life after death.
One who says “there is” = āsti
One who accepts Vedic authority is āstika and one who does not accept Vedic authority
is nāstika. These schools are also known as Vaidika and avaidika.

I. Āstika: orthodox systems (accept Vedic authority)

Meaning of Āstika: Belief in God; Vedic authority; Life after death.
There are 6 schools. These are allied or sister schools.

II. Nāstika: Heterodox schools (do not accep Vedic authority)

4
 NYĀYA SCHOOL (400 B.C.E.)
Introduction
In general nyāya means justice, law, righteousness etc. But in Indian philosophy it is
related to rules, niyama or regulations. It means argumentation.
This is one of the Indian schools of logic and epistemology. It is also known as
Tarkaśāstra (Science of reasoning), Pramāṇaśāstra (science of logic and epistemology) and
Anvikṣiki (Science of critical study).
The founder of this school is Gautama (Akṣapāda, 4th C), meaning excellent bull/ox.
The founder’s work is Nyāya Sūtra. Vātsyāyana wrote Nyāya Bhāṣya
Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya wrote Tattvacintāmaṇi (crest Jewel of logic/ Thought Jewel of
Reality)
Annaṁbhaṭṭa wrote Tarkasaṅgranha (manual).
Two divisions of the school: Prācīna Nyāya (old school) and Navya Nyāya (New
School)

Metaphysics
Nyāya accepts 16 Categories. They are as follows:
1. Pramāṇa: It is that by which you come to know the object as it is. It comes from prama
which means valid knowledge, ana - instrument, prama + ana = the instrument of valid
knowledge. Bhrama or aprama is invalid knowledge. According to Nyāya there are four means
of valid knowledge.
2. Prameya: Objects to be known known through four means of knowledge. Objects of right
knowledge. There are 12 objects of valid knowledge or knowables.
i. Ātman – self or soul, jīvātma (finite) and paramātma (infinite). Soul is the substratum of
knowledge. Ultimately soul has the knowledge.
ii. Śarīra - body.
iii. Indrīya - sense organs - eyes, skin, ear, nose, tongue.
iv. Viśaya - objects of sense organs: eye -colour, skin - touch, ear - sound, nose - smell, tongue - taste.
v. Manas/ mind - Material means of knowledge sorrow, pleasure is the inner state.
iv. Buddhi/ knowledge - cognition is the property of the soul.
vii. Pravṛtti - tendency/ activities – mānasika - thought, verbal, bodily.
viii. Doṣa – mental defects, rāga - attachment, dveśa - Aversion.
ix. Pretyabhāva, Punarjanma - Rebirth.
x. Karmaphala - fruit of your action.

5
xi. Duḥkha - suffering.
xii. Apavarga - liberation

3. Saṁśaya: Doubt or uncertainty - It is the state of uncertainty resulting from attributing two
or more contradictory aspects to the something. Eg. Round thing – apple or orange.
4. Prayojna: Motive or purpose for which the particular task is undertaken.
5. Dṛstāṅta: Illustration - It is given in the context of debate. Eg. Smoke and fire. Illustration
of kitchen.
6. Siddhāṅta: Well-established conclusion by the use of four pramāṇas.
7. Āvayava: 5 propositions or members of Nyāya syllogism.
a. Pratijñā: statement -something said in order to prove - the statement to be proved,
Eg. the mountain has fire.
b. Hetu - Reason, e.g. because it has smoke.
c. Udāharaṇa - An example with invariable concomitance (occurring together), e.g
wherever (vyāpti - invariable) there is smoke there is fire as it is in the kitchen.
d. Upanaya- contextual application, e.g. this mountain has smoke pervaded by fire.
e. Nigamāna- Conclusion, e.g. so this mountain has fire.
8. Tarka: Hypothetical reasoning – It is a type of reasoning where opponent is made to accept
a particular statement by showing him the absurdity in his statement.
9. Nirṇaya: Certain conclusion. Ascertainment of the true character of a thing is decided by
looking at the various points of view in a dispute. Given by a chair person.
10. Vāda: Discussion. Healthy and honest debate is characterized by knowing truth. There is
no upmanship. Win-win approach. Ideally it takes place between teacher (vādi) and disciple
(prativādi). It aims at the ascertainment of truth.
11. Jalpa: Verbal wrangling or tricky debate - The person gains victory by engaging into clever
and smart argument. Here the person may use wrong way or cunningness, fair or foul means
to win the debate. Person is interested in victory, profit, publicity than truth. Both are well-
versed.
12. Vitaṅda: Cavil (evasion) or destructive debate - The person is not interested in establishing
truth but engages in mere refutation. It is a destructive debate. It is between person of good and
bad intention.
13. Hetvabhāsa: Fallacies - formal fallacy and material fallacy. Hetu (reason) - conditions,
why it does not look like reason, abhāsa - as if, seems but not actually, reason looks like but
not actual reason.
6
14. Chala: Equivocation - unintended sense is taken. A form of arguing where opponent takes
unintended sense. Eg. Bark= of a dog or of a tree. The boy is Navakambala - nine blankets or
new blanket.
15 Jāti: Argument or reasoning based on false analogy.
16. Nigrahasthāna: Points of defeat in a debate. Eg. shifting the position, reducing his position
to absurdity, silence, physical fight etc. nyunatā- saying not enough, adhikyam – saying more
than what is needed.
First nine are the means to attain the right knowledge and other seven are the means to
clear wrong notions. Having right knowledge is the path of liberation.

Theory of Causation
Two important components in causation: cause and effect.
Cause/ kāraṇa is an unconditional (necessary, without any condition), invariable (in
every case it precedes effect) antecedent of an effect.
An effect/kārya is unconditional, invariable and consequent of a cause.
The Nyāya view of causation is known as the ‘asatkāryavāda’. Asat means non-pre-
exists, kārya means effect, vāda stands for theory. Hence, it means the effect does not pre-exist
in the cause prior to its production. The effect is entirely a new thing, a new creation (ārambha).
Hence the theory is also known as ārambavāda, theory of a new beginning. Eg. Curd is non-
existent in the milk.

Kinds of Cause
Material or inherent Cause: Material used. E.g. clay for pot; clay is the inherent cause
of a pot. The effect inheres in its material cause. The cloth inheres in the thread.
Non-inherent cause: It inheres in the material cause and helps the production of the
effect. The conjunction of threads, the colour of the thread.
Efficient cause: assisting thing used in production. E.g potter, wheel, stick etc.

Cosmology
Universe is formed from earth, water, fire and air atoms.
Earth can be eternal - atomic earth and non-eternal - atoms that come together.
Dyad - 2 atoms, Triad- 3 dyads - the minimum perceptible unit.
Creation - coming together of atoms.
Destruction (dissolution) - separation/dissociation up of atoms.
7
 Who gives to the motion to the static atoms? God, the efficient cause, with the help of
adṛṣṭa or unseen power inherent in the atoms.

Epistemology
Nyaya philosopher went to shop to bring ghee. On the way he asked: Is ghee supporting
vessel or vessel supporting ghee. He could not find out. Hence, tried to examine and held it
upside down. He emptied the ghee. He was happy for the answer and his wife was angry with
him for not bringing the ghee.
Notion of knowledge - Knowledge is that which manifests object as it is just as a lamp reveals
objects in a dark place.
Characteristics of knowledge - It should be definite and certain, non- erroneous, true to the
object as it is, manifesting as it is and it should have novelty.

Kinds of knowledge:
Knowledge

Anubhava (experience) Smṛti (memory)

directly presented not directly presented

Valid This is invalid

There is no element of novelty
Pratyakṣa Anumiti Śabdabodha Upamiti
(Perceptual (inferential (verbal (knowledge
Knowledge) Knowledge) Knowledge) of denotation)
relation between Invalid
words & its meaning

Doubt Error (Misapprehension) Hypothetical knowledge

Apprehending the things other than what it is.
Eg. Rope as snake

Doubt is the knowledge of an object as having contradictory attributes, e.g., the

uncertainty whether object in front is a post or a man. Error is not true to the nature of its object.
Hypothetical reasoning does not produce any new knowledge. It only confirms what one
already knows earlier.