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Wolfgang KlU1ze
Teclmology Brewing and Malting
Translated by Sue Pratt, Berlin
4 th updated edition, 2010

Up to now have ap peared TECHNOLOGY

1. Germ an ed ition
2. German ed ition
1961
1967
Brevving Malting
3. German ed ition 1975
4. German ed ition 1978
5. Ger man edition 1979
1. Hungarian ed ition 1983
6. German ed ition 1989
7. German ed ition 1994 Chapter 11 co-written by
1. Internationa l edi tion 1996 Dr HJ Manger
8. German edi tion 1998
1. Chinese edition 1994
1. Se rbi an ed ition 1998
2. International ed ition 1999
1. Polish edi tion 1999
1. Russian ed ition 2001
2. Russian ed ition 2003
3. International ed ition 2004
1. Spanish ed ition 2006
9. German edition 2007
2. Chinese edi tion 2008
3. Russian edition 2008

ISBN 978-3-921690-64-2

© VLB Berlin, Germany

All rights reserved by the Versuchs- und Lehranstalt Wr Brauerei in Berlin (VLB),
Seestrasse 13, 13353 Berlin, Germany, www.vlb-berlin.org

All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reprodu-
ced in any form - by photocopy, scaJUling or any other means - without written permission from the publishers.
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considered lUlprotected by law.

Typesetting/Layout: Grafikdesign Anne Kulessa, Dresden;

Printing: Westkreuz-Druckerei Ahrens KG Berlin/Bonn, www.westkreuz.de 41h completely updated edition
BERLIN
Vf<1iuthS-o.n:Ilthr¥U!i.1
Printed in Germany - 2010 Published by 1.:if&_tllnlkr1n

Combining the best raw materials and the dedication of our brew
masters results in the high quality of Bitburger Premium Beer,
Germany's # 1 selling draft beer.
Introduction to the 4th English edition of
"Technology Brewing and Malting"
In 2008, arotmd 1.8 billion hectolitres of beer
were brewed and dnmk in the five conti-
nents of the world, and the trend is inn'ea-
sing. Descriptions of the production of beer
can be traced back 5000 years. This means
that beer is a cultural asset, which has fOlmd
friends the world over and as a connective
element, provides vitality and enjoyment.
At the same time, beer is beneficial to mind
and body. Medical research has in the mean-
time irrevocably proven that moderate beer
consumption has a positive impact on hu-
man health.
All of this means that we brewers have the
duty to place high demands on the quality
of raw materials, plants, processes, and last
but not least, the qualifications of the em-
ployees. In Germany, with its approximate
1300 breweries and 5000 beer brands, bre-
wing science and brewing education have
always been very important. Brewing speci-
fic research and development - inter alia at
the lUuversities of Weihenstephan and Ber-
lin - has led to significant progress. And last
but not least, the German Reinheitsgebot re-
sh'icting the ingredients to nahlral raw ma-
5
terials, water, hops, malt and yeast, has in-
spired the creativity of brewers and engi-
neers.
The resulting extensive knowledge is
summarised in the current volume of "Tech-
nology Brewing and Malting". Since the
first edition in 1961, about 50,000 copies ha-
ve been sold. With h'anslations into Htmga-
rian, Polish, English, Serbo-Croatian, Chine-
se, Russian and Spanish, the original
German edition has become integral to the
practice of brewing the world over.
Knowledge is dynamic. Research and de-
velopment occur continuously, in the bre-
wing industry too of course. The revised 4t1 ,
edition of "Technology Brewing and Mal-
ting" is now available also in English. Wor-
king for several years, Wolfgang Ktmze has
incorporated the latest developments in bre-
wing practice into Ius book. Current trends
such as filling of beer in PET bottles, kiesel-
guhr-free filtration, new procedures in wort
production and new applications regarding
process automation have been taken into ac-
cotmt.
With numerous diagrams and his uLimita-
ble didactic style, the author has agau1 suc-
ceeded U1 presenting complex processes U1 a
clear manner. This latest edition thus de-
monstrates the reputation of "Teclmology
Brewu1g and Malting" as the globally lead-
U1g standard work for professional brewers
and maltsters.
Dr. Ing. Axel Th. Simon
President
VLB Berlin eV
6 7
Introduction b y the Author
TlLis book was originally conceived as a text-
book for the h'aining of brewers and malt-
sters and has served tlLis aim well for deca-
des. It has in the meantime become an
important source of information and object
of Shldy for a considerably larger market.
Since the publication of the first edition of
tlLis book, almost half a cenhuy has passed.
During tlLis time there have been revolutio-
nary changes in technical expertise and
tedmology in beer and malt production.
This is expressed in the many editions of tlLis
book in many languages that have appeared
over the years.
Sud1 a comprehensive book of course has
many kind helpers. I would like to thank my
friends of many years, Professor Gerolf An-
nemi.iller and Hans Manger PhD for the ma-
ny references and good advice, as well as the
marvellous support from many employees
at VLB, my alma in particular Profes-
sor Reinhold Schildbach, Professor Frank
Rath, Roland Pahl and Heinz-Michael An-
ger PhD. Particular thanks go to Professor
Werner Back, Martin Krottenthaler PhD and
Professor Eberhard Geiger of the chairs for
the Teclmology of Brewing I and II in Frei-
sing - Weihenstephan of the TU Mlmich .
Additional thanks go to the mm1erous post-
graduates and graduands and research assi-
stants at both instihltes for their magtLificent
support in providing information on new
cogtLitions and insights.
Special thanks are also extended to repre-
sentatives of the brewery machinery and
supply industries for the generous provisi-
on of documentation wlLich I requested, in
particular Harhnut Evers PhD (KHS Dort-
mlmd / Bad Kreuznach), Graf Castell and
Ms. Rita Lorenz (Krones AG, Neutraubling),
Thomas Biihler PhD (GEA Huppmann, Kit-
zingen), Klaus Wasmuth and Peter Gatter-
meyer Freising), Hans-
Jorg Menger PhD (Ziemann, Ludwigsburg),
Jiirgen Mobius Bralmschweig) and
many other employees from compruLies I
spoke to. Without their constructive sup-
port, tlLis updated edition could never have
appeared.
I would also like to particularly thruu< the
mru1agement at VLB, ru1d especially Olaf
Hendel for lLis tremendous support in the
preparation of the new edition.
I would like to extend my particular grati-
hlde to my graphic desigt1er of mru1Y years,
Ms. Alme Kulessa, who has consh'uctively
followed my at times vety headstrong ideas
regarding tl1e layout of diagrams and, de-
spite the ever increasing amolmt of graplLi-
cal material, has given tlLis edition a very
pleasing appearru1ce.
Contents
Beer - the oldest drink . .. . ..... .. 21
•1 Raw Materials . .. , .... .. . ...... . .39
1.1 Barley . ...... . ..... . ...... . .. . . .39
1.1.1 Barley types and varieties ..... . ... 39
- Types of barley .. . .. .. .... ... . . .39
- Barley varieties ...... .... . .. ... .40
1.1.2 Barley cultivation ..... .. . .. . ... . .. 41
1.1.3 Structure of the barley kernel ..... .42
- Ex ternal s tru cture .. . . . ... . ... . .. 42
- Internal s tru cture .. .. . . .. . ....... 42
1.1.4 Composition and properties ...... .44
- Carbohydrates .. ............... .44
- Nitrogen compolmds (proteins) .. .48
- Fats (Lipids) ........... .... . .... 50
- Inorga nic m aterial .. ... . .. ....... 52
- Other s ubs tances . . . . .. . .. . ... .. .52
1.1.5 Barley evaluation ................ .55
- Hand evalu ation .. ............. .55
- Physical and chemical
examin ations .... . ......... .. . . .57
- Physiological examinations ...... .58
1.2 Hops .. .. . ..... .... . ... . ..... .. .59
1.2.1 Growing regions ........... ... ... 59
1.2.2 Harvesting, drying and
stabilising hops ........ . .. . ..... .62
- Harvesting . . ......... ...... .. . .62
- Drying .. . ............... . ...... 62
- StabiliSing the hops ..... . . . . .. ... 63
1.2.3 Hop con e structure . .... .. . .. . .... 63
1.2.4 Composition and properties .. ..... 63
- Bitter substances or hop resins .... 64
- Hop oil . . .... . ............. . .. .66
- Tamlins or polyphenols ... . ...... 67
- Nitrogen compolmds ...... ...... 68
1.2.5 Hop eva luation ................ . .68
- Hand evaluation of hop cones .. . .68
- Bitter substance content . . . ....... 69
1.2.6 Hop va rieties . . ..... . . . .. .. . ..... 70
1.2.7 Hop products .... .. . . .. .. . . . ..... 71
- Hop pell ets . . .. . ....... .. . ...... 72
- Hop ex tracts ... . . . .. . ... . ....... 75
1.3 Water . ...... . ................. .. 79
1.3.1 Water cycle ...... . . . ... ... . ..... .79
1.3.2 Fresh wa ter use in the brewery .. . . .80
1.3.3 Obtaining water .. . . ........ . .... .81
- Extracting gro und water .... . .... 81
- Extraction of s pring water ...... . .82
- Extraction of surface water .... . .. 82
- Importance of a
private water suppl y . . .. ...... .. .84
1.3.4 Water requirements . .. . . ...... . . .. 84
- Drinking water requirements .. ... 84
- Brewing water req uirements ... .. .85
- Significance of indi vidual ions . . .. 88
1.3.5 Water improvement procedures .... 89
- Procedure to remove
suspended matter .... . ... . ......89
- Removal of dissolved materials .. .90
- Improvement of the residual
alkalinity of water ..... . ....... .. 91
- Water sterilisa tion . . ..... .. .. . ... 93
- Degassing of water . . .. .... . .. .. .94
1.3.6 Possibilities of saving water . . . ..... 95
1.4 Yeast ........... . ........ . .. ..... 96
1.4.1 Structure and compositi on
of the yeast cell .... . .... . ....... . .96
1.4.2 Metabolism of the yeast cell .. .. . .. 100
1.4.3 Yeast reproduction and grow th . . .. 101
1.4.4 Characteristics of brewing yeasts .. 103
- Morphological characteristics .. .. 103
- Physiological differences . ...... .104
- Fermentation teclulological
differences ...... . . . . . . ......... 104
- Systematic classification ......... 104
1.5 Adjuncts .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . ..... . .. 105
1.5.1 Maize ............. . . .. . .. .. . ... 105
1.5.2 Rice ........................ . .. 107
8 9
1.5.3 Ba rley ........ . ... . ...... . . . ... 107
1.5.4 Sorghum / millet ........ .... . ... 107
1.5.5 Wheat .......... . .... . .... . .... 108
1.5.6 Su ga r ..... .. . . ....... . ... . . . . .. 108
1.5.7 Glucose syrup . ................. 110
1.5.8 Colouring sugar (also couleur) . . , .11 0
·2 Malt Production ... .. . .. ..... . ..114
2.1 Intake, cleaning, grading, transfer 114
2.1.1 Barley intake . .. ....... . .. . . ..... 114
- Intake of barley from lorries
or rail ........... . ........... .115
- Intake of barley from ships .... .. 115
2.1.2 Cleaning and grading the barley . .116
- Barley pre-cleaning .... . ... ... . .117
- Magnetic devices .......... . .. .. 119
- Dry des toner .... . .. . . ... ... .. .119
- Deawner ....... .. ......... . ... 120
- Grain cleaner (trieur) ..... ... ... 121
- Barley grading .... . ......... . .. 123
2.1.3 Transfer of barley and malt .. . . . .. 125
- Mechanical conveyors . ... . .. . . .127
- Pneumatic conveyors ........... 130
2.1.4 Equipment for dust removal . . ... .133
- Cyclones .. . . . ... . ... . .. . ..... .134
- Du st filters . .. ...... . .. . ... . ... 134
2.2 Drying and storage of barley . ..... 137
2.2.1 Barley respiration ... . . . . .. .... . .137
2.2.2 Barley drying ... . .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. 138
2.2.3 Barley cooling ............... .. .139
2.2.4 Barley storage ... .. . . .. .......... 140
- Storage in silos ..... . . ... .... .. .140
- Storage in bins ... . ... . ... . . . ... 141
- Pest infestations ..... . . ... .... .. 142
2.3 Barley steeping . . . ... ........ . ... 143
2.3.1 Processes during steeping .... . ... 143
- Water uptake ......... . ........ 143
- Provision of oxygen ....... .. . .. 146
- Cleaning .. . ... .. ..... .. ... .. .. 146
2.3.2 Steep vessels . ... .... .. . .... . ... .146
2.3.3 The steeping process ... .. ... . ... .152
2.4 Ba rley germination .. . ..... . . .. . .154
2.4.1 Processes occurring during
germination ... ... ....... . ..... .154
- Growth processes . ....... . .. . .. 154
- En zyme formation ....... .. .... 155
- Changes to storage materials .... 157
- Conclusions about how to perform 165
2.4.2 Germination methods ... . .. . ... . .165
- Floor maltings . .. ..... . .... . ... 165
- Carrying out germination ...... .177
- Control of germ ination .... . . . . . .178
2.5 Malt kilning ..... . . ...... . . . . ... 178
2.5 .1 Changes during kilning .... .. . . .. 178
- Lowering of the wa ter content . .. 178
- Termination of germination and
modifica tion ... . . ......... . .. .. 179
- Formation of colour and flavo ur .. 179
- Formation of OMS ........ ... .. 181
- Effect of kilning temperature .. , .181
- Formation of nitrosamines . . .. . .. 182
- Enzyme inac ti va tion .. . ... ..... .183
2.5.2 Kiln structure ....... . . .... . .... .183
- Heating and ventilation
of the kiln . .. .... .. ....... . .... 183
- Older type two floor kilns . . .... .186
- Kilns with dumping floors .. .. .. 186
- Flat ki lns with a loader
and llllloader ....... . ..... .. . .. 187
- Vertical kilning .... . ... .. .. . . . .189
2.5.3 Management of kilning .. . . ...... 189
- Production of Pilsner malt ... . ... 191
- Production of Munich malt .. ... .192
- Unloading the kiln .. . . ......... 192
- Control of kilning ... . ..... .. ... 193
2.6 Trea tment of malt after kilning ... .193
2.6.1 Cooling of the kilned malt . ... . ... 193
2.6.2 Malt cleaning . .. . . .. . ... . . .... .. 193
2.6.3 Malt storage .. .. ... . .. . . ...... . .194
2.6.4 Malt polishing . . ..... . .. . . . ... .. 194
2.7 Yield during malting . . ... .. . . . ... 195
2.8 Ma lt eva lu ati on ............... .. 195
2.8.1 Hand eva lu ation .......... . .... .195
2.8.2 Mechanica l exa minations . . ...... .196
- Screening . .. ................. .196
- Thousand corn weight .. .. . .. .. .196
- Hectolitre weight ............. . .196
- Sinke r test (floaters) .. .. . . . . . .. .196
- Steelyness ......... . ..... . . .. . .196
- Fr iability ..... . . .. .. .. .... ..... 196
- ACt'ospire leng th . . . ... .. . .. .... 196
- Germinating capaci ty .. .. . .. ... .196
- Density .. .. ................... 196
- Calcofluor-Ca rlsberg method ... .197
2.8.3 Chemica l technological methods .. 197
- Water content .................. 197
- Congress mashing method . . .... 197
2.8.4 Ma lt supply contract . .. . .. . ..... .201
2.9 Special m alts and malt
from other cerea ls ......... . . ... .202
2.9.1 Pilsner malt (pale malt) ..... . .... 202
2.9.2 Dark malt (Munich type) . . . . . . . .. 202
2.9.3 Vienna malt . .. .... ... .. .. . . ... .202
2.9.4 Brumalt/melanoidin malt ..... ... .203
2.9.5 Cara mel malt ....... ...... .. ... .203
2.9.6 Acid malt . . .... ........... . ... .204
2.9.7 Short grown and chit malts .... ... 204
2.9.8 Smoked malt ................... 205
2.9.9 Diastase malt . .. .... ... . .. . ..... 205
2.9.10 Roasted malt ... ................ .205
2.9.11 Roasted malt beer ...... . .. . .... .206
2.9.12 Wheat malt .... . ... .. .. . .. . . .... 206
2.9.13 Malt extrac t .......... .... . .. .. . .207
2.9.14 Malt from other bread cereals . . ... 208
2.9.15 Sorghum malt . . . ...... .. . . ... .. 209
2.9.16 Usage of different types . .. . . . ... 210
2.10 Safety precautions in maltings . ... 212
•3 Wort Production ........ .... . ... 224
3.1 Malt milling .... . ......... . ..... 224
3. 1.1 Pretreatment of the malt ...... . ... 224
- Remova l of dust and stones . . . .. 224
- Weighing the malt cha rge . ... . .. 225
3.1.2 Basic aspects of milling . ..... . .... 228
3.1.3 Dry milling . .. . . .... .. ... . ...... 229
- Six roller mill s . .... . .. .. . . . .. . .229
- Five roller mill s ..... .. . .. . . . .. .231
- Four roller mills ... . . ... .. . . .. . .231
- Two roller mill s .. . ..... .. .. ... .231
- Rollers of malt mills .... .. . . ... .232
- Conditioned dry milling .. ...... 235
- Grist case .......... . . .. . .. ... .235
- Hammer mills .. . ... . . . .. . . .. .. 236
3.1.4 Wet milling ....... . . .. . . . . ...... 237
3.1.5 Steep conditioning . . .. .. ....... . .238
3.1.6 Fine comminution wi th wa ter ... . .242
3.1.7 Evaluation of the gris t .. .. ...... . .244
3.2 Mashing . . . . ........ . ..... . .... 245
3.2.1 Transformations during mashing . .245
- Purpose of mashing ..... .. . .... 245
- Properties of en zymes .. . ....... 245
- Starch degradation .. .. ......... 246
- b-glucaIl. d egrada tion .. ..... .. .. 252
- Conversion of fatty matter (lipids) .258
- Other degrad ation and
dissolving . . .. . .. ........ .. ... .261
- Biological acidification .... . .. . .. 261
- Composition of the extract ... . .. 267
3.2.2 Vessels for m ashing ........ .... . .268
- Mash vessels .... . .. . . ... ...... 268
3.2.3 Mashing in ........ . .. .. ...... . .273
- Addition of the brewing wa ter . . .273
- Mashing-in temperature ........ 273
- Mixing of the water and grist .... 275
3.2.4 Mashing . . ..... . . ....... ..... .. 277
- Parameters to consider when
mashing .. .. .... . ... . . .. . . . . . . .277
- Infusion mashing . ....... . ..... 280
- Decoction processes ....... ..... 281
3.2.5 Mashing duration ....... . . . . .. .. 295
3.2.6 Control of mashing . .... .. ....... 296
3.2.7 Mashing intensity .. ....... ... . .. 296
3.3 Lautering . . ....... . ........... .296
10
3.3.1 First wort and second wort ... . .. .296
3.3.2 Last l'lmnings ................... 298
3.3.3 Mash separation w ith a lauter tun .299
- Design of an older lauter tun . .. .300
- Design of newer lauter tuns .... 303
- Operating seq uence ..... ... . .. .307
3.3.4 Wort separation with a mash filter .310
- Traditional mash filters ..... . .. .310
- New generation mash filters . . . . .311
3.3.5 Spent grains ................ .. . .320
- Transfer of spent grains ... . . .. .. 321
- Spent grain analysis .. . .. ..... .. 321
3.4 Wort boiling .... . ... .... . .. . .. . .323
3.4.1 Wort boiling operations .. ..... . .. 323
- Extraction and transformation .. .324
- Precipitation of protein .. ....... 325
- Evaporation of water . ... . ...... 326
- Wort sterilisation ............... 327
- Destruction of all enzymes . . . ... 327
- Thermal exposure of the wort .... 327
- Lowering the pH of the wort ..... 328
- Formation of reducin g subs tances 328
- Evapora tion of undesirable
aroma substances .. .... . ... . . .. .328
- Zinc content of the wort ....... .. 330
- Unboiled wort - cast wort .. ..... 330
- Unboiled wort - cast wor . . ...... 330
3.4.2 Design and heating
of the wort kettle ............ . ... 331
- Directly heated wort kettles . . ... 331
- Steam hea ted wor t kettles ....... 331
- Wort kettle
with low pressure boiling .. .. . .. 336
- High temperature wor t boiling ... 345
- Energy saving
wort boiling systems ..... . ...... 346
- Other modern
wort boiling systems ..... . .. . .. .352
- Vapour condensate ............. 366
- Underback (wort buffer vessel) .. .367
3.4.3 Performing wort boiling ..... . .... 367
- Boiling the wort .... . ... . .. . .... 368
3.4.4 Monitoring the cast wor t ... . ..... 372
3.5 Brewhouse yield . . .. . .. . ........ 373
3.5.1 Ca lculating the brewhouse yield .. 373
- Determination of the
mass percent .. ....... .. . .. . ... .374
- Determ ination of the mass .. . .... 375
- Conversion of the volume . . .. .. .379
- Calculation of the amount ... . ... 379
- Determination of the
brewhouse yield (Ybh) ... . . . .... 380
3.5.2 Factors affecting the yield .. ...... 380
3.5.3 Calculation of a brew house yield .. 381
3.6 Brewh ouse equipment ........... 381
3.6.1 N umber and arrangement of the . .381
3.6.2 Vessel size .. . ....... . . .. . .. . .... 382
3.6.3 Vessel material .. . ... . ... ... . .. .. 383
3.6.4 Brewhouse capacity . .. .......... 383
3.6.5 Special types of brewhouse ... . .. .384
- Pub brewery brew houses ....... 384
- Integral brew house . . .. . ..... .. .385
- Research and h'aining
brewhouses ..................... .385
3.7 Casting the wort .. . ............. 386
3.8 Removal of the coarse break ...... 386
3.8.1 Coolship ....................... 387
3.8.2 Settling tank . .. ................. 387
- Operating principle
of the whirlpool . ... . ..... ...... 388
- Whirlpool design . .. . .. . .. . ..... 390
- Performing wort clarification
in a w hirlpool . . .. . . .. ..... .. ... 391
3.8.4 Separators ........ .. .. .. . . ... . .. 393
- The principle used
in centrifugation .. ... . . .. .. .. . .393
- Types of centrifuga l separa tors . .394
- Design/operation of
self-clean ing separators ........ .395
- Evaluation of
hot wort separation ........ . .... 397
3.8.5 Recovery of wort
from cloudy wort . ... . .. ... ... .. .398
3.9 Cooling and clarify ing the wort .. .398
3.9.1 Procedures during cooling . . ... . . .398
- Wort cooling ........... . ... . . .. 398
- Formation and optima l
removal of cold brea k ... . . . .. . .. 399
- Wort aeration .. ............ . .. .399
- Changes in wort concentra tion ... 399
3.9.2 Equipment for wort cooling . . . ... .400
- Structu re of
plate heat exchangers ...... . ... .400
- Method of operation .. ... . ... . .402
- Advantages of the
plate heat exchanger ... . . . .. . .. .404
3.9.3 Basic principles and . . ........ . . .404
- Methods of wort aeration . . ... . .405
- Time of yeast aeration . .. ... .. . .406
3.9.4 Equipm ent for cold break removal .406
- Kieselguhr filter . .. ... ... ... . .. .407
- Flotation ................. . .. . .407
3.9.5 Wort cooling lines .. . .. . .. .. .... .408
3.10 Control and monitoring ... . ..... .408
3.11 Safety at work during .. ..... . .. .411
- Acciden t prevention-
milling area .......... .. . ...... .411
- Accident prevention-
brewing vessels .... . . . ....... . .411
- Accident prevention -
separators .... . ... .. . ... . ... . . .412
•4 Beer Production .......... . ... . .415
4.1 Changes during fermentation . .. .415
4.1.1 Yeast: the brewer's most important
parh1er . . ...... . ... . .. . ........ .415
4.1.2 Metabolism of the yeast . .... ... . .418
- Fermentation of the sugar . ... . . .418
- Protein metabolism ............ .423
- Fat metabolism .... ... ...... . . .425
- Carbohydrate metabolism . ... .. .425
11
- Mineral metabolism .. ....... . . .427
4.1 .3Formation and removal of
fermentation by-products . ..... . .428
- Diacetyl (vicinal diketones) .. . ... 429
- Aldehydes (carbonyl compounds) 432
- Higher alcohols . . .. . . ... ... . .. .432
- Esters . ..... . .. . .... . ... . . . .... 433
- Sulphur compounds .. . . . . . .. .. .434
- Organic acids ..... .. .. . ....... .435
- Eva lu ation of aroma compoun ds
(according to Miedaner) ... . ... . .436
4.1.4 Other reactions and changes ..... .437
- Changes of nitrogen compOLlI1ds .437
- Lowering of the pH value .... . . .438
- Ch anges in the redox properties
of beer . . .. ... ....... . .. . .... . .438
- Changes in the beer colour .. .. . .439
- Precipitation of bitter substances
and polyphenols .... .. ........ .439
- Clarifica tion and colloida l
s tability of beer .... . .. . ... . . . . .439
4.1.5 Effects of different factors on yeast .440
4.1.6 Floccu lation of the yeast
(break formation) . . . . .. . ..... .. . .442
4.1.7 Degeneration of the yeast . . ....... 442
4.1.8 Physiologica l condition of yeast ... 443
4.2 Pure yeast culture propagation ... .443
4.2.1 Basics of yeast propagation .. . .. . .444
4.2 .2 Isolation of suitable yeas t cells .. . .445
4.2.3 Propaga tion in the laboratory ... . .445
4.2.4 Yeast propagation in the brewery . .447
- Yeast propagation plants . . .... . .447
- Assi milati on procedure . .... . .. .451
- Sin gle vessel pure yeast
cu lture procedure .... .. .. . . . .. .452
- Open yeast propagation . .. .. . .. .454
4.3 Conventiona l fermentat ion and . . .455
4.3.1 Fermentation tanks-
equipment of the
fermentation cellar .... . . .. . .... .456
- Fermentation tanks ..... ..... . . .456
- Layout of the open
12
fermentation cellar . . . ...... . .. .456
4.3.2 Fermentation cellar yield .... . ... .459
4.3.3 Management of open primary
fermentation . . ... . .. . . .......... 460
- Pitching . .. . . . ..... . . . .. . . . ... .460
- Fermentation management
in the fermentation tank . .. .. . ... 462
- Degree of attenuation ..... . ..... 464
- Beer transfer from the tank . . ... .468
4.3.4 Yeast collection in the tank .. .. . . .. 470
4.3.5 Processes during beer maturation
in conventional tanks . .. .. . .. . ... 470
- Saturation of beer with
carbon dioxide under pressure . , .470
- Beer clarification . . .... ... . . .... 471
4.3.6 Equipment in conventional
lager cellars ...... . ...... .. . . . ... 472
- Lager cellar installations ... . ... .472
- Lagering tanks .... . . . .. . . .. . .. .472
4.3.7 Performance of lagering in
conv. tanks . . . ..... . . .......... .473
- Beer transfer .... .. ... .. .. ... .. .474
- Pressure regulation . ...... . .. . . .474
4.3.8 Storage vessel tapping ... .. ... . .. 475
- Establishment of the cOlmection .. 475
- Pressure during tapping
and emptying . . .. . . . . . . ... . ... .476
4.3.9 Drawing off from
conventional tanks .. . .. . ... . ... .476
- Blending lmit .. .. .. . . . . .. . . . .. .476
- Pressure regulator . .. . . . . . .... .. 477
- Recovery of tank bottom beer ... .477
- Deep cooling of the beer ... . ... .477
- Fore-nm and post-run . . . ....... 477
4.4 Fermentation and maturation
in cylindroconical vessels ... . .. . .. 478
4.4.1 Construction and installation of
cylindroconical vessels . . . .. . . ... .478
- Design, shape and construction
material of cylindroconical vessels .478
- Size of CCVs ... . .. . . . .. .... . .. .479
- Location and arrangement
of the CCVs ..... . ... . . .. ..... . .481
4.4.2 Cylindroconical tank fittings ..... .482
- Control and operating elements
and safety fittings .. . . ....... . . .482
- Control and operating eleme . . . .. 482
- Cooling of the CCV . . .......... .490
- Methods for controlling and
automating cooling . . ... . .. . . .. .497
4.4.3 Managing the fermentation
and mahuation in CCVs .... . . .. .498
- Special points to consider
when fermenting and maturing
in CCVs ........ .. . . . . ........ .500
- Cold fermentation-
cold mahuation ... . ... . . . .. . . . .503
- Cold fermentation with a
ccelerated mahll'ation in a CCV . .504
- Warm fermentation
without pressure-
cold maturation ..... . ... . . . . .. .504
- Pressure fermentation .. . .... . . .504
- Cold fermentation -
warm mahlration . .......... . .. .505
- Cold primary fermentation
with programmed mahlration . .. .505
- Warm primary fermentation
with normal or forced mahlration .506
4.4.4 Yeast cropping from the CCV . ... .506
- Time of yeast cropping . . .... . . . .507
- Methods of collecting yeast . . ... .508
- Treatment and storage of
the yeast crop .. . .... .. ....... . .508
- Monitoring the yeast crop .... . . .510
4.4.5 Beer quality before filtration ..... .511
4.4.6 Beer recovery from surplus yeast . .511
- Separation by means of
sedimentation or filtration . .. . . . .512
- Yeast separation .. .. . .... . .... . .512
- Beer recovery using a decanter .. .512
- Membrane filtration of the yeast . .513
- Vibration micro-filtration (VMF) .514
- Treahnent of tank bottom beer
(yeast beer) . .. ...... . .. .... . .. .514
4.4.7 CO, recovery .... . .... .. .. . ... . .515
4.4.8 Immobilised yeast . .... ... . .. .. . .51 7
4.5 Beer filtration .... . ...... . .. . . . . .518
4.5.1 Various filtration methods ... . .. .. 519
- Separation mechanisms .. .. . .. . .519
- Filters ... . . ... .. .. ... .. .. . ... .520
- Filter aids . . . . ... . . . . . .. . .. . . . .520
4.5 .2 Struchlral forms of filters . . . . .. .. .524
- Mass filters . ... ... . ... .. . . . .. . .524
- Powder filters ... . .. . . .. . . .. ... .525
- Sheet filters (frame-type filters) . .539
- Membrane filters . . .... .. . .. .. . .540
- Multi Micro-System-Filter .. . .... 542
- Areas of filtra tion ...... . .. . ... .543
- Kieselguhr-free beer filtration ... .543
4. 6 Beer stabilisation . . ... . ... . ..... .554
4.6.1 Microbiological stabilisation . . ... .555
- Pasteurisation ....... . . . ...... .556
- Flash pasteurisation ........... .556
- Hot filling of beer ............. .559
- Pasteurisation in a
tmmel pasteuriser ... . ......... .559
- Cold sterile filling of beer . . .. . . .559
4.6.2 Colloidal stabilisation of beer .... .560
- Nahll'e of colloidal hazes ....... .561
- Improving the colloidal
stability of beer . . . . . ... ........ .562
- Teclmological measures for
improving colloidal stability .... .562
- Addition of stabilising agents ... .563
- Dosing with downstream
hop products ............. . ... .570
4.6.3 Filtration plant . .. .. . . ... . . . . . .. .570
4.6.4 Flavour stability .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .573
- Ageing process . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . .573
- Factors encouraging
flavour stability . . .. ........ . . . .575
- Measures for the avoidance of
oxygen addition during filtration
and bottling . ... ... ... . .... ... .577
- Measures to prevent negative
13
influences on the flavour stability
afte r bottling .. . ..... . . ... . . .. . .578
4.7 Carbonisation of the beer ... . . . . . .579
4.8 Special m ethods for production . . .581
4.8.1 High gravity brewing . ... . . . . ... .581
4.8.2 Ice beer production ... . ......... .583
4.8.3 Processes for removing alcohol . .. .585
- Membrane separation process .. .585
- Heat treatment processes /
distillation . . .......... .. ...... .589
- Suppression of alcohol formation .593
4.9 Accident prevention in the ...... .595
4.9.1 Danger of accidents due to ..... .595
4.9.2 Work in pressure vessels ........ .596
4.9.3 Working with kieselguhl' ....... . .597
4.9.4 General advice regarding
accident prevention ........... . . .598
•5 Filling the beer .... . . .. ... . .. . . .609
5.1 Filling in returnable glass bottles . .609
5.1.1 Rehlrnable glass bottles . . . . ...... 609
- Advantages and disadvantages
of glass bottles .. . . .. ....... . . . .609
- Glass bottle production . ... . . . .. 609
- Bottle shape ... . .. . ..... .. . .. . .609
- Bottle colour ... . .. . . . ... .. .. . .. 611
- Surface coating . .. . . . . ... . .... .612
- Scuffing . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .. .612
- Bottle aftercoating . . . . ... . . . .. .. 612
- Plastic coated light
glass returnable bottles .. . .. . .... 612
- Procedural steps in the filling of
rehll'nable glass bottles . . ....... .613
5.1.2 Cleaning of rehlrnable glass bottles .613
-Factors which influence
bottle washing ..... . .... . ..... .613
- Bottle washing machines . . .. . ... 614
- Caustic solution .. . . . . .. . ....... 630
- Cleaning and maintenance work
on the bottle cleaning machine ... 634
14
- Clearing away n ew glass bottles
and cans ....... . ... . . . . . ..... .635
5.1.3 Control of the
cleaned recyclable glas bottles ..... 635
5.1.4 Bottle filling ......... . .......... 641
- Principles of filling .... . . .. ..... 641
- Principles of bottle filling
machine design . . ..... ... .... . .644
- Component elements of the
bottle fill ing machines ... . ....... 645
- Construction and mode of operation
of the bottle filling organs ....... 648
- High pressure jetting .. ..... .. . .665
5.1.5 Closing the bottles . . ............. 665
- Closing with crown corks ....... 666
- Closure with a swing stopper ... .671
5.1.6 Cleaning the filler and the closer .. 672
5.1.7 Control of the filled and
closed bottles ..... .. ... . .. .. .. .. 676
- Filling level control . . ........... 676
- Oxygen in the bottle neck ....... 677
5.1.8 Pasteurising in bottles ............ 679
- Principles of pastemisation
in bottles . ............. . ....... 679
- Important components of the
tW1J1el pasteuriser .. . . . . . . .. .. . .680
- PU fuse .. . .. . ...... . ...... . ... 683
5.1 .9 Labelling and foiling the bottles . .. 684
- Labels and foils . . ...... .. ...... 684
- Label adhesive .. . .............. 686
- Basic principle of labelling ..... .. 688
- Head folding with foils ......... 691
5.1.10 Dating the labels ........... . ... .691
5.1.11 Controlling the labels .. ... ....... 692
5.2 Special features when filling
into non-returnable glass bottles . .. 692
5.2.1 Clearing of new glass bottles ..... .692
5.2.2 Rinsing ................ . ....... 692
5.3 Filling into PET bottles ... ... . .... 693
5.3.1 PET bottles ..................... 694
- Structural properties of PET . .... 694
- Barrier properties of PET ........ 694
- Ba rrier tecl1J1ology ..... . .. . .. ... 695
- The importance of Scavengers ... 697
5.3 .2 Production of PET bottles .. .. .... 698
- Production of the preforms ...... 698
- Stretching and blow-moulding
of PET bottles . ................. 699
- Monitoring of the manufactured
PET bottles .... . ....... . ...... .701
- Rinsing of the new bottles ....... 701
5.3.3 Transportation of the PET bottles .. 702
5.3.4 Filling of PET bottles ...... .. ..... 702
5.3.5 C losing of PET bottles ... . . .... . .. 714
- Plastic screw cap closures .... . .. 714
- Aluminium rolled-on closure .... 716
5.3.6 Labelling of PET bottles .......... 718
5.4 Filling of plastic returnable bottles .720
5.4.1 PEN . ........ . ............... .. 720
5.4.2 Cleaning of returnable
plastic bottles ... ... ............. 721
5.4.3 Inspection of foreign substances ... 721
5.5 Filling of cans ............ . ...... 725
5.5.1 Cans and can closures . ......... . .725
5.5.2 Storing, depalletising and removal
of empty cans . .. ... . .. . .. .. . .... 729
5.5 .3 Inspection of the empty cans ...... 730
5.5.4 Rinsing of the cans .. . .. . . .. .. ... 731
5.5.5 Filling of the cans .... .. . .... ... .731
- Mechanical can fillers . .. .. . . .. .. 733
- Can filler with volumetric filling .737
5.5.6 Closing the cans ................. 746
5.5.7 Cleaning of the can filler and closer 748
5.5.8 Widgets . . ......... ............. 748
5.5.9 Inspection of the filled cans ....... 750
5.5.10 Pasteurisation of cans ............ 751
5.5.11 Wraparound labelling of cans ... . .751
5.5.12 Dating of the cans ......... . ... .. 752
5.6 Filling of casks, kegs, party casks,
and large cans .. . .. . .. . .. .. ..... 753
5.6.1 Filling of wooden barrels and casks .753
5.6.2 Kegs and fittings .. .. . . ........ .. 756
- Material, shape and size of kegs ... 756
- Keg fittings .. .............. . ... 757
5.6.3 Clea ning and filling the keg . . ..... 759
- C leaning of the keg ......... . .. .760
- Fil ling the keg ........... . ..... 760
5.6.4 Keg plants as a whole .... .... . ... 762
5.6.5 Fi lling of sma ll and party kegs '" .762
5.6.6 Filling of large cans .... . ... . . . ... 763
5.7 Transport and packaging ......... 763
5.7.1 Transport containers ...... . . . .... 764
5.7.2 Treahnent of plastic crates .. . ..... 766
Elimination of foreign and
damaged crates and bottles ....... 766
- Washing of the crates ... . . ..... .767
- Crate maga zine ....... . ... ..... 767
5.7.3 Transport tecl1J1ology . .. .... .. ... 768
- Bottle and can transport ....... . .768
- Container transport . ... ..... .. .773
5.7.4 Packaging technology .. ...... .... 773
- Packing head and packing tulips .773
- Types of packer ... . ........ . ... 775
5.7.5 Palletiser and depalletiser
equipment ..... . ... . ..... .. ..... 782
- Robot tecl1J1ology .. ....... . .... 782
- Design and function of the
palletisers and depalletisers ....... 783
- Stacking plants for full
pack pallets ... .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... 785
- Transport plants for pallets ... . . .786
- Pallet set positions .... . ..... . ... 786
- Infeed and o utput equipment .... 786
- Pallet magazines ... ... ...... . .. 786
- Pallet control .. .. . ........ . .... 786
- Securing the pallets . ... ...... . .. 787
- Palletising in keg filling
5.8 The filling plant as a whole . ... .. .791
5.9 Beer losses ... .. ........... ..... 793
5.9.1 Calculation of the amount of sa les
beer produced .... . .. . .. . ....... 794
5.9.2 Stocktaking and calculation of
beer for sale . ... . ... . ......... . .794
15
5.9.3 Calculation of the vo lu me loss .... 796
5.9.4 Calculation of malt usage . .. ... .. .796
5.9.5 Importance of the loss and
possible ways of reducing it .... .. 797
• 6 Cleaning and disinfection ....... 801
6.1 Materials and their be haviour
towards cleaning agents . . .... . ... 801
6.1.1 Aluminium vessels . . ............ 801
6.1.2 Vessels, pipes and fittings made
of chrome-nickel steel .. .. ........ 802
6.1.3 Hoses and seals .... .... . . . ...... 804
6.2 Cleaning agents ...... .. .. .... .. .805
6.3 Disinfecting agents ............. .806
6.4 Cleaning and disinfecting u sing
a CIP system ...... . . .. ... . ...... 807
6.5 Cleaning procedure . .. .. . .. ...... 814
6.6 Mechanical cleaning ............. 817
6.7 Monitoring of cleaning and
disinfection .... .. .. ..... . .. . . . . .817
6.8 Protection at work when cleaning
and disinfecting ............... . .817
• 7 Finished beer .... .... ... ...... .. 819
7.1 Beer composition ... . ............ 819
7.1 .1 Components of beer .. . .... . ... . .819
7.1.2 Beer and health .. .... . . ...... . .. 822
7.2 Taste and foam . . .. ..... . ..... . .. 824
7.2.1 Beer flavour ............ .. ...... 824
- Beer aroma ... . . . ....... .. . .... 824
- Palatefulness (body) ........ . . . .827
- Tingle ...... .. ... . ............ 828
- Beer bitterness . . ............ . .. 828
7.2.2 Beer foam .......... . .......... .829
16
7.3 Beer types and their
special features ... .. . .. .......... 833
7.3.1 Beers produced by
top fermentation .. . . . .... . . ..... 833
- Special features of top
fermentation .... .. . . ........... 833
- Wheat beers (Weizenbiere) ...... 836
- Berliner WeifSe .. . .. . ........... 840
- Altbier ...... .. . . . . ... . .. . ..... 841
- Ko lsch .... . . . ..... ... ......... 841
- Ale .. . ..... . . . ................ 842
- Stout ..... .. . ...... . .......... 842
- Porter .. .. .. . ....... . . .. . . .. ... 843
- Belgian beer types .... .... . ..... 843
7.3.2 Bottom fermentation beer types ... 844
- Pilsner type beer ............... 844
- Lager beer ("Vollbier") .. . . . . . .. .845
- Export beer . ....... .. .......... 846
- Black beers ...... . ........... . .846
- Festival beers ..... . ... . ........ 847
- Ice beer ........... . ........ . . .847
- MaTZen ..... ... ............... 847
- Bock beer . . ....... . ....... .. .. 847
- Double Bock . ....... ...... ..... 848
- Alcohol-free beer ....... ...... .. 848
- Dietetic beer .. .. ... ...... . ... . .849
- Light beer . . ......... . ......... 850
- Malt drink (beer) ...............850
- Beer types with a very
low distribution ................851
7.3.3 Trends regarding the development
of beer types ........ .... ..... . .854
7.4 Quality examination . . ........... 857
7.4.1 Beer tasting ........ . ............ 857
7.4.2 Microbiological examination .. .... 860
7.4.3 Beer analysis ... . ..... . .......... 863
- Determination of the
original gravity ... ......... .... 864
- Measurement of beer colour ..... 868
- Measurement of the pH .... . .... 869
- Measurement of the oxygen
content of beer ....... . . . .. . .. .. 869
- Meas urement of the diacetyl
conten t of beer ......... .. ...... 870
- Measurement of foam stability ... 871
- Determination of the carbon
dioxide content ..... . . .. . . ..... 872
- Measurement of bitterness units .. 873
- Measurement of haze tendency .. 873
- Filterability of the beer .. . ...... 873
- Other measurements . ... ....... 874
7.5 Process measurement and
analysis technology . ............. 874
7.5.1 Temperature meters ........ . .... 875
7.5.2 Flow meters ........... . .... . ... 875
7.5.3 Filling level meters . .. .. .... .. . .. 876
7.5.4 Density meters ..... . .. ...... . ... 877
7.5.5 Optical online measuring
teclmology ........ . ............878
7.5.6 Oxygen meters .. .... . .. . . ..... . .880
7.5.7 pH va lue meters . . ...... . .......880
7.5.8 Conductivity measurement . ..... .880
7.5.9 Limit value probes . . ..... . .......880
7.5.10 Pressure measurement ........... 881
• 8 Small Scale Brewing .... . ...... .889
8.1 Pub breweries ................... 889
8.2 Microbrewers ......... . ..... . . .. 895
8.3 Hobby brewers ..... . ......... .. 896
• 9 Waste disposal
and the environment .. .. .. . .... .901
9.1 Enviro1U11entallegislation . . .. . ... 901
9.2 Waste water ... . ................ 902
9.2.1 Waste water costs .. . ............ 902
9.2.2 Definition of terms used
relating to was te water ........... 904
9.2.3 Waste water treatment .. . . ....... 905
- Aerobic waste water treatment
plants ..... . . .... .. . . ... ..... .. .906
- Anaerobic waste water
treatment plants . . ..... . ........ 907
- Amount and composition of
brewery waste water . .......... .907
- Waste water treatment with
mixing and equalising tanks .... .909
9.3 Residues and waste material . .. . .. 910
9.3.1 Spent malt and hops . .... . .. . . . . .910
9.3 .2 Break .............. .... .... . ... 912
9.3 .3 Surplus yeast .... . ..... . .. . . . ... 912
9.3 .4 Kieselguhr slurry ....... . ........ 913
9.3.5 Old labels ........ . ............. 913
9.3.6 Broken glass ............ . . . ..... 914
9.3.7 Beer cans ..... . ........... .... . .914
9.3.8 Minor sources of waste ... ...... . .914
9.4 Em issions .............. . . . .... .915
9.4.1 Dust and dust emissions ... . . .... 915
9.4.2 Brewhollse emissions ...... ...... 915
9.4.3 Exhaust gas emissions ........... 915
9.4.4 Noise emission s .. . ........ . .. . .. 915
9.5 Recycling of PET bottles . . ........ 916
·10 Energy management
in the brewery and maltings ..... 917
10.1 Energy requirements in malting
and brewing .. . ............. ... .917
10.2 Boiler plants ... . ........ .. . .... .918
10.2.1 Fuels .... .... . .. .. . ............ 918
10.2.2 Steam ................. .. . ...... 919
- Heat of evaporation . ... . . .. .... 919
- Wet steam ... ... ...... . . . .... .. 921
- Superheated steam .. . .. . .. .... .921
- Hot water .. . . .. . .............. 921
10.2.3 Boilers ...... ... .... . .. .. . . . .... 921
- Classification of boilers . . .. . .... 921
- Types of boiler structure ... ... .. 922
- Three pass boilers .............. 923
- Energy .recovery and improvement
of efficiency ......... . ......... 925
10.2.4 Steam engines .... . ...... . ...... 927
17
10.2.5 Combined heat and power plants .927
10.3 Refrigeration plants ...... . . . . . ... 928
10.3.1 Refrigerants and cool ing agents .. .929
- Refrigerants ......... . ..... . ... 929
- Cooling agents ......... . . ..... .930
- Operating principle of
refrigeration ...... . ...... ...... 930
10.3.2 Compression refrigeration plants . .935
- Operating principle ............ 935
- Compressors .............. .. .. 937
- Condensers (liquefiers) ... . ..... 939
- Control va lves ......... .... . ... 941
10.3.3 Absorption cooling machines ..... 942
10.3.4 Space and liquid cooling .. . ...... 942
- Cooling of conventional
fermentation and lager cellars .. . .942
- Modern cooling plants .......... 944
- Cooling of liquids .......... . ... 946
10.3.5 Advice for economic operation
of cooling plants .......... . . . ... 947
10.4 Electrical equipment ............ .948
10.4.1 Supply of electrica l energy . ....... 949
10.4.2 Power factor cos <p . .. .. ........ . .949
10.4.3 Transforming the electric current .. 952
10.4.4 Safety measures .... .. ...... . .... 952
10.4.5 Information concerning economic
use of electrical energy ..... . ..... 953
10.5 Pumps, fans and compressors .... .954
10.5.1 Pumps ...................... . .. 954
- Centrifugal pumps ...... ....... 955
- Positive displacement pumps .. . .958
- Selection of pump size . ... .... . .962
- Control of the plill1p rotation speed 963
- Lubricative ring sea l . . ... . . . .... 964
10.5.2 Fans . . ... . .. . .. . . ... . ..... . .... 965
- Axial fans or ventilators ......... 965
- Radial fans .... . ............... 965
10.5.3 Compressed air plants ........... 965
- Compressors . ....... . ... . ..... 967
- Air driers . .. ........ . ... . . .... 970
18
- Pressure piping network ..... . .. 972
- Air filters ..... . .............. .. 973
10.6 The globa l demand for energy is
increasing ....... . . ............. 974
• 11 Automation and plant planning .. 977
11.1 Indications concerning the use
of measurement, control and
regulation tedmology .. . ........ .977
11.1.1 General indications . . .... ... . . .. .977
11.1.2 Requirements concerning the
measurement uncertainty of the
measuring technology used ... .... 977
11.1.3 Requirements of the place of
installation and cleaning and
disinfecting requirements ........ 979
11.1.4 Operational and equipment security
requirements . ... . .. . ...... . .... 980
11.1.5 Maintenance and upkeep
requirements . .......... . .. . .... 981
11.1.6 Requirements of automatic
controls . . ........... . ... . . . . ... 981
11.2 Plant planning .. .. .. . .. . ....... .984
11.2.1 Introduction ... . .. . . .......... . .984
- General remarks concerning
plant plcuming .. . ... . ... . . .. .. .984
- General remarks on the process
of plant planning ....... . .. . .... 985
11.2.2 Basic aspects of p lCUlt plcuming . .. .987
11.2.3 Different procedures for planning
and setting up a plant .... . . .. . ... 988
11.2.4 Important documents and files
concerning plant planning ........ 990
- General remarks ...... .. ....... 990
- The procedure scheme .......... 991
- The basic mimic diagram ........ 994
- The procedural mimic diagram .. 994
- The pipe and instrument
mimic diagram ........... ...... 994
- Pipe and assembly plCU1S .. . ..... 996
- The procedure description ....... 997
19
- The creation of d esign documents/ - AvoidculCe of vapo ur diffusion 11.3.10 Indications concern ing the surface
graphic procedures .. ........... 997 and condensation .... . .. ..... .1018 constitution of machines and
11 .2.5 Indica tions fo r the drawing up apparatus .... . ...... . ........ .1028
of contracts .. .. . .... .. . . . .. .... .999 11.3.7 Indications concerning pipe con-
11 .2.6 Inauguration and performance nection, application of fittin gs culd
run ..... . .. .. . . .. . ..... . . .. ... 1000 sa mpling ..... . ...... . ......... 1018
11 .2.7 End of the project .......... .. .. 1001 - General indica ti ons . ... ..... . .. 1018
11.2.8 Documentation of the project . . .. 1001 - The manua l connecting
tecimique . .. ....... ... .. . ... . .1019 Convers ion of lega lly defined and
11 .3 Plant design and the requirements - Fixed piping ....... .... .. .. .. .1019 comm onl y used measurement units ..... 1031
of the plants .. . . .. . .. . .. . ... . . .1002 - Sa mpling fittings .. . ...... . ... .1021
11.3.1 General indications .... . . . . .. . .. 1002 - Types of fitting designs . .... ... 1022 List of Ad verti sers ..... . .... .. . . ...... 1034
11.3.2 Preconditions for the automatisation
of modern plCUltS ............. .. 1002 11.3.8 Indications concerning the Reference to diagrcul1s and documents
11 .3.3 Requirements of pipe and plan t arrangement and operation of used . .. ..................... . .... 1035
design with respect to contami- CIP stations . ...... . .... .... ... .1026
nation-free work ......... . ..... 1003 Literature references .. . .. . . .. ... ..... .1039
11 .3.4 Operational safety requirements 11.3.9 Indica tions for the chemical
of the plCUltS ........ . ......... .1003 warehouse .. . .... .. .. .... . .. . .. 1027 Index of teclulical terms .. .. . . . . ....... 1047
- Separation of media ........... 1003
- Securing the plcultS against
l.mauthorised pressures .. ... . .. 1005
11.3.5 Indications for pipe d esign ... . .. 1007
- General indications . . . . . .... . .. 1007
- Pipe cOlmections .. . .. . .. . ... . .1007
- The laying of piping systems
and the construction of pipe
holders ... . .. . .. . .. ... . ... .... 1009
- The flow velocity in pipes /
pressure losses ...... .... ...... 1011
- Measures against liquid strikes
culd vibrations ....... . ........ 1013
- Venting the pipes; oxygen
removal . ....... ........ .. .... 1015
- Creating heat insulations in
pipes ... .. .. . ..... . . .. .. .. ... 1015
- Shaping of pipe outlets ......... 1016
- Securing the pipe against frost
and blockages .. . .... . .. . ...... 1016
- Dead spaces in pipes . .. . .. . ... 1017
11 .3.6 Indica tions for the creation of heat
and cold insulations ............ 1018
- General indications .......... .1018
/
20 21

a
Abbreviations used in text
Beer - the oldest drink for the common man
ADP Ad enosine diphosphate LTP Lipid transfer protein
AI AniLine index Mass % Mass percent The production of beer is tied to three consecu- which was frequently available in a less than
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute MEBAK Mitteleuropii ische Brautecimische ti ve biochemical processes: the form ati on of perfect condition, could be purifi ed by the fer-
AOx Adsorbable organic halogen Ana lysenkommission enzymes in germinating g rain, the breakdown mentation process and the natural acids thereby
compounds min Minute of starch to s ugar by these enzymes and the re- produced . For man y centuries, therefore, beer -
ARP Anti-rad ical power MO Micro-organisms s ulting ferm entation of the sugar to alcohol and in some areas w ine - and not water, was the
ATP Adenosine triphosphate NBB Culture med ium for beer-spoiling 01'- and CO,. For the produ ction of wine, however, natural everyday thirs t-quencher, both for the
BMF Bee r membrane filh'a tion gani sms (by Doehler) only the final process, the fermentation of the ruler and the common man, while tea was the
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand NOMA N-nih'osodimethylamine sweet must, is necessa ry. These processes and preva iling drink in East Asia.
C Celsius NIB EM Nederland s Instituut voor Brouwgerst, their head y results have been known to man
CCV Cylindroconical vessel Mouten Bier for thousands of years, although he did not at
CHP Combined heat and power plant NIR Near infrared spectroscopy first rea lise the COlU1ection between them and
crr Cleaning in place NOx Nitrogen oxide how to exploit this. Our knowledge of man's
CMF Crossflow microfiltration NPSH Net positi ve suction head deliberate a ttempt at beer production fades in-
COD Chemi cal oxygen demand PCR Polymerase chain reaction to the dim and distant p as t. The time, though,
CrNi-steel Chromium-nickel steel PEN Polyethylelmaphthalate is probably linked to the settling of the hunter-
Da Dalton PET Polyethylenterephthalate ga therers, and the beginning of grain cultivati-
DIN Deutsches Institut hir Nornmng PLC Programmable logic controller on, arotU1d 12,000 years ago.
DLG Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft Po Overpressure The oldest mention of beer is in Mesopotamian
(German Agricultural Society) ppb Pal'ts per billion (pg/kg or I) cLU1eifonn writing, from the year 2800 BC, which
OMS Dimethylsulphide ppm Pm-ts per million (mg/kg or I) describes the distribution of the daily ration of
DMS-P Dimethylsulphide precursor PTFE Polyteh'afluorethylene beer and bread to the workforce. The production
DON Desoxynivalenol PU Pasteurisa tion unit and dispenSing of beer was regulated closely in
E.coli Bacterium Escilerisdlia coli PUR Polyurethane the collection of laws of the Babylonian king
EBC European Brewery Convention PVPP PolyvinylpolypylTolidone Hanunurabi (1728-1686 BC). 1his record shows
Es Apparent extract R&C Head retention index by Ross and Clm-k that there must also have been irregularities. Ger-
ESR Electron spin resonance spech'oscopy SMM S-methyl methionine man brewing scientists [361] have now Sllccee-
FAN Free amino nih'ogen TBA Thiobarbituric acid index ded in producing a beer in large, well-preserved
h Hour TKM Tausendkornmasse: crocks from the late Bronze Age (13 th century BC),
HPIS High-pressure injection system thousand corn mass fOtU1d during excavations in northern Syria. The
ICP Intracellular pH Vol % Volume percent beer was produced under local conditions using
roM Indu ctive flow measurement Vs Apparent attenu ation a so-called cold mashing method which at least
K Kelvin V scnd Final attenuation resembled that of the era in question, when the
kDa Kilodalton Vw Real attenuation beer was dnmk by all sections of the population.
Fig. 0.1
KG Ki eselguhr VZ Diastatic power index according In ancient Egypt, too, beer flourished widely as a Beer prorictioll ill nllciellt Egypt
kW Kilowatt to Hartong- Kretschmer popular drink, as can be seen from numerous il-
LOX Li poxygenase ZEA Zearalenone lustrations and findings (Fig. 0.1). In Europe beer was a well loved drink of the
It was noticed very early that beer was free Germanic tribes, and of the Scyth ians and the
from dan gerous germs and that water, too, Celts. It was brewed as daily household nou-
 22
o o
Fig. 0.2
Beer brewel; 1397
rishment by the women, since baking and bre-
wing were women's work in all primitive cul-
tures.
The change to a brewing "industry" occurred
in the breweries of ClU'istian religious fOlmdati-
ons (monasteries and nwmeries) w here beer was
produced not only for thei r own consumption
but was also supplied to others for a payment. Si-
multaneously it changed to being men's work
(Fig. 0.2), as it has remained wltil today. The use
of hops as the sole flavouring ingredient began in
the 14th cenhuy. Previously a mixhlre of various
flavouring plants was used, which was referred
to in German as "Grut" (gruit in English).
In Germany in the Middle Ages there was a
considerable difference between the conditions
for beer brewing in the North and in the South.
In the No rth brewing was a civic right and oc-
curred in the large brewing towns such as Bre-
men, Hamburg or Einbeck. In Southern Genna-
ny, the tran sformation from home brew ing to
industrial brew ing gradually took place in the
14th centu ry. In the towns and cities in particular,
official influence began to take hold of the deve-
lopment of the brewing industry, w hich was il -
lustrated by the fact that the right to brew was
granted as a prince's pri vilege. This is particu-
larly important, because beer production in the
early Middle Ages in the Southern region beca-
me a very widespread industry (Fig. 0.3).
In the 15'" century the commercial position of
the brewer beca me established, but it was re-
@3erf'fen fieb ic1; gUfes Q3ier
Fig. 0.3
Beer prodllctioll ill enrly Middle Ages, 1568
tura" aUmrl)albii In 'Pnfttn E5tcttnJt11iircf.:
ttn/lmnh aufhmt tain,m piCr/m(ttt flucrbl
bann allain <5ttnc n/bopfTm/'l'nb
gtp:and)t fOUe mtbtfh tlJdb(t abtr bift
Fig. 0.4: Excerpt frolll tile Reillileitsgebot of 12'" April 15 '1 6
(... tllnt frolll 1101(1 011, ill nil t01(l1l5 nlld IIInrkets nlld ill tile call II try, 110 otller illgredient tllnll bnrley, 1I0ps nlld wn ter sllnll be II sed
ill tile prodll ctioll of beer .. .J
stricted in the South in particular by a large
number of regul ations [5]. Both the organisa tion
of the trade and also the production of the pro-
du ct, from purchase of raw materials to the ma-
nufachlre of the final product and its sa le, were
subject to mlll1icipallaws. These laws also inclu-
ded regulations about the price of yeast and
quality of the yeast, which primarily looked af-
ter the interests of the bakers, who obtained
their yeast from the brewers. At that time, and
for a long time afterwards, the brewing trade
had a monopoly on yeast production.
Meanwhile shortages of raw materials, as a
result of p oor harvests and other circumstan ces,
led to the u se of raw materials other than those
previously customarily employed. Thus hops
were often replaced by other flavoming plants.
Cereals for bread making or cheaper oa ts were
also used in the gris t for brewing. There was
even a health risk from some of the hop replace-
ments. To prevent an y such deplorable state of
affairs in future, official laws laid down that on-
ly malt, hops and water were to be used for the
production of beer. The first documentary refe-
rence to this is fOLmd in Article 12 of the "S fntll-
fn fhnbel'l1n" of the Thuringian town of Weissen-
see, laid down in 1434. In Mluuch, too, the same
form of docmnentary reference to the producti-
on of beer was mad e in 1447. On 23'd April 1516,
the Bavarian Reinh eitsgebot (pmity law) was si-
gned by the jointly ruling Dukes Wilhelm IV
and Lud wig X at the "Landstaendetag" in Ingol-
stadt (Fig. 0.4) and thereby acquired legal force.
23
\'flnb
olbnung
Since 1906 this purity law, in whkh it was esta-
blished that beer could be produced only from
barley malt, hops and water, has enjoyed lll1l'e-
s tricted legal force throughout Germany for bot-
tom fermented beer. The law was enacted in or-
der to provide the burghers with a slLfficient
amolmt of good quality products at a fair price.
For these reasons the town councils regulated,
in the interest of consumer protection, the ma-
nufac hlre of the product and established the
price in relation to the product quality. The pu-
rity law can therefore also be described as the
first consumer protection law in the world.
The Thirty Years war in Europe (1618-1648)
set the development of beer production back a
long way, and at the same time, the arrival of ne-
wer d rinks such as tea and coffee Jed to a consi-
derable reduction in beer output for a long time.
La ter the dark, bottom fermented lager beer be-
gan to spread throughout Germany and in Bo-
hemia lmder the name "Bavarian beer ". In or-
d er to maintain the advance of this trans-
portable Bavarian beer, the first Bavarian Beer
Brewery was fOlmded outside Bavaria around
1830.
With the development in 1765 by James Watt
of a practical, usable steam engine, the fOlmda-
tion stone for the introduction of new teclmolo-
gy was laid. In 1784 the first stea m engiJleS were
in use in England and they were already wide-
spread there by 1800. However, there was still a
considerable delay before Gabriel Sedlmayr in
1846, after a trip to England, installed the first

24
) flawless work. As a result of this, it became in-
steam engine, with a 1 horse power ra ting, in his
Spa ten brewery in MLUuch. The introduction of
such new technology, the invention (in 1871)
and application (in 1876) of a refrigeration ma-
chine by Carl von Linde (Fig. 0.5), as well as the
development of the transport sys tem through
the construction of the railway network, led in
the subsequent decades to building and expan-
sion of larger breweries in all developed COlm-
tries. It was not by chance that the first freight to
be tran sported on the German railways consi-
sted of two barrels of beer. Above all, though,
the invention of the refrigeration machine me-
ant that man was no longer dependent on the
seasons and the storage of natural ice in cold
winters.
Fig. 0.5
Cnrl VOII Lillde
(1842-1934)
The development of modern yeast and fer-
mentation research began in the middle of the
19th century as a result of tests by Friedrich Au-
gust Kuetzing (1807-1893), Theodeor Schwaml
(1810-1882) and Charles Cagniard de la Tour
(1777-1859). Independent of each other, they re-
cognised that yeast is a living substance, con-
sists of single cells and is the cause of fermenta-
tion [311]. Eilllard Mitscherlich (1794-1863) was
the first to follow the propagation of a single ye-
ast cell under the microscope and to document
it. In Ius comprehensive "study on beer " in 1876
Louis Pasteur (Fig. 0.6) (1822-1895) came up
w ith his famou s sentence: "La fermentation est
la vie sans l'oxygene" (fermentation is life wit-
hout oxygen).
Fig. 0.6
LOll is Pns/ell r
(1822-1895)
H e thereby came to the same conclusion as
a.o. Schwann, but initially claimed that h e was
the first to arrive at su ch cogtutions. In 1878, Pa-
steur then acknowledged in a letter to Schwann
the latter's precedence in the proof of correlati-
on between yeast and fermentation. Tlus in no
way detracts from the merits of Louis Pasteur's
work in yeast and ferm entation research, since
pasteurisa tion, still indispensable even today,
and responsible for the product durability of
beer (1860) traces back, even in name, to his re-
search and findings.
An important step in yeast research findings
was made by brothers Hans and Eduard Buch-
ner in 1846 with their attempts to achieve non-
cellular fermentation by means of the mechatu-
cal pulverising of yeas t cells. Proof of
non-cellular fermentation earned Eduard Buch-
ner the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1907.
The work of Emil Christian Hansen (Fig.
0.7), who developed the method for single yeast
propagation in the Carlsberg Laboratory in Co-
penhagen in 1883, was improved by Paul Lind-
ner in 1893 usin g his "drop culhtre method",
thereby laying the fOlmdations for biologically
creasingly possible to make use of pure yeast
strains and to reduce the it1fluence of contami-
nants. Tlus was the basis for the triumph of light
coloured beers, which gradually displaced the
customary dark Bavarian beer.
Fig. 0.7
Elllil Chris/inll Hnllsell
(1842 -1909)
Thus in 1842 in the Mmucipal brewhouse in
Pilsen, which later became the Pilsner Urquell
brewery, the origitlaJ of the Pilsner type of beer
was developed . The Pilsner type beers spread
everyw here thTDughout Europe and Pilsner is
still the typ e of beer most drunk in Germany. In
1875, following a trip to Europe, Adolphus
Busch itltroduced the similar beer "Budweiser"
onto the American market from Ius brewery
(Anheuser-Busch); this itl the meantime has be-
come the mos t popular beer type globally. Fur-
thermore, "lager" beers were developed itl all
countries and these now accOlmt for the majori-
ty of beer brand s.
As a result of this d evelopment, from the
middle of the 19th cenhlry a large number of in-
dustrially operated breweries were fOlmded itl
Europe and America, and existitlg older brewe-
ries were modernised. It should nevertheless
not be forgotten that duritlg tlus period, manu-
allabour s till accOlmted for a large share of the
25
work (Fig. 0.8). Many of the breweries founded
o
at that time exist today as giant producers with
their ow n range of products. Breweries fOlmded
in this intensive phase between 1843 and 1875
includ e, for example:
1843 the Schultheiss Brauerei AG in Berlin,
which before WWI was the largest lager
producing brewery in Europe with an an-
nual output of 1.8 mio hi
1847 the Carlsberg Breweries in Copenhagen,
founded by J.e. Jacobse n
1855 the Patzenhofer Brauerei in Berlin, wluch
merged with Schultheiss in 1920
1863 the Heineken Brewery, Amsterdam,
founded by Gerard A. Heineken
1868 the Dortmlmder Aktien Brauerei in Dort-
mlmd
1870 the Binding Brauerei in Frankfurt am
Main
1872 the Radeberger Export Beer Brewery, Ra-
deberg
1872 the Vereinsbrauerei del' Berliner Gast\.yir-
te zu Ri xdorf, which since 1910 has been
the Berliner Kindl Brauerei AG, Berlin
(Neukolln)
1872 the Lowenbrau AG, Munich
1873 the Kaiserbrauerei Beck & Co, now
Brauerei Beck & Co, Bremen
1873 the Dortmlmder Union Brauerei, Dort-
mund
During this time, alread y existin g breweries
were also growing conSiderably. The Bass Bre-
wery in Burton-on-Trent, for example, by 1876
was producing 2.5 mio hI of beer annually and
was classified as the lmgest brewery in the world
at this time, but was soon overtaken by Arthur
Guitmess & Son Co. Ltd. in Dublin .
In the USA, the development of the breweries
is closely linked with the settlement of the COlUl-
try by European immigrants. Thus, the first bre-
weries appeared on the east coast of the cOlmtry
and then upriver, followitlg the foundin g of lar-
ge cities and the expansion of the railway net-

o InAustralia, the follow ing brewery was foun-
ded:
1862 the Cooper's Brewery in Adelaide
As a resu lt of this development, the science of
beer brewing became known and could be
taught. In several COWl tries where beer was bre-
wed, resea rch laboratories and institutes were
created which in due course developed into tea-
ching institutes and organisations; for example:
the Weihenstephan Brauereihocllschule (Uni-
versity faculty) near Mlmich (1865), today
Chair for Brewing Teclmology at the Centre for
Scientific Research Weihenstephan and the Fa-
culty for Food Science, Land Use and the Envi-
rOlUl1ent of the TU (Technical University) Mu-
nich
the Dr. Siebel Analytical Laboratory in Chica-
go (1868), today the Siebel Institute of Techno-
logy
the Yersuchs- lmd Lehranstalt fiir Brauerei in
Berlin (Research and Teaching Institute for
Brewing in Berlin - YLB) (1883)
the Brewing School in Gent (1885)
Fig.O.S
100 yenrs ngo: Vicw iI/side n "Scilwnl/klwllc", Iile bllildillg wllere lile ell/ply bnrrels were clcntled.
the hlstitute of Brewing (lOB) in London (1886)
Tilere wns nil eIlOl'llIOII S nlllOlIlll of work illvolved ill clenllillg lite reillmed ell/ply woodell bands II sed for beer lrallsport the Doemens-Lehranstalten in Grafeling near
(Arcltive pltoto: Radebelger Export Beer Brewery) Munich (1895)
the Scandinavian School of Brewing in Yalby
near Copenhagen (1925)
and others.
work. Within a few years, the following brewe- 1861 the Pabst Brew ing Co. in Milwaukee, At the same time a munber of specialised jour-
ries were founded: Wisconsin nals were fmUlded, by means of which scientific
1849 the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Co. in Mil- 1873 the Adolphus Coors Brewing Co. in Gol- knowledge, and also other interesting informati-
waukee, Wisconsin den, Colorado on on the topic of beer, could be distributed. The-
1850 the Plank Road Brewery, which in 1855 In the second half of the 19th century, the se include, for example:
became the Miller Brewing Co. in Mil- breakthrough in other COlUltries and continents "Allgemeine Brauer- und Hopfenze itung",
waukee, Wisconsin into the industrial era also occurred in the bre- today "Brauwelt" in Nuremberg (1861)
1850 the Stroh Brewery Co. in Detroit, Michi- wing trade. This was marked by the founding of "Brewer's Journal" in London (1864)
gan many new breweries, for exa mple in Japan: "The American Brewers Gazette" in New York
1851 the Anheuser Brewery, since 1875 Anheu- 1869 the Spring Valley Brewery, since 1907 the (1871)
ser-Busch, St. Louis, Missouri Kirin Brewery Co. Ltd. "Brewers Guardian" (1871)
1858 the Gund and Heileman Brewery, later 1876 the Hokkaido Kaitakushi Brewery, later "TIle Western Brewery" in Chicago (1876)
the Heileman Brewing Co. in La Crosse, the Asahi Brewery Ltd. and the Sapporo "Wochenschrift £iiI' Brauerei" in Berlin (1883),
Wisconsin Ltd. Brewery today "Brauerei-Forum"
27
"Tageszeitung fLil' Brauerei" in Berlin (1903)
o
and many others.
Expert analysts formed com missions to make
the analysis values of different cmUltries con-
vertible using standard analysis methods; for
example:
the "Mitteleuropaische Brau teclmische Ana-
Iysenkommission" (MEBAK)
the "European Brewing Convention" (EBC)
the "American Society of Brewing Chemists"
(ASBC)
and others.
At the same time, powerful brewing associati-
ons and brewers' organisations developed in al-
most all cOLUltries; for exa mple, in Germany:
"Deutsche Brauer-Bund eV" (DBB), fmUlded
in 1871 in Dresden
"Deutscher Braumeister- und Malzmeister-
Bund e.v." (DBMB), fmUlded in 1893 in Leip-
zig
"Bundesverband mittelstandischer Privat-
brauereien e.Y" (Association of Small and
MediLUn Sized Private Breweries)
"Deutscher Malzerbund" (Association of Ger-
man Maltsters)
and in America:
"Master Brewer's Association of the Ameri-
cas" (MBAA)
and many others.
Naturally, the Reinheitsgebot was the prevai-
ling law initially in many cOlmtries, but Ameri-
can brewers already knew in the 1860s and 70s
the economic advantage of using maize meal or
rice grits as additives. As a result of the refining
the teclmiques and teclmology for the proces-
sing of raw grain, a new type of beer was intro-
duced which has meanwhile gained global im-
portance. Today, almost 90% of beer worldwide
is produced with the aid of raw grain.
In the USA beer production suffered a severe
blow through the prohibition of alcohol, intro-
duced in 1919. At that time, the breweries could
only stay in existence by producing so-called
 28
o "near beer". As a result of th e Prohibition,
which was not revoked until 1933, criminal acti-
vity and the smuggling of alcoholic drinks had
become much more widespread and so the re-
sult of the Prohibition was very negative. In
Scandinavian countries, too, at this time there
were substantial limitations on the production
illld sale of alcohol-containing beverages, and
these still exist in some countries.
When considering the development of brewe-
ries in Germillly in the second haH of the 19th
century, one should not overlook the fact that
there were still 13,561 breweries in operation
there in 1873, of which 10,171 were brewing top
fermenting beer. Added to this were 36,297 hou-
seholds where tax free drinl<s were being bre-
wed for home use only [2] .
By 1891 the number of operating breweries in
Germillly had fallen to 7,785, main ly beca use of
the fotmding of large brewing public limited
companies and co-operatives. Many craft bre-
weries from this time are nevertheless still in
ex istence today. The large difference in size illld
hence better fitlilllCial resources meilllS there is a
far greater opportunity for introducing new
teclmology in larger breweries. In particular, the
introduction of coa l heated steam boilers for in-
house energy supply to the brew kettle itl the
brewhouse, the employment of the brewery's
own steam engine to drive the cooling machitle
compressor and the production of their own
electricity by large breweries can be finilllcially
supported by the economic advantages of ope-
rating on a large scale. Small craft breweries
could not afford the expensive equipment illld
retaitled their traditional equipment and pro-
cesses - millly even lmtil today.
The traditional material for brewitlg equip-
ment, wood (Fig. 0.9), disappeared only slowly
to be replaced by iron, initially coated with
pitch. Wooden vats were replaced by open fer-
menters and the wooden barrels, stacked itl ma-
ny layers, were replaced by tilllks. For various
29
o
needed in the brewery, has been considera bl y
reduced. This trend also applies to the brewitlg
equipment (Fig. 0.11), particularly as the teclmi-
cal advantages far outweigh the continuing use
of the beaten copper pots which are no longer
economi c.
In the produ ction of malt and beer only the
basic bio-chemical processes ha ve remained the
same over the centuries:
germination of barley in the malt house to
Fig. 0.10 produce enzymes,
Copper brewillg vessels were tile pride of ti,e //laster brewer mashing in the brewhouse to aUow them to
act and form fermentable sugar, illld finally,
the fermentation of sugar to alcohol and car-
SitlCe the introduction of s taitlless steel, an bon dioxide.
Fig. 0.9 ever increaSing number of automated cleaning 150 years ago it was still customary for a bre-
Woodell tallks alld bands 10llg cllnrncterised tile face of tile systems are being used by breweries. As a result wery to produce its own malt requirements. For
brewery of this and also the increasillg mechanisation this purpose almost every brewery had its own
and automation of the production processes, small malt house in which the malt that was
hard milllual labour, illld with it the workforce used for brewing in early summer was produ-
reasons, however, this process did not occur in
millly breweries lmtil the fifth decade of the last
millennium . In addition to iron, aluminium la-
ter becilllle important in breweries, especially
for fermenters and lagering vessels. The main
changes were, however, itl the material illld the
heating of the brewitlg equipment. Here the cast
iron open pots, which were commonplace at the
begitmitlg of the 19'" centm")', were replaced by
copper as the material from which vessels were
made. The Shitly beaten vessels with their beauti-
ful copper covers illld steam vents, initially hea-
ted using coal or gas, illld for the last ninety years
itlcreasingly by steam, were the pride of the ma-
ster brewer (Fig. 0.10). Even today, a copper cover
Cilll be fotmd covering a modern stainless steel
vessel beneath it. However, since the introducti-
on of staitlless steel, alloys and the tools to work
with this difficult material, their triumphal ad-
vance Cilll no longer be stopped. The wooden
trilllsportation barrel, which had survived for
centuries, has now also been replaced by staitl- Fig. 0.11
less steel kegs. Stnilliess steel brewillg vessels nrc today 's state of tile art tecllllology

30
) able stabilising measures it is possible to make
Fig. 0.12
A IIInlt IlOlI se todny
se, the largest produce over 1 mio tons of malt
ced in the winter. This was done by the sa me
annually, as is the case with the American com-
workforce, whkh naturally gave rise to the pro-
panies Con Agrarriger-Oats Malt (1996) and the
fession of "Brewer and Maltster" which s till
Cargill Malt Inc. (1978), and also the French
exists in Germany. However, at the same time
Groupe Soufflet (1952) and Groupe Malteurop
commercial maltings were being formed, som e
(1984) (brackets refer to yea r of fOlU1ding). But
of them special malt producers, which were se-
also other companies, like the American Lasaf-
pal'ate from brewe ries, for example:
£Ie-ADM (1998) or Rahr Malting (1847), the Eng-
1823 Bail'ds' Malt Ltd ., Witham, Essex
lish Greencore group (1991) or the Friedrich
1864 the Friedrich Weissheimer Malzfabrik,
Weissheimer Malzfabrik (1864) have an annual
Andernach
production of over 500,000 tons of malt. All
1868 Pauls Malt Ltd., Ipswich, Suffolk
companies nowadays have subsidiaries in other
1879 the Michael WeyermaIUl Malzfabrik,
countries to enable them to produce more eco-
Bamberg
nomically on the spot (Fig. 0.12). Together these
Of course at this time and until the middle of
large companies produce around 7 mio tons of
the 20 th century, malt production was still very
malt and thereby provide almost half of the esti-
labour intensive and characterised by heavy
mated 15.4 m tons required for the global sup-
manual work in the huge floor maltings. Tur-
ply of beer in 2002/3 [238].
ning in the kiln was also sometimes performed
There have also been, revolutionary
manually. The path to the modern pneumatic
changes in other areas of brewing in the last 150
malting systems brought with it enormous sa-
years. The greatest changes after the inh'oduction
vings in energy and workforce requirements.
of refrigera tion resulted from the invention of
Nowadays the computer rules in the maltings
which are largely free of p eople. beer filtration by Loren z Enzinger (1879). Since
then it has been possible, first by means of a filter
Today malting mainly takes place in large
mass, later by use of kieselgulu' and other media,
companies, the majority of which are m ad e up
to filter beer so that it is quite clear. By use of Sttit-
of small companies which ha ve merged . Of the-
beer stable for a very long time and therefore to
produce it i.ndependentl y of when it will be con-
SLUned. As a result of the development of beer
bottles and, cans and due to the massive in-
h'oduction of beer glasses instead of the prev io-
usly preva len t opaque beer mugs, pale beer - in-
stead of the usual dark beer prevalent tmtil then
- began to trilmlph away from the pub as well as
in it. Today it is impossible to tlunk of it not being
availa ble as a household product, distributed
through the market in the form of bottled and
CaIm ed beer. The development of high-speed fil-
ling lines, by w luch entry of oxygene into the
beer is almost completely excluded, makes it
possible nowadays to fully maintain beer quali-
ty for a long time. Substantial progress has been
made in thi s area in recent years - only a few ye-
ars ago beer s tability regarding taste was a great
problem. But it is not onJy the quality of the beer
that is importaIlt. It is becoming increaSingly
clear that the beer also has to be presented in a
suitably attractive and tas teful malUler if the
customer is to be persuaded to buy it (Fig. 0.13).
The label on the bottle also has to advertise the
Fig. 0.13
Ti,e ovemll illlpressi-
all crented by tile
bottle, Inbel, beer gins
nlld beer IIInt illcren-
sillgly defi" es tile np-
penmllce of tile Umlld
31
tmiqueness of the product through its shape, co-
a
10m and design. a label alone does not
h ave sufficie nt effect, and therefore it also needs
to have a head foil if its neighbom also has one.
Even the relatively heavy and breakable glass
bottle, however, has not retained its position
lU1sca thed . The much lighter beer can has beco-
me globally accepted and more recently, the ul-
tra-li ght PET bottl e, in the meantime largely
protected against gas has enjoyed in-
creasing popularity amongst conSLU11ers, aided
by the adva ntage of less packaging.
However, n ot onJy the bottle or can but the
glass, too, is no longer just an anonymous large
glass with a handle, as ca n still be found in beer
gardens and at tables reserved for regulars. Be-
aling the brewer's crest, its form and design
now reflect the sa les philosophy of the brewery
for this particular type of beer. With its paper
coaster and personalised beer mat, the glass, its
contents freshly poured and well served, should
con vey to the thirsty drinker either in a restau-
rant or pub, or at home, the pleasure of that par-
ticuJar drink, bearing in mind that the eye also
drinks. A civilised drinklng environment when
eating and socialising is becoming increasingly
important today.
As a result of the introduction of versatile mo-
nitoring and control systems, beer production
can now be supervised easil y. High standard
on-line tecluuques allow a seamless continuous
control of the production process. By incorpora-
ting automation it is possible to allow most bre-
wing operations to run completely automatical-
ly. The work of the brewer is being taken over
more and more by computers. The quality of the
raw and auxiliary materials has also, because of
appropriate cultivation methods and controls,
reached a level wluch makes it possible to ensure
good beer quality.
Nevertheless - or rather as a result - greater
demands are put on the brewer nowadays. With
the subs tantially grea ter automatic supply of in-
o
32

formation on the one hand, and the decreased
Diebels and the Gilde Group in 2002, atld later
the Spaten Group incl . Dinkelacker. The Carls-
velopment concenung small breweries atld in
particular pub breweries (adventure breweries,
worldwide. Given its population of 1.3 billion
citizens with a current per head consumption of
:-l 0

opportmuty for visual inspection of the product

on the other hand, he must retain supervision of berg Group acquired the Holsten Group and open to the public), the number of which can be 23litres compared with that of GermatlY at 125
the entire process and take the correct decisions. sold the Licher and Konig breweries to the Bit- estimated at over 3000 globally. In addition to litres per head, substantial increases can still be
Consequently, his comprehensive knowledge of burger Group . The Radeberger Group took over this, there is also a global increase in the number expected. In Russia, too, as well as a range of
the process is extremely valuable. It is the main the Brau lU1d BnuU1en Group in 2004 and for- of communities which try their luck at home East European cOlU1tries, beer production has
purpose of this book to contextualise and im- med the Radeberger Gruppe KG, which was ad- brewing and, within the confines of the law, at- risen considerably in recent years [240] .
prove this knowledge. ded to in 2005 by the Freiberger Brewery. tempt to brew their own beer. The beer-producing cOlU1tries with atl annual
The number and size of brewing companies is Operating brewery platltS in Germany can be Despite the stagnation in matlY cOlU1tries in output of over 2 mio . hi (2001) are listed below
greatly dependent on the historical develop- divided according to their total ammal output Europe and North America, global beer produc- [140] :
ment of the country. When compared with other in hi : tion has increased significatltly, from 2000 to
COWl tries, there are still a very large number of 2005 alone by 206 mio . hI, which represents an Europe
breweries in Germany, the majority of them in CompatlY size 1993 2005 Chatlge average annual increase of approximately 41 Country 2001 2005 2006 2007
Upper Franconia. More than half of German to 5000 hi 615 804 +189 mio. hI. Total production is as follows [140+217]: Russia 63.0 89.29 9.9 116.0
breweries are small, most of them pub and mi- to 10,000 hi 136 87 -49 1990 1142 mio. hI GermatlY 108.5 105.5 107.2 105.0
crobreweries, the number of which has me- to 50,000 hi 280 190 -90 1991 1165 mio. hI Great Britain 56.8 56.0 53.8 50.5
anwhile increased to arolmd 350. The approxi- to 100,000 hi 106 74 -32 1992 1163 mio. hI Poland 24.1 29.0 32.5 35.5
mately 1000 breweries with an atU1ual output of to 200,000 hi 60 35 -25 1993 1190 mio. hI Spain 27.7 32.5 33.6 34.3
up to 500,000 hi make up only about 7% of the to 500,000 hi 62 35 -27 1994 1222 mio. hi Ukraine 13.1 23.7 26.7 31.6
total amOlU1t of beer produced. to 1 mio. hi 24 23 -1 1995 1248 mio. hi Netherlands 25.2 24.5 26.5 27.2
The largest German brewing groups and pri- over 1 mio . hi 28 26 -2 1996 1269 mio. hI Czech Republic 17.8 19.1 19.8 19.9
vate breweries based on total sales of self-pro- Germany tot. 1311 1274 -37 1997 1295 mio . hI Romatua 12.1 15.2 17.5 19.4
duced beer (Brwlt. 46/47 (2006) p. 1434) were: 1998 1313 mio . hI Belgium 15.0 17.2 18.4 18.6
1999 1365 mio . hI France 18.8 16.4 16.0 15.1
2000 1392 mio. hI Italy 12.6 12.3 12.0 13.5
Brewery Group Production in nuo. hi In Germany, however, in the period from 1993 2001 1424mio. hi Ireland 8.7 9.0 9.3 9.3
2009 2005 2002 to 2000, as more than 200 new pub and micro- 2002 1444 mio. hI Turkey 7.0 8.9 9.1 9.2
Radeberger Group 13.4 13.7 8.8 breweries were opened on a permatlent basis, 2003 1478 mia. hI Austria 8.6 8.8 8.8 9.0
InBev, Bremen 8.7 17.3 7.2 the number of commercial breweries which ha- 2004 1552 mia. hI Portugal 6.6 7.4 8.3 8.2
Oettinger-Group 8.6 6.5 4.0 ve closed in the meantime is considerably lug- 2005 1598 nuo. hI Denmark 7.2 8.8 8.2 8.0
Bitburger Group 7.3 8.0 4.8 her thatl it first seems to be. This means that in 2006 1699 mio. hI Hungary 7.1 7.0 6.9 6.5
Krombacher Brauerei 5.6 5.6 4.8 the seven years from 1993 to 2000, approximate- 2007 1787 mio. hI Serbia 5.3 6.0 5.9 6.0
Brau Holding Mlmich 5.5 7.4 4.6 ly 240 breweries, above all small compatues, clo- 2008 1815 mio. hI Bulgaria 4.3 4.2 5.2 5.7
Carlsberg-Holsten 5.0 7.0 9.8 sed forever. As a result of tlus, the brewery land- The increases in beer production (at an avera- Finland 4.1 4.6 4.5 4.5
Warsteiner Group 4.7 4.9 5.7 scape in Germany has Chatlged considerably. ge per head consumption of 23 litres) can be di- Greece 4.0 4.0 3.8 4.1
Veltins 2.4 2.4 2.3 Meanwhile, a global market-dominating ex- vided primarily between the Central and East Sweden 4.4 3.7 4.0 4.0
Actris Group 1.7 2.6 2.4 pansion of the large breweries and brewery European countries, Latin America, the COlU1- Slovakia 4.5 3.9 3.8 3.7
Karlsberg 4.2 3.8 groups is occurring, whose aim is to conquer the tries of Asia and Ocealua as well as southern Belarus 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.5
global sales market by purchasing breweries in Africa. The largest increase in beer production Switzerland 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.5
The at times enormous changes in total turno- other cOlU1tries, often on a massive scale, and can be recorded in China, which, with a beer Croatia 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.4
ver are mainly owing to mergers and sales. Thus merging with other groups. As well as this deve- production of 351 mio. hi in 2006 (only 170 mio. Lithuania 2.5 3.0 2.9 3.0
the Actris Group initially still belonged to the lopment with regard to tlle large breweries and hI in 1997), has left the USA far behind it and Norway 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.2
Marz Grou p, Interbrew firstly took over Becks, brewing associations, there has also been a de- has become the top ranking beer country Total 489.7 543.3 568.6 591.8
 34 35
o America Kenya 2.6 3.5 3.8 4.5 Country o
1995 2000 2005
Country 2001 2005 2006 2007 Total 60.2 74.2 79.7 85.0 Finland 82.9 80.2 77.9
USA 231.0 230.2 231.2 233.7 H ungary 84.7 75.3 72.3
Brazil 84.0 90.0 93.6 96.0 Asia Ve nezuela 73.6 71 .9 71.0
Mexico 62.3 72.5 78.2 81.0 Country 2001 2005 2006 2007 Spa in 66.5 66.6 70.8
Venezuela 21.8 22.0 24.0 26.2 China 227.0 306.1 351.5 393.1 Canada 68.5 68.9 67.8
Canada 23.9 23.1 23.6 23.9 Japan 71.3 63.4 63.0 62.8 Portugal 62.3 64.7 64.6
Columbia 13.4 16.5 18.4 19.0 Thailand 12.3 17.0 20.2 21.7 Sweden 67.3 64.5 56.1
Argentina 12.4 13.7 14.0 14.5 Vietnam 8.1 13.7 16.0 18.0 Sw izerland 64.8 62.7 58.3
Peru 5.2 7.1 7.9 9.2 South Korea 20.0 17.0 16.4 17.9 Columbia 57.5 57.5 54.5
Chile 3.9 4.6 5.5 5.7 Philippines 12.0 13.5 13.2 13.6 Japan 59.9 56.2 55.7
Ecuador 2.3 3.0 3.5 3.6 India 6.0 7.8 8.4 9.0 South Africa 56.9 55.5 54.2
Dominican Rep . 3.1 3.0 2.8 3.0 Kazakhstan 3.2 3.6 4.1 Mexico 49.8 50.9 53.4
Total 479.5 502.9 519.6 533.1 Total 370.6 456.5 506.5 555.5 Bu lgal'ia 53.2 53.2 53.3
Norway 50.5 52.5 51.5
Africa Australia/Ozeania Po land 36.4 39.0 45 .7
Country 2001 2005 2006 2007 Country 2001 2005 2006 2007 Greece 42.0 40.0 39.0
South Africa 22.5 25.9 26.5 26.5 Australia 17.4 17.1 17.2 16.7 Frilllce 39.3 39.1 36.2
Nigeria 6.7 10.0 11.5 13.5 N ew Zealand 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.8 Romania 41.7 39.2 38.0
Cameroon 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.6 Total 21.4 21.1 22.0 21.7 Iceland 27.3 30.6 32.5
Italy 26.2 25.4 28.0
Beer conslU1lption per head of the population tion. It is our duty as brewers to contribute to tile
varies greatly bOtil in amount consumed and de- continued rise or at least a stabilisation in beer The beer l11aTket has had a global orientation for a brewing associations accOlmted for 53.3% of the
velopment in tile different COlU1h'ies arOlmd the conslU1lption. This can be achieved through tile long time, chaTacterised by international acqlusi- beer market, whereas in 2006 tlus figlll'e had risen
globe. The Czedls have always had tile highest high quality of our beer and appropriate informa- tions illld purdlasing of breweries. Tlus has led to to 60.6 % with 1,030 mio. hI.
beer consumption per head of tile population at tion for our potential customers regarding the be- a dramatic chilllge in the size and concentration of The 40 largest brewing associations in the
approximately 160 litres, followed by the Ger- nefits of beer when cOl1SlU1led in moderation. some associations [293]. In 2003, the ten largest world (31.12.2008)
mans. Witlun a cOlmtry itself, we still Beer consumption (in litres) per head of the
have to note differences regarding beer conslunp- population in recent years amolmted to [213]: Rank Brewery Country Production volume Share of world
in mio. hI beer prod. in %
Country 1995 2000 2005 2003 2005 2008
Czech Republic 161.1 159.1 160.0 1 AB InBev USA * 173.5 388.1 21.4
Germany 138.0 135.9 125.5 2 SAB Miller Great Britain 137.8 176.0 174.4 9.6
Ireland 112.6 112.7 126.0 3 Heineken Netherlands 99.0 118.6 161.5 8.9
Denmark 126.7 124.4 102.2 4 Carlsberg Denmark 88.8 48.3 109.3 6.0
Austria 116.6 115.7 108.1 5 Cl'lina Res. Brew. Cluna * * 73.0 4.0
Great Britain 103.7 100.9 95.4 6 Tsingtao Clllila 32.6 40.9 54.3 3.0
Belgium + Luxembg. 105.6 103.5 98.0 7 Modelo Mexico 41 .9 45.5 51.5 2.8
Australia 98.9 96.9 95.4 8 Molson-Coors USA/Canada ** 48.3 51.1 2.8
New Zealand 102.1 98.8 93.9 9 Yilll Jing China 22.3 31.2 42.2 2.3
Slovakia 93.4 87.5 90.2 10 Femsa Mexico 24.6 27.0 41.1 2.3
Netherlands 86.0 85.8 82.8 11 Asalu Japan 25.9 24.6 23.1 1.3
USA 85.2 83.5 83.4 12 Kirin Japan 32.1 22.6 22.7 1.3
 F

37
36
o Share of world Rank Country Beer production in 1000 hI
o
Rank Brewery Country Production volume
in mio. hI beer prod. in % 1999 2005 2007 2008
2003 2005 2008 5 Germ any 112,800 105,452 103,970 102,860
13 Efes Turkey 11 .8 18.0 22.6 1.2 6 Mexico 57,256 72,500 81,000 82,343
12.6 13.9 19.8 1.1 7 Japan 71,510 63,430 62,804 61,111
14 BGI/Cas tel France
15 Polar Venezuela 11.0 16.5 19.0 1.0 8 Great Britain 57,854 56,021 51,341 49,469
16 Diageo (GuuU1ess) Ireland 13.0 13.0 19.0 1.0 9 Poland 22,500 29,000 35,500 35,600
9.4 15.8 18.5 1.0 10 Spain 25,852 32,500 34,350 33,400
17 Gold Star China
China 9.1 14.4 17.7 1.0 11 Ukraine 8,500 23,700 31,561 32,030
18 Chong Qing
Brazil 15.0 15.5 17.0 0.9 12 Netherlands 24,502 24,560 27,259 26,500
19 Schulcariol
the Philippines 14.8 17.0 17.0 0.9 13 South Africa 25,700 25,900 26,530 25,900
20 San Miguel
Germany 7.6 15.0 13.5 0.7 14 Venezuela 17,000 22,000 26,249 24,905
21 Radeberger
10.3 11.2 12.2 0.7 15 Canada 22,949 23,156 23,920 23,662
22 Mahou-S. Miguel Spain
China 11.9 0.7 16 Romania 12,097 15,241 19,422 20,774
23 Pearl River
Ukraine 11 .3 0.6 17 Thailand 10,499 17,030 21,700 20,725
24 Obolon
South Korea 10.0 9.7 11.1 0.6 18 Czech Republic 17,946 16,069 19,897 19,806
25 Hite
Thailand 6.8 11.0 0.6 19 Columbia 15,500 16,500 19,000 19,000
26 SUlgha
Australia 12.7 9.2 9.0 0.5 20 South Korea 17,886 18,615
27 Foster's
Brazil 9.0 0.5
28 Petropolis
Unidas, Chile 6.4 8.9 0.5
29 CCU Cerv.
New Zealand 10.6 8.0 8.5 0.5 The legal basis for beer production in Germany (3) By malt is meant all cereal which has been
30 Lion Nathan
Germany 7.0 8.5 0.5 Before going UltO detail on raw materials, and the artificially germinated.
31 Oettulger
Thailand 11.1 9.1 8.3 0.5 processes in malt and beer production Ul the fol- (4) The use of coloured beers which are produ-
32 Beer Thai
Viehlam 8.1 0.4 10wUlg chapters, it is firs t advisable to h ave a look ced using only malt, hops, yeast and water is
33 SABECO
Spain 6.1 6.5 7.7 0.4 at the lega l basis for the production of beer and permitted Ul the production of beer, but is
34 Damm
Japan 6.8 6.6 7.6 0.4 malt which applies Ul Germany. Based on the subject to specia l supervision measures.
35 SLUltory
Germany 5.8 8.2 7.4 0.4 Reulheitsgebot, the fLUldamentals of the "provi- (5) Instead of hops, hop powder, commumted
36 Bitburger
8.5 9.0 7.2 0.4 sional beer law" are determined withul the fra- hops or hop extract may be used in beer pro-
37 Sapporo Japan
India 6.4 0.4 mework of the publication of 29 July 1993. The le- duction, as long as these products fulfil the
38 United Brewery
JUlwei, Clllila 5.2 6.3 0.3 gal clauses ullportant for German brewers are following requirements:
39 Shenzhen
6.2 0.3 fOlUld Ul § 9 of the law with the followmg text: 1. Hop other comminuted hop forms
40 Shanghai SLUltory China
1523.0 83.9 and hop extracts must be exclusively acqui-
Total
World beer production 2007 1,815.6 100.0 § 9 Beer production red from hops.
• 2003 stilllnterbrew and AmBev •• 2003 still Molson and Coors (1) For the production of bottom ferm enting 2. Hop extracts must
beer, apa rt from the regulations in para- a) contaul those properties possessed by hops
The 20 cOLUltries with the largest beer production [293, 362] graphs 4 to 6, only barley malt, hops, yeast before or durUlg wort boilulg Ul the brewulg
and water may be used . process, namely the volatile subs tances of the
Rank Country Beer production in 1000 hI (2) The production of top fermentulg beer is hops or their aromatic and bitter substances
1999 2005 2007 2008 subject to the same regulations; however, the · Ul the beer wort.
185,000 306,156 393,137 410,301 use of other malt and the use of technically b) correspond to the food law regulations.
1 China
236,000 230,245 232,839 231,772 p ure cane, beet and invert sugar, as well as The hop extracts may only be added to the
2 USA
43,200 89,205 115,000 114,000 starch su gars and designated colourants de- beer wort at the beguullilg of or during wort
3 Russia
80,401 90,000 96,000 106,300 rived from these sa me sugars is allowed. boiwlg.
4 Brazil

38
o (6) The only substances w hich may be used as
finings for wort and beer are those which h a-
ve a mechanical or adsorbent effect and can
be eliminated again apart from technically
avoid able parts which are harmless regar-
(8) The regulations in paragraphs 1 and 2 do not
ding hygiene, aroma and flavour.
(7) Upon request, in individual cases, non-com-
pliance w ith paragraphs 1 an d 2 may be per-
pz
mitted for the production of particular beers
and beers intended either for export or for
scientific purposes. The respective loca l le-
gal authorities are responsible for such aut-
horisation.
apply to those bre weries which produce
beer solely for domestic use (home brewers).
1 Raw Materials
Four raw m a terials are required for beer
production: barley, hops, water and ye-
ast. The quality of these raw materials
has a decisive influence on the quality of
the final product. Knowledge of the pro-
perties of the raw materials and their ef-
fec ts on the process and final product
provides the basis for their handling and
processing. With such knowledge it is
possible to conh'ol the teclmological pro-
cess consciously.
Barley is the main raw material for beer
production. Its u se depends on the fact
that barley has a high starcil content and
the husk still adheres to the grain, even
after tlu'eshing and processing to malt.
Consequently it is able to form tile wort
filh'ation layer required in a later produc-
tion stage. Before use in the brewery tile
barley must fu'st be converted into malt.
In many countries luunalted cereals,
SUcll as maize, rice, sorghum, barley and
wheat, or products made from them, are
often used as Adj1l11cts. In Germany,
Wheat and other cereals can be used in
their malted form to produce top fer-
mented beer.
Hops give beer its bitter taste and have
an effect on tile aroma. The quality of the
beer depends greatly on the quality of
tile hops.
Quantitatively the most important
raw material is Water. This affects the
beer character and qua lity at several pro-
cessin g stages. In addition water is used
for cleaning and disinfecting, as well as
many other processes in tile maltings
and brewery.
39
1
The alcoholic fer m enta tion to form
beer depends on the activity of Yea st
which consequently is essential for beer
production. The yeast has a great effect
on beer quality beca use of the effects of
its metabolic by-products.
1.1 Barley
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) supplies the
starch required for beer production.
This starch is converted to fermentable
extract in the brewhouse. It is necessary
to produce, by cultiva tion of suitable va-
rieties, barleys which provide extract-
rich malts.
1.1.1 Barley types and varieties
Barley is a cereal, the ears of which are
ch aracterised by particularly long awns
(Fig. 1.0). It is classified into two types
and many varieties, which are not all
equally useful as far as brewing and
malting are concerned.
1.1.1.1 Types of barley
Barleys can be divided into the winter
type winter barleys, the seeds of which
are sown in about the middle of Sep-
and the s ummer form spring
barleys, which are sown in Marcil and
April.
Both types are su bdivided into varie-
ties which, depending on the arrange-
ment of the corns on the ear axis (ra-
chis), are classified as two-row or
multi-row. In the case of multi-row bar-
Fig.I .D
Bnrley enr witll IOllg leys there are three fertilisable florets at
mUlls each node on the rachis. Each of til ese,

40
after pollination, develops into a barley corn or
grain. When seen from above the groups of three
grains appear alternately on the right and on the
left forming six-row barley (Fig. 1.1). When the
rachis internode segments are relatively long, of-
ten only four rows can be made out beca use the
lateral florets of anyone node overlap those of
the adjacent nodes. Consequently in four-row
barley these florets seem to be in four, rather
than six rows. Nevertheless, there are actually
six rows.
Fig. 1.1
Structllre of
bnrleyenrs
(nccordillg to AII/hnlll-
Iller)
(1) two-raw bnrley
(2) six-raw bnrley
(n) viewed fra 11 I
nbove
(b) fra llt view of
Illiddlerow
(e) Internl view
In the case of two-row barleys only one grain
develops at each node because the lateral florets
are sterile. From above only one grain can be
seen on the right and one on the left (two-row).
The various sorts of barley (spring, winter,
two-row, six-row) differ in several important
ways from one another:
Two-row barleys produce large, plump grains
usually with thinner, finely wrinkled hu sks.
Consequently such barleys have relatively larger
amOlmts of useful contents and less husk, and so
contain fewer poly phenolic and bitter substan-
ces. The grains are all very mliform and their ex-
tract content is comparatively high. Two-row
p
barleys are preferably grown as spring barleys
and combine all the desirable features for malt
and beer production.
Six-row barleys produce grains of uneven size.
Because the grains do not have sufficient room to
grow fully, those in the rows from the lateral flo-
rets are thillJler and these grains are curved at
the distal end where the awn is attached (twisted
grains). These twisted grains can be used to re-
cognise six-row barleys.
The yield of winter barley is about 6t/ha,
which is substantially higher than that of spring
barley (about 4t/ha) and is of course due to the
shorter growing season for the latter (150 days as
opposed to 300 days for winter barleys). In ma-
ny cOlUltries, therefore, much more winter bar-
ley than spring barley is produced.
Malting barleys comprise in addition to
two-row spring barleys, also
two-row winter barleys,
six-row winter barleys and
six-row spring barleys.
1.1.1.2 Barley varieties
Within the above-mentioned types there are
very many varieties which differ considerably
from one another in a number of properties. In
the European Brewery Convention (EBC) COlUl-
tries alone, about 300 spring barleys, 100 two-
row winter barleys and 100 six-row winter bar-
leys are registered . That in itself shows their
diversity.
For malting and brewing pmposes the
row spring barleys are by far the most suitable,
because systematic attempts have been made to
improve their brewing quality for over a luUl-
dred years. A large number of varieties have ex-
cellent teclmological properties.
However, increasing numbers of two-row
winter barleys are being developed whose qua-
lity is almost as good as that of two-row spring
barleys [86]. Breeding of winter barley of good
brew ing quality is promising since the combina-
tion of a high yield and good quality can more
easily lead to econ omica lly priced malt.
To obtain a good, uniform m alt it is essential
that as man y gra ins as possible in the batch
should be of the same variety. Consequentl y, as
far as possible pure va rieties should be grown.
Onl y in this way can the advantage of breeding
pure varieties be fully utilised . In breeding new
varieties grea t importance is placed on the follo-
wi ng quality parameters:
disease and pes t resistance
good straw s trength
high ability to utilise nutrients
high grain yield
good corn shape and dis tribution
high wa ter uptake rate and low water sensiti-
vity
low nitrogen content
high germinative energy at the time of malting
ripeness
high enzyme-forming potential
ability to modify well
high ex trac t yield on malting
1.1.2 Barley cultivation
Th e most highly developed region for growing
barley is Central Europe, where barley has been
systematically grown for about 150 years. Here it
is above all the two-row spring barleys which
have become very economically importcUlt as
high quality barleys, but winter barley cultivati-
on is also increasing. In Germany in 2002, 2.7
mio. t of spring barley were harvested, of which
2.1 mio. t were of the malting barley variety,
mainly comprising the four leading types Scar-
lett, Barke, Pasadena and Annabel [215]. These
varieties are also grown in the neighbouring
cOlmtries. Other important varieties, which me
grown in many cOlmtries, include Optic, Lux
and Alliot grown in Denmark, the British varie-
ties Chariot, Riviera and Prism a, as well as the
French Astoria, Nevada and Aspen. As far as
winter barleys are concerned, there is a current
41
preference for the varieties Vanessa, Tiffany and
Regina. The breeding of malting barley is, howe- 1
under constant development, so new varie-
ties with improved properties are always co-
ming to the fore.
The main regions for growing badey are the
moderate climatic reg ions of the northern he-
mis phere, with the focus on Europe and the Ne-
ar East, Canada and the USA, as well as Aush'a-
lia, Argentina and Uruguay. Of the approximate
130 mio. tons of barley grow n (2002), the EU
countries produced 48 mio. t and East and Cen-
tral Europe 35 mio. t. Consequentl y about 70 %
of barley is produced in this region . In No rth
America, brew ing barley is mainly grown in Ca-
nada, which has an annual production of 13-14
mio. t. Of this, about 11.5 mio. t is for domestic
use and the rest grown for export. Because of its
geogra phi ca l position and the short growing
seaSOll, spring barl ey is grown in Alberta (53%),
Saska tchewan (35 %) and Manitoba (12 %) . Cana-
da sells over 1 million t of two-row and 0.4 milli-
on t of six-row brewing barley per year.
There is an approximate balance between bre-
wing barley production and requirement in the
USA. Of the approximately 10 mio. t of barley
produced, about 35% is grown in the Midwest in
Mumesota and North and South Dakota. Of this,
about 80% is brewing barley (varieties robust
58 %, excel, 11100'ex, azura). In the West (Montana,
Wyoming, Colorado), where predominantly
two-row barley is grown, only about 30 % is bre-
wing barley. In the USA malting barley is main-
ly six-row s pring barley, the breeding of which
shows considerable advances in comparison
with two-row barley.
The most important growing regions in the
southern hemisphere are in Australia, whicll ex-
ports a considerable amolUlt of the approx. 6-7
mio. t of barley produced. The growing regions
are mainly in the coastal regions of West and
South Australia and behind the mOlmtain chains
of the subtropical regions.
42
In 2001, global beer production was 1.4 bio. hl,
for which 15.4 mio. t of malt are necessary. For
the production of whisky, abou t 1 mio. t malt are
required and for human nutrition only about 0.5
mio. t are needed. This represents a global requi-
rement of 21 mio. t of brewing barley, with the
trend rising because the a.IU1Ual global beer pro-
duction is increasing aIU1ually by 1 - 1.5 %.
1.1.3 Structure of the barley kernel
Conclusions CaI1 be drawn about the value and
processing requirements of the barley from the
structure of the barley kernel. For this we must
distinguish between the internal and external
structure.
1.1.3.1 External structure
Figure 1.2 shows in a) the dorsal side of the ker-
nel with the dorsal husk or lemma (7), which in
the case of our cultivated barleys is prolonged in
the ear by a long awn which is broken off during
threshing. The fineness of the husk is judged
from the wrinkling (5) of the lemma, which al-
lows the strength of the husk to be evaluated. On
the ventral side b) the ventral husk or pale a (6) is
shown. In the ventral furrow (3) of the kernel
there is the rachilla (4), the remains of an inferti-
le floret which also provides some information
for variety identification.
The barleys used by the brewing industry are
always husked types. In other words, the ventral
aI1d dorsal husks have remained intimately as-
sociated with the pericarp and testa during
growth aI1d remain on the kernel after threshing.
This contrasts with wheat, the two husks of
which fall off during tlu·eshing aI1d leave the na-
ked seed. There are also barley varieties (naked
barleys) which behave like this. These, however,
are not used for beer production in GermaI1y.
The base of the kernel is more pointed than the
tip. This can be 1.U1derstood if one remembers
that tl1e awn is struck off during threshing. If the
awn remover is set too closely, the awn removal
a
Fig. 1.2
Bnrley kemel
n) dorsnl side b) vel/tml side
(1) bnse, (2) tip, (3) velltrnl fllrro1O,(4) rnchilln, (5) wrillklillg,
(6) pnlen, (7) lel/lllln
CaI1 result in damage to the kernel. The region of
breakage of the grain from the ear spindle (ra-
clus) is on the contrary always flat. The shape of
the breakage region (bevelled or nicked base)
helps the barley breeder to make deductions
about tl1e variety.
1.1.3.2 Internal structure
The barley kernel (Fig. 1.3) consists of three main
parts: the germ region, the endosperm and the
grain coverings.
The germ region contains the elllbryo (1) with
the growth nodes for the nC/·ospire (2) and root-
lets (3) .
The germ region is separated from the endo-
sperm by a thin tissue the sClltellll1l1 (4)
aI1d the epi thel i 11111 (5), a tlun layer of palisade-li-
ke cells with very tlun walls.
The endosperll1 (6) consists of stable cells
which contain the starch graI1ules. The stored
starch granules are both large and small in size;
Fig. 1.3
A bnrley kcmel ill 10llgitlldillnl cross-sectioll
(1) mdillleJItnry stelll, (2) rudilllelltnry nC/"Ospire, (3) rudimell-
tary root/ets, (4) sClltelllllll, (5) epithelillllliayel; (6) clldospenll,
(7) empty cells, (8) nlellrolle layel; (9) testn, (10) pericarp, (11)
hllsks
medium sized granules are missing in barley
stard1 (Fig. 1.3 a). ll1e large starch granules (type
A) have a diameter of 20 to 30 Small starch
graI1ltles (type B) with a diaIneter of 3 to 5 iJm re-
present 70 to 95% of the total number of the
starch gramtles in the endosperm, but contain 3 %
to a maximum of 10% of the weight of the starch
[161). The mm1ber of small starch graI1Ules CaI1
differ enormously; it is dependent on the genetic
properties of the barley type and the environ-
mental influences during the grain develop-
43
1
Fig. 1.3 a
Starcli cells wit Ii stored starch gmllllies
(Photo: IILB Berlill, Resenrch Illstitlltefor Raw Materials)
ment. The sma ll s tarch granules influence the
malting properties of the barley and the quality
of malt produced. The gaps between the indivi-
dual starch graI1ules are more or less filled with
aI1 endosperm matrix contailung proteil1; this
matrix component can either be very dense or
missing altogether. From the matrix d ensity,
it is not possible to draw any signifi-
cant conclusions about the malting ability of the
barley.
ll1e cell walls consist, firstly, of a middle la-
mella of phospholipids aI1d proteins, wlud1 re-
gttlate aU the internal and external mass traI1sfer.
Tlus middle lamella is surrounded on both sides
by p-glucaI1layer [248, 249). This is in turn cover-
ed on both sides by a very porous pentosa n lay-
Fig.1.3b
Structllre of the starch
cell wnlls (nccordillg to
Bamforl/I)
(1) lIIiMle Inlllella,
(2) Inyel;
(3) peJItosall layel;
(4) stored orgallic acids
 -
44 45

er in which the different substances, such as or- beer, including polyphenols, bitter substances dent on two factors wluch are predetermined by position of the atlg1e of the OH group with the a.-
garlic acids, acetic acid or ferula acid, are stored. and testinic acid. the plant: configuration, a spirally twisted order of the glu- 1
In Fig. 1.3b, the gaps between the layers are en- a. the position of the OH group at the 1st C-atom cose molecules occurs (see Fig. 1.4.a). In the case
larged for clarification purposes but in reality 1.1.4 Composition and properties of the b. the bond type between the glucose molecules of the the position of the atlg1e is qlli-
components te different atld determines the different appea-
the layers lie tightly joined together, thus crea-
ting a very solid and stable cell wall framework. The moisture content of barley is 13 - 15 % on CH,oH CH,oH l ratlCe of the
The thickness of these starch cell walls is very average. The moisture content can vary between \- 0 \- 0 At 1.8 to 2.0% the sugar content of barley is
dependent on both the characteristics of the va- 12 % in very dry harvesting conditions and over H/H "'HI H/
I
H "'O I
H very small, since the polymerised glucose is sto-
riety and the growth conditions. Malting barleys 20% in wet conditions. Very moist barley must HIO'\.OH H/ OH Ho'\.r_ l/H red in the endosperm in the form of starch. TIle
generally have thimler cell walls than feed bar- be dried because it CatUlOt be stored for long atld
HI- IH
O H OH
sugar is primarily composed of saccharose
leys. The thickness of the cell walls is an impor- it would quickly lose its ability to germinate pro- (tratlSport sugar), as well as glucose and fructose.
tant factor for the malting properties of the bar- perly. Barley must have a moisture content be- a - configuration f3- configuration
ley because thick walls provide more of an low 15 % for long term storage. The remaitung 1.1.4.1.2 Starch
Fig. 1.3c
obstacle to a later breakdown. Up lmtil their la- content is referred to as dry matter. Barley dry Gill cose ill 0' nllri f3 collfigllratiolls Starch (C 6H wOs)" is the most importatlt constitu-
ter breakdown, however, they prevent any mass matter has the following average chemical com- ent and forms 63% of the barley dry matter. The
transfer and protect the contents of the cell. The position: n - In the ring structure of the glucose molecu- glucose formed during photosynthesis is tratls-
stability of these cell walls lends the barley grain Total carbohydrate 70 .0 - 85.0% le, every C-atom receives a consecutive nUlnber, ported upwards in the stem, polymerised in the
a hardness so that that it can only be broken, Protein 10.5 -11.5 % begimung with the C-atom wluch is cOlUlected maturing grain and stored in the growing starch
should this be necessary, using great force. Inorgatuc matter 2.0 - 4.0 % with the oxygen bridge (Fig. 1.3c; for clarity, in- grains which resemble onion peel. The starch
The endosperm is sUlTOlmded by the aleurone Fat 1.5 - 2.0% stead of C-atoms, only the consecutive number is granules in the different cereal types vary consi-
layer (8) consisting of protein-rich cells. This lay- Other substances 1.0 - 2.0% used) . The position of the OH group at tlus C- derably in size atld shape. The starch gratmles
er is the most important starting point for enzy- atom determines whether it is an [1 or configu- (amyloplasts) consist of up to 98% pure starch;
me production during malting. Other substan- 1.1.4.1 Carbohydrates ration . This is very important insofar as the poly- the remainder is composed of proteins, fat and
ces, such as fats, polyphenols and colouring Carbohydrates are quantitatively the most im- mers have very different appearances and mineral SubstatlCes. A difference is made bet-
materials, are deposited in the stable protein portant class of compOlmds, but they differ con- reactions. Starch is thus a polymer with atl [1- "veen
structure of this layer. siderably from one another with regard to their configuration atld hence atl Amylose atld
TIle grain coverings consist of seven different properties atld therefore their importatlCe in pro- b - During polymerisation, the glucose forms A111ylopectill.
layers which, can be divided essential- cessing atld the quality of the end product. long chains atld the glu-
ly into three. The innermost cover surrounding cose molecules join to-
the aleurone layer is the seed coat or testa (9) . It 1.1.4.1.1 Sugar and its polymers gether while forming atl
surrOlUlds the entire corn and allows only pure The simplest form of sugar is glucose (C6H I20 6)· oxygen bridge, where-
water through, and not the salts dissolved the- Glucose is formed from CO, atld H ,O during by the C-atom bonds
rein. TIus is due to the semi-permeability of the photosynthesis of foliage platltS with the aid of with the C-4 atom of the C H 0H
IL 2
slmlight as the energy provider and stored in po- following glucose mole- H H C -0 H H C-O
testa.
lymer form as cellulose in trees, shrubs or stems cule. This 1.4 bond is the 1 I/H ,\1
The next covering towards the outside is the c
fruit coat or pericarp (10) wluch has developed or as phase change material in cereal grains and
fruits. TIle most important polymers of glucose
usual linkage, however
other linkages (1.3 atld
C
/Lo C
C-C
C
7/L0 J,-o,H_
L J
H
very close to the seed coat. It surrounds the testa 1 1 I
and is in turn surrounded by the epidermis are cellulose and starch. They are the most fre- 1.6 bonds) are possible, H OH H
wluch is protected on the outside by two husks quently occurring orgatuc compOlUlds on earth, as we will see. From the
(11) of the kernel. over 100 bio. t of wluch are produced atUlually
The husks consist mainly of cellulose in wluch by means of photosynthesis of foliage plants.
small amOlUlts of substances are deposited The appearatlCe and properties of these poly- Fig. 1.4
which can act adversely on the quality of the mers (gluCatle - a polymer of glucose) are depen- Stl'llctll l'e of nlllljlose
 -
47
46

Fig. 1.4n
Helicnl ciInillS of nlllylose
Amylose makes up about 20% (16 - 24 %) of
barley starch; small granules contain up to 40%
amylose. The amylose is localised in the interior
of the granule. It consists of long, unbranched he-
lical chains in a 1.4 linkage (Fig. 1.4 and l.4a) and
contains up to 2000 glucose molecules, whidl are
spirally twined (so-called helix, spiral). Chains
with more than 8 glucose molecules are initially
red in colom through an iodine tincture, taking
on a blue colom as they become longer.
At about 80% (76 - 84%), amylopectin makes
up the main aITIOlUl.t of the starch granule. As
well as the 1.4 bond, 1.6 bonds also occur (Fig.
1.5), so that the aI11)r!opectin molecules aI'e bran-
ched . Amylopectin molecules are about 10 times
[ y H20H
H C -0 H
I/H
c c OH H C
L O.J "" C-C/
larger thaIl aI1lylose molecules aIld consist of up and very different effects on beer production
to 40,000 glucose moleclLles. Amylopectin mole- and quality, and so they will be considered sepa- 1
cules (Fig. 1.5a1) have the appearance of a braIl- rately in the following.
ched tree, from whose tnUl.k stem many clusters Hemicelluloses consist of
of upright spirals of glucose molecules (double 80 to 90% and
heli x) with a 1.6 bond, approx. 9 nmlong [367]. It 10 to 12 % pentoSaIl.
is thus possible to calculate that abou t 6 - 7% of
all bonds in the case of amylopectin are 1.6 {3-g1ltcnll
bonds. consist of long chains of glucose mole-
Amylose and amylopectin consist of ex-gluco- cules bOLU1d together by 1,3-, and more often,
se aIld are thus ex-glucans. For the brewer, starch l,4-bonds. The is contained at 4 to 7%
is the potential extract provider, out of which the in the barley aIld in the cell walls of the endo-
required alcohol is to be produced. sperm, tightly linked with higher molecular pro-
tein SubstaI1CeS and pentosans (see Fig. 1.3b) .
1.1.4.1.3 Cellulose When goes into solution, the molecules
Barley dry matter contains 5 to 6% cellulose, become associated with one another as the result
which is located primarily in the husk aIld acts as of the formation of hydrogen bonds aIld form so-
a structural substaIlCe. Cellulose is a called fringed micelles [216] (Fig. 1.5a). The
with long dlains of 1.4-bonded glucose molecu- Fig.l.5nl breakdown of acquires great i.mportan-
les, which render it insoluble and indigestible for Stmctllre of alllylopec-
till with detailed illll-
the human organism. It is also very resistant to stmlioll (Bertoft 1367J).
the influence of enzymes. Cellulose later leaves The arrows ill the illll-
the production process stmtioll show the 1.6
in an lU1changed form, lillks
its special importance
Fig. l.5a
(polymers of pentoses), which together form the
being as filter material
during lautering in the rigid fraI11ework of the endosperm cell walls.
Associatioll s of fJgIII-
cnll lIIoleCllles !frillged
brewhouse. SubstaI1CeS glucans aIld pentoSaI1S have different sh'llctures lIIicelles)
stored in the husk (sili-
b cic acid, taIUlins and

H
I I
OH I
H-C - H
( bittering acid etc.) can
have a negative impact
I
C --0 H on the quality of the
beer if they are greatly
lixiviated during laute-
/C C OH
C "C-C ring.
'H 8 dH
1.1.4.1.4 Hemicellulose
Hemicelluloses are the
main constituents of
the endosperm cell
walls. They consist
Fig. 1.5
Bmllches ill tile strllctllre of nlllylopectill
glUCaI1S aIld pentoSaI1S

48
ce during the malting process. An inadequate
breakdown of can have an. adverse ef-
fect on the finished beer.
is not identical to cellulose, which is
related to it; can be broken down enzy-
matically, however we will see that this already
has to occur in the maltings as it can only be par-
tially remedied during mashing.
PelltosallS
Pentosans are the polymers of pentoses and con-
sist primarily of the pentoses xylose and arabi-
nose. In essence pentosans consist of long chains
of l,4-D-xylose residues to which 1.2 or 1.3 bond
arabinose residues are linked in some places.
PentosaI1S make up about 50% of the shell, ap-
proximately 67% of the aleuron layer and 20% of
the endosperm. Pentosans are also broken down
enzymatically; however, the breakdown is lin-
ked to a multitude of enzymes and is relatively
low (only 11- 20%) so that at the end of malting,
there are still a lot of high molecular pentosans
present [376]. The negative effect of the pento-
sans on the filterability is probably higher than
previously thought.
1.1.4.2 NitIOgen compounds (proteins)
The nitrogen content of barley normally lies bet-
ween 10 and 11.5%. About 30% of the protellls
are stored as transport proteins in the cell walls
of the endosperm (see Sect. 1.1.3.2) and regulate
the mass transfer. Only about a third of this pro-
-
tein passes into the flllished beer. Although the
amolUlt of protelll in beer is relatively small, it
can have an important effect on its quality. Thus
protellls make a considerable contribution to the
head reten tion bu t can on the other hand have an
llllportant influence on the occurrence of hazes
III beer. In any case, the potential extract obtallla-
ble from malt decreases by almost the same ex-
tent (0.7 to 1.0%) as the protein content of the
barley increases. The normal commercial requi-
rement is therefore a maximum of 11.5 % protein
III the dry matter.
1.1.4.2.1 Amino acids
The smallest building blocks of the nitrogen
compOlUlds (protellls) are amino acids. There
are approximately 150 amlllo acids, however on-
ly about 20 are significant for organic com-
pounds. Amino acids are characterised by the
summary formula
NH 2 - R- COOH
The NH, group forms the amlllo group (palti-
cularly important for the yeast); the weakly dis-
associated COOH-(carbonyl)-group makes up
the acid (see following Section). The "R" repre-
sents the variably arranged malll group.
Amlllo acids are jOllled together by the plant
llltO unbranched long ChalllS with discharge of
water (dipeptid illustration). In the process the
-NH group and the COOH group combine to
form an HH-CO bond and only III the terminal
amino acids does the -NH, group remalll. The
HI H
I syn thesis
H2N- C- COOH+H 2N- C- COOH NH2 H
R, R2 breakdown '" C/
smaller the challls are, the more free terminal
amino groups are present. We will see, however,
that precisely the fr ee -NH, groups are llnpor-
tant for the yeast and will have to ensure that
sufficient free amino nitrogen (FAN) is always
available for the nutrition of the yeast. In the fol-
lowing, therefore, there are frequent specificati-
ons regardlllg FAN - free amino nitrogen . The
cast wort should contalll at least 200 mg FAN/l =
20 mg FAN/100 g = 200 ppm.
Amino acids can be processed by the yeast
w ith a varylllg degree of acceptance; more preci-
se details can be found III Section 4.1.2.2.
1.1.4.2.2 Construction of proteins
All protellls are formed by living organisms as
1mbranched challls of amlllO acids. The sequen-
ce of the amlllO acids III the challl is determllled
by the organism and is typical for that particular
one. Chains of up to 300 amlllO acids can be for-
med so that molecular weights of over 1 mio. oc-
cur. 11le arrangement of the amlllO acid molecu-
les is categorised thus:
Primary structure, which is the sequenced ar-
rangement of the amlllO acids in the molecule
as a whole,
Secondary structure; similarly to how the glu-
cose residues coil in the amylose molecule (see
Fig. 1.4a), the amino acid residues III protelll
coil in the secondary stru cture, at times com-
parable to a telephone cord,
Tertiary structure; here the long and partly twi-
sted protein molecule is pressed llltO a loop
with a defined sequence. 11le huge molecules
49
1
Dipetid
0II RI 2
C C
'" N/ H '" COO H
are brought into a predetermined structure by
means of hydrogen bridges, elech'ostatic inter-
actions, sulphur bridges and others, during
which hydration water is accLUnulated. As a re-
sult, proteins become colloids, the viscosity of
w hich lllcreases with the size of the molecule.
Protellls are amphoteric, i.e. their reaction is
both acidic and all<ali.J.le; at the POlllt III between,
the so-called isoelectric POlllt (IP), they are neu-
tral and their solubility is at its lowest. The pH
value durlllg beer production is therefore impor-
tant for the treatment of the nitrogenous com-
pounds. On heatlllg, large protelll molecules are
denatured and eventually coagulated. In the
process, the Ill1ks break and a disorderly situati-
on occurs, which ends III precipitation. 11lis, ho-
wever, depends greatly on the si ze of the mole-
cule and its structure. The largest part of badey
protein (about 92%) falls into this category,
which either does not dissolve at all III the wort
or precipitates at the latest during wort boillllg.
ProtelllS are classified accordlllg to Osborne llltO
various groups depending on their solubility in
aqueous solutions:
Glutelill
About 30% of barley protein is glutellll, wllich
dissolves only in dilute alkali. 11lis protein is lo-
calised almost entirely in the aleurone layer, is
not broken down later on, and passes lUlchan-
ged llltO the spent grains.
Prolamin
The prolamin III barley is called hordei11 and it
 -
50 51

constitutes about 37% of the barley protein. It
1 dissolves in 80% alcohol and part of it passes in-
to the spent grains.
Globlllill
The globulin fraction of barley is called edestin.
It dissolves in dilute salt solution and also in the
mash. It forms about 15% of the barley protein.
nous compowlds (about 8 %). The proportion in-
creases during malting culd brewing. Regarding
protein breakdown products, apart from the al-
ways-soluble amino acids which are very impor-
tCUlt for the nutrition of the yeast, a further di-
stinction is made:
High molecular weight breakdown products
consist of the proteoses, complex degradation
ve taken on particular importcuKe. Unsaturated Unsaturated fatty acids are very reactive. Re-
fatty acids are those where there aTe one or mo- actions CCUl occur through the enzyme lipoxyge- 1
re double bonds between two specific carbon nase or through the non-enzymatic process of
atoms (Fig. l.5b). auto-oxidation .
Medium chain fatty acids occur mainly during
H H H primary fermentation and are increasingly excre-
I I I ted by the yeast as the beer matures. They have a
C C C
/ 1"C=C/ I" c=C/I" particularly adverse effect on head retention.

Edestin consists of 4 components (ex, y, 8) of
which the sulphur containing does
not completely precipitate even on prolonged
boiling and can give rise to haze in beer.
Albllmill
The albumin of barley is called leLlcosin. It con-
sists of 16 different components and has an ave-
rage molecular weight of 70,000. The molecular
size is usually expressed in kDa (kilo Dalton),
whereby 1 Dalton (Da) corresponds to the mass
of a proton; so the molecule mass and Dalton ha-
ve the same value (mol. mass 70,000 = 70 kDa).
LeLlcosin dissolves in pure water and constitutes
about 11 % of the protein in barley. On boiling it
is completely precipitated.
Also belonging to the albumins is Protein Z
with 40 kDa, as well as the lipid transfer protein
(LTPl), with 10 kDa; these aTe regarded as the
most important components for beer foam. Both
of these undergo several changes during the
products of proteins, which are named accor-
ding to the proteins from which they originate
(albw110ses, globuloses) culd complex peptones.
The high molecular weight breakdown pro-
ducts improve the head retention of the beer but
are also involved in beer haze.
TIle breal<down of proteins (proteolysis) takes
on special significance during malting.
1.1.4.3 Fats (Lipids)
Barley contains about 2 % fat. ntis barley fat is in
the form of oil droplets and is deposited mainly
in the aleurone layer and in the seedling.TIlere is
nine times as mudl fat in the aleurone culd husk
as in the seedling.
TIle fat (lipids) consists mainly of fatty acids.
Fatty acids are hydrocarbon bonds resulting in
COOH groups by which the (weak) acids are de-
termined. TIlese are categorised as follows:
H I I H I I H
H H H H
Unsaturated fatty acids are not only important
for our nutrition, especially as some CCU1J1ot be
synthesised by the humcul orgcuusm (essential
fatty acids), they also play CUl importcult role in
the production of beer. Thus LU1saturated fatty
acids are necessary for the structure of the yeast
cell wall (see Sect. 1.4.1); their derivatives are al-
so responsible for ageing processes in beer taste
after filling. During the further technological
processes, therefore, chculges in the amOLUlt of
LUlsaturated fatty acids culd their derivatives will
be mOlutored.
---
IF Name
Lipid s are the ester from fatty acid s with gly-
cerol. Esters are bonds of acids with CUl alcohol.
Glycerol is a trivalent propyl alcohol (propanol).
The fatty acids react with the glycerol when wa-
ter is removed in the following ways:
Fatty acid residue - COO-H+OH-C-H,
Fatty acid residue - COO-H+OH-C-H
Fatty acid residue - COO-H+OH-C-H,
A lipid (fat, oil) is formed.
If the fat goes rancid, fatty acids culd glycerols
separates and water is sepaTated .
During malting the lipids are partly broken
down and tlus breakdown is continued during
mashing. This breakdown will later be of great
Number of C-Atoms

I I
Number of double bonds
Position of double bonds
Formic acid 1: 0 0
malting process. As well as these proteins, glyco- Acetic acid 2: 0 0...
proteins also occur in barley, which produce a Propionic acid 3: 0
bonding of proteins with a carbohydrate, for ex- Butyric acid 4: 0 Ov.--..
Valerenic acid 5: 0
ample, glucose, mcumose or galactose. They can Caproic acid 6: 0 HOOC- CH,-CH,-CH,-CH,-CH,
be broken down during the malting process culd Caprylic acid 8: 0
Fig.1.5b Capric acid 10: 0
improve the f03l11 stabilising effect in beer. Lauric acid 12: 0
Overview of tile IIIOSt ililportalit
Myristic acid 14: 0
Jattyacids Palmitic acid 16: 0
1.1.4.2.3 Protein breakdown products Short chain fatty acids - these include, for ex- Circle: Stearic acid 18: 0
Protein breakdown products are characterised cunple, acetic acid CH3 COOH tile COOH gI'Dlip. Oleic acid 18: 1; 9
by always being soluble in water culd do not pre- Medium chain fatty acids with 5 - 14 C-atoms BeHd: Linoleic acid 18: 2; 9.12
a CH,-. or ill tile case oj IIl1satllmted Linolenic acid 18: 3; 9,12,1 5
cipitate on boiling. Finished beer contains almost Long chain fatty acids with 6 - 18 C-atoms.
Jattyacids, Arachidic acid 20: 0
exclusively protein breakdown products. In the course of the following procedural Arachidonic acid 20:
a CH-grollp alld at tile elld oj tile
Protein breakdown (or constituent) products steps, we will continually come across these fat- elwill:
form the smallest fraction of the barley nitroge- ty acids, whereby the LU1saturated fatty acids ha- CHJ-grollp

52
interest to us. A large part of the lipids is later
precipitated with the trub.
1.1.4.4 Inorganic material
Barley contains between 2 and 3 % mineralma-
terial, most of which is present in inorganic
compounds. Important inorganic compolUlds
include:
phosphates, about 35% (expressed as phospho-
rous [V]- oxide P 20 S),
silicates, about 25% (expressed as silicon dioxide
Si02),
potassium salts, about 20% (expressed as potas-
sium oxide K20).
Phosphates not only constitute the main com-
ponent of the inorganic material and their
bonds, bu t are also important because they occur
in the structures of the most important inorgan-
ic compounds in the barley corns (e.g. in phytin,
in nucleic acids, in coenzymes, in proteins etc.) .
Phosphate is released from these compolUlds in
reactions occurring in the maltings and in the
brewery.
For many processes the presence of phospha-
te is extremely important. For instance, it is com-
pletely impossible for alcoholic fermentation to
take place without phosphate because phospha-
te groups are chemically involved in many of the
reactions which occur during fermentation (see
Sect. 4.1.2). Silicates occur particularly abun-
dantly in the husk but are also present in starch.
They are soluble as colloids and can be detected
in every beer haze.
A number of salts are important in beer pro-
duction because they provide trace elements, for
example, zinc salts are necessary for fermentati-
on (see Sect. 4.1.2.5). Most of the salts originate
from the barley. A 12 % beer brewed with an ave-
rage amOlmt of water contains about 1600 mg of
inorganic material, including oxides, per litre. Of
this about 400 mg is derived from the brewing
water and about 1200 mg from the malt (but all
the carbonates originate from the water).
1.1.4.5 Other substances
Barley also contains a number of other substan-
ces which, although only present in small
amounts, affect beer quality and beer producti-
on. These include polyphenolic and bitter sub-
stances, vitamins and enzymes.
1.1.4.5.1 Polyphenols or tannins
This is a general term for the compOlmds which
have a bitter, i.e. protein precipitated, effect and
a scratchy, concentrated bitter (astringent) tas te.
From a chemical point of view, they are charac-
terised by compOlmds of several phenol rings
(polyphenols).
Although polyphenols only make up 0.1 to
0.3 % of the barley dry matter, as an antioxidant
they can have a considerable effect on flavour
stability and shelf life of the beer.
HO
I I I vitamin C (ascorbic acid) - present in s mall
............. .............
I vitamin E (tocopherol) in the fat of the seed ling.
OH
Fig. 1.5 c
Sf m cfllrnilltnke-llp offlnvn ll -3 -ol
Polyphenols are deposited in the husk and al-
so in the aleurone layer of barley. Their concen-
h'ation in general increases with the thickness of
the husk; therefore, importance is put on barley
with thin, finely wrinkled husks or an effort ma-
de, in the case of thick hus ked barley, to remove
a substantial amolmt of this material in the ma]-
tings. In the case of polyphenols, we are concer-
ned in particular with flavan-3-01 (see Fig 1.5c)
with regard to haze and anthocyanins and their
preliminary stages. Anthocyanins are extremely
-
bitter artificial aromas and colourings which are
present in many types of fruit and can change
their colour depending on their acidity (pH va-
lue).
Polyphenols have an an tioxidant effect. If they
are oxidised, they lose their antioxidant effect
and their nega tive impact prevails. It is therefore
important to prevent any form of oxidation of
polyphenols.
1.1.4.5.2 Vitamins
Vitam ins are nutritional components. They can
be produced only by plants and not by human
metabolism. They are, however, essential for
proper £lmctioning of many metabolic processes
in the human body. Consequently adequate
amOlmts of them mus t be conslU1led. Vitamin
deficiencies can lead to illnesses.
OH Barley contains, essentially, the following vit-
amins:
I............. / / OH
vitamin B1 (thiamine) - deposited mainly in the
outer parts of the grain,
I II
vitamin B2 (riboflavin),
aJnolmts,
Vitamins have complicated s tructures. During
storage aJld processing they are in creasin gly d a-
maged.
1.1.4.5.3 Barley enzymes
All living organisms contain enzymes. Both bar-
ley and yeas t contain a very wide range of enzy-
mes. The num erous traJlsformations occurring
during breWing and malting depend exclusively
on tlle action of enzymes. It is therefore essential
at this s tage to discuss enzymes, their structures
aJld how they work.
Enzymes are high molecular weight proteins
whidl, as biocatalysts, either enable specific re-
actions to occur or considerably accelerate them.
53
Th ey are active even in very low concen trations
aJld determine the action aJld rate of biochemical 1
reactions.
The name of an enzyme is usu ally formed
from the name of the subs trate to be broken
down with the addition of the final syllable -ase.
Thus the enzyme which degrades sucrose is cal-
led sucrase.
Barley itself contains a l1lU1lber of enzymes,
but mos t of them are present only in small
am Olmts. Most of the enzy me content of malt is
produced during malting.
Ell zyme stl'llctllre
Enzymes are built f1'Om amino acids linked to-
gether by peptide bond s -CO-NH- (see Sect.
1.1.4.2.2). The peptide chains are not arranged in
one plaJle in the enzyme but h ave a spiral struc-
ture (helical Sh'ucture) formed as a result of va-
rious types of bridges inside the molecule. These
spirals are then £lather diversely folded and con-
voluted by other types of bonds (Fig. 1.5d). The
helical, folded and convoluted structure is pre-
programmed exactly by the organism forming it
and is essential for the action mechanism of the
enzyme.
70
Dislliphide bond Helical structure
Fig . l. 5 r1
SfJ'llcfllJ'e of n cOlllplex profeill lIIoleCllle
 54
In all known cases, enzymes consist of intrica-
1 tely folded proteins h aving a pocket, gap or fur-
row, specific for the en zyme, in w hich the sub-
strate fits exactly (lock and key action) .
A ctioll m ecllallisll1 of all eJl zYll1 e
The p ocket, ga p or furrow, specific fo r the enzy-
me (Fig. 1.6), w hich is formed w ithin the convo-
luted molecule, contains the acti ve centre (2) of
the enzyme, consisting of sp ecifica lly arran ged
amino acids and other groups involved in the re-
action. The active cenh'e exerts an attracti ve for-
ce on the substrate (a). When the substrate is p o-
sitioned in the en zyme pocket, the amino acids
and other ac ti ve groups of the en zyme bind to
the substrate. The bonds are of elech'ostatic or
chemical nature. As a result the spatial organisa-
tion of the amino acids is chan ged . The substra-
te fi nds itself in a kind of trap (b) [19, 20]. Wh en
the bond Ul the substrate has been split (c), the
amulo acids of the active centre sprulg back UltO
their original p osition, the p roduct diffuses
away from the enzyme (d) and the enzyme is
ready for the next bond splitting p rocess (a).
2/
a) b) c) d)
Fig. 1.6
Actio" IIIecllnllisIII of all e/Izyllle
(the exalllple ilillstrated represe/l ts /3-alllylnse)
(1) ell zYllle pocket, (2) active celltre, (3) sIIbstrate, (4) prodllct
a) illsertioll of tile sllbstrate
b) billdillg to tile active celltre
c) a"'illo acids retll"" to tileir origi"al positiolls
d) prodllct (Illaitose) IIIoves away fro" , tile ell zy",e pocket
Because of the particular structu re of the poc-
ke t and the arra ngement of the ac ti ve cen tre,
each enzyme can only react with a quite specific
substra te. This gives rise to the high specifi city of
every enzyme. The action mechanism of an en-
zyme can consequentl y be represented by the ca-
talytic reaction cycle shown in Fig. 1.7.
Subs trate
Enzym e substrate
Enzyme
compl ex
I >
Product
Fig. 1.7
Catalytic reactioll cycle of all e/Izyll,e
In the case of m any en zymes a prosthetic
group (coenzyme) is involved in the catalytic ac-
tion. Metals which are ambivalent, for example,
iron, magnesium or calcium, are also often invol-
ved in the action of man y en zymes. These m etal
ions are bOlmd Ul the enzyme.
Reactioll acce lerntioll by ell zYll1e s
For man y reactions to occur, especially in the de-
gradation of energy-rich compOlmds, an energy
barrier must be overcome before the energy can
be released.
When, for example, en ergy-rich cellul ose
(wood) is oxidised (burnt) to form energy-poor
water and ca rbon dioxid e, energy (heat) is re-
leased . H owever, this heat-produculg (exother-
mic) process does not occur spontaneously but
needs an endothermic initiation in w hich, as a
result of supplying heat (lightUlg the fire), the
energy barrier is overcom e. This is very impor-
tant for everything which h appens in nature. If
no energy barriers were present, then very soon
everything wo uld be in a state of equilibrium.
There would no longer be an y energy di ffe-
rences and life would no lon ger be possible.
If a subsh"ate hav ing a particular energy con-
tent (Fig. 1.8) is to be tran sformed from the more
energy-rich state (A) to the less energy-rich state
(C), it must first be brought into the activated
state (B) by the supp ly of energy. The energy re-
quired fo r this is known as the activation energy
(E). Only after overcoming this energy barrier
can the energy state (C) be reached [21].
__
Qi
Q)
>-
OJ
Q:;
W
C
Fig. l.S
Lowerillg of tile activatioll elle,s y by all e/Izyllle
(catalytic actioll)
In the presence of an enzyme (catalyst) the ac-
tiva tion en ergy is decreased .
This means that the energy barrier is considera-
bly lower (B ,) and consequently substantially less
activation energy (E,) is required . This is responsi-
ble for the much grea ter reaction velocity of enzy-
me-catalysed breakdown (ca tabolic) processes.
In resting barley only a few enzymes are pre-
sent and these are m ostly bOlUld in an insoluble
fo rm. Most of the enzymes are formed or re-
leased during germination of the barley.
These enzymes are necessary to transform the
ulsoluble substances stored in the endosperm in-
to a soluble form so that they can be supplied to
the seedlillg for the synthesis of new cell materi-
al or as a source of energy.
Certain genes are resp onsible for the formati-
on and effect. It is usually several genes working
55
together w hich cause a specific effect (tempera-
ture optimum etc.). From this we can dedu ce 1
that in the case of other va rieties, other genes can
sometimes h ave the same effect, but at diffe rent
optimum temperatures.
This fo rmation of en zymes during germina ti-
on is one of the main requ iremen ts of maltillg be-
ca use these enzymes are absolutely essential
subsequently for the brea kd own p rocesses
wh ich occur du ring mashing Ul the brew house.
1.1.5 Barley evaluation
The quali ty of the barley offered for p m chase or
B
:'
delivered h as a decisive effec t on the quality of the
malt and the beer produced from it. Barley eva-
luation is therefore very ullportant for a maltster.
Barley is evaluated
by assessm ellt by lzalln
by physical ann cll ell1i cal exallllllntiollS.
c Assessment is made at the time the barley is
offered for sale and by sam p lmg w hen the load
beul g delivered (ulcoming acceptan ce test) .
The larger the barley batch, the larger the va-
riations in the composition of the load delivered
may be. To obtam a correct picture of the avera-
ge composition it is necessary to take as many
samples as possible at different p oints and to
mix them .
1.1.5.1 Hand evaluation
Barleys for maltulg are selected mainly on the
basis of the variety and the grow th site. In addi-
tion to the rapid methods commonly used today
when barley is delivered, hand assessment, i.e.
evaluation of the barley fr om its external appea-
rance, is important. Features examined are:
Sm ell
It should smell clean, fresh and s traw-like. Ear-
thy, mus ty, mould y sm ells indica te a barley
which has lU1dergone d amp, inappropriate sto-
rage. Reduced germinative capacity and proces-
sing difficulties are then to be expected .
 56
Dlllllpll ess
1 The barley should feel dry and flow easily. If
grains stick to the hand, this indicates a high
moisture content.
Colollr llIuf briglltlless
The barley should have a light yellow straw co-
lour and a bright, muform appearance. Greenish
corns indicate too early harves ting. Barleys
which have suffered rain damage appear grey
and dull. Brown tips may be a varietal characte-
ristic, but in most cases are caused by wet harve-
sting and this leads to water-sensitive co rns.
Red C01'l/
Red corns (red colomed endosperms) indicate a
massive infestation of fusarilUll. In the case of
this malt, there is a great danger of the formation
of gushing in the beer. Barley with red corns is
not suitable for malting.
Hllslc properties
The husk should be fin ely wrinkled - this
shows a thin husk. Fine wrinkling indica tes a
good, extract-rich barley. Insufficiently ripened
corns often have a thick or smooth husk. Thick
husks contain more polyphenols and bitter sub-
s tances.
In some years cracking of the barley grains oc-
curs during the maturation phase. This is caused
by alternating warmth (slUlshine) and rain in the
grain filling and ripening time. This effect is eit-
her strengthened or weakened by genetic varie-
tal properties and the influence of mould which
delays ripening [192] . This can have different ef-
fects [191]:
Crac/cillg of the Illlslc: this is when the back
and front sides of the husk are not completely
closed. The peel lUlderneath, however, is not
damaged.
CI'Ilc/ci/lg of the gl'llill: this is when there are
cracks in the husk and the layers fOlUld bene-
ath, sometimes even into the endosperm. Crak-
king of the husk makes the production of good
quality barley considerably more difficult.
Sprolltillg occllrs w hen in ex tremely damp
conditions, the barley star ts germinating and
shoots are visible. The barley can then no
longer be used for malt production . Under
normal conditions, a natural dormant period
prevents the g rain from growing. In a ve ry
wet har ves t, however, the li fe processes m ay
have already begun, without any visible ex-
ternal sig ns of g row th. This is know n as con-
cealed sproutin g . The safes t me thod for
checking for concealed sprouting is to deter-
mine the ester ac tivity using the fluorescein
dibutyrate meth od. Th e esterases are enzy-
Il'les which degra de the ester bonds in the li-
pids (fats). The commencement of the es ter
activity is a sure sign that the germination
process has beglUl.
Prell1altillg is an imprecise term which basi-
cally covers all the aforementioned terms.
AI110ltllt of illlplirities (pllrity)
There should be no foreign bodies such as weed
seeds, sand, stones, string, straw, ears, awns, me-
tal objects, half-corns, ergot or foreign cereals.
Dalllilged C01'l/S (illtllctlless)
Damaged corns cause teclU1010gical and biolo-
gical problems during processing and must be
removed . Damage is caused mainl y during
threshing and by animals (including in Sects).
C01'l/ shllpe Illld size
The corns should be large, well-filled and roun-
ded. Such barley corns usually produce more ex-
tract and contain less protein than thin long
corns. However, the corn shape depends prima-
rily on the va riety.
Ulliforll1ity
A LUufonn barley with a high proportion of well-
filled corns is desirable.
57
A ppelll'll ll Ce of tIl e seed lillg (spl'O litillg) No 1'111 11 I val1les for screellillgs
With very wet harves ts the barley batch may Insu fficien tly cleaned barley above 4 % 1
contain already germ inated co rns. Such batches Average m alting barley 3 to 4 %
are lU1usable for malt production because the Fine mal ting barley 2 to 3 %
barley does not then germinate lUliformly. Premium quality barley less than 2 %
Presellce of pests 1.1.5.2.2 Thousand corn mass
The most common grain pest is the grain weevil. Because the thousand corn m ass (still som eti-
Corns wluch have been attacked by a grain wee- mes known as thousand corn weight) increases
vil clearly show the holes eaten away and float with increasing water content, it is calculated
on the top during steeping. Such damaged bar- on a dry weight basis. The thousand corn mass
ley ca nnot be used to make malt. ca n be related to the classification results and
the ex trac t yield from the barley. With an in-
1.1.5.2 Physical and chemical examinations creasing thousand corn mass the Grade I per-
centage and with it the ex trac t content of the
1.1.5.2.1 Grading barley can increase. The thousand corn mass is
Grading by size is the mos t important physica l determined with a counting d ev ice and a balan-
examination of barley and can be perform ed ce . Broken and foreign corns mllst be removed
quickly and easily. The barley is sorted by 2.8 previou sly and their weight subtracted .
mm, 2.5 mm and 2.2 mm vibrating sieves into The calculation is done using the equations
four components. 1000 corn mass, air dry (g) =
Everything which remains on sieve 1 (2.8 Corrected corn mass x 1000
mm) and sieve 2 (2 .5 mm) is Grade I (well-filled number of whol e corns
barley).
Eve rything which passes through sieves I 1000 corn mass, dry weight (g) =
and II but is retained on sieve III is Grade II. 1000 corn mass (air dry) x (100 - W)
Everything which passes through sieve III is 100
screenings and is sold as feed barley. w = % ,·vater content of the barley.
Because 100 g of barley is always examined, Example:
the weight in g = the percentage. For example: A 40 g sample contains 1.6 g broken and fo-
reign corns and 1048 barley corns. The water
Sieve I 42.5 g 88.5 % Grade I content of the barley is 11.5%.
Sieve II 46.0 g (well-filled fraction)
Sieve III 10.5 g 10.5 % Grade II 1048 corns weigh 40.0 - 1.6 g = 38.4 g
Base 1.0g 1.0% Screenings 1000 corn mass,
38.4 x 1000
100.0 g = 100.0 % air dry = 1048 = 36.6 g
Normal val lies for the well-filled jl'llctioll 1000 corn mass,
36.6 x (100 - 11 .5)
Ma lting barley dry weight = 32.4 g
100
(average properties) min. 85%
Fine malting barley min. 90%
Premium quality barley min. 95% The thousand corn mass of the barley is 32.4 g.
 58
Normal values for thousand corn mass
1 ail' dry barley
37 to 40 g lightbarJey
41 to 44 g average barley
above 45 g heavy barley
water-free barley
normal value 38 to 40 g
limit values 30 to 45 g
1.1.5.2.3 Hectolitre mass
The hectolitre mass (still sometimes known as
hectolitre weight) is the mass of 100 litres of
barley. In general a brewing barley has a
lzecto l itl'e mass betweell 68 alld 75 kg.
The predictive value of the hectolitre mass
depends, however, on so many factors that it is
hardly ever measured nowadays.
1.1.5.2.4 Hardness (endosperm property)
Determination of the hardness of barley can al-
low useful conclusions to be made about the ea-
se of processing to be expected in the m altings
and the quality of the malt which will be produ-
ced. The hardness of the endosperm is exami-
ned by cutting sample corns with a farinator, or
a transverse or longitudinal cutter.
A good barley for brewing should contain not
less than 80% floury (mealy) corns. The glassi-
ness of the other corns may be temporary or
permanent. To distinguish between these, the
corns must be steeped for 24 hours, dried and
cut again. Permanent glassiness produces malt
with lmfavourable processing features.
1.1.5.2.5 Chemical property examinations
The water content and protein content of every
batch of barley is measured. Other examinati-
ons are made as required.
Water cOlltellt
The water content is determined using the stan-
dard drying procedure in which ground barley
is dried at an exactly defined temperature for a
predetermined time. There are also rapid m ea-
surement ins truments which also allow deter-
minations to be made before acceptance of a
barley delivery.
Proteil/ COl/tellt
The protein content of barley has an important
role in malt and beer production . Protein-rich
barleys are more difficult to process and produ-
ce a higher malting loss. Every percent of addi-
tional protein results in approximately one per-
cent less extract. The protein content therefore
is a particularly important item in the barley
supply contract. If the agreed protein content is
exceeded, a deduction corresponding to the
percentage is made.
The protein content is determined in the labo-
ratory using the Kjeldahlmethod. The nitrogen
content is thereby determined, which is contai-
ned at an average of about 16 % by the proteins.
Multiplying by (100:16 =) 6.25 gives the requi-
red protein content.
On accepting the barley batch it is imperative
that the barley d elivery meets the agreed para-
m eters such as water or protein content. In ad-
dition, these values have to be able to be deter-
mined within a few minutes. For this purpose,
near infrared reflection spectroscopy (NIR) is
used (see Sect. 7.5.12). Faults detected later can
then no longer be corrected, since the barley
batch will have already mixed with other bat-
ches in the silo.
1.1.5.3 Physiological examinations
1.1.5.3.1 Germinative capacity
The germinative capacity is the percentage of all
living corns in the sample, whether their dor-
mancy (see Sect. 2.2.5) has been overcome or not.
At least 96% of the corns should be able to
germinate.
1.1.5.3.2 Germinative energy
The germinative energy is the percentage of
corns which, at the time of the test, germinate
59
lUld er normal malting conditions. The germ i- below 45.0 % insufficient
native energy test shows whether the corns ha- 45 .7 to 47.5% sa tisfactory 1
ve started to germinate after 3 and 5 days. A 47.6 to 50.0 % good
high germinative energy indica tes a healthy above 50 % very good.
barley conditi on and that malting will be suc-
cessfu l.
After 5 days the germinative energy should 1.2 Hops
be 96 - 98 %. The hop (Humulus luplilus L.) is a perennial,
The germ inative energy after 3 days should dioecio ll s climbing plant of the hemp family
be as close as possible to that after 5 days. and belongs to the order (Urticales) w hich also
In addition to the determinati on of the germ i- includes the nettle family. In the brewery it is
native en ergy, a rapid determination of germi- the inflorescences of the female plant which are
natio n potential can also be made usin g the used. These contain bitter resins and ethereal
TIC (tetrazolium-tetrachloride) method, which oils which suppl y bittering and aroma compo-
is particul arly suitable for determining the ger- nents to the beer.
minative capacity within the first six weeks af- As far as brewing is concerned, hops are the
ter harvest. dried hop cones of the female hop plant and
products made from them w hich contain only
1.1.5.3.3 Water sensitivity components from hops.
Barleys differ in their sensitivity to water uptake. Hops are grown in special growing regions
This mus t be borne in mind during steeping in where the necessary growth conditions ex ist.
the maltings. As the water sensitivity increases, After the harvesting of the hops, they are dried
the wa ter steep time must be reduced. Water and processed to avoid a reduction in their va-
sensitivity is determined by the difference in ger- lue.
minative energy with different amOlmts of water The s tructure of the hop cone and its compo-
(4 ml test result minus the 8 ml test result). sition provide important information for the
Barleys with a water sensitivity of up to evaluation of hops.
10% are not very water sensitive,
from 11 to 25%, they are slightly water sensi- 1.2.1 Growing regions
tive, By far the largest h op growing cOlUltries are
from 26 to 45 % rather water sensitive and Germany and the USA, followed by the Czech
above 45%, they are very water sensitive. Republic and more recently, China. In 1995 and
2005, the following amounts of hops have been
1.1.5.3.4 Water uptake capacity grown and h arvested in the ten largest hop gro-
(swelling ability) wing countries [217]:
The more en zymically active a barley is, the
greater its water uptake capacity and the high er Cotmtry Harvest in t
the value of the barley for brewin g . The test 1995 2005
should show whether the barley is able to achie- Gennany 34,121 34,466
ve as high a water uptake as possible within a USA 35,768 24,001
minimum s teeping time. China 10,000 9,772
Assessment of the water uptake capacity Czech Republic 9,910 7,831
(swelling ability) after 72 hours s teeping: Poland 3,264 3,414
60 61

Country Harves t in t Gerlll(lllY

1995 2005 By far the largest hop growing region in Ger- 1
Slovenia 3,967 2,539 many is the Halle rtau (Bavarian: HoJledau)
England 4,078 1,593 (Fig. 1.10). Between Augsburg and Regensburg
Ukraine 2,565 1,473 with its centre arOll11d Mainburg, the largest
France 1,108 1,371 amOll11t of German hops are harves ted on a to-
Spain 1,724 1,294 tal surfa ce area of 14,221 ha (in 1997 this was
Australia 2,558 1,238 still 17,440 ha).
In the Elbe-Saale region, 47 hop producers
It is clearly seen that the amOll11t of hops har- (1996) grew a total of 1332 ha (in 1997, this was
vested has decreased in almost all countries. s till 1526 ha). The Elbe-Saale region is not a sin-
Thus the global hop harvest has fallen from gle region but is spread thl·ough the fed eral
126,686 tin 1995 to 94,115 tin 2005, although states of Saxony, Thuringia and the southern
global beer production has increased in the sa- part of Saxony Anhalt.
me period by about 350 mill hI. The global hop The Tettnang growing region extends, with a Fig. 1. 10
growing area has continued to decrease since total growing area of 1193 ha, northwards from Hop growillg regioll s ill GerlllnllY
(1) Hnllertnll
1994 from 86,786 ha to 50,639 ha (2004). This re- Lake Constance (in 1997 there were still 1666 ha).
(2) Tellllnllg
presents a 42% reduction in the hop growing The Spalt growing region, with a hop gro- (3) Spnll
regions in ten years. Altogether there is a global wing area of 395 ha (in 1997, this was still 627 (4) Hersvrtlck
hop requirement of approximately 100,000 t, ha) is located to the south west of Nuremberg. (5) Elve-Snale regioll
which is not always covered by the fluctuating Hersbruck, situated to the north east of Nu- (6) BndeJ//BitvlIlglRlieillpf nlz

a!U1ual harvest of 85,000 - 100,000 t (Fig. 1.9) . On
the other hand, the global hop reserves cover a
whole year's requirement. Apart from the regi-
ons where beer consumption is increasing
strongly, the hop requirement is decreasing for
the following reasons:
the increased use of high-a. varieties
a stagnating and at times decreasing beer
consumption
a general decrease in beer bitterness.
remberg, is on the edge of the Frankish Alps.
With a growing area of 20 ha (still 106 ha in
1997), the H ersbruck region is one of the smal-
lest hop growing regions in Germany.
With tluee growers and a growing area of just
16 ha, the Baden/Bitburg/Rheinpfalz region is
the smallest in Germany.
The world hop growing areas and global hop
production fell from 90,000 ha in 1993 to 50,000 ha
in 2005. Yet despite the decrease in the hop grow-
ing regions of 44% frol11 1993 to 2005, the total tering hops and high alpha hops h ave been
production of a.-acid varieties fell by only 11.1 % grown, which produce a stronge r bitterness
[379]: with less tending. Germany is globally the lar-
2005 1993 ges t producer of alpha acids with 39%, follo-
Hop harvest in t 91,000 137,000 wed by the USA with 34 % and China with 8 %
a.-acid hops 8,000 9,000 (Fig. 1.10 a) . The Czech Republic's contribution
About a third of the global hop harvest con- is about 3 %.
sis ts of so-called aroma hops. For the past few In Germany the aroma varieties dominate, but
decades, however, an increasing amount of bit- there is a definite shift towards the high a.-varie-

r ha

100000
90000 I- =---- .
Czech Republic 3%
80 000 Po/and
Nel'l Zealand o/11er
70 000 SOUl/I Africa -----J 10 coun/rie54%

60 000
50 000 i
19 89 1990 199 1 1992 1993 1994 199 5 1996 1997 1998 199 9 2000 2001 20022003 2004200 5 2006
Fig.I.IOn
Fig. 1.9 Glovnl liop lim·vest Dislrivlliioll of nlphn acid prodllCliol 1

=
 ...
63
62

Clli na th e bittering value soon decreases and other ad-

ties. The following are figures for hops harve-
Beer production in China has increased stron- verse effects occur. The hops must therefore im- 1
sted in tons:
2005 gly and hop production has been increased cor- m ediately be made stable.
1996
24,316 18,950 respondingly. In 2001, on a growing surface of
Aroma hops
1,227 5000 ha (in 1996 this was only 4400 hal, about 1.2.2.3 Stabilising the hops
Bitter hops 8,735
14,234 13,000 t of hops were harvested in China. In Most of the harvested hops are processed into
High alpha hops 6,300
34,466 1996, hops were grown, above all, in the follo- extract and pellets, with only a small amount
Germany Total 39,511
wing provinces: added as nahll'al hops. In all cases, time passes
Xinjiang 2,500 ha 7,500 t between harvesting and processing, in which
For differentiation of varieties, see Sect. 1.2.6 Fig. 1.11
Gansu 1,700 ha 4,000 t the hops have to be protected from further spoi- Hop COliC
Ningxia 150 ha 400 t lage. To do this, the dried hops are pressed by (1) stalk, (2) celltral axis, (3) flowers, (4) bracts, (5) IlIplllill
USA
The bittering variety Tsingdao Flower 641 means of hydraulic presses into ballots of about glallrl.
hl the USA the largest amount of hops are har-
and the Marco Polo variety are mainly grown. 1.1111 in length and 0.6 m in diameter, then co-
vested in Washington State (2001: 22,977 t), fol-
vered by, and sewn into, a sack. The resulting ves). When the hop is fertili-
lowed by Oregon (5191 t) and Idaho (2091 t).
1.2.2 Harvesting, drying and stabilising ballot weighs about 65 kg. As a result of the sed, seeds are formed in the
The following were grown and harvested in
hops compression, the amolmt of air accessing the flowers. The cones of fertili-
tons:
2005 After harvest the hops must be dried and con- hops is reduced cu1d thus the moishlre absorp- sed hops open alit more.
1997
7,175 verted to a storable form. tion made more difficult. To achieve optimal
Aroma hops 7,741
490 lise of the storage capacity, the storage of the Bmcts (4) egg-shaped, yellowish-green
Bitter hops 5,030
16,335 1.2.2.1 Harvesting ballots has, for some time, been changed to an leaves, more yellow at the ba-
High Ct.-hops 19,550
Hop picking occurs at the time of technological easily stackable, right-angled form (60 x 60 x se than at the tip. The bracts
Others 1,684
24,001 ripeness at the end of August and should be 120 cm) and this has replaced the loose bales. are arranged to form a cone.
USA Total 34,006
completed within 14 days. Harvesting consists The right-angled bales have provided the basis
of unfastening the hop bines from the support for cold storage, which is effective, as well as LUPlllill yellow, sticky powder on the
The aroma varieties are dominated by the
wires and picking the cones (female inflores- maintaining the value cu1d quality of the hops. bracteoles which are located
Willamette variety, followed by Cascade and
cences) with a short stalk. Nowadays hops m:e between the sprig cu1d the
Mt. Hood. The bitter and high a-varieties con-
sist mainly of Galena, Nugget, Columbus and harvested entirely by hop picking machines. 1.2.3 Hop cone structure bracts. It OCClli'S in beaker-like
Although the hop is dioecious (there are sepa- glands into which the resins
Zeus.
1.2.2.2 Drying rate male cu1d female plants), only the female cu1d ethereal oils are secreted.
The picked hop contains 75 to 80% water. In plants are cultivated by hop growers. From The gland is covered by a
The Czech Rep"blic
this form they cannot be stored, therefore the their second year onwards, these plants bear in- membrcu1e to prevent the con-
The main hop growing area is the Saaz region
hops must be dried immediately. Drying is per- florescences which, because of their shape, are tents escaping. When dishlr-
with 4382 ha (2005), followed by the smaller re-
formed on belt dryers, or in small firms, in bat- called hop cones. It is important to wlderstand bed the glcu1d is broken off.
gions of Auscha (756 hal and Tirschitz (700 hal·
ches in kilns. The hops are carefully dried at a the strucrure of the hop cone (Fig. 1.11) in order The lupulin glculds contain all
Only aroma varieties are grown. The Saaz hop
maximum tempera hue of 50 DC to a water con- to know where the important components are the hop components which,
with an average Ct.-acid content of 4.0% is still
tent of 8 to 12 %. The hops are then c01l1pressed, located . except for the polyphenols, are
viewed as one of the best aroma hops .
i.e. pressed into loose bales (pockets) or larger valuable for beer production.
units. Even in this form, the hops CCUU10t be sto- Part of U!e cOile Properties
Englann
h1 England hops are grown on 1071 ha (2005; in red for a long time without a reduction in qua- Stem (1) should be short 1.2.4 Composition and properties of the
1997 the figure was still 3067 hal in the cOlmties of lity. Sprig (2) zig-zag shaped central axis components
As a result of Floret (3) at each bend, there are very The composition of the hops is extremely im-
Kent and Herefordshire. The main varieties are
tile actioll of oxygw, inconspicuous florets with portant for the quality of the beer produced
the high Ct.-variety Target and the aroma varieties
the effect of moisture {llln heatillg, large covering bracts (lea- from them.
Goldings, First Gold, Fuggles and Challenger.
64 65

The composition of the hop dry we ight is:
Bitter substances 18.5 %
Hop oil 0.5 %
Polyp henols 3.5%
Protein 20.0%
Minerals 8.0%
The rest consists of cellulose and other m ate-
rials unimportant for b eer p rod uctio n . The
most importa nt components for the production
of beer are the bitter substances and the hop oil.
1.2.4.1 Bitter substances or hop resins
In the early stage of developm ent, the hop plant
already produces an only slightly bitte r
which is secre ted by the developin g lupulin
gland. In the course of the maturing process, a
par t of these is converted into the con si-
d erably more bitter a-acids. This conversion,
whi ch only applies to a part of the is
very dependent on the wea ther conditions. Hot
and dry m aturation periods, for example, im-
pede this conversion process more than cool,
damp summers.
The a-acids or humulones (Fig. 1.11a) are the
most important bonds for the bitterin g of the
beer. However, these bonds are not uniform .
One of the bonds, the cohumulone, has a m ore
nega tive role in beer bittering. Owing to the fac t
that the amOtmt of the a-acids form ed and their
composition are varietal features, hop growers
today attempt to cultivate mainly varieties with
a low proportion of cohumulone. The proporti-
on aimed at is less than 20 to 25% of cohumulo-
ne in the Ct.-acid content.
The a-acid content makes up an average 4 to
5% in the case of aroma hops.
Som e hop varieties, for example No rthern
Brewer, have a higher a-acid content (6 to 9%),
but also frequently a higher proportion of cohu-
mulone (over 30 % of the a-acids). As a result,
they are mo re bitter but because of the high er
cohumulone content, they are not always quali-
tativel y as good as other va rieties with a low
proportion of cohumul one.
New hop varieties are being cultiva ted with a
con siderably higher Ct.-acid content up to 15 and
16%. Examples of these high a-varieties are, for
example, N u gget, Target, Hallertauer Magnum
a nd Hallertauer Taurus, and the proportion of
high a-varieties is continually increasing.
OH
o excl usively to the ha rd resins which no longer
R
Fig. l .11n
a-ncid stmctllre
The initially insoluble a-acids are later con-
verted during wort boiling into the soluble iso-
a-acids (isomerisa tion), which, apart from pre-
cipitation during cooling and fermenting, find
their way into the fini shed beer and cause the
bittering.
The bitter substances are very surface active
and thereby improve the foam stability of the
beer; hence a better head retention can be ex-
pected of a s trongly hopped beer. The bitter
substances also inhibit the development of mi-
cro-organisms in beer; this bacteriostatic power
is, however, not particularly great and does not
replace the n ecessa ry m easures needed to
achieve beer stability.
The a-acids are not durable indefinitely be-
cause the m embrane on the lupulin gland is p o-
rous and only provides little protection for the
contents. Due to the influence of oxygen, high er
tempera tures and higher hlU1udity, the Ct.-acids
are increasingly broken down. It can therefore be
calculated that, at a storage temperatme of 18 °C,
in two months up to 25 % of the a-acids will have
been broken down [155]. This m ean s tha t after
the production of a-acids to their m a turation, the
breakdown process begins sh'aight away.
This gives rise to the necessity to store the
hops cold, dry an d wi th the exclusion of air lUl-
til their processing.
The conversion of the a- and occurs
have any brewing va lue. At the sam e time, the
bitter subs tan ces s plit off the va leric acid sid e
chain, wluch gives old hops a ch eesy smell.
The bitter substances or h op resins can be di-
vided, mainly according to their solubility, into
the fo llowing categories:
The hop resins are the most valuable and
most characteristic components of hops. They
give beer its bitter taste, improve foam s tability
The hop resins are the /JIO.I't valilable and II/ost characteristic cOlI/pollents o.f"hops. They g ive beer
its bitter toste. illlprove/oalll stab ility and due to their antiseptic properties. illCl'ease the biolog i-
cal stability o./'Ihe beel:
a.-acids hulupone
include include
IU]Jlllone,
hUlllulone,
eo luplli one.
eohul11ulone.
ndlupulon
adhlll1ll110ne
iso-a-acids
include
isohun1ll1 one.
isoeobul11ulone.
isoadbulllulollc
not defined in more detn il
and due to their antiseptic properti es, increase
the biological stability of the beer. 1
As al read y mentioned, the individual hop re-
sins have very different bittering va lues. The Ct.-
acids contribute a 9 times grea ter bitterness than
the fraction. This gives rise to the formula
for the bittering by hops according to Wollmer:
· . I 'd
Blttenng va ue = Ct.-aCI s + --:9:----
The a-acid is by fa r the most important factor
and also m ainly determines the trade value of
the hops. As a result, a great deal of emphasis
has been put on cultivatin g and grow ing high
a -va rie ties in recent decades. More recently,
high a-hop varieties with an a-acid content of
12 to 16% and at the same time having a pro-
portion of cohumulone of less than 25 % are on
the market [156]. On a global basis, the cu ltiva-
tion of high alpha hop varieties with high bit-
terin g values h as a market sh are of 8.8%.
hUIll ie ae ids
Total
soft resins
TOla l res in
(hexane
(sol ubl e in
so lubl e)
coldmetbanol
and diethyl
etIH::r)
Hard resin s
(insoluble in
)
hexane)
66
The (non-specific) soft resins provide about
one-third of the bitterness of a beer and thereby
represent an additional group of bitter fl avours
[324].
1.2.4.2 Hop oil
Hops contain 0.5 to 1.2% hop oil; this implies
between 200 and 250 different ethereal substan-
ces which are increasingly volatile on boiling.
They are secreted from the maturing plant by
the lupulin gland and give the hops a characte-
ristic fla vour.
Hop oil can be classified lUlder hydrocarbons
and oxygen-containing bond s.
It is only with the aid of gas chromatographic
examinations that it is possible to record the
proportions of the individual components of
hop oil. Here the bonds appear as peaks. No
conclusions, however, can be drawn here about
the interaction of the individual aroma compo-
nents w hich determine the overall aroma. As a
result, evaluating the quality of hops is mainly
carried out as before manually.
The various composition of hop oil is specific
to the variety. With regard to the aroma compo-
n ents, a distinction is made between those which
are more flowery and those tending to be more
fruity.
Aroma active substances in hop oil were a se-
ries of little known compounds (with complica-
ted names which we ignore here); par-
ticular ones are myrcene, linalool and nonanal.
Low-boiling monoterpenes of the va riety
m yrcene give the hop aroma a certain sharp-
n ess and lend the beer a rough and disagreeab-
le nuan ce: m yrcene is therefore undesirable.
Linalool, which has recently acquired consi-
d erable importance, beh aves quite differently.
This hop oil has two isomeric compounds: the
R(-)Iinalool has been repeatedly confirmed as
an ex tremely flavour and aroma active substan-
ce, w hich has been made responsible for di-
s tinctive flo wery oran ge blossom and geranium
notes [337]. As a result of the partial transition
of the flowery R(-)linalool to the less dis tinctive
S(+)linalool, va luable aroma components are lost
in the brewing process. To achieve a distinctive
hop blossom, whirlpool hopping is seen as the
most effective hopping technique [345], alt-
hough this leads to a loss of bitterness.
By means of certain fractioning methods, it is
also possible to produce pure hop aroma pro-
ducts (= PHAS, Fa Barth & Sohn, N u remberg),
such as R(-)linalool and to add them to the beer.
This does not comply, however, with the purity
law.
The sesquiterpenes
sene and humulene or its epoxide are examples
of aroma components.
During the boiling process in the brew house,
the hop oil increasingly evaporates. In order to
keep at leas t some of the aromatic hop oil, a p ar t
of the hop is added later to beers where value is
put on an aromatic hop taste and smell, thereby
renOlUlcing a part of the isomerised a.-acid (see
Sect. 3.4.1.1).
To increase this hop aroma in beer, so-called
aroma hops are cultivated which are varieties
with a fine aroma and with a-acid valu es of on-
ly 4 to 6% with a targeted proportion of cohu-
mulone of less than 20 % and a highest possible
proportion of humulene and farnesene in the
hop oil.
The proportion of aroma hops h as increased
in the las t ten years in Germany from 48% to
63 % of the total harvest. Examples of German
aroma hop varieties are Hallertau er Mittelfru-
eh, Hallertauer Tradition, Hersbru cker Spaet,
market the prices range from 2.50 to 4.00 €/kg.
In Germany, the closures and clearings of bitte-
ring and lugh alpha plants are subsidised, wh e-
reas aroma hop plants, on the other hand, are
being newly installed.
1.2.4.3 Tannins or polyphenols
Hops contain 2 to 5% polyphenol in the dry
matter and it is located almos t entirely in the
sprig and bracts. Polyphenols have important
properties for the brewer:
1. They have an anti-oxidising effect;
2. They ha ve an astringent (mouth puckering)
taste;
3. Flavon-3-oils in partic ula r are able to combi-
ne and precipitate with complex proteins;
4. They oxidise to reddish-brown compounds,
the phlobaph enes, and
5. They combine with iron sa lts to form black
compOlUlds.
As a result of these properties, the polyphenols
are involved in the formation of hazes in beer and
polyphenols
I I
monomere
polyphenols
I I
I I
phenolic heterocyclic
rbon acids carbon acids
benzoic acid
derivate
Flavanoide
(Xanthohumol)
67
conh'ibute to its taste and colour. The polyphe-
nols are compolmds of greater or lesser comple- 1
xity containing several phenyl groups and hence
givin g them the name of polyphenols.
They consist of a mi xture of talUlins, flavon-
ols, ca tech ins and an thocyanogens.
Sys tema tica lly, hop polyphenols (Fig. 1.11 b)
are ca tegorised as follows.
Of these polyphenols, the an th ocyan ogens
(proanthocyanidine) are the most important
quantitatively and qualitatively.
About 80% of the hop polyphenol consists of
anthocyanogens. The anthocyanogens of malt,
w hich are predominantly located in the aleuro-
ne have basically the same structure as
those in hops. In a normally constituted mash,
80% of the anthocyanogens are derived from
the malt and 20% from the hops.
The polyphenols of h ops differ from those in
malt mainly through their higher degree of con-
densation and their grea ter reactivity. Polyph e-
nols have an anti-oxidiSing effect and therefore
polymere
polyphenols
J I
low molecular high molecuar
polypllenols polyphenols
l Proanlhocyanidine
(Procaynidine,
I- catech ins

R(-)Iinalool and the S(+)linalool. In h ops about Opal, Perle, Saplur, Smaragd, Spalter, Spalter Prodelphinidine)
cinnamic acid Flavanoide
L
tannins
90% exists as R(-)linalool; the ratio changes, ho- Select, and Teth1anger. derivate (Catechin, Epicatechin)
wever, during the brewing process in favour of Hop prices vary enormously. The majority of Fig. 1.11b
----------------
S(+)linalool (52 : 48). hops are agreed in a precontract; on the free Cinssijimtiol/ of polt/plIel/ols
 F
68
achieve a xanthohumole concentration of 1-3
have a positive impact on fla vour stability. Sin-
mg pll in the finished beer [250].
ce the anti-oxidising effect disa ppears with oxi-
dation, it is important to prevent any form of
1.2.4.4 Nitrogen compounds
oxidation.
12 to 20% of the hop dry weight is nitrogenous
and 30 to 50% of this passes into the beer. For
beer production (foam formation, palate-full-
ness) hop protein is unimportant because of the
small amount present.
The other components of hops (carbohydra-
tes, organic acids and inorganic substances) are
without importance in beer production.
1.2.5 Hop evaluation
Hops are evaluated by
hand assessment of the hop cones
Fig. 1.11c
Slmclllrnllllnke-llp of nlllllOcljnllOgell measurement of the (I.-acid determination in
(Leuko-All tiIOCYnil irlill ) hops or their products
1.2.5.1 Hand evaluation of hop cones
Although standard analysis methods provide
Also among the polyphenols which occur in
very exact information about the contents of
hops are xanthohumole and isoxanthohumole.
hops, assessment by hand, as before, still plays
Anti-oxidative and anti-carcinogenous proper-
a significant role and provides a good overall
ties are attributed to these compOtmds [305]. As
impression of the hops.
only very small amounts of xanthohumole of
According to the standard methods of the Eu-
well under 0.2 mg pll have been identified in fi-
ropean Hop Producers Commission
nished beer produced using standard proces-
up to 100 positive points are awarded for va-
ses, a procedure (Xan) has been developed to
lue enhancing properties, and
up to 30 minus points are deducted for value
decreasing properties.
The assessment then includes:
Crop purity (1 to 5 positive points)
It should be free from contaminants, plant
OH
stems and leaves. A stem up to 2.5 cm long
can be considered to be part of the cone. Up
to 3 % leaf and stem fraction is acceptable.
Dryness (1 to 5 positive points)
In a pressure test the cones should not stick
together or lose their leaves; the sprig should
not disintegrate. If too wet the hops become
dark brown, moulds develop easily and the
Fig. 1.11rl
Slm clllrnllllnke-llp ofxnlltilOlllllllol
odour becomes musty.
69
Colour and gloss (1 to 15 positive points) Off-odours include s moky, burnt, onion, gar-
The colour should be yellowi sh-green and lic, hay-like, grassy, s traw-like and su lphury. 1
the cones should have a silky sheen. Grey- Diseases, damage, seed s (0 to 15 minus
green cones indica te lU1ripeness; yellowish- points)
red to rus t brown cones show over-ripeness This includes damage due to Peronospora,
(oxidation); dark brown cones indicate hea- blackness (aphids), browning (spider mite),
ting as a result of too high moi sture content; reddish tips (strig midge), cone death and al-
reddish to brown flecks indicate blight due to so loss of bracts and bracteoles, and seed for-
red spider or dam age by hail; white marks on mation .
stunted or withered con es indicate an attack Defective handling (0 to 15 minus points)
of mildew; blackened cones indicate an at- This includes brown or burnt lupulin as a re-
tack of black mould; bright yellow cones with sult of too high a drying temperature, dete-
a green stem indicate intensive sulphuring. rioration due to too much moisture, extensive
Con e shape (1 to 15 positive points) loss of bracts and bracteoles, spray marks and
UniformJy large, closed cones are desired. In off-odours.
the case of aroma hops the sprig should be Overall evaluation: the hops are classified as
well-branched and covered with many hairs. follows :
If the cones are tightly closed it can be conclu- < 60 points poor
ded that they are sufficiently ripe and have 60 to 66 points average
been dried careflllly; the lupulin grains will 67 to 73 points good
not be able to fall ou t. 74 to 79 points very good
Lupulin (1 to 30 positive points) > 80 points premium
There should be as many lupulin grains as
possible (1 to 15 positive points) and they 1.2.5.2 Bitter substance content
should be lemon yellow to golden yellow, The most important information for the brewer
shiny and sticky. Reddish-yellow to reddish- is, of course, that concerning the bitter substan-
brown, dull and dry lupulin indicates too ce content of the hops. This can only be measu-
highly heated or aged hops (again 1 to 15 po- red accurately in the laboratory. Various me-
sitive points). Lupulin is naturally the most thods are available and used.
important feature of the hop for the brewer. The conductimetric method is used to d eter-
Aroma (1 to 30 positive points) mine
The aroma should be clean, very fine and total resin content,
strongly persistent. In the sensory evaluation total soft resin content, and
of the cones rubbed between the hands, a di- hard resin content.
stinction is made between cleanliness, fine- Normal values are approximately
ness and intensity. The cleanliness may be
consid ered to be clean, variable or lmclean. hop cone enriched hop
The fineness is very fine, quite fine, modera- hop powder hop powder ex tract
tely fine, not fine, straw-like, musty or dete- % air dry % air dry % air dry
riora ted. The intensity is very persistent, per- total resin 12 - 24 22 - 40 30 - 60
sis tent, fairly strong, weak, transient, very total soft res in 10 -18 18 - 36 24 -54
strong, obtrusive or acrid. Each varietal type conductom e te r
has its own aroma which can be detected. va lu e 4 -10 7 - 20 9 - 30
 71
70

Aroma varieties are distin guished by their for example, the aroma varieties Perle, Spa Iter in Germany, there were still 3122 hop farmers, re-
hop cone enri ched hop
pleasant hop aroma, a cohumli ione proportion Select and Hallertauer Tradition. presenting a fall of one third in very few years. At 1
ho p powder hop powd er extract
of less than 20 % and a high proportion of fin e- New high alpha varieties include Hallertauer the same time, the average size of companies in-
% air dry % air dry % air dry
ly aromatic components (caryophyllia, farn ese- Merkur (10 - 14 % a-acid, 17 - 22 % cohumu lone) creased to 9.08 ha hop growing area per compa-
5-9 11 - 16 15 - 24
ne). Despite their low a.-acid content of 2.5 to and Hallertauer Herkules (12 - 17% a,- acid, 32- ny. Nevertheless, there are still too many hops
hard resin 2-4 2-7 3 -10
5 %, they are sometimes traded at higher prices. 38% cohumulone). being grown, particularly in Germany and the
Desirable aroma varieties are, for example: Per- Ne w aroma varieties include Hallertauer USA, causing the hop trading price to suffer. The
The condllctometer value corresponds to the
le, Spa Iter Select or Hallertauer Tradition. Opal (5 - 8 % a-acid), Hallertauer Saphir (2 - 4.5 % reason for this is that an increasing number of
a-acid content. a,-acid) and Hallertauer Smaragd (4 - 6% a-acid); high alpha varieties are being grown and simul-
To be able to obtain a reliable hop dosage, the
(COhlU11ulone content for all 3 varieties: 12 -18 %). taneously, the bittering of beer is decreasing.
vacuum packaging of the pellets or the contai-
The bitterness of hop varieties with a low cohu- Today, 5.1 g a/hl beer is regarded as the average
ner is always marked so that the total amount of
mulone content is generally viewed as softer global figure . The global requirement of a-acid
a-acid contained is shown in grams. For exam-
and more p leasant. Hops with a low cohumulo- amOlU1ts to 7000 t annually.
ple, the vacuum packaging of 1,350 g shows, in
ne content give a better head retention. To ensure the quality of the hops supplied
addition to the other marking showing the ori-
The l1lU11ber of hop growing companies (main- and to prevent fraud, every batch of whole
gin, variety and year, the marking
ly hop farmers) amOlU1ted to 2095 in 2001, repre- hops from a German growing region is sealed
196 G a
senting a fa ll of 102 on the previous year. In 1995 and provided with an accompanying certificate
This means that the 1,350 g of powder or pel-
(Fig. 1.11£) which shows
lets in the packaging contain 196 g of a-acid.
the State in which it was grown (e.g. Bavaria),
Expressed as a percentage:
the growing region (e.g. Hallertau),
Fig. 1.l1 e
/-figh (X- unriety /-fn/lertnlfer IVIng/l/l/ll BEGLEITURKUNDE the year (e.g. 1993),
1,350 g package contents = 100% 3111 Gru nd de l Ve lordnv ng (E\'/G ) NI. 169617 1 \'010 2i>. 7. 1971 ,
g ei l'lde fl d urch Ve f()(dflf.lllg (EWG ) Ih. 1170117 ...o m 17.5. 1977. the variety (e.g. Tetblanger),
196 g a-acid x%
Bittering varieties are distinguished by their the number of the bale or ballot, and
196
__ _x_100
_%_ _ =14.52 % high a,-acid content of over 10 % and up to 15 %.
DEUTSCHER the weight in kg
x=
1350 A good high alpha variety is expected to have a
SIEGELHOPFEN (c hne' Samell)

proportion of cohllmulone of no more than

Zeltol_ , lt.I Er..

The hop product has an a.-acid content of 14.52
%.
1.2.5 Hop varieties
Hops, with a market price of 2.50 to 4.00 €/kg,
are by far the most expensive raw material used
in beer production. Consequently, the selection
of varieties when growing and trading in hops
is of great importance. The features taken into
account when evaluating hops have already
been mentioned. It has also been pointed out
that in addition to hops with a high bittering
LAN D
.."2 ((,WG ) 1/•• Wfl1
1.2.7 Hop products
The number of breweries which use hop cones
25%. A NB A U G E B IET
As the quality of the hop is not only depen- is continually decreasing because the introduc-
dent on the variety but also on the growing re-
J A HRG AN G tion of hop products provides the fo ll owing
great advantages:
gion, the hops are identified firstly by the gro- SORTE
I' EII LE
wing region and then by the variety e.g. 1) As a result of the use of hop products it is
Hallertau: Hallertauer Tradition or N R. B A L L E N / B A LL OT possible to ob tain a constant bitterness in the
Elbe-Saale Hallertauer Tradition. G E W ICH T I N K G (BRUTT O)
beer.
The a-acid conten t is furthermore dependent 2) Hop products can be stored almost indefini-
on the year of harvesting and can, depending
Aufber eil et
tely. Consequently it is possible to purchase
on the weather conditions in any particular ye- the reserve hops in favourable harvest years.
ar, show extreme variations. At the same time one is no longer dependent
Slegeimeister/ Au fsich t

In Germany there is a development trend to- on the enormous price variations on the hop
value, aroma hops with a low bittering value
wards varieties of qualitatively high-value high market.
are also much in demand.
a-varieties such as Hallertauer Magnum, whe- 3) The bittering yield can be improved by the
In hop trading a distinction is made between
reas the old bittering varieties such as Northern use of hop products.
aroma varieties,
Brewer, Brewers Gold or even Hersbrucker Fig.l.ll! 4) Hop products give rise to lower transport
bittering varieties, and
Spaet are in lower demand. Highly valued are, CertiJicnte to nccolllpnlly n senled Gerlllnll 1I0p pncknge and storage costs.
high alpha varieties.
 73
72

30 % This powder is mixed and pelle ted in a pelle- quentl y be solidified. Milling and sieving is the-
5) Use of hop products removes the n eed for a Hop extracts
Isom eri sed products 10 % ting device (4) which has a rnoulding die con- refore performed at very low temperatures, 1
hop separator. taining cylindri cal holes (Fig. 1.13). In this way preferably at -35 °C.
6) Hop products can be dosed automatically. the milled material is pressed together and con-
1.2.7.1 Hop pellets The finely milled material contains the lupu-
With regard to hop products, a difference is
A very effective way of preserving the contents verted into the typically cylindrical pellet form . lin glands and half the dried cone mass. The co-
m ade between the following groups, which will During this process the hops becom e warm and
of hops is p elleti sation. In this process the dried arse fraction consists of bract and axis fractions
then be discu ssed in more de tail: this can lead to a reduction in quality. It is the- and is regarded as waste. For the production of
hops are milled to a powder and then compres-
sed into p ellets. In the pellet form the hops are refore important not to allow the temperature enriched pellets the lupulin glands must be in-
free-flowing and can be easily added. to rise above 50 °C (122 OF). tact and not crushed. To achieve this it is not
There are three kinds of pellets: possible to separate the lupulin glands in one
sieving process. Only throu gh repeated cru s-
hop pellets (90) pellets type 90
enriched pellets (type 45) hing and sieving, is it possibl e to ensure tha t all
of the intact lupulin glands a re in the finely mil-
isomerised pellets Fig. 1.13
isomerised hop extract
led matter and virtually none in the coarse frac-
ho p extract
Pelletillg device
(1) IllOlIldillg die tion (Fig. 1.13a). For this, the choice of crushing
Pellets type 90
In the production of type 90 pellets, 90 kg of (2) pressl/re /'Oil ers teclmique and the mash size of the sieve (150 to
(3) distribl/tor 500 are crucial for the separa tion . The en ti-
\ :wnstream powder, containing all the important contents
(4) /'OlierfrOll/e
L roducts of the original hops, are produced from 100 kg re production process of Pellets 45 is shown in
(5 ) detochillg kl/ife
(6) pellets (frolll Fig. 1.13 b. This separa tion process can be con-
of intact hop cones.
The type 90 hop pellets are manufactured [6] Roil/lei; lvlK lvliiller) tinu ed to produce type 25 tlU'ough a further
(Fig. 1.12) by first carefully drying the hop co- concentration of lupulin [164].
On a global basis, appro ximately the follo-
nes (1) with air at 20 to 25 °C (68 - 77 OF), and In recent years there has been an increasin g
wing proportions of hop products are proces-
then with hot air at 40 to 50 °C (104 - 122 OF) to In the subsequen t cooling process (5) the pellets trend of u sing enl'iched pellets. An important
sed [195] : are cooled, stored in silos (6) and packed lmder reason is that with the u se of enriched pellets,
15 to 20% a water content of 7 to 9% (2), and then milling
Natural hops the exclusion of air (7), and the package is filled as a result of reducing the amount of waste ma-
40 to 45% to a powder with a grain size of 1 to 5 nun (3).
Hop pellets with CO2 or nitrogen as a protective gas. This is terial by removing some of the bract and strig
necessary to maintain the quality of the contents. fraction, there is also a reduction in the amolmt
The pellets should be stored at a low tempe- of polyphenols in the pellets.
1 rature of 1 to 3°C; at higher temperatures there Pellets give about 10 % more bittering yield
3(ID is an increasing fall in value due to a decrease in
the bitterness and formation of h ard resin.
compared with cone hops. This is m ainly due to
the more rapid distribution of the contents in
the wort copper and the consequent increase in
t 6 LlIpllliH eHl'ic1zen pellets (pellets type 45) their surface area. This results in more rapid ex-

... :.: . 4@ To produce lupulin enriched pellets (type 45),

use is made of the fact that all the resin and oil
traction and isomerisa tion.
The ability to store the oxygen-sensitive pel-
Fig. 1.12
2 0-- P/'Odllctioll of llOp pellets type is in the lupulin glands. These ha ve a natural le ts depends on the u se of air-tight p ackaging.
/
1 \
90 particle size of about 0.15 mm. The task is to re- To achieve a residual oxygen content of less
\\l • / .. ;!!!
(1) lllfeed of the hop COliC
mo ve the lupulin glands from the cone and to than 0.5 vol %, the package is filled with inert
(2) dryillg to 7 to 9% wa ter COll-
tellt separate part of the bract and strig fraction. For gas. By u se of a four-layered foil w ith an alumi-
(3) Illillillg this milling and sieving machines are used. nium barrier layer, oxygen is prevented from
1 (4) pellet illg However, in order to mechanically process a entering the package.
(5) coolillg
+ (6) pockillg silo
lupulin gland it must be hard and must lose its Packaging may be performed either in accor-
U 0 (7) pockillg adhesive power. Its liquid content must conse- d ance with
 75
74

Abb. 113a kg pellets, or

3 1
kg a-acid per package. II () () II !! !

Isomerisen pellets
4
Isomerisation of the a-acids can be caused by 6
the addition of magnesium oxide. This isomeri- 0 ..
sation has advantages in comparison with the Fig . 1.13c
Prodllc lioll ofel"n ll ol exlmcl

9*
conventional pellets since the hops do not have 2 I
(1) mw "ops, (2) screw 10 IIlix
to be boiled for as long a time in order to achie- wil" cllwllol, (3) cOlllllerflow
5
ve isomerisation:
0
exlmclOl; (4) dryillg of IlOp spell I
the iso-CY.-acid yield is improved gm ill s, (5) pel/elisnlioll, (6) lIIi- 7
cel/n c/nri(icnlioll, (7) drop flow
the boiling time can therefore be shortened
elinpomlOl; (8) dislil/nlioll co-
consequently the costs of hops and energy are 11111111, (9) celllrijllge, ( 10) "op re- 0
65% GG reduced sil/ exlmct, (11) wnler-Imll/ill •
10%FG isomerised pellets do not have to be stored cold exlmcl, (12) COl/dellSel; (13) rec- 0 ..
l ificnl iol/ , (14) el"nl/ol
less hot break is formed.
Isomerised pellets are manufactured in the
same way as enriched pellets (Fig. 1.13b). Diffe- This process is monitored. Because the pellets Use of other solvents has caused problems be-
rences are: are enclosed in air-tight foil, no additional oxy- cause the exh'acts prod uced with them contain an
before pelleting, magnesium oxide, which ca- gen can enter. The pellets have to be kept cold at lUlavoidable residue which is ei ther considered to
talyses the isomerisation of the a-acids, is a temperature of 1 to 3 °C (34 - 37 OF), otherwise be toxic (poisonous) or does not satisfy the speci-
mixed into the milled hops, and over a period of time, there is reduction in value. fications for purity as set out in the Reinheitsge-
Fig . l .13n after the packing of the pellets to which ma- Because of the purity law, the use of isomeri- bot.
Prodllclioll of wri- sed pellets is not permitted in Germany.
gnesium oxide has been added in foils and
c"ed pellels
cartons, they are placed in. a warm chamber at 1.2.7.2.1 Hop extraction with ethanol
(Slnrlillg vnllle =
lIIil/ed c/"/lde IlOps) a temperature of 50°C (122 OF) lUltil isomeri- 1.2.7.2 Hop extracts Hop extraction with ethanol is a continuous pro-
FG Fillely lIIil/ed sation is completed. By extraction is meant the dissolving of particu- cess in which commercial hops (Fig. 1.13e, 1) are
IIInlerinl lar components from a solid by means of a suit- fed thmugh devices for removing heavy objects
GG Conrse IIInlerinl
able solvent. In the food industry, however, the and metal objects and then mixed in a screw con-
interest is usually not just in the dissolving pro- veyor (2) with 90% ethanol. The hop/e thanol
3 •
cess and the solution is subsequently concen- mixtme is pLUnped through a wet mill into a con-
trated to a desired extent by evaporation of the tinuous multi-stage COlUltercurrent extractor (3).
4 solvent. In other words the solvent is simply Alcohol flows continuously in the opposite direc-
Fig.l.13b
used as a transportation means which releases tion to the hops and is thereby enriched with the
ProdllClioll of pel/els Iype 45 the substances from the solid. hop contents. TIle almost completely exh'acted
(1) mw"ops The solvent used to produce hop extracts no- spent hops (4) are removed from the extractor
2 (2) dryillg 10 7 10 9% wnler cOlllell1
wadays is preferably liquid CO2 or ethanol, since and dried . TIle alcoholic solution, which is now
(3) deep freezil/g 10 -35 °C
(4) cOl/l1l/illlllioll
exh'action with methylene chloride, which for a called a miscella, contains all the useful contents.
(5) I"ree-slnge sievillg long time was the method normally used, has The miscella must now be concentrated to
(see Fig. 1.13n), been stopped for environmental protection rea- produce the ethanol extract. This is done in a
(6) llOlIIogel/isnlioll of I"e powder
sons.TIle two solvents now used are both pat·ticu- multi-stage evaporating LUlit with a concentra-
(7) pel/elisnlioll
(8) coolillg nlld sievil/g
lady well suited to the exh'action of hops because tor (7 and 8). This lmit produces a concentrated
(9) pnckillg they dissolve the hop resins and oils completely. crude extract.
76
In a further processing step, by means of a
centrifuge (9), there is a further reduction of the
alcohol content and separation into a resin ex-
tract (10) and a hot water ex tract (11). In a follo-
wing washing column stage, the alcohol is con-
densed (12) and completely driven off by
steam. This washing column stage (13) is p er-
formed lmder vacuum (120 mbar) so that the
steam trea tment can proceed gently a t 60 DC,
more hop oil remains in the extract and less al-
pha acid is isomerised . The extracted ethanol
(14) can then be returned again to the process .
1.2.7.2.2 Hop extraction with fluid carbon
dioxide
It is possible to dissolve the hop contents by me-
ans of fluid CO,. As CO, is gaseous lmder normal
conditions it is necessary to make it fluid. Howe-
ver lUlder normal presslU'e CO, cannot be lique-
fied. The liquid phase of CO, only exists above
the triple POll'lt at 5.1 bar and 217 Kelvin .
For extraction with fluid CO" temperatures of
about 20 DC and pressure aroLU'ld 70 bar are used.
H ere the fluid CO, becomes saturated with the
'co
1.
£ .....
3 co
l ·0
4 (6) expnllsioll vnl ve
1 (7) lIent excllnllger/evnpora tor
l J
hop content substances in an extraction vessel. In
a second vessel, the CO, evapora tes and leaves
behind the non-volatile hop extract.
The evaporated CO, is again compressed and
liquefied by means of mechanically supplied
energy and is returned again to the extraction
circuit.
Approximately 20 kg of fluid CO, a re requi-
red per kg/hops. The energy consumption is
greater and hence the costs higher using this
method. However, the product is very clean,
and about one thjrd of the hop harvest is extrac-
ted by m eans of this method .
1.2.7.2.3 Hop extraction with supercritical CO,
In principle CO, exists in two states vvhich can
be used for extraction. The critical pressure of
CO, is 73 bar and the critical temperatlll'e 31 DC.
Above this pressure but below this temperatu-
re CO, is a liquid but its solvent properties are
very limited .
Above the critical POll'lts the terms u sed are
supercritical or fluid CO,. For hop extraction
purposes useful solubility properties are obtai-
10
• CIt:: =:]D
Fig. 1.14
Hop extractioll witll slIperuiti-
6 CO, extract is the most widely used ex tract
cnl CO2
C><)
D.
7n
(1) Pelletiseri lIop
(2) extractioll vessel
9 1.2.7.2.4 Hop extract powder
(3) CO, tnllk
(4) cOillpressiol1
U
8;
•
(5) lIent excllnllger
(8) sepnrator
0· l (9) lIop extract
(10) cOllriellsor
ned with supercritical CO, at pressures of 120
bar and above.
Worldwide, hop extraction is nowadays per-
forme d with supercritical CO, at pressures of
150 to 300 bar and tempera tures of 32 to 100 DC.
Fig. 1.14 shows hop extraction with supercri-
tical CO,:
The hops to be ex tracted are put, as pellets
(1), into the extraction vessel (2) and the latter is
brought to ex trac tion pressure. Liquid CO, at 60
to 70 bar is drawn from a working tank (3) and
compressed (4) to the extraction pressure. The
heat exchanger (5) is set to produce the extracti-
on temperature and the supercritical CO, is
pumped through the extraction vessel (2). The
bittering and aroma substances are thereby dis-
solved in the CO,. The enriched CO, passes into
the evaporator (7) with a separated ex tract con-
tW'ler (8). Before this, the pressure is reduced to
60 to 80 bar in the expansion valve (6) and the
CO, evaporated in the heat exchanger (7). As a
result the CO, loses its ability to act as a solvent
and the extract separates (9) . The gaseous CO, is
liquified in the condensor (10) and returns
again to the extraction circuit.
The overall extraction process is performed
batchwise. Most extraction plants operate seve-
ral extractors. With high pressure extraction the
solvent properties can be exchanged by altering
the temperature or pressure. Both oxidation
and enVirOlUl'lental pollution are prevented; the
aroma components are obtamed without other
residues.
nowadays.
By this is meant hop extract sprayed onto kiesel
gel (silica gel) . In order to make the hop extract
powder pour easily, at least 30 to 40% silica gel
is required. Instead of silica gel, hop powder or
hop pellets can be used. In such cases a large
powder or pellet fraction must be used since
77
they cam'lot absorb as much extract and the
powder would otherwise become sticky and no 1
lon ger free-flowing .
1.2.7.2.5 Isomerised hop extract
It is possible to isomerise the hop extract. As a
result of the prior isomerisa tion the isomerised
hop extract can be added at various processing
stages. This utilisation rate is up to 95% where-
as with the use of hop cones or pellets only
about 25 to 30 % can be u sed becau se the inter-
mediate products precipitate during the bre-
wing process .
Isomerised hop extract involves very low sto-
rage and tran sport costs and can be kept unope-
ned for two years without deterioration in qua-
lity. After dilution it is easy to add and it
enables the bitterness value of beer to be produ-
ced exactly. When it is combined w ith other hop
products, the isomerised ex trac t fr ac tion
should be 30 to 40%.
Caution: in accordance with the Reinheitsge-
bot, the u se of isomerised extracts is not p ermit-
ted for beer brewing in Germany.
Mrl1lllfnctlll'e of iso1/1erised 1I0p extract
CO, extract is used to produce isomerised ex-
tract (Fig . 1.14a). The ex tract is heated and
emulsified with d egassed wate r (1). This emul-
sion is further heated (2) and isomerised by the
addition of a basic catalyst (3). This isomerisati-
on must be controlled. After the isomerisation,
hop waxes and uncharacterised soft resins,
which are of no use in the further processing,
are removed (4), the solution is then cooled (5)
and brought to a pH of 7 - 8. This results in pre-
cipitation of the and they are removed
(6). As a result of furth er pH adjustment to 5-6
the lUlisomerised are precipitated and
they are then removed by a separator (7). The
free are now precipitated by a dra-
stic pH reduction to pH 2 (9) and stored in this
form LUltil final packing. Only shortly before
78
2 3
Fig. l.14n
Prorill clioll of isolllerised IIop ex-
tract
(1) Degnsed wnlel; (2) stenlll, (3)
nririitioll of potnss illlll cm'bollnte,
(4) sepnratioll of soft resills, (5)
coolillg, (6) sepnratioll of (X-
nciris, (7) sepnralioll of tlllisOllle-
rised (X-ncids, (8) nridilioll of
nciri, (9) precipilnlioll off ree iso- 10
111 1111 II 101le, (10) stnllrinrriised
isollleriseri extract (2 013 0%) nlld
fill illg witll tile isollierised ex-
S..
tracl.
delivery to the brewery is the iso-a-acid trans-
ferred to th e potassium salt (3) and then
brought to the sales concentration using distil-
led water and filled into containers (10).
1.2.7.2.6 Downstream bittering products
By downstream products are meant products
which are added at the end of the beer produc-
tion. These mainly include:
tetra-iso-a.-acid,
hexa-hydro-iso-a-acid and
rho-iso-a.-acid.
These compOlmds are sold lmder various tra-
de names (Redihop, Tetrahop, a.o.) and are pro-
duced from iso-alpha-acids using special pro-
cedures [331] (Fig. 1.14b).
Their main advantage is that the exclusive
use of these downstream bittering products
prevents the occurrence of a light struck fla-
vour, which can quickly occur in iso-a-acids
through the action of light. The lmpleasant light
struck flavour is based upon the separation of a
so-called light mercaptan (3-methyl-2-butenyl-
I-thiol) of the iso-a-acids, whose flavour thres-
hold is under 1 and which can be best pro-
4 OK
n
5
L..J
H,O 3 8
7
9
tected against by filling in brown bottles. Since
downstream products prevent the occurrence
of a light struck flavo ur, their use enables filling
of beer in clear glass bottles.
The precondition for this, however, is that
during production every occurrence of iso-a-
acids is prevented (pipes, same yeast, etc), be-
cause the incorporated iso-a.-acids could other-
wise induce a light struck flavour.
Downstream products are characterised by
various features . Rho-iso-a-acid, for example,
has a soft pleasant bitterness, whilst hexa-hy-
dro-iso-a-acid above all exhibits foam impro-
ving characteristics. As a result of appropriate
mixing, better foam in beer can be achieved, but
first and foremos t, compared to iso-a-acids, a
considerably softer and more pleasant bitter-
ness.
The bitter intensity of downstream products
is similar to that of the iso-a-acids. If these are
set with a bittering factor of 1, then rho-iso-al-
pha-acid is 0.7, hexa-hydro-iso-alpha-acid 1.1
and tetra-hydro-iso-a-acid is 1.0 - 1.7 [369] .
Downstream products are cleanly produced
and sold as a clear solution. In accordance with
- 1 - -....
Alpha-acid
R 2
Tetra- hyd ro-iso-a Ipha-acid
Fig. 1.14b
ProdllCtioll of dowlI strenlll biller prorillCtS
(1) IlIfit/cIICC of lien I, nlknlillc etlVirOlllllwt, (2) Rcrit/ctiot/ by lIIenllS of sodit/1I1 borollyririd (NnBH,), (3) Hydrolioll by lIIenllS of
Ityrirogw (H,) willt pnllnriit/1I1 ns n cntnlyst
the Reinheitsgebot, they are not permitted for
use . Outside the scope of the Reinheitsgebot,
downstream products are enjoying an increase
in popularity. Their dosage in the finished beer
is, however, linked to certain requirements (see
Sect. 4.6.2.4.6).
1.3 Water
Quantitatively water is the major raw material
used in beer production. Only a part of the wa-
ter required is used directly in the beer while
another part is used for cleaning, rinsing and
other purposes.
Supply and preparation of the water is pal'ti-
cularly important to the brewer because the wa-
ter quality affects the quality of the beer produ-
ced.
79
1
Iso-a lpha -acid
HQ-. I
"\
R
Hexa-hydro- iso-a Ipha-acid Rho-iso-al pha-acid
1.3.1 Water cycle
Water is involved in a continuous cycle on
earth. The sun causes water to evaporate from
the waters and from the earth surface. It falls
back to earth again as rain or snow. The amount
which falls is highly dependent on the climatic
conditions.
About 50% of the water which falls evapora-
tes directly or is taken up by plants and evapo-
rates again from them. The remainder flows for
the most part on the surface of the ground and
only a part soaks into the lower ground layers
where it collects as ground water.
The availability of water and water utilisation
differ greatly in different river basins and are
subject to large variations within a year. Whilst
there are chronic water shortages in the hot
80
summer months in many region s, after heavy
ra infa lls or at the tim e w hen snow melts, vas t
qu antities of water flow lU1u sed into the sea.
The requirement for drink ing wa ter in recent
decades h as increased continu ously because of
the moderni sation of housing, increasing indu-
strialisation and agricultural requirements. On
the other hand, the rising costs associated with
the acquisiti on and purifica ti on as well as the
waste water p rocessing, en sure m easures to
save water are taken both in private household s
and in produ ction .
At the same time the sp ecifica tion s for drin-
king water qu ality are constantly being raised .
For beer produ ction, water h as to fulfil at least
the same qu ality requirements as drinking wa -
ter. Furthermore, beer produ ction places furt-
her demands on water quality. Basically, for all
water used in the brewery, the Drinking Water
Regulation (Trink wV) applies in German y. This
will be exp anded on in Section 1.3.4.
1.3.2 Fresh water u se in the brewery
O wing to increasing costs fo r obtaining fresh
wa ter and waste wa ter disp osal, breweries h ave
been forced to minimise their water consllmpti-
14 ,---------- ---------------------- ------------------------ -----,
E ter. This will be d ealt with in more detail in in-
:so
8
6 Wate r recyclillg
4 +---'-----,-------"1;-
o ly after recycling. The Germ an Drinking Water
20 - 50 50 - 100
Fig . 1.15: Specific wnler COIISlllllp iioll bnsed all COIII Jlnll!f size
Olllpll i ill lt l : (1) II l1 der 20,000; (2) 20,000-50,000; (3) 50,000-100,000; (4) 100,000-500,000; (5) over 500,000; (6) llleall vnl lle
l Si vnlll e 1997; 211d vnlll e 1998; l i lies Mnx .llvl ill . vnlll e
81
on . The use of fresh water in breweries is on ave- O the r exam inati ons in a brewery with 4.08 hi men ts set ou tin §§ 5 - 7 illld § 11, as long as it is
rage between 5 and 8 h1/hl sales beer. Small bre- water consu mp tion p er h I/sa les beer sh ow the gu aran teed tha t the foo d s tuffs p rodu ced or 1
weries usually use more water than large ones follow ing wa ter usage proportions (Fig. l.15a) trea ted in the com pillly are not so ad versely af-
(Fig. 1.15) [234, 235], the wa ter con slUllption of [236]: fected by the use o f water th at their consllmp ti-
which is in some cases lUlder 3.5 hl/hl sales beer. on m ay d amage hu man health .
According to Koller [225] it is possible to cal- , - - - - - - - 3% Thi s means that as fa r as the authorisa tion of
culate the following wa ter conslUllption per 1 hi the p rocess recycling p rocedure is concerned,
sales beer fo r the followin g departments: there is no diffe ren ce between the procedmes
which, w ithin the framewo rk of the wa ter cycle,
Departmen t I Section Usage in wa ter lea d to trea tm ent resulting in wa ter below
hi water I h i beer "drinking qu ality" and those which fulfil all
Brewh ouse up to ll1icrobiological and physiochemical limiting
fe rmentation cellar l.80 - 2.20 value requirements of the Drinking Wa ter Re-
Fermentati on cellar gulation [218]. The prereq ui site for process wa-
and yeast trea tment 0.50 - 0.80 ter recycling is in every case a microbiological
Storage cellar 0.30 - 0.60 and chemi ca l monitoring programme, w hi ch is
Fig. 1.15n
Filter and pressure Freslllonl er COIISlllllp l ioll nccordillg 10 p ll rpose of lise
supervised by the local authority.
tank room 0.10 - 0.50
Bottle filling (70 %) 0.90 - 2.10 (I) Cienll i llg nll d disillfecl ioll; (2) cold wo rl; (3) w nler Irenl- 1.3.3 Obtain ing water
II/ell l; (4) bl/-prodl/ cls; (5) vnpoll r col/ dell snl ioll; (6) aliter l/se
Cask filling (30 %)0.08 - 0.24 A su fficient supply of wa ter is a basic require-
Other clea ning ment fo r human, illumal or plant life. In Germa-
inc!. administration l.00 - 3.00 The costs fo r wa ter are tod ay (2002) on avera- ny m ost of the drinkin g wa ter was always ob-
Steam boiler 0.10 - 0.30 ge € l.80 / m 3 and the waste wa ter fees are €3.50 tained fr om ground wa ter; only rare ly w as
Air compressors 0.12 - 0.50 to 7.20 / m 3 • As a relatively large amount of wa- surface wa ter or its filtra te used as drinking wa-
ter is required for the produ ction of beer, it is ter. La ter the first gro und water treatment plant
Total wa ter usage 4.90 - 12.64 now one of the major cost fac tors. Attempts are was constructed and soon after th at the first
therefore m ad e to limit water use as much as compillly begilll to constru ct dams across val-
possible. leys in order to obtain the abundantly occurring
We have also seen that in some regions wa ter surface wa ter in a cleilll state to supply drink ing
can be in very sh ort supply in the h ot seasons of water. A sm all part of this wa ter is obtained as
the year. This also compels econ omic use of wa- spring water.
di vidual Sections. 1.3.3.1 Extracting ground water
GrOlU1d wa ter is that part of the wa ter wluch
percolates into the groun d . Percola tion d e-
The necessity to reduce water usage brings the p ends on the properties of the grolU1d illld its
realisa tion that w ater tha t h as already been topography illld how heavily illld for how lon g
used in a compilll y shou ld be reused, n ecessa ri- rain falls.
The diffe rent typ es of rock from w hich the
100 - 500 >500 middle Regulation of 2000 specifies in § 10 (1) : growld is fo rmed differ in their resistance to the
The loca l authority may permit certain foo d- percolation of water. Dependin g on their diffe-
stuffs companies to use water for certain purpo- rent p ore formation s, the ground layers either
ses which d oes n ot fulfil the quality require- absorb wa ter (water bea ring strata or aqllifers)
82
or hold it back (water damming strata). The wa-
ter percolating through the ground descends
along natural gradients 1mtil it reaches a water
damming layer (e.g. argillaceous rock, slate,
marl, granite, syenite, etc.) and fills the pores of
the aquifer layers above it (e.g. sand, gravel,
chalk, flint, gypsum, loess, etc.). The water is cal-
led grOlUld water and its upper surface is caUed
the grOlUld water level. On numing tlu'ough the
aquifers grOlUld salts dissolve in the water. This
causes the quality of the water to change.
The height of the growld water level can va-
ry significantly. It is raised by the rainfall,
which is very different from year to year, and
lowered by natural outflow (grolUld water stre-
ams and springs) and by removal at wells. As a
result of the continuously increasing water re-
quirement, and the associated continuously in-
creasing water removal, the ground water level
has been lowered in some regions to an extent
causing anxiety about supplies. Even a summer
with a lot of rain catmot raise the growld water
level substantially because water evaporation
from plants uses up most of the rainfall . The
ground water level rises mainly in the low
growth and frost free time of October to March.
Riverbat1k-filtered water has a place between
surface water and grOlUld water. It is river water
which is filtered more or less effectively by the
water permeable layers of the river bat1k.Its com-
position varies with that of the river water becau-
se dissolved substances are not filtered out.
GrOlmd water is extracted
predominantly by tube wells
by horizontal filter wells
rarely through older excavated wells
in some cases the ground water comes to the
surface as a spring.
Tube wells are water extraction plants which
extract ground water through a vertical bored
hole. The walls of the tube well consist of perfo-
rated pipes. Tube wells are driven more thatl
300 m deep in the grOlmd and their long filtra-
83
hon length extends over the entire depth of the
water bearing layer. Consequently they can 1
supply large amounts of water.
The water contains fewer micro-organism s
the deeper it is driven because the flow through
the ground layers results in a filtration which
improves the water also biologically. This, ho- 3
wever, does not apply to rocky regions.
The water is delivered by pumping. Because
rotary pumps have a limited suction height of
6.50 m, the water is delivered by bore hole
pumps (Fig . 1.16) or underwater pumps in
which the pump and motor are combined in a
water-tight unit and operate under water. Fig. 1.16
Bored well
(1) well /toll se
1.3.3.2 Extraction of spring water (2) illsllialioll
A spring Catl occur when the grOlmd water rea- (3) vallkillg alld vackjillillg
ches the surface of its own accord if the grolmd (4) g mss coverillg
(5) cOlllral ra01l1
formation is lmeven. A spring requires mowltai-
(6) vellliialioll
nous sUlTolmdings. Spring water enjoys a repu- (7) vol/alii of l/te vored /tole
tation amongst the population of being valuable (8) slo lleware pipe
atld particularly pure. It is therefore lUlderstan- (9) fillmlioll g m vel jillillg
(10) slollcwarefill er pipe
dable that breweries, too, promote the use of
(11) g ralllldwaler level
spring water in their advertising campaigns, (1 2) sllelioll opellillg
especially for their beer production - as long as (13) ralary pUIIIP
the spring provides the required water quality, (14) slolleware lop pipe
(15) dip pipe
the amOlmt of water flowing out is sufficient,
(16) riser pipe
atld it is available tlu'oughout the year. (17) 1110101'
The spring water is collected in a spring tap- (18) waleI' lIIeler
ping which also protects the area sUlTOlmding (19) Iloll -reillm v alve
(20) gale valve
the spring from negative influences.
1.3.3.3 Extraction of surface water since these regions are cleaner. The erection of rage reservoir is created. For drinking water
Surface water can be obtained from rivers, la- dams in valleys to block the upper courses of ri- dams it is essential that the coUection area is wit-
kes, atld increasingly from dammed valleys. Ri- vers is becoming increasingly importatlt. As a hout industries or water users which produce
ver water is always polluted by waste water in- result of the erection of such dams the all10lmt waste water. In these reservoirs bathing is also
flows from industrial firms and towns . of water flowing off can be controlled, flooding forbidden. The water rumling into the reservoir
Processing of river water is difficult and if pos- prevented, relatively cleatl surface water can be remains a few months in it and becomes purified
sible, for hygienic reasons, river water is not removed and a part of the stored water used for during this time.
used. If it must be used then it is taken from un- the production of electrical energy. Dams are lo- Because the surface water has not come into
populated regions and away from waste water cated in the upper region of the river flow. The contact with salts in the grOlmd it contains little
outlets. Water is extracted from straight stret- valley is blocked by a dam wall at a geologically salt. It has therefore no buffering ability atld a low
ches of the river or the outer side of river bends favourable site in such a matmer that a large sto- pH which makes it aggressive to iron and steel.
84 85

1.3.3.4 Importance of a private water supply
Water costs money! It is therefore quite under-
standable that most breweries have their own
extraction plant. Usually there are several wells
from which water is supplied or a spring tap-
ping. Attention has to be paid that an even wa-
ter supply is guaranteed throughout the entire
year. Of course importance is then placed on the
fact that the private water supplied has particu-
larly special properties.
1.3.4 Water requirements
The water extracted in the plant does not al-
ways fulfil the quality requirements; the water
has at least to be continually examined as to its
compliance with certain parameters in order to
fulfil all the requirements.
Firstly the brewing water has to comply with
the local drinl<ing water regulations concerning
the quality of drinking water, thereby fulfilling
all sensory, physiochemical, microbiological and
chemical requirements of drinking water. Fur-
thermore, it has to comply with a series of bre-
wing teclmology specifications designed to have
a positive influence on beer production. The
Drinking Water Regulation (TrinkwV) 2003 has
been in force since 1.1.2003 in Germany [218].
1.3.4.1 Drinking water requirements
The Drinking Water Regulation demands that
drinking water be colourless, odourless and free
from hazes. Concerning the content and compo-
sition of the substances dissolved in the water,
Parameter Threshold value mg/l
Nickel 0.02
Plant protective agents
and biocide products 0.0001
Ben zene 0.001
High specifications are also demanded of the
microbiological properties of water. Water is
the most important foodstuff and therefore the
greatest value is placed on its purity.
Water almost always contains a few micro-or-
ganisms and of course it is impossible to say,
without lengthy investigations, whether they
are harmless or can cause illness. Most bacteria
in water do not cause any illness, but how can
this be determined?
Illness-causing (pathogenic) micro-organ-
isms can originate only from people or animals
which had these organisms in their bodies and
have excreted them . In the large intestine of hu-
mans and warm-blooded animals there are
enormous amounts of a harmless but easily de-
tectable bacterium - (Bacterilllll) Escherichia co-
li - which is used to detect contamination and
the possibility of illness transmission.
Water is examined for the presence of Escheri-
chia coli (E. coli) . If it is present it can be conclu-
ded that there is a possibility of transmission of
other pathogenic organisms present with possi-
ble epidemiological consequences. As well as E.
coli bacteria, enterococci and coliform bacteria
can also indicate the presence of pathogenic or-
ganisms.
Enterococci or coliform bacteria may be pre-
sent in 100 ml of wa te r.
b1fonnation on the necessary procedures re-
garding treatment of water is given in Section
1.3.5.
1.3.4.2 Brewing water requirements
bl wa ter there are always dissolved salts. As
they are greatly diluted, they are no longer pre-
sent as salts but almost exclusively as dissocia-
ted ions. It is therefore more correct to speak of
dissolved ions. Most of these ions do not react
with the components of malt during mashing
where they come into contact for the first time.
Some ions, on the other hand, react with certain
malt components. As a result, a distinction can
be made between
chemically inactive and
chemically reactive ions.
Ch emically illnctive iOlls
By chemically inactive ions are meant all those
which do not enter into chemical reactions with
malt components but pass lll1changed into beer.
When present in large amOlll1ts they can affect
beer flavour positively or negatively. Thus, for
example, sodium chloride (NaCl) gives a more
rounded taste. Chemically inactive salts inclu-
de sodium chloride, potassium chloride (KCl),
sodium sulphate (Na,SO,), potassium sulphate
(K,SO,), etc.
Some of these chemically inactive ions, howe-
ver, affect various processes during beer pro-
The pH va lli e
Chemically pure water does not only consist of 1
water molecules, but a very sm all part is also
electrolytically dissociated:
H ,O::; H + + OR
Water is neither acidic nor alcaline (also basic)
but neu tra l because the number of hydrogen ions
is the sa me as the number of hydroxy l ions:
In 1 I of water at 25 °C the re are
10°7 H ions, i.e. one ten millionth of a gram of
H + ions, and
10°7 OHo ions, i.e. one ten millionth of a gram
of OR ions.
If as a result of the addition of an acid the
number of H ' ions is increased, in accordance
with the law of mass action the number of OHo
ions decreases. Conversely, the proportion of
OHo ions increases as the result of the addition
of bases and hydroxides whilst the proportion
of H + ions decreases.
Every aqueous solution, even the strongest
acid or base, contains ff and OH- ions, but the
proportions of the ions are different in each ca-
se. Only in the case of neutral water are the
amounts of both ions the same. But the product
of the concentrations of the hydrogen and hy-
droxide is always the same .
o 1 2 J , 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 1.t;
- - pHV(lue

corresponding limiting values for the individual duction. The chemical inactivity of the ions Fig. 1.17
substances are laid down in EU guidelines and The German regulation relating to the quali- mentioned here relates only to their absence of COllcelllrnlioll of HOnllri OH - iOlls
the Drinking Water Regulation [134, 218], some ty of water for human consumption (Drinking reaction with the malt components they come
of which are shown below: Water Regulation - TrinkwV 2001) states in § 5- into contact with during wort production. The character of a solution is determined by
microbiological requirements: the H ' ion concentration.
Parameter Threshold value 111g/l (2) In water for human consumption, the limi- Ch em icn lIy renctive iOlls The concenh'ation of H + ions is expressed as
Nitrate 50 ting values determined in attachment 1, A number of ions in the brewing water react numbers to the power of ten. But since if written
Nitrite 0.5 part 1 for microbiological parameters must with malt constituents during mashing and as a out fully very long munbers with up to 14 decimal
Lead 0.01 not be exceeded. Here it is determined that result affect the acidity (pH value) during beer places would result, only the negative power of
Copper 2 no bacteria of the types Escherichia coli or production. ten is quoted and this is expressed as a pH.
 ..
87
86

Light beer 4.4 - 4.7 Exanlple 1: The aU<a liJle dipotassium hydrogen phosphate fro m m alt reacts w ith neuh'al calciLUll
The pH va lue is the n ega ti ve decim al log-
arithm of the h ydrogen ion concentration in a Casting wo rt 5.4 - 5.5 sulphate: 1
Supply wa ter 7.4 -7.8 4 K,HPO, + 3 CaSO, -7 Ca,(P04), + 2 KH,PO, + 3 K,SO,
solution (-Ig H + concentration).
O.l NNaH CO, 7.6 dipo tassium ca lcium ca lcium potassium potassium
O.l N Na,CO, 8.5 hydrogen sulphate phosph ate dih yd rogen sul phate
For exa mple:
O.lN NaOH 13.0 phosphate p hosphate
A solution contains 0.000,000,001 g H ion s.
Ex pressed as a power of ten thi s is 10-9 g H ion s.
The pH h as a grea t effect on man y processes The calcium phosphate formed is insoluble. Potass ium dih ydrogen phosphate is acidic and
So the pH of the solution is 9.0. The pH of pure
during beer produ cti on. Thus, for exampl e, en- consequently the pH of the solution is lowered .
water (7.0) in which the numbers of H+ and OR
ions present are the same is taken as the neutral zy mes h ave an optimum pH va lu e and at other
pH values are less ac ti ve. As most of the p roces-
p oint (Fig. 1.17).
ses during malt and beer production are con- Example 2: Acidic potassium dihydrogen phosphate reacts with neutral ca lcium bi carbonate:
trolled by enzy mes, the pH value during pro- 2 KH,PO, + Ca (HC0 3 ) , -7 K,HPO, + CaHPO, + 2 H,o + 2 CO,
De pending on their reacti on, solutions are di-
duction h as a con siderable influence on the potassium ca lcium dipotassium calcium wa ter ca rbon
vided into three groups:
quality of the p rodu ct. hydrogen bica rbonate hydrogen hydrogen diox ide
pH>7 The pH value du ring beer production is d e- phosphate phosphate phosphate
pH <7 pH =7
termined by the dissociated salts and orga nic
nil bnses e.g. compounds contained therein. These are deri- Alkaline dipotassiLun hyd rogen phosphate is for med from acidic potassimn dihyd rogen phospha-
All ncids e.g. wnter
sodium ved from the wa ter, malt, adjuncts and h ops. te. The pH is raised . The chemically reacti ve ions can chilllge the pH during beer production.
Hydrochloric acid neuh'al salts
hydroxide During m ashing the chemi cally reacti ve ions
HCl, sulphuric acid e.g. sodiLUl1
H,SO, and acidic, chloride NaCI, NaOH, dissolved in the water encounter and react w ith
salts, e.g. potassium, sodium sulphate calcium soluble compon ents from m alt to form n ew
dihydrogen Na,SO, hydroxide compOlmds.
The ch an ge may be in the acidic or alkaline Germany wa ter h ardness is defined as follo ws: The more recent classifica tion is:
phosphate Ca(OH)"
direction. Even very small changes in pH ha ve Hardness range 1
KH,PO, basic salts,
e.g. sodium an important effect on beer quality. l °dH = 10 IIIg CnOl1= 1 g CnOlhl or nlso: up to 1.3 mmol/I = up to 7 °dH (soft)
Most processes in beer production proceed 7.19 IIIg MgOII H ardness range 2
ca rbonate
better or faster the more acidic the pH. 1.3 to 2.5 mmol/l = 7 to 14 °dH
Na,CO"
potassium The pH should therefore be as low as possible Wa ter is class ifi ed in accordance with its (average hardness)
ca rbonate during the production process. At higher pH hardness (l °dH = 0.357 m val/l = 0.18 mmo1/1) : Hardness range 3
K,CO, difficulties are to be expected. The ch emically 2.5 to 3.8 mrno1/1 = 14 to 21.3 °dH
reactive salts are divided into pH increasing °dH ea rth alka line ions per 1 (hard)
and pH decreasing ions. Because the salts i.n m val mmol H ardness range 4
The pH value is measured electrometricall y
brewing water fo r the most part exist in the dis- Over 3.8 mmo1/1 = over 21.3 °dH
or (very seldom) calorimetrically and can also
sociated form as ions, it is better to sp eak of pH 0.1 to 4 very soft 0.11 - 1.44 0.1 - 0.7 (very hard)
b e measured approximately using specially im-
increasing and pH lowering ions or of 4.1 to 8 soft 1.45 - 2. 88 0.7 - 1.5 Ions which raise the pH are bad for the pro-
pregnated pH indicator p aper strips. The pH
acidifying = pH lowering ions and 8.1 to 12 moderately duction process flow and for beer quality (see
values of well-known liquids are about:
acidity neutralising = pH increasing ions. hard 2.89 - 4.32 1.5 - 2.2 Sect. 6.4); carbonate and bica rbonate are pH in-
12. to 18 relatively creasing ions.
Liquid pH value
Wnterlw rdll ess hard 4.33 - 6.48 2.2 - 3.2 The carbonate plus bicarbonate content of
O.l N HCl 1.0
The hardness of wa ter is caused by the calcium 18.1 to 30 hard 6.49 - 10.8 3.2 - 5.3 water is referred to as carbonate hardness, tem-
O.lN CH,COOH 2.9
and m agnesium ions dissolved in it. The results 30 very hard 10.8 5.3 porary hardness or total alkalinity. The pH in-
Wine 2.8 - 3.5
3.3 - 3.7 are expressed as degrees of hardness (OdH) . In creasing effect of carbonate hardness opposes
Whea t beer
88 89

the pH lowering effect of the other calcium and
magnesium ions existing as calcium chloride,
calcium sulphate, magnesium chloride and ma-
gnesium sulphate. These salts are collectively
included in the term non-carbonate hardness
(or permanent hardness, or sulphate or gypsum
hardness, since part of the hardness is caused
by these salts).
Total hardl1ess - cm·bol1ate hardl1ess
= l1ol1-carbol1ate hardl1ess
I
Chemically reactive ions
I
Hph lowerin g ions Hph increasing ions
All Ca and Mg ions ex- All carbonate and
cept for those whose bicarbonate ions
effect is neutralised by
pH increasin g ions
Non-carbo nate IJan/ness Ca rbonate IJartiness
Total hardl1ess
All Ca and Mg ions
Carbonate hardness and total hardness is d e-
fined according to DIN 17640.
The result of the competition between the pH
increasing and lowering properties of water is
determined by the residual alkalinity (RA). The
residual alkalinity is the difference between the
carbonate hardness and th e non-carbonate
hardness, which is shown by the relationship:
Calcium hardness + 0.5 magnesium hardness
RA=KH
3.5
The higher the residual alkalinity, the more
effective the carbonate hardness and so the hig-
her the pH to be expected. To produce Pilsner
beer, for example, the residual alkalinity should
not exceed 2 °dH, otherwise the water should
be treated.
1.3.4.3 Significance of individual ions
As well as their importance for shifting the pH
value in wort and beer, individual ions are also
significant regarding their influence on taste
and their relevance to hea lth. Some of these will
be examined here.
Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cr) increase blood
pressure when present in large quantities. In the
form of cooking salt, however, they playa consi-
derable role in mellowing the taste. No cook
omits to add the renowned pinch of sa lt to each
meal, in many cases even to sweet meals. There
are many examples of brewmasters who also
used to add a pinch of sa lt to their brew to mel-
low the taste when this was still permitted .
Potassium (1(+) occurs in drinking water with
an average of 2 mg/l. The daily requirement for
humans is 2 mg. The Drinking Water Regulati-
on does not prescribe a threshold value for po-
tassium. A balanced potassiLUll content is re-
sponsible for the diuretic (urinary) flmction.
Ammonia (NH: ) in drinking water almost al-
ways indicates contamination. The drinking
water Regulation Specifications therefore pres-
cribes a permissible threshold value of 0.5 mg
NH:/l.
Nitrate (N0 3") and nitrite (NO; ) frequently
occur in gro und water through the degradation
of organic subs tances, such as slurry, or
through the diversion of domestic waste water.
From a toxicological point of view, it should be
borne in mind that nitrate can be reduced to the
much more toxic nitrite by bacteria. This reacti-
on occurs either in the human intestine or by
keeping nitrate-rich food warm for a long pe-
riod of time, which can be particularly dange-
rous for babies. The threshold value for nitrates
according to the Drinking Water Regulation
Specifications is 50 mg NO,!l.
Sulphate (SO;) causes fluid retention. This is
the reason for the laxa ti ve effect of magnesium-
and sodium s ulphate, since fluid reten tion cau-
ses an increase in volume in the intestine and
this leads to increased pressure on the peristal-
sis. The Drinking Water Regulation even per-
mits the exceeding of the limiting value of 500 mg
SO) lund er certain circumstances.
1.3.5 Water improvement procedures
It is frequently necessary to chan ge the quality of
water. Here it is important what should be impro-
ved or changed . The purpose for whid1 the water
is to be used determines the treahl1ent procedure.
Thus, for example, if the water is to be used as boi-
ler feed water it does not matter if the water con-
tains bacteria but the amount and nature of the
dissolved salts is important. For cleaning water it
is exactly the opposite. One therefore needs to di-
stinguish between procedures for
removal of susp ended m atter
removal of d issolved substances
reduction of residual alkalinity in brewing
wa ter
removal of microbes and
removal of dissolved gases.
1
e)
Fig. 1.1 8
Salld f ilter
(1) lIa/llrnl waler
(2) oxidalioll air
(3) coaglllwl
(4) salld filler
(5) decnrbonised waler
1.3.5.1 Procedure to remove suspended matter
By suspended matter is meant undi ssolved 1
earth and plant materia ls which have passed in-
to the wa ter. They are usually removed in two
stages:
ClnrijicntioH ill sett/illg tnllks
As a result of the reduction of the flow velocity
of the water, the suspended matter ca rried in it
slowly settles out.
The larger the settling tank the more effective
the clarifi ca tion with the sa me throu ghput, be-
cause the flow velocity then decreases to almost
zero. The dams are also natural settling tanks.
Settling tanks remove 60 - 70 % of the suspen-
ded matter.
Not all the suspended particles can be remo-
ved in a settling tank. It is therefore necessary to
filter the water afterwards.
Microscopic particles and finely di spersed
substances which cause haze can be transferred
into an insoluble and separated form by floccu-
lation. Iron and aluminium salts are u sed as the
coagulent. The precipitated substances which
cause the haze are easily removed by the en-
suing filtration.
4 4
3
I e)
5

90
Filtmtioll of preclarified wnter
In the filtration process, the water is fed
tlu-ough a layer of pure, calcined quartz sand of
uniform grain size. The suspended particles re-
main behind in the pores of the quartz sand
when the water flows through .
For the large outputs of communal water
treatment plants, open filters with a surface of
up to 150 m 3 are used. In these the quartz sand
is almost 2 m deep on a filter bottom through
which the filtered water Hms off. After a few
days water is forced through the filter in the op-
posite direction and the cleaning process is sup-
ported by forcing compressed air through.
Closed sand filters are used for smaller plants
such as, for example, breweries. The quartz sand
of O.S to 1.2 mm grain diameter forms a 2 m high
bed on a nozzle containing base and filters the
water flowing downwards from above (Fig. LIS).
By the addition of oxidation air and coagu-
lent, the precipitation and removal of iron and
manganese salts as well as organic components
is facilitated.
When using a sand filter, the backwashing
occurs in three stages:
air
air / water
water
The air / water rinsing is above all responsible
for the purification. The backwashing is parti-
cularly important in preventing microbial
growth [159] . Sand filtration is not sterilisation.
The filtration rate with closed pressure filters
is 10 to 20 m 3 water per m Z filter surface per
hour. A pressure increase indicates the need to
clean the filter. The filter is back washed in the
opposite direction and all the filter material 100-
sened so that the foreign material is also remo-
ved. A filter in the decarbonation plant operates
in the same way.
Subject to the water load and the adsorption
capacity, an additional active carbon filtration
can also be used. The active carbon adsorbs the
organic contaminants, thereby removing them.
However, many specifications have to be obser-
ved for th e regenerati on, s terilisa tion and
cleaning of the filter.
1.3.5.2 Removal of dissolved materials
The salts dissolved in water are in the form of
ions. Some of the ions dissolved in the water
can in time form a deposit on the pipework or
corrode it. Therefore if large amolmts of them
are dissolved they must be removed. These in-
clude humic substances as well as iron and ma-
gnesium sa lts dissolved in the water. These can
deposit in large amolmts in the pipes.
The removal of humi c matter takes place by
means of adsorption charge neutralisa tion
through reactions with metal ions (AI, Fe), fol-
lowed by filtration.
The iron and magnesium are removed by
aeration in the form of a spray, using a trickling
system, injection or any other form of aeration,
after deacidification . The salts are converted by
this into an insoluble form and precipitated :
2 Fe (HCO,), + l/Z O 2 + H,O = 2 Fe(OH), + 4 CO,
2 MnCl, + 0 , + 4 H,O = MnO(OH), + 4 HCI
4 FeS, + 3 0 , + 6 H,o = 4 Fe(OH)3+ S S
A subsequent filtration of the flocculent pre-
cipitated salts is necessa ry.
In addition there are a number of other ions
in water which admittedly do not cause pro-
blems with the pipes, but which can sometimes
be very important for beer production. A di-
stinction has to be made here between open and
closed ventilation systems with regard to the
excretion of iron and manganese salts. With clo-
sed systems, attention has to be paid to ensure
that the air pressure is higher than that of the
water.
1.3.5.3 Improvement of the residual alkalini-
ty of water
The residual alkalinity of brewing wa ter is im-
proved by decreasing it. This ca n be done by
reducing the carbonate hardness: decarbona-
hon
in creasing the non-carbonate hardness, or
neutralisation. Addition of acid con verts car-
bonate hardness to non-carbonate h ardness.
In Germany this procedure is not p ermitted
according to the Reinheitsgebot lmless biol o-
gical acidification is used!
Decnrbollntioll
By decarbonation is mea nt the removal of car-
bonate hardness. It can be performed by:
heating
addition of slaked lime
use of an ion exchanger.
Dewrbollntioll by ileatillg
When a carbonate-containing water is heated to
70 to SO DC, the ca lcium bicarbonate is conver-
ted, with the release of carbon dioxide, into in-
soluble calcium carbonate which precipitates as
limestone (sca le) on the vessel wall:
hea t
Ca (HC0 3), CaC0 3 + CO2 +H20
This process occurs to a slight ex tent in every
domestic kettle which, after some time, can con-
tain a substantial layer of sca le. This impairs h e-
at transfer. Scale formation would be very
much greater in an industrial boiler and there
would be a risk of the boiler exploding. Boiler
sup ply water mu st therefore be softened before
use (e.g. by an ion exchanger) .
Decarbonation of brewing water by heating
is hardly ever used. Since the water has to be
cooled again subsequently the process is quite
uneconomic. Its only advantage is that it does
not need to be controlled .
91
Decnrbollntioll by addition of sIn Iced lilli e
The usual method of decarbonation is the addi- 1
tion of slaked lime in the form of lime water.
The calcium hydrox ide in the lime water reacts
with the bicarbonate in the wa ter and form s in-
soluble calcium carbonate:
Ca (HC0 3)2+ Ca(OH), 2CaC03+ 2H,O
There are one- and two-s tage decarbonation
plants. The one-s tage plants are generally built
as rapid d ecarbonaters. Two-stage plants requi-
re somewha t more space.
Fig. 1.20 shows a modern two-stage decarbo-
nation plant. In the lime saturator (3), a solution
of saturated lime Ca(OH), (2) and lmh·ea ted wa-
ter (1) is prepared and the milk of Lime solution is
mixed with the water to be softened in the reac-
tor (4) and sinks downwards, while reacting, in
the cenh·al pipe. TIle lime scale slurry for med
settles in the cone, and must be removed from ti-
me to time (7), whilst the grad ually clarifying wa-
ter slowly rises. A similar process is repea ted in
the following adjusting tank (5) where the com-
position of the water can be adjusted as desired
by mixing with fresh water. In the following
gravel filter (6) the suspended matter still present
is completely removed. The operation of a closed
gravel filter is described in Sect. 1.3.4.1.
Carbonate removal by lime addition is still
very widespread today and may be performed
in one or two stages. The advantage of this pro-
cedure, in addition to its simplicity, is that the
chemical costs are low and furthermore iron,
manganese and other heavy metals precipitate
and the water is thus cleaned in the best possi-
ble way. Disadvantages mentioned are the n e-
cessary disposal of the slurry and the need to
adapt dosing to the varying water composition.
DecnrbolLntiolL by lIelltrnlisntioll
Through the addition of hydrochloric or sulp-
Imric acid, the carbonate hardness can easily be
 93
92
tration of chl oride, su lp hate or nitra te has to be chl orine d ioxide with a maximum dosage of
red uced. 0.4 mg/I an d 1
Fig. 1.20 With th e s trong ly acidic ca tion exchanger ozone with a maximum dosage of 10 mg/l at·
Jr --1 - I - Decnrvollntioll plnllt (Fig. 1.21), the resin is in the form of H+after the a concentration of 0.005 %.
I I
(twa-stnge precipitn tioll )
regeneration with hyd rochlo ric acid (4) in the Furthermore, the wa ter can be sterilised by the
II "
L -< ( 1) IIl1t rented wnter exch anger (2). In the p rocess, all the cations, addition of ozone, silver ions or UV irradiation.
(2) II Iilk of lilli e particularly calcium, mag nesium, and sodium, The fo llowing treatments are used for water
Fi1 (3) lill Ie sntllmtor are replaced by hyd roxyl ions and free minera l sterilisa ti on :
'\]' '\]' (4 ) renctor
I 2 acids are formed (HCI, H,SO" H N0 3 ). The wa-
(5 ) ndjllstlllellt vessel
(6) gmvel filte r ter now flows from ups tream to downstream Ste rilis ntioll by jiitrntioll
(7) silldge dmillnge and becomes d eioni sed . (s terile jiitmtioll)
(8 ) decnrvollnted wnter The deionised wa ter is then further treated in It is possible to remove micro-o rganisms by fil-
a two-stage tw in street ion exchan ge plant w h e- tration. The relevant suppliers offer very good,
hardness can be d ecreased and the residu al al- re the free mineral acids are neutralised (8) by hi gh perfo rman ce filters with a pore d iameter
converted to n on-carbonate hardness. Prerequi-
kalinity redu ced to a desired level. This can oc- the addition of sa turated lime water (7) and between 0. 2 and 0.45 pm. It is important, howe-
site is an exact dosage of the amOLmt of acid re-
cur by the addition of CaCl, or CaSO, (brewing converted to calcium non-ca rbonate h ardness . ver, to clean the water well before filtration, ot-
qui red. This procedure, however, also produces
gypsum), although this increases the Ca+ ion Fin ally, the d esired ca rbon ate h ardness is set h el'lvise the filter soon becomes blocked (sterili-
free CO, which is aggressive and mus t be neu-
content, w hich can have an adverse effect on (9) . Th e brew ing water w hich is produ ced (10) sing filters are described in Sect. 4.5).
tralised . This procedure is not permitted accor-
the tas te of the end p roduct. This procedure is contains free carbon diox ide. These plants mus t
ding to the Reinheitsgebot.
hardl y ever used nowadays. therefore be m ad e of corrosion resistant stain- UV irmrfiatioll
If bi ological acidification is used (Sect.
less steel. Micro-organisms are killed by irradiation w ith
3.2.1.8), the specifications for residual alkalinity
Softellillg by ;011 exchnllge ultraviolet light rays. The process is clean and
of the brewing water are less demanding. A t le-
Ion exchan gers have been used for a long time Total rfesnlillatioll II s illg reverse osmos is reliable, but
as t 50 mg Ca ions/l and as Iowa nitrate content
for brewing water trea tment to remove ca tions Reverse osmosis involves the untrea ted water the equipment cost is high an d the treated
as possible are of importance here [31] .
from the water and thereby reduce the h ard- bein g placed under a high pressure which is water p rodu ction rate low
ness considerably. Ca tion exchangers are pre- greater than that of the osm otic p ressure . The the trea tm ent layer thickness mu st be small
Hnrrfellillg
dominantly used by breweries . There is onl y a water m olecules then m ove through a semi- and turbidity and colour limit the effective-
By increasing the non-carbonate hardness the
switch to anion exchangers when the concen- permeable m embran e whilst the water salts are n ess; moreover, w ith a high germ content a
harmful, pH increasing effect of the ca rbonate
retained. Thus, a so-ca lled feed flow is divided correspondingly high irradiation dose must
into a permeate fl ow and a salt-containing con- be given . The UV lamps have to be repla ced
cen tra te. The p ermea te flow consis ts of the wa- regularly and the ftmctions monitored.
Fig. 1.21 ter molecules which h ave p assed through the
Cntioll exchnllger with cnicill lll
membrane, whilst the concentration flow con- St erili satioll by oz olle (0 )
1¢ =;;::::::====il vlelld
sists of a small wa ter flow enriched w ith salts. A Ozone is obtained from oxygen in the air by an
IlI ltrented wnter desalination rate of 95 to 98% is achieved u sing electric disch arge. It acts by oxidation with resul-

,.
(1)
3
(2) cn tioll exchnllger this method; the plants are operated using 8 to tant destruction of the cell membranes. The pro-
(3) ovelj7ow 12 bar (EUWA, Gartringen) . cess is reliable and clean but the invesh11ent costs
(4) hydrochloric ncid for regellem-
'( are very high in this case. Both procedmes (UV
tioll
(5) lillIe sntllrntor 1.3.5.4 Water sterilisation and ozone) can also be used in combination.
9 (6) lIIilk of lillie The wa ter used in a brewery must be of drin-
fr (7) snt 11m ted lillie wnter king wa ter quality. Water is obtained and main- S teriii sntioll by c1!lorillatioll
4 4 l!::c:>10 (8 ) cnicilllll vlelld l st stnge
tained free from micro-organi sms by use of: Hy p ochlorolls acid (HOCl) is for med by intro-
(9) enicilllll vlell d 21ld stnge
(10) vrewillg wnter active chlorine at a d ose rate of up to 1.2 mg/I ducing chlorine gas into wa ter. It d ecomposes
 95
94

into HCl and atomic oxygen with a high oxidi-
sing power which kills the micro-organisms by
oxidation of the cell membranes. The equip-
ment costs are low but harmful products (or-
ter, for example, in the following situations:
pre and post runs during filtration
for filling of the filter
o 000
for suspending and precoating kieselguhr = =

garlic halogen compounds, chlorphenol, triha- water for diluting high-gravity 8 4

logelU11ethane, etc.) are formed when the water
contains phenols or other organic substances.
Sterilisntioll by cillorille dioxide
Chlorine dioxide is an unstable gas produced
from hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sod ium hy-
pochlorite (NaClO,). Use of this as a disinfec-
tant shows several advantages over the previo-
us methods because
there is no change in the taste of the water
very little formation of chloroform or other
organic halogen compounds occurs
the operating costs are very low
it is a very safe process
reliable sterilisation occurs.
The procedme however requires a sufficiently
long reaction time after the dosage and an exact
dosage. The process must be monitored. It also
has to be remembered that chlorine dioxide beco-
mes more lU1stable with increasing temperature.
Sterilisation by silver iOlls
for use as mashing-in water
The methods used for degassing water are:
CO, washing (stripping)
vacuum degassing
reduction with hydrogen
9
thermal degassing
using hollow fibre membranes
10
-3
Degnssillg by CO , wnsllillg
In this process, also known as CO, stripping (Fig.
1.21 a), the water to be degassed (1) is warmed to
1 .... .. 0
over 70°C in a heat exchanger (2) by means of ste-
am (3), in order to substantially remove the oxy-
gen, and then fed into a stripping tower (4) while Fig.l.21a
Wafer degassillg by lIIeallS 0/ CO, strippillg (explallatioll ill ti,e texf)
oxygen-free CO, flows upwards in a counter
flow. A height controller prevents the system
from running idly (10). Subsequently, the degas-
sed water is cooled by a cooling medium (7) and
stored in a buffer tanl<(8) from which it can be ex-
Fig. 1.21b
tracted (9). The process works very effectively.
Degassillg a/wafer IIsill g hydroge ll
(prillciple)
VaCIIU11l degassillg (K) pallarlilllli cafalysf32

Silver ions are bactericidal (kill bacteria). If the
stream of water is led between silver electrodes
the water can be sterilised by silver ions.
1.3.5.5 Degassing of water
A large amount of air is dissolved in water. The
oxygen in the air damages the quality and ageing
stability of the beer. There are several points whe-
re water comes into contact with beer. If the wa-
ter still contains dissolved oxygen, it has a nega-
tive influence on the beer quality.
The solubility of air in water decreases as the
temperature rises. Very hot water, for example
sparge water, hardly contains any oxygen, but
water at low temperatures contains a lot of oxy-
gen and can spoil the beer. This applies to wa-
In this case the water is degassed in a vacuum
container. In order to achieve complete removal
of the oxygen, the vacuum degassing must be
combined with CO, washing.
Redllctioll by 1I1eallS of Jtydrogell
If hydrogen is added, the oxygen reacts with
the hydrogen to form water (Fig. 1.21b). Howe-
ver, a catalyst is necessary for the reaction and
small particles of palladium are used for this.
The investment and operating costs are, howe-
ver, relatively high and the plant has to be mo-
nitored and cleaned [36].
Thermal degnssillg
In thermal degassing the water must be heated
to at least 85°C (185 OF) . The water is then con-
velted into a spray whereby the air is stripped
using steam. The advantage of this is the inte-
grated sterilisation of the water.
Degassillg IIsillg hollow fibre membra1les
This process is similar to the dialysis procedure
(see Sect. 4.8 .3.1) with modules in which about
30,000 hollow fibres approximately 68 cm in
length are combined. The hollow fibres each
have a diameter of 300 pm and pores of 0.05
The water to be degassed flows over the
hollow fibres; oxygen-free carbon dioxide ac-
ting as a strip gas flows through the fibres in a
counter current. The difference in concentrati-
on between the water and the carbon dioxide is
the driving force for the transport of the oxygen
to the carbon dioxide, and thereby transporting
the oxygen out of the hollow fibres. The process
does not need to be monitored (Centec, Hanau;
Erox-system, EUWA, Gartringen).
1.3.6 Possibilities of saving water
Permanently rising costs for fresh water and
waste water are forcing breweries more and
more to save water and as a result, cut costs.

96
An important precondition for recognising
possibilities of doing this is firstly to record the
water consumption at each separate point of
usage. The results obtained make it possible to
identify starting points for saving water. It is
advisable to classify the ways to save water in-
to three separate categories:
minimising consumption of fresh water in all
areas
reusing used water without it having been
treated for secondary purposes where de-
mands on quality are not high
recycling water to be used for the same pur-
pose following one or more intermediate
treatment cycles.
An example of minimising fresh water use is
in elP cleaning through the improvement of
the phase separation [241], e.g. using optical
measurement methods; i.e. the elimination of
safety rinsing time to prevent undesired mixtu-
res or the adjustment of the set amount of rin-
sing water in the fresh water spraying of the
bottle cleaning machine to the bottle flow at any
given m0111ent.
Without treatment, for example, post-rinsing
water can be used for intermediate rinsing or
intermediate rinsing water for pre-rinsing. The
possibility of cascading multi-usage of the wa-
ter in the bottle-cleaning machine also exists as
well as others. These will be described in the in-
dividual teclmological Sections [225].
1.4 Yeast
Yeast is a lUlicellular micro-organism which can
obtain the energy it needs
in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) by respi-
ration and
in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) by fer-
mentation.
During beer production the sugar in the wort
is fermented by yeast to alcohol and CO,. For
this purpose yeast hmgi of the species Saccha-
romyces cerevisiae are used in the brewery for
top fermenting bee rs and Saccharomyces carls-
bergensis for bottom fermenting beers. Selected
strains of these yeas ts are systematically isola-
ted and grown as pure culture brewers' yeasts.
Other strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are
used as bakers' or distillers' yeasts. For wine
production, the yeast Saccharomyces ellipsoi-
d eus is used .
Because the yeast does not only produce alco-
hol but also, as a result of its metabolism, has a
great influence on the tas te and character of
beer, knowledge of the structures and composi-
tion of yeas ts, their metabolism and their
growth is important. There are a number of
characteristic differences between different ty-
pes and strainsof culture yeasts.
1.4.1 Structure and composition of the
yeast cell
Yeast is processed in suspension, w hich can
contain as many as 100 mio yeast cells per m1.
These suspensions consist of billions of yeast
cells all acting independently of each other. The
yeast cells are oval to round with a length of 8
to 10 pm and a width of 5 to 7 pm (Fig. 1.22).
Fig. 1. 22
Yenst cells
(E lectroll IIlicroscope pictllre, Scilellk-Filterbnu, Wnldstettell)
The yeast cell consists of about 75 % water.
The dry matter varies in its composition:
protein 45 to 60 %
carbohydrate 25 to 35%
97
fa ts (lipids) 4 to 7% Each yeast cell (Fig. 1.22a) consists of the cell
minerals 6 to 9°/c, plasma (cytoplasm a, cytosol) (1), w hich is sur- 1
The minerals consist (per 100 g dry matter) of: rounded by a cell m emb rane (3) and in which a
2000 mg phosphates series of organelles are imbedded which are re-
2400 mg potassium sponsible for metabolic reactions.
200 mg sodium The mos t important organelle amongst them
20 mg calcium is of course the cell nucleu s (10), the command
2 mg magnesium centre of the cell. It is surrounded by a double
7 mg zinc nuclear m embrane which is a closed unit but
and traces of iron, manganese and copper. nevertheless contains pores. The cell nucleus
contains a ground substance (plasma), the core
matri x and the cluomosomes. Through these
each cell acquires its own construction plan,
which is coded in the form of genes. The genes
are made up of a polymeric chain molecule, the
deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), the infonnati-
on content of w hich lies between 109 and 1010
bytes and which controls all m etabolic proces-
3
ses, growth and the development within the
2
cell. In the nucleus, a nucleolus (12) is also em-
1
bedded which consists of ribonucleic acid .
The yeast cell contains a large l1lU11ber of mito-
chondria (5). The mitochondria import the pyru-
vic acid which is formed in the cytosol (see Sect.
4.1.2.1 .1) and transform it tlu'ough respiration in
small complicated steps to water and CO,. Du-
Fig.1.22n
ring this process adenosine trisphosphate (ATP)
Yenst cell
(nccordillg to Hougil, Briggs nlld Stevells) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) are produced
(1) plnslllO, (2) cell wnll, (3) cellmellibralle, (4) bud (5) (see Sect. 4.1 .2.1.2) which, on interaction, fLlllction
mitocilolldrin, (6) vnCllole, (7) polymetnpllOspilnte gra llllles, as a very important energy transmitter. The mito-
(8) lipid grallules, (9) elldoplnslllic retiClll11l1l, (10) IIll cleus,
chondria are therefore described as the "power
(11 ) Iluclenr membralle, (12) Illicleolu s
stations" of the cell.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) ser-
Furthermore each yeast cell contains a num- ves the protein synthesis; the smooth endoplas-
ber of vitamins, in particular: mic reticulum synthesises lipids and is concer-
ned with detoxification processes. The proteins
thiamine (Bl) 8 to 15 mg/IOO g yeast dry matter which are produced are cut off and transported
riboflavin 2 to 8 mg in vesicles, wrapped, to the required place . This
nicotine acid 30 to 100 mg task is carried out by the Golgi-apparatus
folic acid 2 to 10 mg which acts as a form of railway shlmting yard.
pantothenic acid 2 to 20 mg Secretion vesicles with toxi ns (e.g. alcohol) are
pyridoxal 3 to 10 mg transported in this way to the cell membrane
biotin O.ltolmg and out of the cell.
98
The waste recycling plant of the cell is the ly-
sosomes, which serve the intracellular diges ti-
on and degrade complex molecules into simple
elements. Ribosomes synthesise the proteins
and distribute then in the cell. They are thus re-
sponsible for the conveyor-belt-like production
and the cOlUlection of amino acids to gene pro-
ducts corresponding to the messages of the nu -
clear cell.
Of particular importance is the cell membra-
ne, which not only sUlTOtmds the whole cell bu t
also a large number of organelles in the cell. In
the endoplasmic reticulum an intensive pro-
duction of this membrane occurs during the
growth phase which should be of close interest
to us.
The main elements of the cell membrane are
phospholipids. These phospholipids have a
very typical structure which is important for
their ftmction:
fatty acids residues ----.-,. COO - - CI - H 2
fatty acids residues -----? COO - - <;= - H
amino acids - phosphate C - H2
In each case two fatty acid residues are esteri-
fied with glycerin (C)Hs(OH))); the third OR of
the glycerin bonds with an amino acid by me-
ans of a phosphate residue. This compOtU1d is
known as a phospholipid.
The construction of the cell membrane
through the phospholipid molecules (Fig. 1.23)
shows that the different parts have contradicto-
ry properties: whilst the glycerin residues to-
gether with the phosphorous and the amino
acid residues (in Fig. 1.23, shown as a sphere)
attract water (they are hydrophile), the "tails"
of the fatty acid residues (red), which are tight-
ly linked and deposited in two layers against
each other in the cell membrane, repel water
(they are hydrophobic). This leads to the fonna-
tion of an impermeable double layer (membra-
ne) without bonds being formed between the
0000 0000000
=0
4 The cell membrane is only permeable for wa-
Fig. 1.23
5 tl'll ctll re of tile celllllclllbrnllc
(1) pllOspilolipids, (2) stored proteills, (3) trnllsport proteills,
(4) stored treilalose
phospholipid molecul es. The "heads" of the
phospholipid molecules all lie very close toget-
her in a mosaic pattern (so-called liquid mosaic).
Sterines (particularly ergosterines) are s tored
between the phospholipid molecules (ratio ap-
prox. 5:1), which also have to be newly formed
during yeast propagation. All cell membranes
in the plant and animal kingdom are construc-
ted according to this pattern.
Although the cell membrane of the yeast cell
is only about 6 mn thick and hence only makes
up 1/1000 of the diam eter of the yeast cell, it
should not be forgotten that it not only sur-
rOlU1ds the entire volume of the yeast cell but al-
so the membranes and the organelles of the cell
and forms the areas of division within the cell.
The surface area of a yeast cell is about 150 pm2;
10 g of pressed yeast therefore has about 9 to 10
m 2 of contact surface.
The performance of the yeast in the synthesis
of the fatty acids with regard to propagation, in
which the yeast cell has to form 4 to 5 times its
own volume anew within a few hours, n eeds to
be clarified. Just how many molecules can be
involved should be considered: if a yeast cell
were enlarged to one m etre, the cell membrane
would only be 1 mm thick!
The energy-consuming formation of the li-
pids, which form the main components of the
membrane, is de pendent on the presence of
oxygen. A part of the fat ty acids wh ich are con-
} tained in the cell are converted into unsaturated
fatty acid s which are notable for their low mel-
ting point and resulting better elasticity. If there
is a lack of oxygen, ceJl production comes to an
early s tands till and the newly formed yeas t
cells me considerably smaller.
ter and dissolved gases. The absorption of dis-
solved substances (e.g. sugar, amino acids, mine-
rals) occurs selectively via numerous fat-soluble
transport proteins which are integrated in the
mem brane (3) which work very selectively and
only let certain substances or groups of substan-
ces throu gh (see Sect. 4.1.2.2.2). The work of the-
se mem brane proteins is therefore very impor-
tant because they ensure no other substances
accidentally infiltrate and disturb the physiolo-
gical balance of the cell. Other membrane pro-
teins act as antennae, picking up information
from the sUlTOtmding enviroml1ent and passing
it on to the inside. The excretion of waste pro-
ducts or toxins, such as for example the alcohol
which is formed, occurs through the so-called
Golgi vesicles and out of the membrane. The cell
membrane is protected on the outer surface by
Fig. 1.23a
Oiagrnllllllatic stl'llctllre of tile cell wall
(accordillg to HOllgil, Briggs alld Stevens)
(1) e elllllelllbrnlle,
(2 ) TImlsport proteills,
(3) 1,3-gIIlGaIlS,
(4)
(5) 1IIa/lIlOproteills
(silllplified accordillg to [359])
99
an approx. 70 nm thick cell wall, which consists
of up to 55 - 65 % glucan, 35 - 40% malman, 9% 1 I
lipids and - 2 % chitin. This cell wall (Fig. 1.23a)
apparently has a protective function and acts as
a pre-filter. The components of the cell wall are
linked to the integra ted transport proteins of
the m embrane. The structure of these ex tensive
d e posits is therefore of considerable importan-
ce.
In Fig. 1.23 b, a plas tic model of the s tructure
of the cell membrane made up of phospholipids
is shown. The deposited transport proteins are
only able to let the specific compOLmds for which
they are suited (maltose, peptide, or other com-
pounds) pass through the m embrane (compare
with Fig. 4.2 a).
The cy toplasm (cytosol) which makes up mo-
re than 50% of the cell volume represents the
mos t important part of the inside of the cell.
This is the central reaction room of the cell in
which most of the metabolic paths of the break-
down of the food substances and the producti -
on of elements individual to the cell occur. The
entire intermediary metabolism - glyco lysis
(see Sect. 4.1.2.1), the production of fatty acids,
the biosynthesis of proteins and much more _
occurs here diversely side by sid e. In an

100
Fig.1.23b
Strllctllre of tile celllllelllbrnlle
frolll pilOspilOlipids witll trnllsport proteills
Glycolysis residlles illdicated
aqueous environment, ribosomes, enzymes
and waste products move around in streams
very close to each other.
In times when glycogen is abundant, e.g. af-
ter the start of fermentation, the yeast cell
builds up its reserves. At such times the glyco-
gen content (a reserve carbohydrate) can in-
crease to over 30% of the yeast dry matter; it is
d eposited in storage rosettes in the cytoplasm.
Trehalose, a disaccharide, is stored, as are phos-
phates and lipids which are required by the ye-
ast for the production of new cell substances.
In the cell there are frequent spaces filled
with acidic cell juice and surrounded by a
membrane, so-ca lled vacuoles. The size of
which varies with the growth phase and the
sLUTOlmding conditions. It is here that certain
proteins, proteinase A and superfluous sa lts,
partly of crystal, are stored. Through reversible
mobilisation of the salt crystals, the cell can re-
gulate its internal pressure (turgor), if, for ex-
ample, the ex ternal osmotic pressure is streng-
thened by higher extract or alcohol content
(hypertonic stress). The volume of the vacuoles
increases with hypertonic stress and decreases
with h ypotonic stress.
Yeasts normally reproduce by budding. After
sepa ration of the daughter cell, a bud scar re-
mains on the mother cell (Fig. 1.22; 4). From the
number (4 to 6) of bud scars it is possible to tell
the age of the cell.
1.4.2 Metabolism of the yeast cell
To carry out its metabolic processes necessary
for life and to produce new cell substances the
yeast cell, like any other cell, requires energy
and food. Yeast, like all other li ving organisms,
gets the energy to carry out these processes
through respiration. The amOlmt of energy ac-
quired through respiration is very great becau-
se the glucose is totally broken down to CO,
and H,O which are at the bottom of the energy
scale - obtaining further energy through break-
down is not possible.
During respiration the food which is taken
up, for exam ple, sugar is totally broken down
to CO, and water:
In the presence of sugar, yeast is the only li-
ving organism which converts to alcoholic fer-
mentation. In this case, glucose (to summarise)
is converted to alcohol (ethanol) and CO,:
C 6H 120 6 --7 2 C,HsOH + 2 CO,
The alcohol which is produced still contains a
lot of energy so that the energy acquired by the
yeast cell during fermentation is disproportio-
nately smaller than it is in respiration (this is
further explained in Sect. 4.1).
The breal<down of glucose to alcohol, or in the
case of respiration, to CO, and water results from
numerous reaction steps occurring after one
another. Each reaction step is catalysed by a cer-
tain enzyme. In the yeast cell these enzymes are
bOlmd in defined cell sh'uctures. Thus the enzy-
rnes for glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation are
located in the cytoplasm whereas the respiration
occurs via enzymes in the mitochondria .
101
The organic s ubstances necessary for respira-
tion of ferm entation are taken up by the inte- 1
gra ted proteins of the cell wa ll and transported
th rough the membran e. The yeast cell can onl y
take up the substan ces for which appropriate
transport mechanisms are present. This again
depend s on the en zyme sp ectrum of the yeast.
The yeast cell has a complicated
ca rbohydrate metabolism
nitrogen meta bolism
fat metabolism and
inorganic s ubstance metabolis m.
The ca rbohydra te metabolism serves mainly Fig. 1.24
Bllddillg yeast cells
to provid e en ergy through respiration and fer-
Tile blld scars are easily recogllisable.
menta tion, whilst only a very small part of the
sugar contained in the wort will be stored as a
reserve in the form of glycogen and trehalose.
The nitrogen metabolism serves, as do the fat
metabolism and inorganic substance metabo-
lism, mainly to renew the cell substances, whe-
reby production as well as breakdown proces-
ses play all important role.
Glycerine is also formed and stored by the ye-
ast. Glycerine is an osmotically ac-
tive substance, which maintains the ftmctioll of
the enzymes even in the case of low water ac ti-
vity. The form ation of glycerine increases with
the original wort content [322].
These very complicated metabolic processes,
which have a d ecisive influence on the quality Fig.1 .24a
of beer, will be examined more closely in Sect. Old yeast cell witll IIlnlly blld scars
4.1.2 - Yeast Metabolism,
on the motller cell (Fig. 1.24). Old yeast cells can
1.4.3 Yeast reproduction and growth have up to 20 bud scars (Fig. 1.24 a). In the case of
Yeasts normally reproduce by budding. This is top fermenting sh'ains, the cells remain cOtm ec-
why they are also known as budding ftlllgi. Du- ted to each other and form bud colonies.
ring budding, a small bubble-like protuberance When micro-organisms are transferred into
from the mother cell is formed into which part of fresh nutrient solution, as is the case, for exam-
the cytoplasm as well as a daughter nucleus, for- ple, when yeast is pitched into wort in the bre-
med by division, passes and a complete daughter wery, they begin to grow. The growth is charac-
cell is for med. In some yeast strains the mother terised by fixed nahuallaws. It does not occur
and da ughter cells separate from one another at a fi xed rate but is divided into six phases (Fig.
completely, as a result of which bud scars remain 1.25):
102
103

, , I ,, da tio n phase d urin g w hi ch the growth ra te g ra- ganism has its own ch aracteris tic op timum d e- pairs of ce lls, whereas top fermenting yeasts
, ,;
, , ,, duall y d ecreases. The yeas t now increasingly
Q)
.0
E
, ,,
I
,
I I
,
velopment temperature a t which the lag ph ase form chains of budded cells (Figs. 1.26 & 1.27). 1
I I
, excre tes proteinase A (see Sect. 4.4.4.1), wh ich and generation time are sh o rtes t. However,
=>
c , ,I I
I ,I ,
I
,
,
In the case of top fermenting yeas ts, the mother"
has a negative effect on head retenti on. grow th is not restricted to the optimum te mpe-
1 :2 ,, 3 ,: Lr-:, 5 , 6 illld d aug hte r cells remain attached to one anot-
,,
Q)
u I
ratu re but can occur over a more or less wide
,, ,i
OJ I I I
,, her for a longer time, and as a result branched
,, ,
I
o I
-l Stntiollal'Y pha se temperature range. For yeasts of the genus Sac- chains of cells are formed. In the case of bottom
I I I I I
In the followin g sta tionary phase the number of charo myces this is usually temperatures up to fe rm enting yeasts, the moth er and dau ghter
Time - - cells remains cons tant. There is a balance bet- 40 DC, the optima l growth te mperature being cells separate from one another when the divi-
Fig. 1.25 ween the number of newly formed cells and the abo ut 27 to 30 DC for bottom fermenti ng yeasts sion is completed. The cell shape is the sa me
Yenst growth phnses cells whi ch die. and 30 to 35 DC for top ferm enting va rieties . w ith both top and bottom fermenting yeasts.
(1) illdllctioll phnse (Ing phnse), (2) nccelerntioll phnse, (3) ex-
pOllelltinl phnse (log pllnse), (4) rctnrdntioll phnse, (5) stn tio- These are temperatures, however, which are
IInry phnse, (6) deC/illillg I'llnse Declillillg phas e not relevant in practice.
In this las t phase the rate of cell d ea th in creases, The physiological state of the microbial cell-
because the foo d supply has been exhausted, its age and nutritional state - essentially dete r-
Latellt 01' illrillctioll phase the alcohol and CO, formed acts as a poison to mine the dura tion of the lag phase. A very rapid
In the latent phase, also referred to as the induc- the yeast and the cell is exhausted. Proteinase A activa tion of metabolis m occurs in the case of
tion or lag phase, there is an activation of meta- is increasingly released into the beer (see Sect. yeas t cells which are transferred into fresh sub-
bolism. The length of the induction phase va- 4.4.4.1) and the yeast begins to LUldergo autoly- strate during the exponential growth phase. Re-
ri es greatly. It depends on the type of organism, sis. It is now high time to harves t the yeas t and lating this to brew ing, this means that a rapid
the age of the culture and the cultivation condi- separate it from the beer to prevent further d a- star t to fe rmentation will best be obtained with
tions. The latent or lag phase end s with the first mage. yeas ts w hich are taken at the stage of the main .0
cell division.
C)
Th e duration illld intensity of the individual
ferm entation and added to the pitching wort
without intermediate storage. n)
O C-M <."'\
r: )

Accelemtioll phase grow th phases are influenced primarily by the o

In the acceleration phase, w hich follows afte r
the latent phase, the ra te of divis ion continu-
ously increases.
Expollelltial phase
In the phase of ex ponential or logarithmic
growth, abbreviated to log phase, the growth
rate is constant and ma ximal. The generation ti-
m e, in other words th e time period during
which the cell number doubles, is minimal du-
ring thi s phase. The yeast is at its most vital du-
ring this phase.
Decelel'atioll phase
Because of various factors, e.g. reduction in the
amount of nutrient subs trates or an increase in
the amount of grow th-inhibiting metabolic pro-
ducts, the log phase occurs for only a limited ti-
m e. It is followed by the d eceleration or retar-
substrate, the temperature and the physiologi-
cal s tate of the yeast. The substrate must contain
all the nutrients required for growth. The water
content, pH value and oxygen concentration of
the subs trate are also decisive for growth.
Wa ter is the main component of living mate-
rial and it plays an exceedingly important role
in the life processes of micro-organism s. In ge-
neral mi cro-organisms are only able to develop
in substrates which contain at least a 15 % w a ter
content. Micro-organisms differ considerably
from one illlother with regard to their optimal
pH value. Yeasts grow preferably at acidic pHs.
The importance of oxygen for yeast growth has
already been m entioned. In breweries yeas t
growth is promoted by aeration of the wort be-
fore pitching.
The te mperature also has a great effect on the
growth of micro-organisms. Every micro-or-
1.4.4 Characteristics of brewing yeasts Fig. 1.26
Numerous different strains can be distinguis- 80110111 jeJ'llleJItillg brewillg yenst
hed amongst yeast strains predominantly used (bllddillg ensily recogll isnble), (III ngllified .r 1000)
in breweries. In brewing practice these are divi-
ded into two major groups:
top fermenting yeasts (Saccha romyces cere-
visiae) and
bottom fermenting yeasts (Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis) / see Sect. 1.4.4.4.)
Th ere are morphological, physiological illld
fermentation teclmologi cal differences be tween
top and bottom fermenting yeasts, as described
in the following.
1.4.4.1 Morphological characteristics
Top and bottom fermenting yeasts can be diffe-
rentiated und e r the mi croscop e by means of
Fig. 1.27
their budding behaviour. Bottom fermenting
Top jerlllelltillg brewillg yenst
yeasts occur almost exclusively as single cells or (IIIngllified x 1000)
104
105
1.4.4.2 Physiological differences cell s remain ve ry finely di vided in the fennen- wort pitching, is performed with the help of de-
The mos t important physiological difference tation medium and sink slowly to the bottom there. They ca n cause an LU1pl easa nt taste and
fin ed crite ria. The important ones are:
between top and bottom fermenting yeasts rel a- only at the end of fermentation. The cells of smell and also turbidity in the beer (see Sect. 1
fermentation behaviour (top or bottom fer- 8.3) .
tes to the fermentation of trisaccharide raffino- flo cculent yeast clump together after a short ti - men ting)
se. Bottom fermenting yeasts can, beca use of me to form large flocs and then settle rapidly. flocc ulation beh aviour (powdery yeas t or 1.5 Adjuncts
their enzyme spectrum, use raffinose complete- The flo cculation performance of a yeast is gene- flocc ulent yeast)
ly whereas top fermenting yeasts can ferment tically determined. Top fermenting yeasts do The enzyme potential of malt is sufficient to cata-
ferm entation performance (fermentation rate
only a third of the trisaccharide. not form flocs . bolise additional starch . Consequently, in some
and degree of attenuation)
Other differences are shown in respiratory The flocculating ability of a yeast is of great parts of the world, part of the malt - usually 15 to
ex tent of propaga tion, and
and fermentative metabolism and in the ability practical importance. Flocculent yeasts produce 20% - is replaced by LUullalted cerea l for econo-
formation and removal of fermentation by-
to form spores. Whereas in the case of bottom a clear, but less fully fermented beer, whereas mic reasons. This ulUnalted cereal, which is chea-
products (aroma formation).
fermenting yeas ts fermentative m e tabolis m powdery yeas ts and top fermenting yeasts pro- per than the relatively expensive malt, is referred
The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae
predominates by far, top fermenting yeasts duce a turbid beer with a higher degree of atte- to as raw grain. TIlose types of cereal which are
includes not only culture yeast strains but also
show a pronounced respiratory metabolism. cultivated in larger amOLUlts in the particular re-
nuation. yeas ts which cause damaging infections in the
Correspondingly the yeast crop after fennenta- Top and bottom ferm enting yeasts differ with gion are preferentially used, in particular mai ze,
brewery. For ins tance, wine yeasts damage
tion is much greater with top fermenting yeas ts regard to fermentation temperature. Fermenta- rice and - especially in Africa - sorghum. A fair
beer. In addition, yeasts of other species and ge-
than with bottom fermenting strains. Bottom tions with bottom fermenting yeasts are p erfor- estimate is that raw grain or adjLUlct is used in 85
nera are regarded as beer damagin g infections.
to 90% of all beer produced worldwide.
fermenting yeasts have a lower enzyme content med between 4 °C and 12 °C. In the case of top The entry of s uch micro-organisms is called
than top fermenting strains. The ability of bot- fermenting yeasts 14 °C to 25 °C is used. The For beer which is brewed according to the Rein-
contamination.
heitsgebot, the use of adjuncts is not allowed.
tom fermenting yeasts to form ascospores is li- tempera ture conh'ol is determined by the bre- These micro-organisms, also referred to as
mited . They sporulate less often than top fer- wer. "wild yeasts" as opposed to the culture yeast, 1.5.1 Maize
m enting strains and spore formation takes are introduced in particular with the raw mate-
longer. Under normal ferm entation conditions 1.4.4.4 Systematic classification Mai ze (corn) is harvested with a water content
rials into the brewery and are always unwanted
spore formation does not take place at all. On the basis of the above-described differentia- of 25 to 30 % and brought to a water content of
ting features individual yeast strains are divi- Worldwide cereal production (mio. t) 2005 [237]
1.4.4.3 Fermentation technological differences ded into top and bottom fermenting yeasts. In
The names top fermenting and bottom fermen- this context, it must be remembered that the Asia North and Europe Africa South Oceania
ting for brewing yeast strains are derived from feahlres d escribed for top and bottom fermen- Total
Central America
their characteristic appearance during fermenta- ting yeasts are not permanently fixed proper- America
tion. Top fermenting yeasts rise to the surface du- ties. They are variable to a greater or lesser de- Ma ize 161 270 73 41 54 <1
ring fermentation; bottom fermenting yeasts sett- gree. In particular the raffinose fermentation Wheat 600
261 95 184 16 19 21 596
le to the bottom towards the end of fermentation. criterion is not reliable since bottom fermenting Rice 534 11 3 17 19 1 585
Top fermenting yeasts also settle to the bot- brewing yeasts can also only ferment a third of Barley 22 21 87 4 1 6 141
tom at the end of fermentation but much later the raffinose. Because the differentiating cha- Sorghum 13 22 <1 20 5 1
than bottom fermenting strains. At the end of racteristics are not sufficiently constant, in the Millet 62
13 <1 1 13 <1
the main ferm entation they are still at the top new yeast classification both the bottom and <1 28
Oats 1 6 17 <1 1 1 27
and are h arvested there as long as open vessels top fermenting yeasts are sometimes assigned Rye 1 1 20 <1 <1 <1
are being used. to the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The 25
Another essential characteristic of bottom brewers, however, usually still refer to the bot- To tal 1006 427 386 113 100 32
fermenting yeasts relates to their different floc- tom fermenting yeas t as Saccharomyces carls- 20084
culation behaviours. Bottom fermenting yeasts bergensis. Population 3587 472 729 768 333 30 5919
are therefore divided il1to powdery and floccu- Selection of the brew ing strain, which is in mio. Citizens
lent yeasts. In the case of powdery yeasts, the grown as a pure culture before being used for 2000
106
10 to 14 °/., by drying. The dry matter of maize
consists of
76 - 80 % carbohydrate
9 -12 % protein
4 - 5% oil
and small amolUlts of crude fibre and inor-
ganic substances.
The oil is located in the germ of the corn. Be-
cause of concern about the foam damaging ef-
fect of the oil, maize is degermed before proces-
sing and thereby practically freed from oil. The
degermed maize then has an oil content of
about 1 %, but oil contents of up to 1.5 % are al-
so tolerated.
DlU'ing processing to grits or flakes the protein
content decreases to about 7 - 9 %. This protein re-
mains largely lUldissolved during mashing so a
smaller protein content, corresponding the maize
fraction, must be expected and this can affect the
supply of low molecular weight protein (FAN,
see Sect. 4.1 .3.1) to the yeast.
Fig. 1.28
Maize starch (magllified x 1000)
VLB Berlill Research Ill stitute for Raw Materials)
Maize starch (Fig. 1.28) is similar, even in its
external shape, to barley starch. Moreover, the
gelatinisation temperature of corn starch is 60
to 70 °C and so no problems should be expected
during processing. The extract content of deger-
med maize is 88 - 90 % dry weight (= 77 - 78 % air
dry) and consequently about the same as for
malt.
Maize is degermed dry before processing, the
germ and husk being remo ved by a plansifter
and aspirator. Maize can be processed to the
following products:
corn grits
maize flakes
refined grits
corn syrup
Mai ze grits
Maize grits are usually used with a relatively
large grain size (0.3 - 1.5 mm). Grinding can be
performed in an adjlUlct mill in the brewery.
Maize grits are pre-treated with about a quarter
of the malt mash in an adjunct cooker (Sect.3.2.4
& 3.5).
Mai ze flalces
The slightly moistened grits can be pressed in-
to flat flakes by rollers and thereby gelatinised.
In this gelatinised form the flakes can be mas-
hed without prior treatment with malt mash.
Refilled COrll grits
To prepare these the grits are s teeped for 30 -
40 hours in hot water at 50 °C (122 OF). SO, is
added to the water to suppress micro-organ-
isms. The corns are broken open in a mill and
the germ removed by a separating device. The
starch is then separated from the husk and
protein, and the crude starch is washed several
times before it is dried .
This process is performed in special plants
outside the brewery. The maize starch produ-
ced is very fin ely divided (0.5 mm average
grain size). These refined corn grits are trans-
ported to the brewery in special vehicles be-
cause the small particle size presents the dan-
ger of a dust explosion. The refined corn grits
therefore consis t of pure malt s tarch, they ge-
latinise very easily and are easy to pour. The
extract content is 90 - 95 % and the fat content
0.5 - 0.8 %.
1.5.2 Rice
Broken rice is used for brewing, in other words
grains which are broken during dehusking and
poli shing the rice and as a result do not look as
attracti ve as intac t grains.
Rice grains h ave a water content of about 12 -
13%. The dry matter consists of about
85 - 90% sta rch
5 - 8% protein
0.2 - 0.4 % oil
and small amounts of inorganic subs tances.
Rice has a very high sta rch content (85 - 95%)
consisting of small individual or aggregated
granu les of a charac teri s tic shape (Fig. 1.30).
The aggrega ted granules consist of mallY com-
ponent granules which are hard to distinguis h
from one another.
Rice starch swells grea tly and gelatinises at
tempera tures of 70 to 85 °C. Certain types of ri-
ce and rice crops harvested after hotter growth
conditions tend to have higher gelatinisation
temperatures (80 to 85 °C). This mu s t be taken
into con sideration when using rice (see Sect.
3.2.4.3.5).
Fig. 1.30
Rice starch (magllified x 1000)
(IILB Berlill Research Ill S/' for Raw Materials)
TIle protein content is low and little of it goes
into solution during mashing and consequently
the free amino nitrogen (FAN) need ed for the
yeast must be supplied by the malt mash.
Rice is
milled to form grits in the brewery and pre-
107
trea ted w ith part of the malt mash in an ad-
junct cooker, or 1
processed to rice flakes, and thereby gelatini -
sed, which are add ed with out further pre-
trea tm ent to the mash tun.
1.5.3 Barley
The enzymes in Jllalt ca n cope with up to 15 to
20% barley adjunct without any problem. Bar-
ley Jllay be used in the form of
milled barley, or
barley flakes made from hu sked or dehusked
b a rley.
The lower ex tract yield must be set against
the lower price compared with malt. Problems
may be ca used because, as a result of the absen-
ce of a m alting process, the p-glucan is not dis-
so lved and is not sufficientl y degraded during
mashing . In such a case filtrati on probl ems are
to be exp ected.
1.5.4 Sorghum / millet
The large-grained sorghum-millet is a type of
cerea l which is g rown m ainly in the hotter,
drier regions of Africa . In contras t, the small-
grained millet is also grown for food purposes
(bird food) in Europe.
NTl-
" (; 'R.rl' F
nr 7- Pi-
Fig. 1.31
SOlg11l1/1l graill s
(PllOto: P Seidl, Mllllich)
For beer production only the large-g rained
sorghum is used. There are many types of sorg-
108
hum, some of whi ch (spadix and panicle ty pes)
are grown mainly for food purposes (Fig. 1.31).
It is quite natural that in m an y African coun-
tries attempts are increasingly being mad e to
u se the indi genous raw material, so rghum, as a
source of ex tract for beer production and also to
malt it, in order to economise on expen sive m alt
imports. An additional reason is that the clima-
tic conditions in many African countries are un-
suitable for cultiva ting brew ing barley. Beca use
sorghum germinates, it produces en zy mes
which can be used to break d own the storage
material it contains. The en zyme p otential of
sorghum is, h owever, lower than that of barley.
Both the gro wing and harvesting of sorghum
occur in the rainy season. Extensive contamina-
tion by micro-organisms, especially fungi, must
therefore be expected . It is consequentl y essen -
tial to trea t the harvested crop to preven t sp oi-
lage.
Breeding and cultivation of pure va rieties is
only jus t begilUling in these cOlmtries. It is the-
refore impossible to derive average values from
the very di fferent measured va lues [131].
Fi gures for most sorghum varieties are:
protein content 11 - 12.6 %
fa t content (dry weight) 2 - 6%
starch content (dry weight) 62 - 67%
germinative energy at 5 days above 90 %
hi weight over 70 kg
thousand corn weight above 25 g (up to 44 g)
The starch granules are firmly fixed in the en-
d osperm (Fig. 1.32).
1.5.5 Wheat
Whea t is rarely used as ulUl1alted adjlUlct but is
often used in a malted form, e.g. fo r p roduction
of top fermented beers, such as va rious types of
wheat beer. The p ercentage of whea t malt used
to produce w hea t beers is usually 50 to 60% be-
cause of its high extract yield. Since only a very
small part of the w heat crop is used for brewing
purposes, there is still no special brew ing whe-
a t varie ty. To further imp rove the quality of
wheat beer, grea t efforts have been m ade to cul-
tivate brewing w hea t strains. Winter va rieti es
are preferable beca use of their lower protein
content and higher extract content. In additi on
they give a p aler beer.
Fig. 1.32
Sorgllll ll i steely wrlospen ll
(lllng ll ifierl x 600)
(PllOtO: Dr. A. D. Aisiell, Lngos)
Gluten is the charac teristic w heat p ro tein.
1l1is is a mixture of different proteins w hich
form about 80% of the total protein. It consists
mainly of glutelin and gliadin (instead of the
hordein in barley). Gluten is the name given to
the sticky substan ce which can be pulled into
ropes on mixing kneading wheat flour w ith wa-
ter and which becomes h orn-like on d rying.
Wheat w ith a high protein content is lmdesira-
ble for brewing malt production because it cau-
ses processing difficulties.
Wheat loses its hu sk during tlu'eshing, and is
thus "huskless" . Worts fr om wheat malt h ave a
higher viscosity, w hich is caused not by
can but by p entosans.
Information on additional bread cerea ls (oat,
spelt, rye, Emmer, triticale) and their m alting
properties can be found in Sect. 2.9.10.
1.5.6 Sugar
For the production of beer not brewed accor-
ding to the Reinheitsgebot, a part of the grist
load can be replaced by sugar, ca ne s uga r or
bee t sugar (saccharose) . Saccharose is a disac-
charide of glucose and fr uctose. If boiled fo r a
longer time or if acid is add ed, the sacch arose
is inverted into the two monosaccharides and
as a result beco mes easily fe rmentable. The su-
gar is added to the cas ti ng wor t as it is comple-
tely fermentable and requires no pre-trea t-
ment.
According to EU guidelines and sugar type
regulations, a dis tinction has to be made bet-
ween
refined su gar, refined white sugar or castor
su gar (EU Cat. 1) and
sugar or white su gar (cleaned crys talline sac-
charose) (EU Cat. 2)
The mos t importa nt p roper ty of su gar is its
solubility. The solubility of sugar in water is
very high. A t 20 °C 204 pa rts of sugar dissolve
in 100 parts of wa ter. In hot wa ter considerably
more saccharose dissolves, but it then precipita-
tes again on cooling .
Temp . in °C Content of solution Viscosity
saturated sugar in mPa·s
in weight %
0 64.2 677
10 65.6 346
20 67.1 214
40 70.4 116
100 83.0 80
A concentrated solution of sugar in water is
ca lled syrup. To produce suga r syrup the sugar
is dissolved in water, which can be either hot or
cold.
To make a 65% sugar syrup, 65 kg of su gar
are dissolved in 35 kg of water. This will result
in 100 kg of 65% su ga r syrup . Becau se the su-
gar syrup is not weighed, but added by volume,
it is necessary to determine the volume of a d e-
fined mass of su ga r syrup.
109
D issolved sugar h as a density of
1.6 g / cm 3 = 1.6 g / ml 1
Mass m
Vo lume V = D
en sity d
Th e volume of 1 kg of su ga r is then
V _ 1000 g _ 10000ml _
- 1.6 m g/l - 16 - 0.625 I
65 kg of s u gar = 0.625 1 x 65 = 40.6 I of su gar
35 kg of w a ter = 35.0 I of wa ter
100 kg of su gar syrup (65%) = 75.6 1 of sugar
syrup (65% )
Sugar syrup manufactured is at least 65% . It
can then be s tored eaSily and is not attacked by
micro-organisms because these plas molyse in
the high con centrated solution. The stron g os-
m otic pressure of the solution draws the wa ter
out of the cells of the micro-o rganisms. The
plas ma d etuches itself from the cell wall and
the organism 's ability to live is impaired but it
d oes not usually die (this statement also applies
to brine solutions!). A syrup solution calUlot
therefore sp oil, but in a diluted state the micro-
orgatl isms will soon becom e ac ti ve again if the
solution is not s terilised .
The sugar is usually dissolved cold, but so-
metimes h ot, which need s more energy. It is
usually bought in a dissolved sta te and a diffe-
rentiation is made between
liquid su gar with a sugar content of about
65 %, a n on-inverted sacch arose solution
with m aximal 3 % inverted sugar,
inverted liquid sugar w ith less than a 50 % ra-
te of in version and
inver ted suga r w ith more than a 50% rate of
inversion .
For beer production, liquid sugar is usually
used because inversion occurs during wort boi-
ling in any case.
110 111

Small amolmts of added suga r are not detri- soluble substances a re removed by centrifu gati- The hmctional p roperties and the area of ap plica tion d e pend on the catalys t used :
mental to beer fl avour because it is completely on and the sy rup concentrated to about 60 %. 1
fe rmented . It nevertheless h as to be taken into If the breakd ow n is performed combined Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4
acco unt that the sugar does not contribute any with an en zymi c trea tment, or w ith enzymes Ca ramel Sulphite Ammoniac Ammoniac
nitrogen compound s to the wort and con se- alone (see Sect. 3.2.4.3.5), a larger am ount of couleur couleu r sulphite couleur
qu ently the amino acid nitrogen content can be glucose atld maltose ca n be obtained and this Catalys t acid s, caus tics caustic sulphite amm oniac ammonium sulphite
too low whi ch ma y result in fermentation diffi- gives a substantially better ex tract composition Property alcoh ol stable alcohol s tabl e beer s table acid stable
culties. The addition of liquid sugar as an ex- for ferm entation. Use spirits spirits beer cola
trac t supplier only makes sense if an economi- The composition of the glucose syrup can vary confectionery bakery produce lemonade
ca l source o f suga r is available. within wide limits. It is defined by the dextrose bakery produce soups vinegar
The melting of sugar or the hea ting of sugar equivalents (DE). This term shows the reducing pha rmaceuticals sau ces basic m aterials
sy rup produ ces brown-coloured products sugar content, expressed as dextrose. A 95 DE Colouring va lue 20,000 EBC 30,000 EBC 40,000 EBC 52,000 EBC
w hich have a typical caramel tas te. This process saccharified syrup therefore contains almost on-
can be directed, d epending on the pH value, ly glucose. This maize or glucose syrup HFCS In breweries suga r couleur class 3 is exclusively used which has a depth of colour between 6, 000
more toward s colour formation (e.g. couleur) or (High Fructose Corn Sy rup) Catl also be obtained and 40,000 EBC.
arom a form ation . If saccharose sy rup is hea ted from wheat or other cheap cereals. In principle it Beer brewed according to the purity la w does not permit the use of suga r couleur.
in a buffered solution, man y arom a substan ces displays the same p ro perties as liquid su gar
are fo rmed (dihydrofuranone, cyclopentenolo- (Sect. 1.5.6) but has to be stored at 27 DC so that it
ne and others). This is desired in the case of ca- retains its liquid form . Glucose syrup is, howe-
ramelised brewing sugar. The possible fOt'm ati- ver, considerably better value than liquid sugar.
on o f ca rcin ogenou s acrylamide h as to b e Isoglu cose can be distinguished by its low
closely monitored. Caramelised brewing su ga r viscosity, I ight co lour, high d egree of purity at, d
is sold as sy rup or brow n-coloured suga r. simple processing .
For beer which is brewed according to the
1.5.7 Glucose syrup purity law, the addition of glucose syrup is not
Glucose syrup is matlltfactured from undried re- p ermi tted.
fined maize grits in which the stard, has been
broken down to sugar by hydrolysis (i.e. splitting 1.5.8 Colouring sugar (also couleur)
with wa ter). Three processes can be used for this: Colouring su ga r (E 150 according to the Permit-
acid hydrolysis ted Additives Regulation) is the term used for a
a combination of acid or enzymic hyd rolysis dark brow n food colouring which is produced
enzymic hydrol ysis by heating su ga r w ith the aid of technical au xi-
It has already been mention ed (Sect. 1.1.4.1.1) liary Substatl Ces. After boiling, a catalys t (see
that starch (amylop ectin atld also am ylose) con- below) is carefull y added to the solution and
sis ts of long chains of glucose residu es. When the mass hea ted to 160 DC. When the d esired
at, acid is add ed, the bonds between the gluco- depth of colour has been achieved the process is
se molecules are broken with the insertion of a stopped, the couleur cooled and set at the desi-
m olecul e of wa ter and glu cose is produced . red values. During thi s process by-products are
This p rocess is carried out with the addition of form ed (en ol e) w hich have strong dyeing pro-
dilute hyd rochloric acid (0.10 - 0.15%) w ith p erties (over 50,000 EBC).
heating and lmder pressure, as a result o f w hich The colour is a pplied after being ad equately
the bonds are progressively broken and a sy rup dilute.
consisting of sugar atld dex trins is formed. In-
 113

2 I Malt Production
2

According to the German Reinhei tsgebot tradi- sid ers beer production in the different large
tional beer CaIU10t be made without malt. Con- geogra phical regions, the barl ey and malt re-
sequently malt production from barley is the quirem ents and also the maltin g barley pro-
first step in beer production. It is of course pos- duction figures can be seen to diffe r m arkedly
v 1lI""x I li P' sible to make malt from o the r cereals, for eXaIll- [125).
(;) • (J U s.c. · Ol.o1J"· ..
__ pIe wheat, rye, sorghum or millet, but histori- This table sh ows the very large diffe ren ce
cally, fo r various reasons, barley malt has be tween ba rley production and the a mount of
proved to be the most suitable malt for beer pro- ba rley required for malting in the va rious re-
DEIlLIN duction . In the fo llowing, when malt is mentio- gions. Adequate supplies of m a lting ba rley
ned, it is always barley malt whidl is meaIlt. and the ab ility to make large a mOLmts of malt
r "IIV>Old I To produce 1 hI of beer wi th all original ex- make Europe, Canada and Aust ra li a the lar-
O'Nrtml#'(I ' I"'t l!\ottl '..r _'In,
h'act of 11 %, approximately 17 kg of malt is re- gest malt exporters in the world (see Sect.
" . . ... ... IIoowoI ......... · ...oI quired. 1.1.2).
. ...... """'- I _ . .. H II
"........... ...'..........
,(
For economic aIld variou s other reasons, La rge amo unts of malt are exported to
.. 10 )/ , -,\
.
( •. ,,, .... c....._
,., when brewing beer, part of the malt is often South America, Africa and in p ar ticular to
replaced by unmalted cereals. This reduces East Asia w here a flourishing brewing indu-
"' .. ... .... l" ..... ....,, "
., .. ..... ,... ,•...11._'
j • • • ,,, .. . .. ... I0 • •• ,
. .. the total amount of malt required . If one con- stry h as recentl y developed.
.. H •. " . ;oiof . ,V.

••• • .......,Ivs ... )

........ " .. .. . 0'1 ..... .... .

( 0"'" '' c.'."I•.VJ.O. • •
.
.1.0 U \I I " . ..... , \,IIJ , ·! ......
;0' Region Beer prod. Malt req. Barley prod.
(Mio. hI) (Mio. t) total (Mio. t) for malt (Mio. t)

America
North & Central 317 3.8 22.3 5.5
South America 115 1.4 1.1 0.3
Emope
(without CIS) 381 4.6 68.0 10.2
CIS counh'ies 50 0.6 47.9 1.4
Asia
VLB Berlin Near East 8 0.1 13.4 0.4
Far East excl. China 120 1.4 3.0 0.1
China 120 1.4 2.3 0.1
Research and Teaching Institute Oceania
for Brewing in Berlin Australia 18 0.2 4.7 1.2
New Zealand 5 0.1 0.4 0.1
www.vlb-berlin.org/ Africa 53 0.6 5.3 0.2
[:;:] brewmaster@vlb-berlin.org World Total 1,187 14.2 168.4 19.5
 114
The business for the brewing ingredients na-
turally d epends on weather-determined yield
and quality variations and also on fluctuations
2 in world market prices, and changes occur al-
most every year.
The production of malt from barley, i.e. mal-
ting, is nowadays performed almost exclusive-
ly in large commercial maltings, whereas pre-
viously breweries usually produced malt in
their own m altings using the same skilled wor-
kers, whose title was "brewer and maltster".
The purpose of malting is to produce enzymes
in the germinating barley kernel and to cause cer-
tain changes in its chemical constituents, which is
referred to as solution or dissolving.
For this purpose the barley is made to germi-
nate through the absorption of water, and this
germination process is interrupted at the ap-
propriate time by a drying procedure, known
as kilning. The resultant malt looks almost the
same as the barley from which it is produced
(Fig. 2.1) .
Fig. 2.1
Bm"iey nlld mnlt ken/els.
Wilnt is tile differellce?
Before these operations are performed the bar-
ley delivered to the maltings is first cleaned, gra-
ded and stored in large silos lU1til it is processed.
During steeping the barley absorbs the water
necessary for germination and it is then germina-
ted in large tanks or chambers known as boxes.
Finally the germination is terminated by kilning
at a high temperature. Any seeds sticking to the
malt are then removed and it is stored in silos
until sold.
2.1 Intake, cleaning, grading and
transfer of barley
The barley is delivered to the maltings. Nowa-
days delivery is increasingly based on contracts
with the farmers to grow the required barley
varieties. Varietal purity is the basis for homo-
geneous quality. The barley delivered is usual-
ly pre-cleaned and stored (Fig. 2.2).
The main cleaning (preparation for use) then
follows later. During this process attention is
paid to:
removal of unmaltable impurities
removal of other contaminants such as weed
seeds which reduce malt quality and increase
the moisture content, and
grading of the barley into kernels with the sa-
me size.
The barley cleaning and grading plant is used
to achieve these aims.
A maltings contains a large amount of trans-
fer equipment. Because all malting machinery
produces dust in the air it is essential to have
dust removal devices .
2.1.1 Barley intake
Barley is delivered by road, in rail wagons or by
ship. Before urtloading a sample is always taken
and immediately examined. If the delivery fails
to match the agreed quality, intake is refused.
The examination and decision concerning inta-
ke has therefore to be taken within a very short
period of time.
Fig. 2.2
Bnrley clemlillg mId grndillg plnllt
(1) nspirntioll plnllt, (2) pre-clemlillg, (3) stornge, (4) mnill clenllillg nlld grndillg, (5) bnrley illtnke, (6)
drulll sereell , (9) nspirntioll (1 0) silliee, (11) explosioll
gllet, (16) weigilillg IIIncilille, (1 7)
iJillg mneilille.
2,1,1.1 Intake of badey from lorries or rail
wagons
Barley is delivered in sacks or loose.
When the barley is transported in rail wa-
gons, emptying usually occurs lI sing a pneu-
matic sllction device or a mechanical unloading
shovel. Large quantiti es are transported in silo
wagons (up to 64 t content), which empty auto-
matically by tipping (Fig. 2.3).
The size of the intake duct and the rate of in-
take depend on the size of the maltings. If the
delivery is by lorry, arrangements must be ma-
de to ensure that the lorries are emptied in the
shortest possible time.
The side walls of the intake chalmels are so
steep that the barley flow s out of them comple-
tely. A grid holds foreign material back and pre-
vents damaging of the equipment used later.
On unloading, unpleasa nt amounts of dust
may be produced. This dust must be sucked off.
2.1.1.2 Intake of badey from ships
Modern maltings are built, where possible, ne-
115
2 3 4
2
(7) IIlngllet, (8)
(12) weigilillg IIIncilille, (13) (14) silo, (1 5) IlIn-
(1 8) wnste, ( 19) grnill clenllerlTriell1 (20) (21) weig-
ar water chalU1els, making it possibl e to trans-
po rt barley easily and relatively cheap ly to the
maltings and to ship out the malt in the same
way.
Inland transport is performed by cargo boats
to the maltings, if possible. The boats are then
unloaded pneumatically by m ea ns of su ction
conveyors with a transfer capacity of 50 tlh or
more (Fig. 2.4). In international trade, ships are
also very often unloaded mechani ca lly. Because
of the lower operating costs, inland ships are
equipped with shovels, while sea-goi ng ships
have specia l transfer devices (elevator bucke ts
lU110ading belts).
The delivered barley is fed into an intake silo .
During intake a representative sample is taken
for examination in the laboratory. It is necessa-
ry, however, to perform checks using rapid tes t
m e thods before lmloading in order to avoid
surprises later on.
Before the barley is supplied for cleaning, it is
weighed . The weight is entered into a weighing
book or recorded by computer.
 116 117

removal of coarse impurities (pre-cleaning),

2 removal of foreign seed s, .1
elimination of iron objects (nails, screws etc.),
2 Fig. 2.3 de-awning, as far as this is n ecessary, 2
8m'ley illtakefrolll rail or road
removal of sand, s tones and dus t,
wagolls
removal of foreign and broken kernels,
(1) wagoll willi flat vottom grading by si ze for separate processing,
(2) silo lorrywitll gravity recording the ma ss of the intake and end pro-
dise/tnrge
duct and
(3+4 ) IIlIloadillg shovel equip-
metlt sampling and control.
11+-- - 6
t (5)
(6)
trouglled e/tniu couveyor
elevator 2.1.2.1 Barley pre-cleaning
(7) sack IUlloadiug 011 tile
Pre-cleaning consists only of: Fig. 2.5
ramp
(8) sack uuloaditlg to IIle side mechanical pre-cleaning (aspirator, separa- Aspira tiou pre-c!enuer (old type)
tor, witu10wer) and (1) varley illtake, (2) iutnke colltrollel; (3) du st e/lnllivers, (4)
of the ramp
(9+10) vOttOll1 discharge
suctiou coulleetiou for du st reulOvnl, (5) fill ger vnlves, (6) vi-
a magnet.
vratillg sieve witll eeceutrie ririve, (7) short graiu sieve,
This is followed by storage. (8) loug com sieve, (9) saud sieve, (10) was te disc/tnt'ge plate,
12 The first machine the barley passes through is (11 ) vnrley outlet

the separator or aspirator. There are two aspects

Fig. 2.4
8m'ley iutake f rom a ship
(1) suctioll uozzle (adju stavle)
(2) uozzle height adjustmellt
(3 ) flexivle pipes
(4) rigid pipes
(5) articulatiou for height mid
sideways self iug
(6) receiver
(7) outlet valves
(8) cye/oue
(9) safety valve
(10) souud avsorver
( 11 ) rotary pistou vlower
(12) air outlet
(1 3) dust outlet
(1 4) variey outlet
2.1.2 Cleaning and grading the barley
Barley cleaning consists of removing every-
thing which is not barley. This includes, for ex-
ample, fragments of straw, sack binders, pieces
of wood, nails, screws, wire, stones, seeds other
than barley, broken kernels etc.
Of course it is not possible to remove all this
foreign material with a single machine. Barley
to the pre-cleaning of the barley in this device: Fig. 2.5 shows an older model of an aspirator,
the larger components, such as sack binders, from which the basic principle can easily be seen.
pieces of wood, etc., and the smaller compo- The dust-containing air is sucked off (4). Howe-
nents such as grains of sand and abraded par- ver, in the aspirator the air velocity is reduced be-
ticles are removed by sieves, and cause of the increased cross-section. The light
3 dusty air together with very light contami- particles carried in the air are therefore deposited
nants is sucked off. and removed. Removal of the larger and smaller
t (ii)
l T
-3
Fig. 2.6
Sepnrator "Classifier"
(1) frall ie
(2) illiet ltopper @- -
(3) goods distrivutor
cleaning therefore involves several machines (4) distrivutiou vnlve
(5 ) IIl niu sieve
and devices cotu1ected in series. There has been (6) smld sieve
a rapid development of these machines in re- (7) sieve vox
cent years. Consequently one finds very diffe- (8) nspira tioll rillet
rent barley cleaning equipment in different n) vnrley iulet, v) e/enued vm'ley out-
let, c) coullectiou to the dust rel/ toml
maltings. equipmetlt, d) large cOll tamil/mlts
The preparation of the barley (cleaning) con- outlet, e) slltnll coutnmiunuts (smlri,
sists of the following processing stages: etc.) outlet

118
components then occurs through the vibrating
sieves in the lower p art of the machine.
Modern aspirators wo rk similarl y, with the
machine divided in order to perform two sepa-
rate tasks:
a vibratin g sieve unit to sieve out the larger
and sm all er components and,
for removal of light particles, a separate ex-
pansion ch amber w hich re turns m ost of the
suction air used .
An exa mple of a modern asp ira to r is the
"classifier" separator (Biihler, Braunschweig)
(Fig. 2.6). Like all aspirators thi s sepa ra tor con-
tains two sieves for removing the larger and
sm aller contaminants, but it has, of course, sub-
stantially larger dimensions and is designed to
GT -- - --
clean up to 24 t/h . The dri ve is located a t the
centre of gra vity of the case in the form of two
oscillation motors driving meshing gea r w heels
w hich rotate synchronously in opposite directi-
ons but a re heav ily weighted at a particula r re-
gion of their circumference. As a result lateral
vibration is elimin a ted and tran sformed into a
to and fro movement.
Li ght particles can be sucked out of the p ro-
duction s trea m a nd into the attached aspiration
duct and they are then removed in a central
aspiration unit (d ust remover).
For dust rem ova l from the air, circulating air
wiml0wers (Tarare) are nowadays installed on
the equipment. A winnower is a device for re-
mo ving li ght particles from the product stream
Fig. 2.7
Circllintillg air willllower
(1 ) oscillatioll lIIotor
(2 ) cOlltniller vOttOIll witii adjllstavle settillg
(jeed slIoe)
(3) stomge COllta ilier
(4 ) adjllstavle dll ct wnll
(5 ) adjllstillg devicefor tlIe verticnl dllct
(6) air Call troller willI tlIrottle vnlve
(7) expnIisioll e/Inlllver
(8) lIOpper valve
A) IIIIe/ealled varley ill let, B) clenlled vnrley
olltlet, C) IIeavy coI ItnIllill nllts disclInrge, 0 )
nspimted nir cOlltnill illg ligiit colltalllillnllts to
tlIe cyclolle
119
(Fig. 2.7). By mea ns of an oscillation m otor (1), the The iron particles held by the stationary magne t
container base (2) is repeatedly opened slightly (b) on the rotating drum (a) fall off as soon as the
and allows a constant and adjustable flow of bar- d rulll has left the region where the magnet is.
ley to pass out which is immediately subjected to The machines and equipment d escribed in 2
a cmrent of air. This carries light particles up- the following belong to the m ain barley
wards whilst the ba rley falls downwards. The cleaning sta ge .
flow of air passed through can be controlled (5) .
In the upper part of the wilmower the chamber is
enlarged and, as a resul t of the decreased flow ve-
locity, the light particles drop down and are re-
moved at the hoppe r valve (8).
The exhaust air is fed back again through an
air feedback duct and is recirculated for remo-
val of contaminants. About 10 % of the exhaust
air is sent to the central aspirator so that a p ar- Fig. 2.8
ticle vacuum occurs when the kernels are fed in Perlllnlllellt IIIngllet p-- -
and the system operates dus t-free.
2.1.2.2 Magnetic devices
Magnetic devices are built in to operate near the
start of processing so tha t iron parts flo w ing
with the product strea m ca!Ulot cause any da-
mage . Damage occurs as a result of
retention of m etal parts and friction until red
hot or
emission of sparks in fast Huming machines
and consequently
occurrence of du st explosions and fires as
well as
damage to the m achines.
Today almost without exception permanent
magne ts are used . The m agnets retain their
sh'ong magnetic force almost indefinitely thanks
Fig. 2.9
to u se of special m etal alloys. DI'IIIII IIInglletwilli nlltolllntic reIIIOvnl ofiroll pnrts
The permanent magn et is built into a sloping (1) vnrley ill let, (2) vnrley olltlet, (3) iroll pnrts, (4) CO IIII eeti-
plane (Fig. 2.8) and the flow is distributed over all for dll st relllovnl, a) rotntiIIg dl'IlIII, v) IIIngII et vloek, stn-
tiolInry
the entire width. Iron objects must be completely
removed from the magnet regularly. If such
cleaning is neglected, metal objects are dragged
back into the flow and the damage is all the 2.1.2.3 Dry destoner
greater. Whilst the magnet removes iron objects it does
Drum magnet dev ices with automatic remo- not remove those stones which are still present
val of iron objects can also be used (Fig. 2.9) . beca use they are about the same size as the bar-

120
ley kerne ls. To remo ve these a dry destone r is
u sed (Fi gs. 2.10 and 2.10a) .
The ba rley passes through the inlet (6) onto
an inclined working plane (1) which is made to
vibrate by an oscillation motor (2) . This results
in an upward transfer which moves the objects
lying on the wire mesh upwards . A constant
s tream of air lifts the lighter kernels slightly,
and they flow downwards on this air cushion
over the inclined plane below them, whereas
the heavie r small stones are carried further up-
wards by the vibrating sieve and thus move to
the discharge outlet (9).
Dry destoners are fOlmd less often in maltings
because such small stones do not interfere with
production there. Instead they are being used
more and more often in breweries where they
are installed before the mios to prevent damage
to the rollers and rapid bllmting of the fluted rol-
lers and thus to increase their service life.
2.1.2.4 Deawner
Generally, awns are removed from the barley
during threshing. Consequently, no equipment
is normally n eeded to do this. However, barley
batches may be delivered which are not suffi-
ciently deawned. In this case the barley mus t be
passed through a d eawner (Fig. 2.11).
Nowadays the deawner is installed - if at all-
as an abrading machine. It usually consists of a
perforated metal sheet cylinder which is SUl"-
rOlmded by a steel sheet casing. In the cylinder
a rotor is moved which moves the kernels wit-
hout striking them.
The abrading drive moves the mass of grains
towards the outlet. As a result of the operation
of the abrader, the grains rub firmly against one
another and consequently the awns break off.
There is, howeve r, also more material rubbed
off which at the end emerges with the barley
from the deawner.
..... I.'
" ley at the site of breakage so damaged barley
Fig. 2.lOa
Direclioll of IIIOVelllelll 011 Ille sepamtillg sieve
Newer abrading m achines achieve their abra-
din g effect by the in teraction between rotor
nubs and the sieve casing or between static and
mo ving nubs.
Because at least one aspiration duct or a win-
nower must therefore be ins talled after it, it is
more sensible to install the deawner before the
aspirator and to arrange that it is only switched
on temporarily when necessary.
2.1.2.5 Grain cleaner (trieur)
Barley always contains small amounts of sphe-
rical weed seeds and broken barley. Weed seeds
decrease malt quality and moulds grow on bar-
121
must be removed. Also, the grains can no lon-
ger ge rminate if the seedling has been damaged
or removed. However, such g rains are not re- 2
moved durin g pre-cleaning since they are the
sa me size as the barley kernels. Gra in cleaners
(tri eur cy lind e rs) are u sed to re move them.
The grain cleaner (trieur) consis ts of a steel
sheet or stainless steel cylinder with a 2 to 3%
incline, a diameter of 40 to 70 cm and a leng th
which - d epending on the p e rfo rmance requi-
red - can have a peripheral speed of 1.0 to 1.5
m/s. Semi-circular pocke ts are pressed into the
interior cylinder wall and - depending on the
g rain req uirements - the size of these recesses is
between 1.25 and 26 mm. For ba rley cleaning
6.5 mm diameter pockets are used.
Barley is introduced into the cleaner and the cy-
linder rotated at a speed of 20 to 50 rpm. The bar-
ley grains are carried up by the rota ting cylinder
until they fall out again when they have reaclled a
certain height because of their own weight. TIlis
process is repeated several times whilst the barley
slowly slides along the bottom of the cylinder and
is removed at the end (Fig. 2.12).
Spherica l seeds and broken barley are howe-
ver carr ied further upwards in the pockets.

2
Fig. 2.10
Dry desloller
(1) slopillg workillg plalle
(2) drivefrol1l Il,e oscillalioll 1110101'
(3) direclioll ill wll icll fi,e oscillalioll
1110101' opem tes
(4) coverillg IIood
(5) aspimtioll colllleclioll alldillroll- Fig. 2.11
Ie valve Abmdillg demull illg l1Iacilill e
(6) barley illiet willi aspim lioll duel
(7) barley ollilel (1) barley ill iel
(8) s lolles (2) avmdillg discs
(9) stolles outiel (3) cnsillg
(10) elld of tile sepamlillg regioll (4) 011 tiel fro111 cnsillg
(11) barley patll (5) varley olltiet
(12) air sllpply (6) dlls l re1110val
122
b re preferred. Sm all kernels take up water more
Fig. 2.13
Higlt pel!orlllollce grnill cleoll er willt excllnllgeoble cosillg
segl/lell is
They do n ot fall out as a result of their own
weight until they are in the upper part of the
clean er and they are caught in a h'ou gh and
transported to the outlet. This typ e of trieur is
known as a spherical seed trieur.
With long grain h'iems, in comparison, the va-
luable p roduct (in this case the barley) is selected
fro m amongst the waste product (e.g. oats).
Fig. 2."12
Grnill cleoller (trie l/ r)
0) IOllgifl/dillol secfioll
b) frnll sverse cross-seclioll
(1) frie l/ r cnsillg
(2) 1II0ill sllnff
(3) fm l/glt
(4) screw call ve l/or
(5) screw cOllveyor drive
(6) borley ill ief
(7) borley " kid ll cy"
(8) borley ol/ tlef
(9) brokell borley ol/tlel
In m altings, spherica l grain trieurs are almost
exclusively used.
The separati on limit between the two fra cti-
ons can be controlled, not only by the cell size,
but also by the h eight of the edge of the trough
and the rotation speed. The height of the edge
of the trough is therefore adjus table from the
outside. It may occur that short, fat barley ker-
nels are carried off in the trough, which would
lead to a loss. On the other hand, it is possible
for half-corns to remain in the main stream and
consequentl y reduce the quality. In order to
avoid thi s, often on e or more subsidiary
cleaning cylinders are installed after the main
cylinder and thereby a very precise selection
can b e obtained .
Large high-performance cleaners often ha ve
exchangeable casing segments. Often there are
also built-in baffles w hich prevent layering of
lighter and heav ier corns within the b a rley
"kidney" (Fig. 2.13) which would decrease the
perfo rma nce of the clea ner. N owadays, clea-
ners with an hourl y th roug hp u t of up to 15 ta re
made.
2.1.2.6 Barle y grading
2.1.2.6.1 Basis of grading
Up to thi s s tage in barley cleanin g, large and
small fo reign particles, dust, iron p articles and
rOlmd bodies h ave been rem oved . Th e barley
now consists - ap art from sm all admixtures o f
other cereal corns of app roxim ately the same si-
ze as barley - of va rious sizes of barley kernels.
Large, thick-belli ed ke rn els contain m ore
starch th an sm ail, thin kernels and are therefo-
qu ickly than large ones during steeping and
would result in uneven malt quality if they we-
re not separated. The barley is therefore sorted
into frac tions of even kernel size by lIsing sieves
with 2.2 and 2.5 mm slit w idths in order to ob-
tain homogen eous malt.
Beca use the differen ce in wa ter uptake bet-
ween larger and sm aller corns is initially very
large but then becomes progressively sm aller,
nowadays more and more maltings eliminate
grading and malt all the corns together (mainly
with corn w idths above 2.2 mm). Grading is
then firs t p erformed w ith the finished m alt.
Much more important than the kernel size is the
varietal purity o f the batch o f barley.
By means of the two sieves the barley is divi-
ded into th ree frac tion s:
Frn ctioll 1
First gmde 01' plll111p bnrley
This is the fra cti on whi ch is retained by the 2.5
nUll slit sieve. The plump barl ey consists of the
larges t and plumpest ke rnels from which the
highest y ield is to be exp ected and which are
therefore most suitable fo r malt and beer p ro-
duction. The size of the plump barley fra ction
should be as large as possible. It is an important
123
qua li ty criterion of the barley wh ich therefore
affects the price.
Frn ctioll 2 2
Seco lld grnde qllnlity
This desc ripti on is app li ed to the barley ft'acti-
on w hi ch p asses through the 2.5 mm sieve but
is reta illed by the 2.2 mm sieve . This frac ti on
should only be small. The second grade barley
is often processed sepa rately.
Screelli IIgs
Every thing which passes through the 2.2 mm
sieve is included in this descripti on. The scree-
nings consist m ainly of low va lue, thin corn s
and are unu sable fo r malt produ ction. They are
a va lu able cattle feed. The highest screenings
content sh ould be at most 2.5% bu t lower va lu-
es may be agreed by sup plier and customer.
The size of the screenings frac tion depends on
the harves t yea r.
Depending on the shape of the sorting sheet,
a diffe rentiation is m ade between grading cy-
linders and plansifters.
2.1.2.6.2 Grading cylinder
Th e gra ding cylinder con sis ts of a ro tatin g,
sli ghtly sloping cylind rical sheet s tee l fra me,
about 0.6 m in diam eter and 2 to 3 m long, on
which sieves containing slits about 25 mm long
are s tre tched . The slits in the front sieves are
2.2 111m w id e. In the second half of the cylinder
the slits are 2.5 ml11 wide. In the case of cylin-
ders with a large throughput there is a separate
cy linder for each grade.
Whils t the "kidney-shaped" mass of barley
moves slowly downwards, eve ry grain com es
re p ea tedl y into contact w ith su ch slits. The
grain either fa lls through or remains restillg on
the slits. When, the di ameter of the
kernel is exactly the same as the slit vvidth, it
sticks. To prevent such se ttling, a movable rol-
ler brush is u sed to clean the sieve. Beca use the
 125
124

upper part of the cylinder cover does not come 2.1.2.6.3 Plan sifter
into contact with the barley, only about 25 % of A plansifter is a grading machine which con- r ---
i

the sieve surface is used. In modern high-per-
formance grading cylinders, up to almost 50%
of the sieve surface is used because of the pre-
sence of built-in throwing shovels, and at the
same time these prevent corns from never pas-
sing from the middle of the mass of barley to
the outside (Fig. 2.14).
sists of 20 to 28 sieve frames with horizontal sie-
2
ve surfaces arranged above one another. The - --- - - ==-1
plansifter is suspended from tubular rods and - - -==1
is shaken with a rotational movement by an ec-
centric drive. As a result the barley corns are
--- =1
continuously distributed over the entire sieving
surface and continuously change their orienta-
tion and position.
Delivery and removal of the barley is through Fig. 2.16
a cloth tube since a fixed cOlUlection is not pos- How tiTe plallsifter works
sible because of the rotational movement. (opemtillg prillciple)

The plansifter is driven by a motor with a belt
drive from. the vertical shaft or by a co-oscilla-
ting motor. In all cases the motor is cOIU1.ected to
a balance weight made of lead which determi-
nes the circular stroke diameter. This diameter
ii, i \ I
is about 74 mm at 220 rpm .
d b
The sieve frames (Fig. 2.15) consist of the gra-
Fig 2.14 ding sheet cut in a criss-cross pattern (1) bene-
illcrease ill size of tiTe grnriillg s1llface vy I/se of a riistrivl/tillg
tunzcr ath which a wide-mesh ball screen (2) is located
a) grnriillg cylillriel; v) lIigiT-perfoJ"ll/allce grnri illg cylillrier with a moderately large gap . Between the wide-
mesh screen and the grading sheet there are
rubber balls (3), belt elements or plastic moul-
ded pieces, which are maintained in a continu-
Grading cylinders have a throughput of 1 to
ously bouncing movement by the eccentric mo-
6 t/h.
vement and thereby prevent blocking of the
Because of the very low performance and the
grading sheet by those kernels which have ex-
relatively high space requirements, grading cy-
actly the same size as the holes. Section dividers
linders are now only fOlmd in very small and
(4) are provided so that the balls or shaped pie-
old malti.ngs.
Fig. 2.15
Grnriillg elelllellt
(1) grnriil/g plate
(2) vall screCIJ
(3) mvver vall
(4) sectioll riivirier
(5) colleelillg trny
TiTe illflowillg varley is riivirieri ill to severnl partial
strealllS wiTiciT pass separn tely over sieves witiT a 2.5
111111 slit wiritll allritiTell over severn I 2.2 111111 slit ele-
meJlts.
TiTis is Ilecessllry vecal/se IIIOS t of tiTe varley cOll sists
of pi 11111 I' vnrley, tiTe kemels of1llllicil are 2.5 111111 or
Inlger ill size allriwitiT tiTis IIlelilOritiTese nJlritiTe
gmrie 2 grnills are well sepnrnteri. TiTe sllwller
mllOl/llt of screellillgs allritlle large IIInterial m'e
tiTell sieveri Ol/t ill afew screellillg elelllellts.
ces remain in the same section. Plastic moulded
pieces as bottom cleaners on the collecting tray
keep the screen bottom clean.
Modern plansifters are nowadays built as
stack sieve sifters. In these the sieving elements
are arranged beside and above one another, as in
a chest of drawers, in such a way that all the sie-
ve elements are well utilised. For this purpose the
sh'eam of inflowi.ng goods is divided into several
partial sh'eams (Fig. 2.16) and, depending on the
fractions of the various sorts, distributed on seve-
ral sieves. As a result very good grading is obtai-
ned. In the diagram of the high performance
"quadrostar" plansifter (Fig. 2.17), the middle
section is opened and the layers of sieve ele-
ments can be seen.
Another arrangement of the planar grading
elements is shown in the sieve diagram of the
grading machine TS 200 of Schmidt Seeger,
25 mmSieve
22mm Sieve
Siave
UII$OIIed billie},
First grllde
SclcCfld gmdd + S<.:fOOning5
Firs/grade
Cros.rover
Sewlld g1iW6
Screenlllg
Beilngries (Fig. 2.18). The barley is distributed
onto large sieving surfaces and graded. Rubber
balls and shaped pieces keep the sieve surfaces
free. Dust-containing air is sucked off and after
coarse dust removal about 85% is recirculated .
A smaller amount of the dust-containing air is
led into the central aspirator. Dust removal is
not shown in the diagram (see Sect. 2.1.2.1,
winnower).
Grading plants giving very good sorting are
nowadays built with a capacity of 15 tlh or more.
2.1.3 Transfer of barley and malt
In the maltings not only barley but also green
malt and finished malt must be repeatedly
transported . Malt must also often be moved in
the brewery until it is milled.
Since in all cases very large amolmts of bulk
material have to be moved, there is an advan-

126
tage in keeping the transp ortation path as sh ort
as possible and employ ing mean s of transport
which keep the transfer cost as low as p ossible.
)
In this connecti on basica lly two groups of
Fig. 2. 19 transportation mea ns ca n be distinguish ed :
Bllcket cOllvcyor or mechan ical transportati on m ean s, by which
elevator the bulk m aterial is moved m echanically, and
(1) IIpper plllley
wit II ririve
pneumatic transp ortati on mean s, by w hich
(2 ) lower Pllllell the bulk materi al is moved through pipes by
witii tellsiollillg a stream of ai r.
rievice
(3) collveyor belt
witii bllckets
2.1.3.1 Mechanical conveyors
(4) ensillg Mechanical con veyors move the goods by me-
(5) bottolll I rollgii
or glitter
I ans of mech anically m oved p arts. They can be
divided into:
(6) riisclwrge olltlet
buc ket conveyo rs o r eleva tors for vertical
h'iU1sportation,
screw conveyo rs,
troughed chain conveyors, and
conveyor belts for horizontal tran sport.
Fig. 2.17 "qllnriros tnr" lIigli per[orlllnilce pln llsifter (B iilIlel; Brn lilisclIweig)
lvliririle port ioll opweri; sOllie of ti,e grnriillg elellleli ts enll be sew. 2.1.3.1.1 Bucket conveyor or elevator
TlI e grnriillg elelllelits nre nrrnllgeri nbove olle nllDtl,er nllri enll, if lIecessary, be ensily rellloveri for clenll illg, repnir or repincellleli t Construction: The eleva tor (Fig. 2.19) consists of
by otlIers. TlI e SlIspelisioll of tlIe plnllsifter cnll nlso be clenrly seell. A rigiri cOlillectioll bYlllenlis of rolntillg elelllelits II ses 1II0re
an endless belt (3) made of can vas, plastic or
magy nllri is sllbject to 1II0re wenr.
chains, which is moved over two rollers (1 and 2)
arranged verticall y above one another. Buckets,
each of w hich contains 2 to 15 I of barley or
malt, are attached to it w ith a sp acing of 0.3 to
0.4 m.
The buckets are m ad e of
welded sheet s teel,
deep draw n sh eet (Columbus buckets), or
plas tic.
The elevator dri ve is applied to the upper
pulley (1) since this bea rs the entire weight of
the belt.
Fig. 2.1S
The bucket elevator has a tensioning device (2)
TS 200 grnriillg screcller at its bottom end by means of which the elevator
(Sclllilirit Seegel; Beilligries) belt (3) must always be held lU1der tension.
To avoid accidents and prevent losses, the
(1) Grnrie 1
(2) Grnrie 2
eleva tor is enclosed by metal sheeting or (in ol-
(3) screellillgs der plants) by wood (4). In the latter case there
(4) Inrge IIIn terinl is an increased fire haza rd .
l
127
Ope rat ion : Th e belt an d b u ckets are moved
in the case of barley at a m ax im u m of 4 m /s
a nd in the case of m alt a t a maximum o f 2.5
m/s. The bucke ts scoop the goods to be con - 2
veyed fro m th e bottom tro u gh (5 ) and carr y
th e good s upwa rd . Th e bu cke ts empty as
th ey reverse direction a t the upper pull ey
and th e good s are di scharged into th e outlet
p ip e (6).
For green m alt transp ort, chain eleva tors or
belts toge ther w ith a lattice drum as the drive
unit are used to prevent lopsided running of the
belt resulting from the pl acing of we t goods on
the belt.
Ad van tages: Bucket eleva tors are, becau se of
their low energy usage, the ch ea pes t conveyor
means for ve rti cal transport and consequently
they are wid ely used. They are easy to operate
and with little ca re and m aintenan ce are very
reli able in op eration .
Disadvantage: The bottom trough (gutter) is
never completely empty. This is particularly dis-
ad vantageous if one wants to transport d ifferent
goods with the same elevator. The gutte r therefo-
re has to be cleaned after each use. If the electrici-
ty supply fails it can happen that the elevator
rlUlS backwards because the filled buckets on the
ri sing side pull the belt downward s. Conse-
quently, a re turn stop mech anism is usu ally
provided . Elevators are d angerous conveying
mea ns because rubbing belts or bu ckets, if not
numing s traight, can cause fires and du st ex-
plosions. Consequently, eleva tors in large
pl ants are controlled by rotation speed and cor-
rect n uming monitors. To prevent the belt from
becoming lopsided, the driving pulley is slight-
ly roun ded, i.e. higher in the middle than at the
sides.
In s lll all plants bucket eleva to rs are fre-
quentl y Ll sed in the form of round discs which
are fixed sh ort di stan ces ap ar t fro m each other
and are transp orted in n on -slip plas tic pipes
(Fig.2.19a).

128
When rotating, the screw pushes the barley
or malt gently forward to the discharge positi-
on provided in the form of a discharge slide.
2 Emptying is performed easily by opening one
of the discharge chutes arranged beneath the
trough. The trough must only be about a third
full since otherwise the amount carried in the up-
per section will be transported back again.
Advantages: Despite a high energy usage the
screw con veyo r is an inexpensive conveying de-
vice for hori zontal tran sfer (or inclined up to
30 0q. For h'ansport over short distances in mal-
tings, screw conveyors are therefore genera lly
used.
Disadva ntages: There must always be 3 to
5 mm clearance between the trough and the path
of the screw, otherwise the screw scrapes against
Fig.2.19n the trough . Consequently it is impossible to emp-
SIIInIl vllcke t
ty the trough completely. This is particularly dis-
cO ll veyor witll
advantageous in the case of green malt transfer.
roll/lit discs
Moreover, the edges of the screw become very
sharp over a period of time and can damage the
2.1.3.1.2 Screw conveyor grains - particularly during green malt transfer.
As in the past, screw conveyors are the most of- The screw turns are installed
ten-used conveying elements for horizontal as complete turns in the conventional m an-
transfer of bulk goods such as barley and malt. ner,
A sheet steel screw (or worm) is moved by a as band turns with an open interior,
shaft in a s teel trough which is pro tected as pallet turns, similar to band turns, but with
against lUlauthorised access by a remo vable co- staggered semi-arches,
ver (Fig. 2.20). The screw is supported on be- as paddl e screws with separate paddles
(Fig. 2.21).
arings 2 to 3 m apart so that it does not sag. The
Screw conveyors can also be fOlUld in their
shaft is driven by a motor; the shaft rotation
various forms arranged vertically for hlrning
speed is less than 200 rpm and so a gea ring of
green malt in pneumatic plants.
the motor is necessary.
Fig. 2.20
Screw collveyo r
(1) trollg"
(2) tm llgll cover
(3) illterllledinte venrillg
(4) Jillnl ven rillg
(5) disclwge oll tlet
(6) drive
129
A conveyor simil ar to the screw con veyor is w ith it. The ch ain conveyor - particul arly when
the "flex au ger" . This conveyor consists of a running unloaded - cau ses a considerable
spring steel screw with no sh aft which rotates amo unt of n oise becau se the links of the chain
in a flex ible polyethylene pipe and thereby mo- rub on the m etal bottom. 2
ves the goods . The pipe, which is completely The drive is prov ided by a sprocket wheel in
emptied by the adjacent screw thread, can also the dri ve unit. Discharge of the product, in the
be installed in curves and inclination s up to 45° . case of a pulling chain, occurs entirely at the
dri ve station, but can also occur at intermediate
outlets. The trough is not emptied co mpletely.
Chain conveyors are dust-free in operation
a nd w ith regard to power cons umption are
eq ua l to or better than mos t other conveyors.
1. Ful l thread
2.1.3.1.4 Belt conveyors
Gentle transportation and low energy require-
ments characterise belt conveyors. The b elt
need s a relatively large amount of space; howe-
ver it can also be used for transporting large lo-
ads. Intake and discharge positions have to be
2. Pa llet thread
arranged in such a way as to prevent loss of the
product and production of dust. The discharge
position can be varied .
h
3. Padd le thread Fig. 2.21
T!JIles of screw
tll/'llS
2.1.3.1.3 Troughed chain conveyor
The troughed chain con veyor is a transporting
device for horizontal and also inclined trans-
port (synonym: Redler).
An endless skeleton link chain with specifi-
cally arranged crosspieces runs at a speed of 0.4
to 0.6 m/s in a rectangular flat trough (Fig. 2.22).
The trough can be 2/3 to 3/4 filled with barley or
malt. When the chain moves it carries the goods
Fig . 2.22
Trollglled c/lnill cOllveyor (Redler)
130 131

The conveyor belt Ll suall y consists of rubber
and canvas plies. Depending on the goods to be
conveyed it is made flat or trou gh-like (Fig,
2.23). Trough-like bands ha ve a hig her perfor-
man ce than fla t ones because they ca n contain a
grea ter amoullt of goods without danger of los-
ses ,
The belt is moved at a speed of 2 to 3 m/s. The
belt is maintained ta ut by a tensioning device
comprising a tensioning pulley. The drive is
u sually provided by an electric belt drum,
2.1.3.2 Pneumatic conveyors
In addition to m echanical conveyors, pneuma-
tic conveyors are used in maltings and brewe-
ries for illternal transportation of unpackaged
compressed air con veyo rs with raised pres-
sure in the conveying ducts
2.1.3.2.1 Suction conveyors (Fig. 2.24)
In suction conveyors the barley can be su cked
in at man y positions if the du cting is provided
with sufficient branches, However, the goods
are de li ve red only mto the receiver (Fig, 2.25),
w hi ch is therefore connected at the highest po-
siti on, i,e, above the kiln, above the ba rley floor 2
or above the steep vessel.

9L...-_ _ _-----IF 1
goods,
In pneuma tic conveyors the barley or malt is Explnllnliol1 s to Fig, 2.24
ca rried inside pipes by a powerful stream of air.
To keep the conveyed goods in su spension, an Equipment item Task Cons truction Remarks
air velocity of 11 m/s is required. But to move
the goods a substantially higher air speed must Suction nozzle (1) a ir su ction adjustable double It must always be possibl e
be used, usually between 20 and 30 mis, The or walled pipe to suck in sufficient a ir or else
stream of air is produced by rotary piston blo- the pipe will becom e blocked,
wers or high pressure fans. Discharge hopper suck in barley for introdu ction of Air is su cked m and ca rries
Fig, 2,23 Advantages of pneumatic conveyillg are su fficient air the barley with it.
Roller positiolls for collveyor bel ts large loads can be conveyed Flexible pipe (2) allow mo vable spiral pipe
(1) simple belt little space is needed positionillg of the
(2) trollgh-shaped belt
no residues remaill in the equipment suction device
(3) trollgll-shaped belt witll middle roller
the transfer path can be arranged very flex i- Conveyin g pipe (3) further tran sport pipe about 15 to Graills rub on the pipe wa ll
bly of the air and the 20 cm diameter a t sharp bends & gradu a ll y
there is no fire risk, sucked-ill barley with large bends wear it away. By attachillg
On the other hand the energy requiremen t is branches a highly branched
considerably hig her than with mechani cal system of suction points
transfer. can be produced,
There are two types of pneumatic conveyor: Separa tor retention of the vessel with con ical The segmented w heel only
suction conveyors with reduced pressure in (discharger) (4) barley outlet in w hich a removes the conveyed goods
8
the conveying ducts and mechanica lly driven but lets no air in. The dus t-
I segmented w heel is contamillg conveying air is
fitted and sea led sucked out through a filter
{j \ 3
Fig,2,24 (Fig. 2,25) caltridge.
SlIctioll collveyor (opernt illg prillciple) Aspiration pipe (5) cOlUlection to stronger pi pe consequently lower air
(1) slI ctioll I/Ozzle the blower velocity
(2) flexib le pipe
Dust filter (6) dus t removal see Sect. 2.1.4.2 In addition, water filters
(3) cOll veyillg pipe
(4) separntor for air cleanillg are often used ,
(5) aspirntioll pipe Blower (7) suck in the high pressure
(6) dllst filter convey ing air fan
(7) blower
2

J
(8) ail' discharge
1 (9) barley ill take The goods to be conveyed must be filled into the nozzle or hopper cal'efully so that the equip-
9
(10) barley discharge ment does not become blocked.
132 133

Comparison of the properties of pressure and Overall, the equipment and operating costs slugs, by an intermittent supply of compressed
suction equipment: of pneumatic plants are much higher than for air. A flow of air keeps the grains in a slightly di-
mechanical conveyors. They are used primarily spersed state and thus makes the forward move-
5- Pressure Suction in bu ildings where it is necessary to transport ment of the slugs easier. This provides a very 2
pnerunatic pneumatic large amounts of goods with many changes of gentle conveyance of the goods at speeds of 3 to
Airflow almost always mostly high direction. 15 m/s and results in the plant being very econo-
producer rotary piston pressure fans But direction changes cause a serious pro- mical in operation. The power requirement is up
blowers blem. The barley which is carried in the air has to 40% less than with conventional pneumatic
Goods always by suction nozzle a greater inertia than the air and attempts to conveyance. Periodic pressure conveyors are al-
-3 inlet hopper continue to fly straight on at every bend (Fig. so constructed for very high throughputs (up to
Goods with or without hopper always 2.27). This damages the grains and with time 50 t/h) and for greater distances.
discharge hopper necessary the grains wear a hole in the bend. To prevent Pneumatic slow conveyors move the goods at
Transfer relatively slow high this, the curves are made very wide, with thick a lower speed but Calmot become permanently
speed walls. blocked if, for example, the plant ceases to be lU1-
Goods all types not possible der pressure as a result of a prolonged power fai-
discharger possible in cells llue. When the ClUTent is switched on again, at
Operating can be lugh, relatively low first a large slug is formed which is separated
pressure long from the inlet end lU1til the conveying pipe is lU1-
conveying paths blocked . In the brewery tlus is used, for example,
possible for mechallical trallSportation of spent grains.

Fig. 2.25 2.1.4 Equipment for dust removal

Oischnrger (sepnmtOl; receiver) Fig. 2.27
Dust always sticks to the surface of barley and
Flow of gmill s nl n
(1) IlOlIsillg belld
(2) seglllCllted wheel with drive
(3) nir slIpply pipe
(4) sieve cnrtridge Another developnlent is
J
Q
,"
(5) dll st-col/tnillillg nir olltlet
the slow conveyor. This is a ( ). ',
system in which the goods 0 .j

{i are conveyed not in a stream (X l C1

I of air but in slugs (Fig. 2.28).
t The goods introduced from
2.1.3.2.2 Compressed air conveyors the goods intake into the hop-
In compressed air conveyors (Fig. 2.26) the per are divided into indivi- air compressor
{- - -- ----- l
goods are introduced in the hopper. By means du al sections, the so-called
: q> Control panele> Product mteed
of a segmented rotary discharger the goods are ! . j ( /I)Dlra {ifl
introduced into the pipeline in which a strong
If • I
air stream flows. In order to be able to add
goods at several sites, the hopper has someti- '1;
Q T r-:::
I ,
mes been made movable. Discharge is through Fig. 2.26
COIllpressed nir cOllveyor (opemt illg principle)
a cyclone, but the discharged air stiU contains (1) nir COl1lpreSSOl; (2) hoppel; (3) collveyil/g pipe, (4) olltlet
dust. Movable air compressors with quick-fit vessel, (5) nir illlel, (6) bnrlelj illPllt, (7) bnrley dischnrge, Fig 2.28
".

pipelines are used for malting barley storage. (8) nir disclwrge to cel/lml dllst relllover Slow cO ll veyor wi th pllised delivery
134
malt kernel s and an unpredi ctable but clearly
d etectable amount is released with every move-
ment of the goods.
The dusty air mus t, at all places at which it is
formed, be sucked off and the du st removed be-
cause
it is liable to cause explosions,
it spoils the working conditions,
it makes the working space and machinery
dirty, and
it is a source of infection.
The dust-containing air must therefore be
sucked away from all places where it occurs.
For this a dus t removal or aspiration plant is
used. The dust removal equipment can be re-
cognised by the large ducts since a large volu-
me of air mus t be withdrawn for dust removal.
The air flow required for this is produced by
an axial or radial fan (see Sect. 10.5.2). The dust
may be separated from the air stream
by cyclones, or
by filters .
2.1.4.1 Cyclones
A cyclone (Fig. 2.29) consists of a cylindrical up-
per part (1) into which air is blown tangentially.
The cyclone tapers conically downwards. In it
the dust particles are forced outwards by centri-
fugal force, slide downwards and are dischar-
ged through an outlet hopper (4) and packed
into sacks. The cleaned air exits from the top (6) .
A cyclone never removes dust completely from
a stream of air. A residual amOlmt of fine particles
leaves the cyclone in the air stream. The dischar-
ge of air with a residual dust content is no longer
tolerated, especially in densely populated areas,
and it would infringe on official regulations con-
cerning pollution of the environment.
Modern plants therefore u se a cyclone only
as a pre-separator. Even though, in modern se-
paration results more from centrifugal force
than through the settling of dust as a result of
deceleration, completely sa tisfactory dust re-
135
5 covered with dust. Even without defects the re- suit the dust falls down to the bottom illld is re-
sidual dust slowly passes into all spaces and gra- moved. The air supply is then restar ted and the
5
dually completely covers everything. next section cleillled. This process is extremely
Frequently suction tubular filters (Fig. 2.30) audible. 2
are still found in maltings. Here the dust-con-
taining air passes into the tube from the bottom 2.1,4.2.2 Newer types of dust filters
and is drawn off at the top of the filter. Up to 18 Newer types of dust filter are consh'ucted as nozz-
tubes are suspended in each of 3 to 8 chambers. le filters, but other types also achieve air cleaning
The tubes are 13 to 20 cm in diameter illld 1.8 to using very little space, which sa tisfies the require-
2.8 m long. For cleaning, the unit is taken out of ments of the enviromnent protection regulations.
operation, i.e. the air stream is cut off. By means
of a special mechanism above the tubes, the lat-
ter are slackened and then re-tightened. As a re-
Fig. 2.29
eyclolle (relllOvnl 6
of dll St, etc.)
(1) illlet, (2) sepnmtor Calle, (3) illspectiollwilldow, (4) ollllet
lock, (5) illllllersioll pipe, (6) clenlled nir olillet, (7) dllst pnrl i-
cle ollllel
moval CillUl0t be obtained. Truly satisfactory
dust removal Cilll only be obtained with filters.
2.1.4.2 Dust filters Fig. 2.3 1
Separation of dus t from an air stream by a filter Nozzle jet filter
allows separation of dust particles down to (1) filter tlloe, (2) dllst-
about 6 pm in size. Such air can be considered cOlltnillillg nil; (3) dllSI,
(4) 1I0zzle, (5) co111pres-
to be clean. Absolutely dust-free air Cilllnot be sed nir (n) nil' pnssnge
produced on the large industrial scale or only at dllrillgjiltmtioll, (0)
enormous cost. senvellged nir to clenll .
.
' : ', -
the filter tlloes, (6) fnlse ,
OOtt0111, (7) stnr wheel,
2.1.4.2.1 Older type dust filters (8) clenlled nir 13
The oldest type of dust filters are the pressure tu-
bular filters which are now only encOlmtered in
old factories. Up to 100 cloth tubes into which 2.1.4.2.2.1 Nozzle filters
the dust-containing air is blown are stretched A nozzle filter (Figs. 2.31 & 2.32) consis ts of a
vertically between two chambers. A rake moving cylindrical and a conical part. In the cylindrical
Fig. 2.30
up illld down sweeps the dust inside where it SlIclioll III/JIIlnrjiller (old type)
part there are tubes, up to 3 m long, consisting
falls down illld is trilllsported away. But if there (1) filter chn111oel; (2) filler tlloes, (3) tlloe siispelldel; (4) col- of plastic threa d wound on wire baskets. As a
are defects the entire sUITolmdings are thickly leclioll trollgh, (5) collected dllst cOllvey01; (6) cOlllrol device result of tangential introduction of the dust-
136
contain ing air, part of the dus t is removed by
centrifu gal force. The air then flows through
the tubes and is thereby cleaned. The tubes are
cleaned in turn by the nozzles arranged in the
top part of the filter above each tube, with a
short but powerful jet of a ir. As a result of this
Fig. 2.32
Cross-sectioll of n/iller e1e- sudden pressure blow fr o m inside, the dust
II/ellt particles adhering to the ou tside of the sleeves
are shaken off. They fall down and are removed
by a segm ented wheel.
The control device responsible operates pneu-
m atically. During the cleaning of a sleeve all ot-
her sleeves remain fully operational so there is
no interruption . The nozzle filter is designed for
airflows of up to 800 m 3/min. Today all filters are
pressure surge resistant and provided with pres-
sure release valves to. minimise the consequen-
ces of any possible dust explosion.
-
- "
Fig.2.33n
Dingralll sl!owillg cleollillg of n fillcr pocket
(I) dll st-colltnillillg nil; (2) cnked dllst, (3) clenlled nil; (4)
slIpport fra ll/e, (5) filter clotl!, (6) coli/pressed nir jet
I .....- • ...
2.1.4.2.2.2 Other modern air filters
A problem with air filtra tion is the space requi-
rement. With pressure tubular filters, 1 to 1.5 m 3
air/min and m 2 filte r surface are required, and
j with suction tubula r filters 3 m 3 air/min and m 2
filter surface. In the case of nozzle filters the loa-
ding can be increased to 4 to 9 m 3 air/min and m 2
Fig. 2.33
Airfilter filter surface.
Another alternati ve involves a change from a
rowld form of tube to a more rectangular shape
with a consequent furth er im provement in utili-
sation of the ava ilable space (F igs. 2.33 & 2.33a).
2.2 Drying and storage of barley
The graded barley is not usua lly malted imme-
diately but s tored until processed. In the time
after harvesting the barley goes throu gh a pe-
riod of dormancy which las ts approxim a te ly 6
to 8 weeks (in Centra l Europe), depending on
weather conditions during the harves ting pe-
riod. Dorm an cy en ta ils basic dormancy and
water sensiti vity. During the basic dormancy it
is not possible for the seed ling to germina te.
Water sen sitivity refers to the seedling's stron g
reluctance to take up too much water. Water
sensi tivity subsid es only after a certain period
of time and only then does the barley reach its
full germinative energy. Malting ripeness is the
stage at w hich the barley is full y able to carry
out all its vital functions .
Barley continues to respire during storage and
must therefore be ventilated. Storage is in silos or
storehouses. Moist ba rley cannot be stored and
must be dried before storage. Pest-infected barley
must be gassed to kill the harmful pests.
2.2.1 Barley respiration
The ba rley embryo lives and respires even du-
rin g storage w hen all life processes are limited
to a minimum. During respira tion, chemical
changes occur which can be sUlllmarised by the
following formula:
--_.-
Intl'a(,f'l lulal' I'f'srira(on ---...
_ _ phOTOsynthesis ....
Fig. 2.33&
Ill tracellll lnr respiratioll
137
This formula reads like a basic formula for li-
fe in ge nera l. Read ing from rig h t to left, it
shows the flU1damental conversion, by photo-
synthesis of foliage plants w ith the aid of SlU1- 2
lig ht, w hi ch produces glucose which, through
po lyme ri sation to s tarch, m akes poss ible the ce-
rea l h a rvests necessary for life as well as proli-
fic p lant growth. Although oxygen is only pro-
duced as a by-product of thi s process, it is
neve rtheless responsible for the majority of the
oxygen in the air necessary for li fe, w hich in the
course of billions of yea rs has increased to ap-
prox. 21 % of the oxygen content of the a ir.
The intrace llul ar respiration (read in g from
left to right) takes place day a nd night in all
cell s of (higher) living creatures (plants, ani-
m als, humans) and serves to supply and con -
ve rt the energy necessary fo r life processes.
Thi s circle of intracellular resp iration and
photosynthesis is carried out daily by foliage
plants during the vegetation period.
Oxygen is n ecessary for intracellul a r respira-
tion. If oxygen is lacking, respira ti o n occurs
with the formation of cell p oisons and the seed-
ling may finally di e. Stored barley must there-
fore be aerated . During respiration it is mainly
starch which is used up - with glucose C 6H I ,0 6
as an intermediate. Mainly sm all sta rch gra nu-
les are broken down. Starch is late r urgently
n eed ed as the most important source of ex tract.
Respiration entails a loss of s tarch which mus t
be kept as small as possible.
The less s tarch is remo ved by respiration, the
smaller the loss during malt production and so
the more profitable the business.
Because barley is stored after h arves t until
processed, it is important to keep the respirati-
on loss as small as possible during this time. Re-
spira tion is affected by the lll ois ture content
and the s torage temperature.
The effect of water content on respira tion is
very la rge. The amOlU1t of carbon dioxide pro-
duced p er kg of barley in 24 h at 20 °C is shown
138 139

in the following table for various moisture con- Barley must be ventilated during storage to Moisture Storage Storage
tents: maintain its viability. Carbon dioxide, water content temperature without d amage
11.0% 0.3mg 17.0% 100mg and heat must be removed and oxygen sup-
12.0% 0.4 mg 19.6% 123mg plied simultaneously. 12.0-13.0 % 9-12 °C indefinite 2
14-15.0% 1.4mg 20.5% 359mg The storage life of a barley batch is increased 13.0-14.5% 8-10 °C 1-1.5 years
30.0% 2000 mg by cooling. 14.5-16.0 % 5-7 °C 4-6 months
With a moisture content of more than 15%,
respiration increases so much that this barley 2.2.2 Barley drying Thus the storage life of moist harvested bar-
must be dried before storage. The moisture content of barley is subject to lar- ley can be increased by cooling . If, however,
The effect of temperature on respiration is ge fluctuations. The average moisture content is dryin g is s till necessary, the dryin g can be pos t-
smaller but still considerable. The amoLmt of about 13 to 14%. In dry harvest years it may be poned by coolin g the ba tch of barley.
carbon dioxide produced per kg of barley in 24 11 to 12 %; with wet harvests it increases to over A good exampl e of a ce real coo ler for cooling
h (at a water content of 14 %) is shown in the fol- 20%. In the case of such wet harvests, the barley barley is the Granifrigor made by the company
lowing table for various temperatures: should be examined to see whether it has been Sul zer Escher-Wyss (Fig . 2.35):
15 °C 1.3 - 1.5 mg 40 °C 20 mg damaged by Fusarium, grain cracking, or hid-
30°C 7.3 - 8.5 mg 52 °C 249 mg den or open germination. ----
If the heat and moisture from respiration of
the stored barley are not removed, a chain reac-
Barley stored wet loses its germinative capa-
city and produces poor malt. Barley containing
'(
(I

:l
tion occurs. Respiration produces heat and wa-
ter. These two factors further accelerate respira-
tion and the barley becomes wetter and
more than 15 % moisture must therefore be
dried before storage. As a result of drying, dor-
mancy is shortened.
7
{ttt I
and in some circumstances moulds grow and Drying is performed either with a hot air (,
i
the barley becomes worthless. drier or a vacuum drier.

Under normal storage conditions with a moi- A hot air grain drier (Fig. 2.34) contains four
sture content of 14 to 1 % the following losses shafts in which the barley to be dried moves
occur during storage: slowly downwards while it is subjected to a
horizontal flow of hot air through louvres
Storage loss in % of the quantity stored which removes the water from the grains. The
temperature of the air supplied depends on
Type of storage Storage time in months the moisture content of the barley, since moist
up to from over barley is temperature sensitive and its germi-
3 3 to 6 6 native capacity can be greatly reduced by too
Badey in bulk rapid heating. In the lower part of the drier,
on floors 1.0 2 3 the cooling section, the dried barley is expo-
in silos 0.5 1 2 sed to a stream of cold, fresh air and thereby
Wheat in bulk cooled. Because most maltings do not have
on floors 0.7 1.4 2.5 their own hot air drier, when necessary, moist
in silos 0.6 1.2 2 barley batches are dried in a kiln at the begin-
ning of the harvesting campaign. The same
From these figures basic rules for barley sto- drying temperatures must be maintained here
rage can be deduced:
in order to avoid damage to the embryos. The
The barley must be stored as dryas possible. barley cannot be stored until it has been coo-
Moist barley must be dried before storage. led.
I
Fig. 2.34
8m'ley drier
.'i
tt t
2.2.3 Barley cooling
It has been mentioned that the barley embryo is
alive and produces heat by respiration. But the
warm er the barley is, the faster the rate of respi-
ration increases and with it the moisture con-
tent and the temperature. However, the moister
and wa nner the barley is, the faster micro-or-
Fig. 2.35
ganism s such as fungi and bacteria grow, as do Bm"iey cooler
insects and their eggs since they then find ideal (1) fresll ail; (2) air cooler willllllllllidily alld lell/pemillre
living conditions. The colder the stored barley colliroller (hygrolherll/), (3) cold air illlel, (4) air dislriblllOl;
(5) cooled gmill regioll, (6) coolillg regioll (II/oves ill tile direc-
is, the more resistant it is . The following table
lioll of Ih e airflow), (7) IIlIcooled gmill regioll, (8) warll/ ail;
shows how storage life depends on moisture (9) fall, (10) exhallsl ail; (11) air-cooled cOlldCllsel; (12) refri-
content and temperature: gemlll colleclol; (13) refrigemlll cOlllpressor
140
The cold air emerging from the cooler enters
the silo to which it is connected from the bottom
(3) and initially cools the lowest layer of barley.
The air wanns up to the temperature of the ce-
real and flows upwards through the silo to the
top. Consequently the air escapes at the top
throughout the cooling time as warm air.
As the cooling progresses, a cool zone deve-
lops which during the cooling period gradually
moves upwards. Cooling is ended when cold air
finally emerges at the top. A storage temperatu-
re below 15 °C is selected. This is particularly im-
portant for protection from insects and mould.
2.2.4 Barley storage
Barley is mostly stored in silos or storage hou-
ses but in older plants may still be stored on the
floor in boxes.
2.2.4.1 Storage in silos
Most silos are made of concrete. They have a
low conductivity, are fireproof, and their main-
tenance costs are low. They are built circular,
rectangular or fitting together like honeycomb
to make good use of the space available . It is cal-
culated that the silo content is 700 kg of bar-
I
I I
, I
::fi '
..,. .. . ,' l
! . ..............
I I ...
"I
'.'.
....\ ......
I I ......
J
I I·' .'\ !
I \ i I
I
L ., . -
Fig. 2.36
Llllllli.rillg dllrillg silo storage nlld elllptyillg
A) lighter goods ZOlle, B) henvier gooris ZOll e, C) zOlle with
lighter goods lleld bnck; (1-3) goods flowillg alit (seqllel/ce nf-
tel' opellillg tile sirie vnlve)
ley 1m3 ; in the case of malt 550 kg/m3 In order to
ensure complete emptying, a discharge angle of
40° is necessary. Nevertheless one 111.ust be awa-
re that silos do not always discharge uniformly
but that - depending on various factors - as a
result of chimney formation mUl1ixing can oc-
cur during emptying (Fig. 2.36).
Silos made of sheet steel are cheaper and ea-
sier to erect. However, they conduct heat very
well. This causes the barley in the edge region
to warm up or cool down more easily and me-
ans that through increased respiration, it may
begin to sweat slightly which can result in the
formation of condensation water.
To prevent mmuxing, silo tubes (Sifero, Bi.ih-
ler) are frequently used for filling and emptying,
which are fixed to the walls or top (Fig. 2.36a) and
consist of cOlmected pieces of pipe. The silo is
thereby filled from bottom to top, and emptied in
the opposite direction, i.e. from top to bottom.
-...... r" ......... ...
... .... r - '"
................... ...... ".,.;
.......... . .. r ..............
..........
....... .,.,
1 store should always be open when the air outsi-
......
Fig.2.36n
ElIlptyillg (1) nlld storage (2) IIsillg silo tllbe
141
It is necessary with all silos to aerate and re- the risk of moisture uptake. A maltster must the·
gularly move the barley. During aeration atten- refore be in a position to check the effect of every
tion must be paid to the air parameters (tempe- weather condition on the aeration operations.
rature, moisture content). Temperature indica- With regard to this, it is important to know that 2
tors are therefore required at various heights in the moisture content of the barley is in equilibri-
the silo for monitoring purposes. um with the relative humidity of the air.
The total silo plant of a maltings should be
designed so that it can accommodate 80 to 100 % Barley with a moishlre is in equilibrium
of the production capacity from a harvest cam- content of (%) with a relative
paign to enable it to be prepared for the new humidity of (%)
harvest. l3.5 60
14.0 65
2.2.4.2 Storage in bins 15.0 70
Storage in granaries is also still usual today, alt- 16.0 75
hough many maltings possess silos, and stora- 17.0 80
ge in granaries is labour intensive and requires 19.0 85
a lot of space. However, grain stores can still be 21.0 90
fOlmd in old and very small maltings where
batches of barley are stored separately in bins The measurement is made with a relative hu-
so that they can be processed separately. midity meter,
To aerate it, the barley is aspirated from one Drying air must be colder than the stored bar-
bin to another. Many maltings have trickle- ley. If the drying air is wanner than the barley it
down storage bins. These are normal bins ar- must have a low relative humidity.
ranged one above another on several floors but The height of the goods in the store depends
containing closable openings at regular inter- on the permitted floor loading and its moishlre
vals in their bases. For aeration the slide valves content.
are opened and the barley trickles over small The moister the malt, the shallower the stora-
distributors into the bin below. ge bed must be.
During storage the barley moisture content is
.......
" .
in equilibrium with the moisture content of the Moisture content Max . height of the
.................. air. This means that the barley can be dried or of the barley (%) storage heap (m)
" .
made more moist by the air. up to 15.5 3
-...... Air cools when it is warmer than the barley in 15.5. - 17.0 2.25
-............
contact with it. Its ability to retain moisture de- above 17.0 1
creases and it transfers water to the barley, re-
. -.
. . ........ sulting in the barley becoming moister. In con- In the case of freshly combine harvested bar-
trast to this, cold air removes moisture from ley the height of the heap of barley must be kept
warm barley. Consequently the windows in the substantially lower since the later ripening and
the transpiration (sweating) process can easily
de is cooler. lead to a rise in temperah1l'e and a consequent
Cold, dry night Ilir Illwllys hils 11 drying effect, reduction in quality.
In spring, however, when the barley is cold, The advantage of easy inspection of the sto-
the external temperature rises and introduces red batches in the case of bin storage is counter-
142
ac ted by the following disad va ntages: grea ter
expend iture of en ergy and labour beca use of
the necessa ry movement of the good s and very
poor s pace utilisa tion . Con seq u entl y, n ew
plants are generally equipped with silos.
2.2.4.3 Pest infestations
In addition to the d amage caused by high moi-
sture content and high temperature, barley is
also subjected to d amage by pests.
2.2.4.3.1 Animal pests
Grain weevils and grain moths are parti cularly
d angerous anim al p ests for b arley.
The grain weevil (Fig. 2.37) is 3 to 4 111m lon g
and multiplies very rapidly. The fem ale grain
weev il lays numerous eggs indi vidually in pre-
viously bored kernels. The larvae ea t the ker-
n els fr om the insid e and then leave them as
weevil s. One can recognise the kernels w hich
have been attacked by the holes. Beca use of the
rapid multiplication of these weevils, the gra in
can be badl y d amaged in a short time. If the d a-
mage is not noticed at an early stage the entire
barley batch can be destroyed .
Fig. 2.37
j Gmill weevil
(Cn/nllrim cnllnrill lll )
As storage temperature increases, so d oes the
activity of the grain weevil; below 12 to 15°C
ac tivity is low. The best protection from a possi-
ble infes tation is to cool the content of the silo
and keep it cool (see Section 2.2.3).
In extreme cases the whole batch of barley is
treated w ith a suitable gas-releasing agent
w hich kills the weevil s and their larvae b ut d is-
appears without residues (e.g. phosphine, Pho-
s toxin, Actellic 50, etc.) . The process has to be
monitored .
Damage also occu rs occasion ally through in-
festation by the g rain moth . It spins a web
which binds the p ar tl y ea ten corns and its Own
crumbly excretion into clumps.
2.2.4.3.2 Plant pes ts
Moulds grow on the surface of barley kernels as
they d o on other n atural p rodu cts.
Most of these mould s are harmless. They de-
velop only on d ecaying p arts of plants and the-
reby play an important role in the natural cycle
of growth and decay. They calUlot dam age li-
ving m aterial. Nevertheless their occurrence is
lmdesirable wh en they sp read wid ely on har-
ves ted cereals as a result of mois t storage. They
can then form cell poison s w hich can be very
lmpleasant [67].
Howeve r, other moulds, the so-called field
flora, have the ability to make use of the cell
contents of the h ost plant as nutrients. Su ch
moulds often cause great economic losses since
they reduce both the quality and the quantity of
agricultu ral product.
Moulds excrete metabolic products, the pri-
mary purpose of w hich is to d evelop new living
space for the mould and to protect it. These pro-
ducts are called mycotoxins (poisonous substan-
ces from moulds) since they are toxic to other
forms of life.
The field moulds which grow in barley
Fli sariulII g rnlllill eal'lllll and
• Fu sarilllll CIIIIII 01'1l111
produce, as the mould mycelium grows in-
side the kernel, m ycotoxins w hich colour the
inside of the corn red . The toxic effect of these
m ycotoxins in temperate zones is gen erall y
small because of the small amounts produced.
However, it is known am ongst maltsters that
when Fusarium is present (red colour of the
corn contents), an occu rrence of the notorious
"gushing" effect can be expected, provided ot-
her conditions are sa tisfi ed .
By gushing is m eant the sud d en outflow and
excessive foaming of beer on opening the bott-
le. This unsightly effect occurs frequently in so-
me yea rs particularl y in yeas t beers and dama-
ges the re putation of the brewery (see Sect.
7.2.2).
As well as the conditi ons in the fields and in
storage, the conditions du ring malting also
play an important role fo r mould infestation of
barley and malt. Whereas mould spores are
washed from the ex terior of the corn du ring
steeping, the mould grows and reproduces in
the interior of the corn during germination and
is only killed on a large scale during kilning .
This applies in p arti cul ar to the species of
mould Fusarium. As this is then fa r too late,
special attention h as therefore to be paid to con-
tamination by moulds during maturation, har-
vest and storage.
The formation of m yco toxins by mould infe-
stations can also be d angerous for humans if,
particularly Lmder tropical or subtropical condi-
tions, the mycotoxin aflato xin is produced (e.g.
inside maize corns or rice). It is therefore neces-
sary to inspect cereals fo r any p ossible mould
infections and to look for any mycotoxins alrea-
dy formed. In the case of m yco toxins, such as
Zearalenon (ZEA), Desoxinivalenol (DON) and
Oclu-atoxin A permitted maximum amounts in
malt and beer are prescribed. It should be noted
that additional amoLmts of m yco toxins can be
added through other food stuffs, e .g. coffee,
whicll may be lead to h ea lth risk.
2.3 Barley steeping
In stored barley the enzymes important for the
malting process have only a greatly reduced acti-
vity or are still inactive. During steeping, water is
supplied to tlle interior of the kernel. As a result
the enzymes become active and the life process
143
kn own as germ ination begins. This process does
not only occur in maltings. All cereal corns and
legumes, potatoes and seeds begin to germinate
as soon as wa ter is added to them. 2
As with all other life processes the respira tion
of the barley increases and thu s the need for
oxygen. Because steeping and germination are
two overlap p ing processes they must always be
considered together.
To initia te germin ation as quick ly as possible
the barley mu st be adequa tely supplied w ith
both water and oxygen during s teeping.
Steep ing is p erformed in steep vessels.
2.3.1 Processes during steeping
During steeping the barley must take up be
supplied Witll oxygen and be cleaned. At the sa-
me time the oxygen required for respiration must
be supplied and the CO, whidl is produced as
well as the respiratOlY heat has to be eliminated .
2.3.1.1 Water uptake
Water passes first into the embryo region but la-
ter also through the sides of the husk into the
grain. Water uptake depends on the steeping ti-
me, steeping temperature, kernel size, barley
va riety and the barley harvest yea r.
Steeping time: water uptake occurs rapidly
at firs t and gradually slows dow n w ith time. A t
10 °C the following steeping curve is obtained
(Fig . 2.38):
o
35
V ----
-----
I'
25 /
I
15
>
Fig. 2.38
Sleepi llg C/l r ve
144 145

Steeping temperature: the wa rmer the steep
wa ter, the faster the wa ter is taken up . A water
content of 42 %, for exa mpl e, is reac hed under
the following conditions:
at 5°C 100 h
at 10 °C 75 h
at 15 °C 50 h
Kernel size: sm a ll kernel s take up water Fig. 2.38n
much m ore quickly than large ones . Thus the O/ISel"UnliCe of wn ter sellsitivity oj bnrley
following results were obtained w ith an 88 h
steeping time: However, water uptake does not depend on-
Ke rnel size in mm Water content in % lyon various physica l properti es of the barley,
2.9 43.7 such as the water content, the thou sand corn
2.8 43.3 weight or the nitrogen content, but also on a se-
2.7 43.6 ries of physiol ogical properties. With increa-
43.7 sing duration of the steeping process these phy-
2.6
2.5 43.7 siologica l properties affec t the wa ter uptake of
2.4 44.7 the barley.
2.3 45 .6 Water enters especially quickly in the emb ryo
2.2 48.9 region of the barley kernel, in other words at
2.1 47.8 the b ase of the kernel, and passes fr om there ill-
2.0 49.0 to the interior of the kernel (endosperm). The
To avoid lmequal growth and thus poorer seedlillg therefore quickly acquires a high wa-
quality, the barley delivered is graded into ty- ter content. In the further course of steepillg, ill
pes I, II and screenings. particular ill the second and third phases, varie-
Barley variety and year: the barley variety tal and environmental differen ces in water dis-
and harves t year also h ave an important effect tribution can be detected [98]. From this it can
on water uptake by barley kernels. Barleys from be seen that a high water uptake does not neces-
dry illiand regions swell and germinate more sa rily mea n a rapid and homogeneous moiste-
quickly than barleys from maritim e regions. ning of the endosperm, because the distribution
With regard to water uptake it must be re- of the water absorbed can vary considerably.
membered that many barleys are water sensiti- Generally, in relati on to wa ter uptake, two ba-
ve. By wa ter sensitivity one mean s that the ger- sic barley types can be di stinguished :
mina tive en ergy is grea tly d ecreased when a) Barley va rieties showing s trong rootlet
more wa ter is available than is n eeded for ger- growth and rapid germination . Such varieties
mina tion . Water sensitivity depends on the pro- have a high water uptake rate but a delayed
petties of the outer corn covering and disappe- water distribution and so the desired water
ars with the appearance of the rootlets (or on content of the endosperm is only reached
dehusking the barley). It is therefo re preferable slowly (Fig. 2.38b, a).
to wait for the begilllling of germination at a b)Barley va rieties with a low germination vi-
water content of 37 to 40 % before raisillg the go ur and weak rootlet growth. These barleys
moisture content to the predetermined value show a slow water uptake rate but pass the
(Fig. 2.38a). wa ter on into the endosperm very quickly,
and so the wa ter content increases rapidly
there.
n on time is thereby sh ortened and the ma lting
Fig. 2.38b
Wnter Ilptnke behnviollr ill rii[ferCllt types oJbnrley
aJ higher vitnlit y bnrley
bJlower vitnlity bnrley
These different behavio urs during the stee-
ping process necessitate different treatment of
the barleys during s teeping ill order to obtain
optimal water uptake and distribution:
a) vigo rously growing barleys:
rapid water uptake by immersion steeping
and
• spraying water on during germination
b) less vigorously grow ing barleys:
adequate oxygen suppl y durillg s teeping is
ve ry importan t
s teeping teclllliques with lon ger air rests
should be used
The water content of the steeped barley is cal-
led the degree of steeping and is expressed as a
percentage. In general one expects in the case of
barleys:
for pale or Pilsner malt
- a wa ter content of 42 to 44 %
for dark malt
- a water con tent of 44 to 47% .
If the water content is raised by several steps
during steeping, the wa ter content for the pro-
d uction of pale malt can be increased up to 48 %.
With ce rtain barley varieties this increased wa-
ter content is actually necessary. The germinati-
2
loss consid erably reduced.
The wa ter con tent is of grea t importance for
the germination process since enzyme formati-
on, g row th and metabolic transformations are
decisively in fluenced by it.
Th e degree of s teepillg (water content) can be
d etermined:
with a Bermeuther appa ratus,
by using the thousand corn weight,
by direct d eterm ination of the wa ter content
and
empirically.
llle Bernreuther appara tus is a small, perfora-
ted metal cylillder w ith a long handle. 100 g of
baTley, the water content of whidl has been pre-
viously determilled, are weighed ill to the appa-
ratus. Th e device is inserted with the barley ill to
the steep vessel and lmdergoes all the processes
to which the steeped barley is subjected. At the
end of steepillg the barley is removed from the
Bermeuther appara tus, its surface is dried with a
cloth and it is weighed . From the increase inm ass
the degree of steeping can be calculated .
Exn lllplc:
100 g of barley with 16.0 % water con tent was
weighed. After steepillg the barley weighed 150 g.
What is the degree of steeping?
100 g of barley contained 16 g water
150 g of steeped barley contain
16 g+50 g 66 g wa ter
100 g : 150 g X: 66 g
100 g x 66 g
X= =44g
150 g
Thus 100 g of steeped badey contain 44 g wa-
ter
Degree of steeping = 44 g/100 g = 44/100 = 44 %
146
Direct determination of the water content in
the laboratory: the steeped barley is dried exter-
nally and weighed exactly. This amount is par-
tially dried. Part of it is then groLUld, dried to
constant weight in a drying cabinet, and the re-
sultant water loss is determined and converted
for the total amount.
Empirical determination of the degree of
steeping: to obtain an approximate impression
of whether the barley is fully steeped, the ker-
nel is squeezed between the tips of the thumb
and the index finger. A well s teeped kernel
should break apart without sticking. There
should also be a slight sound.
As a result of the water uptake the barley
swells to about 40 to 45 % of its original volume.
This must be taken into accOLmt when filling
the steep vessel. About 2.3 hi of steeping space
are required per dt barley.
2.3.1.2 Provision of oxygen
With the uptake of a large amount of water the
respiration rate increases greatly. Consequently
the oxygen requirement of the barley immedia-
tely increases. If the barley is not aerated, an in-
tramolecular respiration begins (i.e. other com-
pounds replace oxygen), which in extreme
cases leads to death of the seedling (dead
steep).
An ablmdant supply of oxygen to the barley
which is being steeped is a basic requirement
for a rapid commencement and trouble-free
continuation of germination.
The steep water contains dissolved oxygen,
which, however, quickly gets used up. For a
long time, attempts have been made to increase
the oxygen content of steep water by frequent-
ly pumping air in. This process did not, howe-
ver, always produce the desired results.
Nowadays the water steep is reduced to a mi-
nimum and the barley is brought into contact
with air as often and for as long as possible. Sin-
ce the carbon dioxide produced sinks to the bot-
tom it must be sucked off. By sprinkling or
spraying the barley, the aeration effect is increa-
sed without the water uptake being interrup-
ted .
2.3.1.3 Cleaning
Although dust has been previously removed
from the barley, an amolmt of dirt still sticks to
it. During s teeping, cleaning occurs through the
barley striking baffles, through transfe r by
pumps and other mechanical processes and al-
so as a result of the washing out of variou s che-
mical compOLmds by the steep water.
With the firs t steep water, one can see and
smell that a considerable amoLUlt of dirt flies off
the barley surface as do tannins and bitter sub-
stances, anthocyanogenes, silicic acid and husk
protein. This is important because these sub-
stances would spoil the taste of beer and cause
hazes. This dissolving process is supported by
the addition of an alkaline agent which, howe-
ver, is not permitted under the Reinheitsgebot.
In cowltries where the Reinheitsgebot does not
apply, the following is used:
caustic soda (NaOH) approx. 0.35 kg/m3
soda (Na,C03 ) approx. 0.9 kg/m3
Through the addition of hydrogen peroxide
(H,o,) to the amOLmt of 3 litres/m3 (30 %), ger-
mination is further improved, but the process is
comparatively expensive. The addition of 1 to
1.5 kg/t barley formaldehyde (HCHO) cleans
and disinfects the barley and reduces the mal-
ting loss, but does, however, diminish the qua-
lity of the malt [323] and is not permitted for
beer produced according to the Reinheitsgebot.
If there is a heavy Fusarium infection, use of
a disinfecting agent during steeping may be ne-
cessary if the whole batch is not to be rejected.
2.3.2 Steep vessels
For decades steeping has been performed in cy-
lindroconical steep funnels made of sheet steel;
nowadays they are usually made of stainless
147
steel. This shape is chosen so that emptying of
the stee p into the germination boxes is comple-
te and lmproblematic. The lower steep is now
usuall y built as a flat bottomed steep. 2
The steeps are usually loca ted in a separate
department, the steep house, above the germi-
nation plant.
In old steep houses one can still see the con-
ventional type of steeping (Fig. 2.39). In these
there are always two steep funnels arranged
Olle above the other, and the barley passes
through each in turn during s teeping.
These s teeping vessels have proven to be suc-
cessfu l, but for the portions of the g ra in which
are in the lower part of the cone problems occur
during s teeping. With the water uptake the me-
tabolic processes, and consequently the respira-
tion, are continuously intensifi ed. However, for
the corns in the lower part of the cone this me-
ans that after the draining of the water from the
cone, still more water runs down from the up-
per portions of the barley whils t the upper por-
tions are already well aerated. With this increa-
sing respiration, the CO, produced sinks down
in the cone and inhibits the respiration of the Fig. 2.39
portion of the barley located there. The result is SteepllOllse witlt steep vessels above aile nllOtiler (old type)
(1) distrivlltor screw
that an unevenly modified malt is produced if
(2) slide valve
nothing is done to cOLmteract it. (3) wire screell sieve
Many years ago a s teep vessel with a central (4) steep silo (vllffer silo)
pipe was first developed by Wild in which the (5) steep silo slide valve
barley is circulated by pumping inside the steep (6) pre-steep vessel
(7) pelfom ted dislt
011 the first day of s teeping (the Wild presteep -
(8) fresll water illiet
Fig. 2.40). With this vessel, the corns in the cone (9) fres ll water valve
are not at a disadvantage, and uniform water (10) was te water outiet
uptake and aeration of all the corns in the steep (11) was te water vnlve
(12) floatillg variey overflow witlt sieve
is achieved . This type of steeping vessel is still (13) outiet to /IIaill steep valve
in use today, but instead of the original mecha- (14) /IIaill steep vessel
nical movement of the barley through the cen- (15) enstillg-out valve
h'al pipe, the circulation is now performed mo-
re gently with compressed air. jected through nozzles to ensure supply of air
Nowadays, if a conical steep with a central pi- to the barley even during water uptake. If the
pe is not used, s teep vessels are commonly em- fully steeped barley is then transferred using a
ployed in which compressed air bubbles are in- mechanical conveyor (dry casting), the outlet
148
.}" : : .
' ; ". :.. : ". - . ...
-, . '
7 ___-----" 6
Fig. 2.40
Sleep vesselwilh eelllmi pipe (I"'ild)
(1) sleep vessel, (2) eelllmi cirwlnlillg pipe, (3) colllpressed
nir ill lei, (4) sleeped goods olillel, (5) flonlillg bnriey overflow,
(6) fresh wnler sllpply, (7) wnsle wnler ollilel
cone must be more pointed (ca 60 0) than with a
hydraulic transfer (wet casting).
Recently another type of steeping vessel, the
flat bottomed steeping vessel, has been develo-
ped which can be used either on its own or as
the second steeping vessel in combination with
a conical vessel (Fig. 2.41). The flat bottomed
steeping vessel is a cylindrical vessel with a flat
bottom in which the barley is laid on a stainless
steel sieve plate containing slits so that 24 to 32 %
of the surface consists of holes.
The spreading and clearing out of the barley
is performed by a multi-arm radial raking devi-
ce w hich can be raised and lowered as necessa-
ry. Fitted to it are "paddles" which level the
goods when necessary or move them to the
middle or the edge (Fig. 2.42). The direction of
transfer is determined by the direction of rotati-
on of the arms.
149
Compressed air nozzles are dis tributed bene-
ath the sieve plate to aerate the goods being R(fI/cY
steeped . To clean the space below the sieve pla- .. .......... ...... .... ............ .........
. ...
2
,
te, spray cleaning nozzles are installed . This al-
.",-
' .
so provides the possibility of sucking off the
&m .. .. ....... .. ........... .. .............. ..
CO, under the floor. As a result of the uniform
and level loading of the goods which are to be
steeped in the flat bottomed steep vessel, it is
possible to obtain a uniform and rapid start of
germination.
Flat bottomed stee p vesse ls require rather
more water than conical vessels because the
space beneath the sieve plate caJmot be made as
small as one likes. To save water nonetheless,
many maltings use a device to keep the water
level above the barley low.
With flat bottomed steeping vessels there are
no longer any portions of the grain which can ;.reeping
.......... .... ... .
be at a disadvantage like those in the cone of a
•• draiil aqe !roll WOW
cortical vessel.
An alternative way to perform steeping is to
Fig. 2.41
use steeping screw conveyors which can be Flnl bollollled sleepillg vessel
used both for presteeping and main steeping (1) radinl mke, (2 )flnl bollolll, (3) lower bollolll spmyillg, (4) CO, exlmelioll, (5) fresh nir sllpply
(Fig. 2.43). The barley is introduced into a wa-
ter-filled trough and slow ly transported out of Iy, however, several small cylindroconical pre- COl11parisol1 :
the water and upwards by an inclined screw steeping vessels are coupled to a suitably set-up Conical steeping vessels are built to a size
conveyor. It thereby naturally absorbs water, flat bottomed steeping vessel. where they can accommodate 50 to 60 t barley;
but excess water remains behind. Floating bar-
ley is removed by a suitably cOlmected device.
A particularly intensive cleaning process is
obtained using a steeping and washing drum
(Figs. 2.43a & 2.43b). The barley in the rotating
drum is provided for about 30 to 45 minutes
with water at about 25 °C and at the same time
is cOlUlter-rotated by lifting baskets. The good
cleaning effect of the drum is aimed in particu-
lar at the removal of mould spores from the sur-
face of the barley corns (anti-gushing dnul1).
The steeping drum encourages a rapid water
uptake of up to 27 to 30 % by the barley.
Fig. 2.44 shows a cross-section through a stee-
Fig. 2.42
ping house. There are many other alternative Rndinl rake (Ugirae/ellr")
arrangements in use. More and more frequent- (Pilolo: Seegel; Pliiderhnllsell )
150 151

for larger daily batches several vessels arranged

parallel to each other are used. Water usage is 4
to 6 m 3/ t malt.
Flat bottomed vessels are suitable for large 2
batches and provide an even treatment of the
product. They are usually used as a lower stee-
per and ca n take on the load from several pre-
steepers.
The disad vantages are
Fig. 2.43
Steepillg screw
the high investment costs of the floor cove-
ring and the loading and unloading machi-
- -- - - - - - - - - - - ... - - - - - - -

(1) steep water ill let, (2) barlcy ill let, (3) olltlel for presteeped
nes,
barley
the high water consumption of 5 to 7 m 3/t
malt due to the lUlused space below the floor
and
the necessary high pressure cleaning lUlder
the floor.
A new version of the flat bottomed vessel is
the ECO-Steep-Method (Bi.ihler, Braun-
schweig). With this method, there is no lower
floor space; ins tead, so-called ECO connecting
parts are inserted into the floor of the steeper.
TIle followin g processes occur through these
connecting parts (Fig. 2.44a, fig. follows):
Fig.2.43b the steeping water is fed in (2),
View ill the steepillg drlllll
Photo: Friedrich Weissileilller Malzfabrik
r compressed aeration takes place during the
1 wet s teeping phase (3), and
wtrrtrWr.rh'y
o' 3
L mean s of rOlUld p erforated plates (1), 180 mm
Fig.2.43a
Washillg alld steepillg dl'lllll
LOllgitlldillal sectioll alld cross-sectioll with drive
(1) barley sllpply, (2) waslled barley, (3) wa ter sllpply, (4) water oll tlet
(Patellt Friedrich Weissheilller Malzfabrik, Alldemac!l)
, -
,
.@ ,
s
Fig. 2.44
/IIlodem steepillg hOllse
(1) barley sllpply, (2) aeratioll, (3) fresh wa ter sllpply, (4) fresh ail; (5) Ileatillg/coolillg, (6) lIIoistCll illg, (7) colllpressed ail; (8)
steeped barley
the used water is drained off (2), sequent flood or spray steeping. TIle water con-
sumption for this system is 0.6 to 0.8 m 3/t malt
and hence very low.
CO, is extracted during air res ts (2). Electricity consumption for steeping is 2.0 to
Access to the steeped goods is provided by 2.5 kWh/t malt.
The volume of a conical steeping vessel is cal-
in diameter, with slits of 1.8 mm by 20 mm. The- culated as the sum of a cylinder and a cone ha-
re ale approx. two ECO connecting parts per ving the same maximum diameter. The volume
square metre for the provision of steeped goods of a flat bottomed steep is calculated as the vo-
which are stored 2 m high. lume of a cylinder.
As a result of forgoing the lower floor space,
there is a water saving of about 35% and as a v csv
=V cy +V c
consequence, the resultant waste water and the Vc)' = 71: '1'2. h c)'
energy consumption during water pumping
are reduced.
Washing drums are particularly suitable for
the first steeping phase in connection with sub- V csv

152
c) total volume of the conical steep vessel
V + V c = 35,81 m 3 + 15,08 m 3 = 50.89 m 3
C) '
The conical steep vessel has a total volume of
50.89 )113
Problem:
We w ish to d etermine how much barley can
\' ;
be steeped in this vessel.
We start from the average hI weight of barley,
w hich is about 70 kg (see Section 1.1.5.2,3), On
.'. , ' .. .. steep ing the volume of the barley increases by
40 % as a result of water uptake. Therefore sin-
/
ce 1.40 hi steeped barley = 70 kg unsteeped bar-
ley:
3··f·>\
\ hI = 70 kg
ri2
) J
508,90 hI
508,90 hi . 70 kg _ 25,445 kg
1.40 hI
25 t of barley can be s teeped.
Nowadays steeps are built for batches of up
Fig. 2.44n to 75 t. In general one allows 2.4 m 3 of steep vo-
Eeo cO/l/Iectillg pnrts (Biihlel; BrnllllschweigJ lume (including extra space for aeration) per
ton of barley.
Example:
2.3.3 The steeping process
The diameter of a steep vessel is 4.90 m . The
It has already been shown that there is a great
h eight of the cylindrical part is 1.90 m, that of
water uptake in the first steeping phase and
the conical part 2.40 m . Wha t is the volume of
then the rate gradually d ecreases. In contrast,
the steep?
the metabolic activity of the grain at the begin-
ning of steeping is still very low and then - par-
a) volume of the cylindrical part:
ticularly the respiratory activity - increases ra-
V,), = n . r2 . h').
= 3,14 . 2.45 m . 2.45 m . 1.90 m pidly.
3 This means that the barley can only be left 1.U1-
V''Y = 35.81 m
der water without risk in the first few hours be-
cause it is then already n ecessary to provide for
b) volume of the cortical part
a supply of air and the removal of CO2 ,
n ' r 2 • h, In the steeping process the steep vessel is fil-
3 led with the initial steep water. The barley is
3.14' 2.45 m' 2.45 m ' 2.40 m then put in by dropping it on a deflector plate,
3 A small fraction of the steeped kernels do not
sink to the bottom d espite the movement. The-
se floating kernels are collected in an overflow
and sold as low value animal feeds tuff. The
floating barley fra ction is small (0.1 to 0,2 %).
This initial steeping water is always very dir-
ty and therefore soon need s to be changed. On
the other hand, there is an interest in saving wa-
ter because it is expensive .
In many maltings floaters a re not remo ved
and re liance is placed on the fact that these hol-
low corns, w hich also give littl e va lu e as feed-
stuff, w ill be largely removed in the sifting sta-
ges of barley cleaning.
90 % of water consumption in the m altings is
required in the steeping house. It is calculated
that - depending on the steeping process - wa-
ter u se is 4 to a maximum of 7 m 3 per ton of bar-
ley, If steeping water is recycled, water con-
sumption can be reduced to 3.5 111 3 However,
0,94 m 3 per ton of barley is required solely to in-
crease the wa ter content from 12-13 % to 45-46 %.
An even further reduction of wa ter consumpti-
on below this value is therefore not possible be-
cause "vater is also required for the cleaning of
the barley.
In this context, the dry precleaning [157] of
the barley using a scouring machine takes on
particular significance, This enables the
amOl.mt of waste water, which these days is on
average 3 to 5.3 m 3/ t, and particularly the dirt
transported in it, to be reduced , In maltings the
values of dirt transported in water are
• 2,9 to 4.5 kg BODJ t finished m alt or
• 3.4 to 7.95 kg COD It finished malt.
Wa ter saving is mainly achieved by reusing
the steep water. Because the water which has al-
ready been used is dirty, this is used for the first
steeping of the next batch, It is not only dirt
which is on the surface of the barley, but also
above all bacteria and moulds. In some countries
one tries to remove these by adding flocculating
agents such as aluminimn sulphate, polyacryla-
mide or formaldehyde (Formalin) , This method
is not permitted l.mder the Reinheitsgebot.
153
In comlection with this, there is a demand for
efficient procedures for water recycling, as high
water and was te wa ter costs cou ld thereby be
further reduced. 2
In more recent in ves tigations [1 88], it h as
been shown that on reusing already used stee-
ping water, the proportion of micro-organisms
indeed increases considerably, ye t the compositi-
on of the micro-organisms sho w a positive
change: the m yco toxin formants (Fll sarillm) are
suppressed by a considerable growth of moulds
of the species Geotrichum and Aureobasidium
(also throu gh the addition of a starter culture).
Only very small amounts of these micro-organ-
isms were shown to be present in the finished
malt.
Recycling of s teeping wa ter therefore not on-
ly leads to a reduction of the specific amount of
was te "va ter, but also has, under certain circum-
stances, a favourable microbiologica l effect on
the finished malt product. According to the ger-
man Drinking Water Regulations 2000, howe-
ver, the wa ter has to be treated before being
reused (see Sect, 1.3.4),
After four hours, or at the most after six
hours, the first steep water is d ra ined off and
the barley intensively aerated. It continues to
absorb the adhering wa ter and so the water
content, which is now called the degree of stee-
ping, still increases. During this time the CO 2
which is being formed is drawn off for 10 to 15
min in every hour so that the life processes in
the barley, which is now ready to germinate,
can develop fully.
This alternation b etween wet steeping and air
rest has been developed to such an extent that
nowadays about 80% of the s teeping time is in
the form of air rests.
In this way the steep time can be limited to 1
or 1.5 days because the wa ter uptake can be im-
mediately continued in the place of germinati-
on, In this sense, the two processes camlot be
exactly separated from each other.
154 155

To obtain the desired steeping of between 44 yOlmg plant is in a position to react with the en-
to 47%, the water uptake in the steep has to be vironment and m ake sugar itself by photosyn-
arolmd 36 to 38%. As a rule this is achieved by thesis, it must draw on the reserve m aterials
wet steeping twice, each time for a 4 hour dura- present in the endosperm.
tion and 24 hours apart. At the start of the malting process the endo-
sperm contents are in a s table high molecula r
Example: weight form . These substances must be degra-
Production beg illS at lasts for illcrease of ded to products consis ting of smaller molecules
step water before they can be transported with the help of
content water. This degradation is performed by enzy-
wet steeping beginning 4h from 14 to 30% mes which are formed during germination .
thereby The production of enzymes is the main pur-
aera ting after 2+3 h every 15 min pose of malting. These enzymes are absolutely
essential for the breaking down of large mole-
air rest 4h 20h from 30 to 34 % cules during mashing. To avoid loss of material
the enzymic degradation processes are restric-
wet steeping 24 h 3h from 34 to ted during malting.
thereby Germination is performed in pneumatically
every 15 min 38% operated plants and only seldom on the flo or.
aerarulg after hourly
Finally casting and spraying of the water 2.4.1 Processes occurring during germi-
which is still needed at the place of germination. nation
There is no necessity to maintain the 24h cy- The rise of the water content to over 30% is a si-
cle. It is far more necessary to adapt to the gnal to the embryo that germination can now
growth and transformation conditions, which begin. The processes can be divided into
means that different cycle can occur. This natu- growth processes,
rally requires a far higher flexibility of the ope- enzyme formation and
rating persOlU1el. metabolic changes.
With such an intensive supply of oxygen and
water to the barley, it can be assumed that there 2.4.1.1 Growth processes
is uniform initiation of germination of the bar- The germinating kernel d evelops rootlets and
ley before the end of steeping. an acrospire.
Casting of the steeped barley into germinati-
on vessels is performed either Rootlets
wet, with water (pneumatic maltings) or Towards the end of steeping the rootlets break
dry, without water (floor maltings). through the base of the corn and become visi-
ble (Fig. 2.45). Their appearance is characteri-
2.4 Barley germination stic for the particular growth stage and is re-
During germination a new barley plant is pro- sponsible for the n ame given to the malting
duced from the kernel. To form the new plant barley when it is germinated in heaps . For in-
the barley needs a large amOlmt of energy and stance one speaks of c!Litted pieces (or couch)
nutrinents which must be produced by respira- when the rootlet breaks tlU'ough, of forked p ie-
tion and other metabolic processes. Before the ces (or cou ch) when the rootlets begin to
2-
2 -
a) oj
Fig. 2.45
Growtil of tile gerlll illatillg barley COl'll
0) all tile firs t riay of gCl'lllillatioll
b) all tile tilirri rim/ of gel'lllillatioll
c) all tile fiftil riay of gel'l llillatioll
(1) rootlets,
(2) acrospire
brandl, and of matted pieces (or cou ch) when
the roo tlets of several corns become entangled.
The roo tlets, which after abou t 2 da ys should be
branched to form 2 to 4 small roots, should be
about 1.5 times the corn length for Pilsner malt
and about twice the corn leng th for d ark malt.
The rootlets are rubbed off after kiliLing du-
ring malt cleaning and form part of the malting
loss.
To keep the loss as small as possible, the fac-
tors which influen ce rootlet grow th must be
considered. Rootlet growth is affected by the
germination time and by the tempera ture of the
steeping goods. The longer and the warmer the
germination, the longer the roots become and
so the greater the loss.
To keep rootlet loss low, germination is per-
formed at the lowest possible temp erature for
the shortest possible time.
Loss du e to rootlet grow th is about 4 % of the
malt dry weight.
Acrospil'e
The ac rospire breaks through the testa (seed ca-
se) but not the husk and grows under the husk
on the dorsa l side of the kernel towards the tip 2
of the kernel. It ca n be detected as a swelling
und er the husk and is an impor tan t feature for
differentiating from barley, since tlLi s has no
aCt'ospire (compare Fig. 2.1). Because the acro-
s pire does not grow out of the hus k, unlike the
rootlets, it is not rubbed off ma lt during
clea ning, and so does not cons titute a loss. In
the acrospire, however, the fat degrad ing lip-
oxygenases are enriched!
The leng th of the acrospire is related to the
progress of the metabolic changes (see Sect.
2.4.1.3) inside the kernel. The development of
the acrospire and the progress of modifi ca tion
of the kernelnffi approxim ately parallel to one
an other.
Because m odification should onl y proceed to
a certain ex tent, since otherwise chan ges to the
storage ma terials and therefore losses would be
too large, the acrospire should onl y reach a
leng th of about 213 to 3/4 of the corn length in the
case of Pilsner malt and about 3/4 to II I for dark
m alt.
The different extents of modification of the
two types of malt are governed by the different
am ounts of breakdown products which are re-
quired in them .
If the acrospire exceeds the leng th o f the ker-
n el, it can be seen at the tip. Such a kernel is ca l-
led a hussar (after a historical Hungarian caval-
ry troop which wore helmets wi th plumes). If
hu ssars are present at the end of germination,
this is due to too high a temperature during
germin ati on or errors in manipul a ting the
ba tch.
2.4.1.2 Enzyme formation
A few hours after the uptake of wa ter, the seed-
ling excre tes growth-promoting subs tan ces
(gibberellic acid) wlLich reach the aleurone lay-
 157
156

er and there, and in the shield, promote the new

formation of enzymes such as a-amylase or li-
r:
mit residual dextrinase (Fig. 2.46), whilst the
amylase, already present in large amounts in
250
Di ast ic power
1
The for mation of a-amylase is directly linked
to the respiration of the corn in the first days of
germina tion. Therefore adequate aeration in
5. Cold germination always gives the highest
amylase values. Higher steeping and germi-
nation temperahues admittedly cau se an ear-
the first phase of germination is very important lier commencement of enzym e formation but 2
200

for the formation of a-amylase. the amOlmt formed is less.

the endosperm, is released . 150

Of the many enzymes and enzyme comple- In Fig . 2.46 a, (2), the formation and effect of The overall activity of the amylases is m easu-
xes which are contained in barley, the following
100
a-amylase is illu strated on the basis of its lique- red by the diastic power and expressed in Win-
SO faction capacity (see Sect. 3.2.1.3). disch-Kolbach-Units (WK). (Diastase is the out-
are of particular interest:
s tarch degrading enzymes: a.-a mylase, The formation of limit residual dextrinase dated term for amylases).
amylase and limit dextrinase, J t'lU1S more or less parallel to the formation of a-
cytolytic enzymes: Liquefaction capac ity am ylase. 2.4.1.2.2 Formation of other enzyme groups
glucanase, endo-xylanase
31JO
2 When very enzyme-rich malts are required, During germination there is specific interest in
protein deg rading or proteolytic enzymes: 2SO for example for converting large amounts of the starch degrading enzymes, a.- and I
starch in a distillery, the barley is allowed to ses; we are not ye t interested in their ef-
proteinases, peptidases 200

fat degrading enzymes: lipases, in particular germinate for a very long time, as a result of fect, which only takes place to maximum effect
150
/
\ which the a.-amylase content increases further in the brewhouse. In contrast to this, on germina-
the lipoxygenases, and
• phosphoric acid splitting enzymes: phospha-
100 whilst the rootlets and therefore the malting ting, a nlU11ber of enzymes are form ed whose de-
tases. 50 I loss become bigger (long malt). grading processes during germination are of
With the exception of the a.-am ylase, which o· considerable importance for the quality of the
does not yet occur in barley, all the exo-enzymes malt to be produced . The formation and effect of
are present in smaller amOlmts in barley. The for- is already present in large amounts these enzymes will be discussed in the next sec-
Fig. 2.46a: Fonllatioll of starcll degradillg ell zYllles dllrillg
in lmgerminated barley. After an initial decrea- tions. These enzymes are present in the majority
genllillatioll (Lii ers alld Riilllllller)
(1) a-nlllylase, expressed as diastic power (DK) se, the amolmt of increases conside- of barley in very small amounts and are mainly
(2) /3--{1IIlII'ase, expressed as liqllefactioll capacity rably on the 2"" and 3'd day of germination. formed on tl1e 3'" and 4'h days of germination.
Irt the last days of germination, the What has already been said about the formation
mation of most of the enzymes occms parallel to se content scarcely changes. As a result of kil- of amylases also mainly applies to the formation
respiration. A well aerated germinating batch de- rung, the content of is reduced to a of these groups of enzymes.
velops enzymes earlier and to a greater extent. level only very slightly above that before the be-
ginning of germination. 2.4.1.3 Changes to storage materials during
6
2.4.1.2.1 Starch degrading enzymes (amylases) In Fig. 2.46 a, (1), the formation and effect of germination
6
4 Amylases are without doubt the most impor- is illustrated based on the measure- During germination, enzymes are not only for-
5 tant enzymes in malt. They are responsible for ment of the diastic power. med and increased in amOlU1t, they are also used,
3
2 the subsequent degradation of starch during The amOlmt of a.-and formed du- to a limited extent, so that nutrients can be sup-
mashing. ring germination depends on a number of fac- plied to the seedling, The enzymes therefore cau-
tors [104, 105]: se changes which all lead to the production of low
Fig. 2.46
a-a11lY la se 1. The amylase content is a varietal property molecular weight degradation products from
Ellzyllle forlllat ioll
ill a genllillatillg a-amylase is not detectable in ungenninated which is also affected by climatic conditions . high molecular weight compOlmds, Because the
barley com (Pallller) barley (Fig. 2.46a, 2). Its development is linked 2. Large kernels of a barley variety form more degradation products are, subsequently
(1) seedlillg amylase than small kernels of the same variety. respired or h'ansported to build new cell material
to the presence of oxygen. Most of the a.-amyla-
(2) hllsk
se is formed on the 3'd and 4th days of germina- 3. A higher water content in the green malt in- in the seedling, they are no longer available du-
(3) fonll illg acrospire
(4) acrospire tion. In the further course of germination the creases the amylase content. ring later processing. Maltsters therefore have an
(5) epitilelilllli Inlier amount also increases and is then greatly redu- 4. Intensive aeration promotes the development interest in allowing respiration and formation of
(6) alellrolle layer of a.-amylase. new cell tissues to occm only to a limited extent.
ced during kilning.
158
The changes to s torage mate rials of particular
interes t to m altsters are:
the d egradation p rocesses w hich are collecti-
vely know n as "m odifica tion",
starch degradation and
p rotein d egrad ation.
2.4.1.3.1 Solubilisation and degradation of
We have seen (Sect. 1.1.3.2) that the cell wa lls of
the endosperm consist of a middle lamella made
of protein w hich is sUlTolmded on both sides by a
layer, which is in turn fl anked on both si-
des by a p orous pentosan on which d iffe-
rent organic acids are stored . During the mal ting
process, firstly the middle lamella of protein is de-
graded [248,249), so that the pentosan Sh'Llcture is
exposed . Following this, organic acids and pen to-
sans are degraded by xylanases before the gluca-
nases can begin the degradation of the
and attack the fi xed skeleton of the cell and visibly
destroy it.
The degradation of the groups of substances oc-
curs in a set order following exposure or new for-
m ation of the enzyme by the aleurone layer. If ex-
ternal enviromll ental fa ctors, su ch as extrem e
heat during the maturation process, or other cli-
matic factors destroy this chain of action, cell resi-
dues of lmdegraded pentosan and pro-
teins remain and influence the lautering ability of
the malt to be produced.
is degrad ed by
and
w hich is alread y p resent in
the barley.
In addition there is a solubilase
which releases the fr om its binding to
protein. TIle work interreacts and
increasingly desh'oys the fi xed skeleton of the cell,
thereby dearing the path for the other enzymes
into the interior of the endosperm, so that enzy-
mic degradation can proceed more easily.
TIus process is known as modification, dissolu-
tion or cytolysis. The initially very h ard contents
of the barley kernel can be crushed between the
fingers at the end of germination . As soon as the 2
contents no longer form little rolls on being rub-
bed but can be crumbled like dlalk, the kernel is
sufficiently modified and gernlination can be ter-
minated . This process determines the length of
germin ation after most of the enzyme content has
already been formed after 3 or 4 d ays.
The degrade the lUltil
they are dextrins; the wluch
has a higher optimal temperature and a lugher
inac tiva tion temperature than the other
cans, only degrades to high molecular weight p-
glucan s. Because later during mashing the tem-
perature has to be maintained above 60 °C due to
the breakdown of stardl - as long as tlus tempe-
ra ture is not used for mashing in, as is increasing-
ly the case nowadays - the lugh molecular weight
which are formed cannot be broken
down by the to low m olecu-
lar weight glucan s or dexh'ins.
High molecLtlar weight
have, under certain influences such as shear or
exp ansion stress, the tendency to form gel wludl
causes an increase in viscosity and can lead to fil-
tration diffiCltlties and other side effects. Hence it
follows that cy tolysis or modification h as to be
hurried along in the maltings to the extent requi-
red by the brewery.
Modification has ye t another aspect: it progres-
ses from the shield towards the tip. If modificati-
on does n ot fully take place, it is possible that it
w ill not readl the tips of the corn . In tlus case
stardl cells remain in their original constihltion
and are only released at lugh temperahlres du-
ring mashing. TIley are then still not sacdlarifica-
ted and in the wort kettle can cause an lUlnahu'al
blue colouring of the iodine tinchl retest (see Sect.
3.2.1.3). Correcting this later is very expensive.
Modifica tion of the malt or cy tolysis is there-
fore solely the task of the maltster!

Control of the germinative energy is therefo-
re very important for the maltster because
malts made from barley with an insufficient
2 germinative energy inevitably lead to filtration
difficulties because of the unmalted grains. For
the ma ltster it is therefore necessa ry
• to use only sound barley with a high germi-
native energy
• to store barley dry - not more than 12 % wa-
ter content.
For malt production when u sing new barley
varieties which give a very good cytolytic and
extensive proteolytic modification, it is necessa-
ry to slow down modification by
restricting the moisture content of the germi-
nating barley and
• using a loyl' germination temperature.
The most important tiling to do is to obtain
uniform germination in order to produce ho-
mogeneou s malt. Every batch which contain
Views of the iI/side of the kel'l1eis
unmalted grains is problematic and through
(1) Stare/I-colltaillillg cells ill tile elldospenll the contributes high mole-
Tile still ill tact cell wall is pnI·tiallyrelllOvedto silow tile ills ide of tile elldospenll cells. \ferylarge starcil grail Illes (Ill' to 30 !1ll1 cular weight which dissolves in the
iII size) alld very sllInll starcil grail Illes (Ill' to 5!1I11 iII size) enll be sew . Barley starcil cOlltaills 110 llIedilllll sized grallllies. Tile
brewhouse at 60 to 70 DC and can no longer be
starcil grallllies are III1IS finllly fixed ill tile elldosperlll cell.
broken down. In such cases, the last resort is to
(2) Tile starcil-colltaillillg cells heat the beer at 70 to 80 DC for 30 to 50 hand
Til e stare/I grallllies ill tile elldospenll cell s are ileldtogetiler as ill a tigiltly closed bag orfinllly packed sack. Tilis call be clearly then subsequently cool it (cracking). The gels
seell ill tile opet/ed elldospertll cell, tile COli tell ts of wilicil are pOllrillg Ollt. Tile stable strIfctllre of tile starcil-colltaillillg cells gives dissolve in the heat, thus guaranteeing filterabi-
IIle barley COrIf a very fin II illterior wilicll is difficllitto grilld dowll.
lity. This procedure is, however, not practical in
(3) Tile rigid cell walls are llIade perllIeable norm al operation. The malt is the decisive fac-
Part of tile cell wall is dissolved aWni/ as a resllit of ellzyillic breakdowlI alld iloles are tilerebyforllled ill tile previollsly solid tor for the content in the wort and
strIfctllre wilicil IIlerefore becollIes penllcable. As mil be scell, tile cell colltellts tilell becollIe accessible. Tile illterior of tlw COnI be-
beer. The content should not exceed
COllies illcrensillgly friable . Tilis is wilat is IIleallt by II IOdificotioll 01' cytollfsis.
200 mg/l in. the wort.
(4) Tile olet/rolle layer Since the high molecular weight
Tile ole II rolle layer SillTOllllds tile clldosperlll olld cOllsists of several layers of proteill-rieil cells. Tilese cells, of a collipletely diffe- are mainly responsible for possible gel formati-
relit type, colltoill 110 storcil bllt olellrolle graiI ls (proteill bodies) COIISistillg of a proteill-colltaillillg sllbstollce olld- as is clearly on (and consequently for filtration problems),
SIIOWII - tiley are already sOllIewilot degraded dllrillg 1lI0ltillg. Til e olellrolle layer is tile site of eJ/zyllle fonllotioll ill gerlllillotillg
the malt should contain a high
barley.
se conten t to break them down. The target figu-
(5) COllllllwcelllellt of storch degradotioll re is 120 units per kg malt.
With the ill crease ill water colltellt of the barley COnI, respiratioll beco/lIes 1I10re illtellse. The seedlillg tilell lIeeds sligOI' for respi-
ratioll, olld this is fonlled by ellzylllic brcokdolUlI of storcil Ileal' tile seedlillg. Tilis photo silows the ell zylllic attack olld tile fllrther
degradotioll, illitiolly ollly ill IIle cells close to the seedlillg. The layered, ollioll-like strIfctllre of tile storch grail Illes CO/I 0150 be AsseSSlIlellt of l1wdificatioll
clearly seell. Modification is a very complex process and
(Sen/lII iIlS ela/roll micrographs frolll the IlIslillll fiir Tee/Illolosie rier Bmllt'rd I, TecJlIIicn/ Ullivers ity of ""1III ich-Weillellsteplllm ). highly important for the quality of the malt.
161
Information regarding the d egree of modifi-
cation can be obtained by
the friabili ty mete r value (over 90 %, prefera-
bly over 95 %) (see Sect. 2.8.2.6), 2
completely glassy or steely kernels (lmder 2 %)
(see Sect. 2.8.2.5),
the coarse difference (max. 1 %) (see Sect.
2.8.3.2),
the degree of protein modification (Kolbach
index) (38 to 42%) (ibid),
content at 65 DC « 350 mg/l),
measuring the viscosity of the wort at 65 DC
« 1.6 mPas) (Sect. 2.8.3.2),
the corn sharpening method (Sect. 2.8.2.10) .
Assessing the degree of protein modification
involves assessing the percentage of protein of
the barley which is broken down into a modi-
fied form during mashing. This figure is usual-
ly around 38 to 42 %; however, it can vary.
The lower the degree of protein modification
(Kolbach index), the lower the degree of modi-
fication of the malt and the less the degradati-
on . It can then be expected that the cell walls ha-
ve not yet been sufficiently degraded and that
the later decomposition of the starch, in parti-
cular in the tips of the corn, may cause pro-
blems. Moreover, which have not
been broken down can lead to the formation of
gel and thereby to filtration problems if there is
shear or expansion stress.
A very high degree of protein modification,
on the other hand, brings with it very many de-
gradation products, for example am.ino acids,
into the malt. The numerous amino acids for-
med create Maillard products (see Sect. 2.5.1.3)
during kilning with the already-formed sugars;
these Maillard products not only increase the
TEl and hence the colour of the beer, but also
their transformation products lead to a reducti-
on of the flavour stability of the beer. In general,
therefore, there is little interest in having a de-
gree of degradation (Kolbach index) higher
than 41 %.
162
The tendency to higher or lower protein modi-
fication is mainly varietal, whereas enviromnen-
tal and other factors playa more subordinate ro-
le [183]. Varieties like Alexis, Chariot or Scarlett
have a medium degree of modification, whilst
the varieties Thuringia, Maresi or Krona tend to
have a high degree of modification . This should
be taken into accolmt during germination.
With regard to this, the reduction of the addi-
tion of oxygen from the third day of germinati-
on plays a role, because as a result:
the malting loss is reduced and
the degree of protein modification is lowered.
2.4.1.3.2 Starch breakdown
Starch represents the energy potential of the
seedling. Through respiration the embryo ob-
tains the energy and sugar required for its life
processes and the formation of new cell materi-
als until it is able to perform photosynthesis it-
self.
For respiration the starch must be transfor-
med into transportable sugar and supplied to
the seedling. However, as a result of the respi-
ration, the starch is lost as a source of extract for
wort production. Maltsters therefore wish to li-
mit respiration as much as possible to reduce
losses.
The extent of transformation is greater than
one thinks at first sight, as the following consi-
deration shows.
During germination the starch content de-
creases, while the sugar content increases:
Content in %
starch sugar
Barley 63 2 reduce the degree of protein modification,
Malt 58 8 reduce the activity of the lipoxygenases and
According to this, 5 to 6% seems to have been
broken down to sugar. This calculation is, ho-
wever, incorrect since the percentages do not
relate to the same initial values.
From 100 g barley dry matter, 90 g of malt dry
matter is obtained (rule of thumb).
100 g of barley contains 63 g of starch. If no
starch degradation products were removed by
respiration, then the 90 g of malt produced from
the 100 g barley would still contain 63 g of starch
= 70%. Since only 58% is present, about 12% of
the starch has been degraded - half of the sugar
formed has been removed by respiration. This re-
spiration represents a loss for the maltings. Re-
spiration is dependant on the germination time,
the temperatme and the extent of aeration.
Fig. 2.46c
Starch breakrlowlI 3000 years ago
(Ph%: Delwell Smillie!; Society for GellernlMicrobiology)
In order to keep the respiration loss as low as
possible, germination is performed for as short
a time and at as Iowa temperature as possible.
The germinating barley should contain only the
absolutely essential amowlt of air.
From the third day of germination, respirati-
on is limited to:
minimise respiration losses,
hence
contribute to the flavour stability of the beer
[151] .
The starch granules illustrated in Fig. 2.46c,
which clearly show the enzymic effect of the
am ylases, are taken from the dried beer re-
mains on a clay sp linter from an Egyptian wor-
ker settlement from over 3000 yea rs ago. EaSily
recognisable is that in those days the barley or
emmer was already necessarily germinated and
that enzymes formed.
The sugar in malt is principally glucose, but
fructose and sucrose are also present. There is
hardly any maltose since it is immediately de-
graded. The starch granules have the same sha-
pe and size after germination as before. But the
small amount of starch degradation results in
the starch granules being attacked as can be
seen with a suitable microscop e.
2.4.1.3.3 Protein breakdown
Proteins are not used for respiration but for the
building of new cell tissues, e.g. for rootlet for-
mation. In order to be transported, the high mo-
lecular weight protein must be broken down to
soluble low molecular weight proteins. This re-
sults in a change in the composition of the pro-
teins.
During germination 38 to 42 % of the protein
is degraded to soluble material (the ratio is the
Kolbach index) as a result of the action of pep-
tidases which form mainly low molecular
weight compolmds (amino acids and oligopep-
tides). Protein breakdown runs parallel to mo-
dification and is not controlled separately.
The links between the degradation of the
glucans (cytolysis) and the breakdown of pro-
teins (proteolysis) in malting are described in
Sect. 2.4.1.3.1. From the links of the degradation
processes it follows that:
Cytolysis and proteolysis are solely the tasks
of the maltster. Failures can only be inadequate-
ly compensated for in the brewhouse.
Some of the nitrogenous material is trans-
ferred to the rootlets. This results in a deCl'ea-
se in the protein content of the malt of about
0.3% in comparison with that in the barley
processed.
163
2.4.1.3.4 Fat Breakdown (lipids)
The ester bonds between the fatty acids and the
glycerol are disrupted by the fat degrading en-
zymes (lipases), thereby releaSing the fatty 2
acids.
Breakdown is continued by lipoxygenases
which are concentrated in particular in the
acrospire and rootlets . The fission products
produced (e.g. nonadienal) are responsible for
the cucumber-like aroma which is clearly re-
cognisable in green malt.
2.4.1.3.5 Dimethyl sulphide (DMS) formation
during germination
Dimethyl sulphide, abbreviated to DMS in the
following, is a volatile sulphur compound
which g ives beer a flavour referred to as "cab-
bagey" or "cooked vegetable". The prevention
of DMS formation or its removal is therefore
desirable.
During germination a so-ca lled inactive pre-
cursor of DMS is produced which is heat labile
and at high temperature is converted into
an active precursor = DMS-P (DMS precur-
sor) and
free volatile DMS.
Attempts are made during s teeping and ger-
mination to transform as little as possible inac-
tive precursor into active DMS. During stee-
ping and germination more precursor is
formed
the higher the degree of steeping and
the higher the germination temperature.
Consequently, good specifications for a low
DMS precursor (DMS-P) content are
a low degree of steeping and a low moisture
content during germination and
a low germination temperature and more re-
stricted modification.
A large part of the DMS precursor moves in-
to the rootlets and so only part of it remains in
the cleaned malt. This residual part, however, is
altered substantially during kilning as will be
164
mentioned in Sect. 2.5.1.4. The DMS probl em
will be discussed later in relation to beer.
2.4.1.3.6 Germination regulators
By the additi on of specific substan ces it is p os-
sible to interfere with the m echanisms of meta-
bolism to obtain accelerating or retarding ef-
fects. These subs tances a re called grow th
regulators and are di vided into
stimulators which h ave an accelerating effect,
and
inhibitors w hich have a reta rd ing or blocking
effect.
Sti111ulators
The most widely used stimulator is gibberellic
acid, wl'uch is also present in small amolmts in
lmm alted barley. Gibberellic acid is a metab olic
product of the mould Fusarium monilifonne
and was isolated as early as 1926 in a pure form
in Japan. Gibberellic acid is obtained by cultiva-
ting this mould . Gibberellic acid is a w hite, cry-
stalline powder with a limited storage life. It is
used in aqueous solution. For this, the calcula-
ted amount of gibberellic acid is dissolved in al-
coh ol or acetone (1 gin 50 ml) and this solution
is mixed into the required amo unt of wa ter. The
spray solution is prepared within 24 hours of
use at most, because it d ecomposes and beco-
mes less effective . The prepared solution is
sprayed onto the germinating goods throu gh a
nozzle by means of compressed air or wi th the
help of a pump. In the case of germination bo-
xes the sp ray n ozzle is attached to the turner
and spra ying is p erformed during turning.
The gibberellic acid mu st be added as early as
possible.
Gibberellic acid has the most benefici al effect
when it is sprayed on the dried out and already
chitting cereal. The solution then adheres to the
ke rnels and is rapidly taken u p by the seedling.
The amOlmt of gibberellic acid added is 0.03
to 0.08 g per ton of barley.
The am oun t ad ded depends on the barley va- Befo re kiln ing, glucose Call be sprayed onto
riety, the year and the time of malting. Because the raw grain . This ca uses an increase in the
gibberellic acid shortens d ormancy, the grea test yi eld and a red uction in the pH value. Throu gh
amolmt is given at the start of the season and it the addition of (see Sec t.
is reduced later. 3.2.4.3.5.6), the yield and cy toly tic d issolution
The ad va ntages of using gibberellic acid for of the malt is imp roved, since the glucan ases
the maltings are: are relatively tem pera ture resistant and they re-
a shortening of germinati on time by 2 days, main p artly acti ve until m ashing. This applies
an increase in ex trac t yield of about 1 %, particularly to barley w here d issolution is n ot
better cy tolysis, good during ge rm ination . The ad ditive is n ot
considerably better proteolysis, permitted under the Reinheitsgebo t.
higher enzymic p otential,
a sh ortened dorman cy of the barley, but also 2.4.1.4 Conclusions about how to perform
increased colouration when brewing. germ in ation
The addition of gibberellic acid is not permit- The fo llow ing basic conside ra ti ons apply to
ted under the Reinheitsgebot. It is p ossible to successful ge rm ina tion:
prove the use of gibberellin. 1) Germination is an inten sive life p rocess
which Call occur only in the presence of suff i-
Illllibitors cient wa ter. It is therefore importallt that the
Inhibitors serve to limi t root growth of the bar- germin a ting ba rley h as a wa ter content
ley during germination and thus the reduction greater thall 40 %. Whilst p art of the water
in the m alting loss. The fo llow ing inhibitors are evapo rates, wa ter (sweat) is continually pro-
used [323]: duced by respirati on. If in su fficient sweat is
fo rmed, wa ter mll st be added .
Inhibitor Concentration Malting loss 2)As a result of the initial intensive respiration,
used reduction the steep ed barl ey mus t be provided with
sufficient oxygen. With too much aera ti on,
formaldeh yde 0.05 to 1 % approx.1 % too much of the grain is lost by respiration. If
sulphuric acid pH value 1- 3 1.5 to 3% aeration is insu fficient, intramolecular respi-
nitric acid 1-1 .5 kg/t barley app rox 3% ra ti on begins wh ich may lead to the death of
ammonia 0.25% wa tery approx 6% the seedling. Respiration is greatest at the be-
solution gilU"Iing of germination and Call later be red u-
potassium 100 - 500 mg/kg 2-4% ced.
bromate barley 3) Res piration causes the tempera ture to rise.
This increases the losses caused by respirati-
The addition of p otassium brom ate together on and rootlet growth, alld the amOlmt of en-
with gibberellic acid can inhibit proteolysis and zymes formed are reduced. From the third
considerably reduce malting loss [323]. day of germin ati on respiration Call be limi-
The additi on of germination regulators can ted .
be dem onstra ted in malt. The tradition al m aximum tem peratures in the
The use of malts which h ave been trea ted with ba rley during germination are:
germination regulators is not allowed fo r beers for Pilsner malt 17 to 18 °C
made in accord alice with the Reinheitsgebot. for d ark m alt 23 to 25 dc.
165
For proper performal1Ce of germination it is
necessary to control the wa ter conten t, the aera-
tion and the temperature.
2
2.4.2 Germination methods
Germina tion is nowadays almost always perfor-
med in circular or rectangular germination boxes.
Th.is was not always the case. Even a few decades
ago - and in some cases only a few yeal'S ago -
germination was cal'ried ou t i.n floor malti.ngs.
2.4.2.1 Floor maltings
In floo r m altings the steeped barley was p roces-
sed on the floor in an approx im ately 3 m high
room with a perfectl y fl at fl oor which if possi-
ble was covered by Solnhofen stone pl ates be-
cause these, on accOlmt of their porosity, easily
absorb excess mois ture.
The floor maltings temperature should be as
uniform as possible and cool. The maltings we-
re therefore som etimes built underground or
protected from the outsid e air by very thick
walls. Sin ce the highest temperature during
germination should not exceed 17 to 18 °C, as
has alread y been mentioned, malting in a floor
maltings is res tricted to the cooler seasons of
the yea r alld no lon ger p ossible w hen the wa rm
season begins.
In a floor maltings one reckons on a floor
sp ace requi re ment of 1.7 1112 per 50 kg barley
Fig. 2.47
Mnltillg shovel ill the Brewers' Illsigllin
166
because the stee ped badey here is only a few
cm high. Consequently a great deal of space is
need ed in a floor maltings and the floors are
usuall y built on several storeys one above the
other.
The problem was, however, manipulating the
steeped goods on the floor. This was done with
a wooden malting shovel which is shown in our
brewers' insignia (Fig. 2.47). Twice a day each
pi ece h ad to be turned so that the goods at the
bottom were brought to the top and vice versa .
By drawing the pieces together and by ventila-
ting the room the temperature could be control-
led. By use of other tools, such as harrows,
ploughs, forks and rakes, the work was mad e
easier, but the disadvantages, in particular the
hi gh requirements of labour and working spa-
ce, and the high d ependence on the external
tempera ture have ended the age of the floor
m altings. Mechanical floor malting turners we-
re able to postpone the end of the floor maltings
for a while.
Nevertheless, from this malting period a
number of terms have been introduced which
are s till important for u s. Thus one sp eaks of:
chitting or breakthrough pieces (Spitz- or
Brechhaufen), when th e rootlets burst
through the base of the kernel and can be
seen as a light coloured point (the kernel
"ogles" ),
forking root pieces (Gabelhaufen), when the
rootlets begin to branch, and
matted root pieces (Greifhaufen), when the
rootlets become longer and become entan-
gled with one another.
If care is not taken the rootlets can become
completely matted. Such matted green malt
clumps are called sparrows (Spatzen). Because
the temperature in these matted clumps is natu-
rally higher, the seedlings grow faster. In mos t
cases the acrospires then also become visible.
Such kernels are called Hussars (after a Hunga-
rian cavalry h'oop with decorative plumes).
The process of transporting the green malt
from the floor to the kiln at the end of germina-
tion is known as to thi n the piece.
2.4.2.2 Pneumatically operated malting
systems
Modern malting systems opera te, for cost rea-
son s, with a larger depth of germinating barley.
Because the air (Greek pneu = air) then no longer
flows freely through the steeped goods, it must be
forced through the goods in these pnellllatically
operated maltillg systems. For this purpose tlle
air must be cooled and hllllidified (conditioned).
In pneum atically operated malting systems
the water content, tempera ture and hlLmidity
are controlled by blowing in cold, moist air.
Pneum a tically operated m altin gs therefore
comprise
a conditioning plant to produce cool, moist
air, and
a germination plant (boxes, drums, etc.) in
which the barley germinates.
2.4.2.2.1 Conditioning the ventilation air
It is only in floor maltings that the s teeped
goods spread in thin layers come into natural
contact with the ambient air. In all other m al-
ting systems the green malt is piled up to 1.8 m
high on perforated sheets. To aera te the vigo-
rously respiring barley a lot of air must be for-
ced through the s teeped goods so that the life
processes can proceed at a fast rate. The large
aJ1lOlUlt of air required is
300 to 700 m 3 of air per ton of barley
as green malt per hour.
In all cases very large fans, either radial or axi-
al (see Sect. 10.5.2) are used for this (Fig. 2.48).
Heat is produced by the respiration of the
barley and must be removed. It can be calcula-
ted that heat development during the total ger-
mination time is about
850,000 kJ = 200,000 kcal/t barley
Beca use the ventilating air must be about 2 °C
cooler than the steep ed goods, at mos t times of
the yea r it mus t be cooled. Direct evaporators
(Sect. 10.3.4) are almost always used for this.
With their h elp the airflow is automatically set
at the desired tempera ture. However, it mu st
also be borne in mind that it is necessary to
warm the air when the outside temperatures
decrease grea tly in winter.
Fig. 2.48
COlldiliollillg of Ihe vellliialillg air
(1) axial fall, (2) direcl evaporalol; (3) dll sl relllover (4!recir-
clt/aled air flap valve, (5) gerlllillalillg graill, (6) fresh air
The steeped goods should contaill about 45 %
water throughout the germination time. If dry
air is passed through the green malt it dries it
out. Therefore the air must be continuously sa-
turated with water (Fig. 2.48a).
Th e links between air temperature, tempera-
tme changes, water content and relative humi-
dity are clearly illustrated in the MollieI' h,x-
diagram (not shown h ere) . Humidification of
the air is performed by fine spraying of water
(3). So that the wa ter does not precipitate pre-
maturely, spraying is carri ed out as late as pos-
sible before the air enters the green malt. The re-
quirement is
about 0.5 m 3 water per ton of badey.
167
After cleaning, excess wa ter can be Llsed
again for spraying. In order to be able to s upply
water to the g reen malt in the germina tion
room, in m an y systems spray nozzles are fitted 2
to or above the turners.
- . --Water
.......... Air
-------
Fig. 2.48a
Hlllllid ifijillg eqlliplllel/l
(1) radial fa ll, (2) IlIIlIIidificalioll challlucl; (3) waleI' pipe wilh
1I0zzles, (4) wa leI' colleclioll Iro/Igh, (5) IlIIlIIidified cool air
The barley respires very vigorously during ger-
mination and thereby removes very valuable con-
tents &'om the corn. Towards the end of germina-
tion, however, the enzymic modifica tion pro-
cesses in the germinatillg corn are more impor-
tant, and these proceed independently of the re-
spiration. To prevent the barley from removing
too much of its contents by respiration, the CO2-
rich exhaust air is led back again in increaSing
aITIOllltS as returned or recirculated ail' towards
the end of gernwlation and mixed with the fresh
ail' supplied. This cold, moist air is led through the
steeped goods ill every maltillg system. In every
system the purpose of the tmner is to prevent the
seedlings from mattillg together aIld contilll10us-
ly to bring a different part of the steeped goods in-
to contact with the moister ail-.
2.4.2.2.2 Drum maltings
In a germination dnUll the steeped goods are si-
tuated in a closed sheet steel drum in which they
are aerated. TlU'lWlg occms by rotating the drum.
168
169
The humidified air is blown from below (4)
through the steeped good s and leaves the drum
through a sieve on the front side (5) . For tur-
ning, the drum is slow ly rotated. A rotation 2
las ts, depending on the size of the dnm1, 0.5 to
1 h. The drum is positioned on rollers (6) and
dri ven by means of a toothed ring (7) moved by
a worm dri ve. To avo id loss of air the air chan-
nels are sea led by seals on the ro tating drum.
The drum is filled abo ut 70 % full and slowly
Fig.2.49 Gerlllillniioll dmlll
(1) sleel pin Ie eillilldel; (2) vnse pin Ie, (3) genllillnlillg grn ill,
ro tated at predetermined time intervals (in total
(4) 1IIIIIIidified nil; (5) exhnllsl nil; (6) Illmillg rollers, about 1/10 th of the germination tim e). To avoid
(7) CroW l I genr drive (worlll drive) . the s teeped good s lying at an angle, and there- Fig. 2.51
fore not LUuformly on the plate, the drum is first Screw Illmer

rotated forward and then back. (Pholo: Seegel; PliirlerhnllSell)

The box-type dnun (e.g. Galland drum) (Fig.
2.49) consists of a steel plate cylinder (1) 2 to 4 m
in diameter and 3 to 15 m long. Ahorizontaily fi-
xed base plate (2) on which the steeped goods (3)
rest is located in the bottom part of the drum.
The advantage of the drum is its very gentle
treatment of the steeped goods, but the system
is not very economic to opera te (up to 20 t per
drum) and consequentl y only a few plants are
still in operation .

Fig. 2.51n
Screwillmer
(Oingrn llllllnlic v iew) / - - - - - T- - - - -
,. /

""'" ... .. --.-- -

I
....
2.4.2.2.3 Box maltings
Box malting is nowadays the most commonly the section of the germinating barley in contact
used malting system and there are many sizes with the colder, moister air w hich flows from
and variations.
below t1u-ou gh the germinating barley is conti-
Most germination boxes are rectangul ar with nu ously changed.
a size able to process between 5 and more than
300 t of barley. Sin ce a few years ago, boxes ha- 2.4.2.2.3.1 Rectangular germination units
Fig. 2.50
Sn lndill gerlllillniioll vox . .
ve also been built w ith a circular shape for up to Rectangular germination lmits are built of brick
(1) sleeped goods feerlel; (2) fres h nir illfeerl, (3) circlllnlillg nil; (4) exllnll sl nil; (5) g reCIIlllnl1for klflllllg, (6) III m el; (7) lIIechn- 600 t of barley, and the boxes in this case are or reinforced concrete (Saladin boxes). The ends
lIienl sprny illg rlevice usually arraJ1ged like a tower above one anot- of the boxes are provided with curved grooves
- -- - - - - - . . . . . .. ' " her (tower m altings) . The circular shape is pre-
... . .. for continuous movement of the steeped goods
"

.. . . . .. . . .. ... . . .

: 1
Fig .2.50n
ferred tod ay. Th e basic principle is the sa me in
all cases:
by t11e helical turner. Usually up to six genninati-
on boxes, depending on the germination time,
. . .::'.::' ,:;'.::' ,:;'.::' ,:;'.::' .:;"::' -' - veri sllpporl plnle wi lh C-profile
Th e s teeped barley is on the sam e floor are arranged next to one another in a germinati-
- - - th roughout the entire germin ation time and is
.
- - -
(1) rio II vIe T-enrrier on room. The germination room is thermally in-
(2) C-profile turned by screw turners in su ch a maJU1er that sulated and provided with smooth walls and cei-
 170 171

2 u
The bottom plates can be lifted for inspection
or cleaning if the space beneath them is not ac-
cessible. In the case of large ins tallations there is
,"'., a suction unit under the kiln floor. Located be-
nea th the kiln floor are
I the air supply duct for delivering and extrac-
bed in steps into the open trough. For this pur-
pose the helices are moved into a specific posi-
tion to block the passage. Thus the box is emp-
tied and then is cleaned by sweeping strips. 2
There mus t be no manual operation.
In large plants attachable conveyors with

·.t.
,
ting the ventilating air and
the high-pressure cleaning no zzles for
cleaning the bottom plates and the space be-
continuous action are used .

2.4.2.2.3.2 Circular boxes

Fig. 2.52
Tower IIInllings
lings. There is a slight overpressure in the germi-
nation room which must be maintained. For this
purpose the room has sealed airlocks in the doors
which must always be kept closed (Fig. 2.50) .
TIle kiln floor plates are fixed about 60 cm abo-
ve the floor of the box and on them the steeped
goods will be cast wet - with casting water - to a
.)'f].
II
height of 0.5 to 0.9 m, and this will increase du-
ring germination to a height of 0.8 to 1.3 m .
The kiln floor plates are
slotted carrier plates, containing slits, with a
free passage of 20% (Fig. 2.50a) or
slotted hole bottom plates with a free passage
of40%.
neath the kiln floor (see Fig. 2.50.7).
Normally about 300 to 500 kg of barley are
loaded per m 2 kiln floor surface.
The turners are always screw or helical tur-
ners (Figs. 2.51 and 2.51a) . A long hU'ner beam
(1) carries up to about 20 helices (2) which rota-
te in opposite directions and thereby loosen the
germinating barley. A drive unit causes the ro-
tation of the helices which slowly move, rota-
ting at about 8 rpm, while another drive lmit
causes the advancement of the turner beam at a
rate of about 0.6 to 0.8 m/min through the bed
of germinating barley. During the first germina-
tion days this huning is performed twice daily
and in the last days only once a day.
Levelling rods (3) are fitted to the helices and
rotate with the helices to provide as level a sur-
face as possible so that the air passes uniformly
tlu'ough the entire bed. Spray nozzles are atta-
ched to the turner carriages which enable an ad-
ditional supply of water to be given to the green
malt during germination.
Loading and unloading of the boxes is an im-
pOl·tant function which must be performed
with the least possible expendihue of time and
energy. In older plants movable cleaning-out
carriages, in the form of dredging shovels
which move the steeped goods into a collecting
trough, from which the goods are scooped, ha-
ve proved successful.
In modern plants the turner also performs the
task of emptying the box, in combination with
an attachable raking device. In small plants, the
combined huner and raking device moves the
Circ ular boxes are generally built according to
the sa me principles as the rectangular boxes
and consist of the same elements. Theu' struchl-
re makes them endless.
A differentiation is made between
Circular boxes in which the bottom rotates
and the turner beam is fixed . In these the ro-
tatillg bottom is on roller bearings and is seal-
ed against the surrounding wall. In this type
discharge of the green malt always occurs at
the same place - below the turner.
and
Circular boxes in which the bottom is statio-
nary, and the turner beam moves arOlmd a fi-
xed middle axis (Fig. 2.52).
Both types are in use. Usually the boxes are
built tower-like, one above the other.
Corresponding to the length of time the barley
nowadays usually spends in the boxes - five
days - most maltulgs are equipped with five ger-
mUlating boxes arranged either next to or above
each other to enable the work to proceed without
problems, if the previous and subsequent secti-
ons are set in the same production cycle. Other
germinating times, are possible and are
controlled by temperature regulation .
Because the turner beam moves over a much
larger surface in the same time at the perimeter
than Ul the middle, the peripheral screws must
rotate more quickly, correspondulg to the larger
amOlmt of malt, than those U1 the middle.
For loading and unloading the hori zontal
screws, which are normally positioned behind
the turner beam, are adjustable in height. By

172
-.. /
Fig.2.52n Screw til m er wi tll lami er nlln IIl1lanner
(1) steepen goons ill let, (2) greell IIlnlt nisclwge, (3) lannill g nlln II II lannillg su ew - rnisnu le nlln lawernule
means of a fixed setting, a planar barrier is ma-
de which enables residue-free emptying of the
germination floor (Figs. 2.52 a & b) .
The germinating boxes are usually set in con-
crete, while individual fre e-standing boxes are
usually produced in steel. A country specific
Fig.2.52u
Serew til mer wi tll lanner nlln IIlllanner
(sine v iew)
cost analysis comparing concrete/steel con-
struction is worthwhile, becau se construction
costs can account for up to 50% of the total in-
vestment costs of a maltings. Consideration
should be paid to good heat insulation inside
the kiln and against the germination boxes. In
the case of tower maltings without a central co-
lunm, the limitation is approx. 30 m; in the case
of larger diameters, a central column is n ecessa-
ry. With rotating bottoms, a central colunul is
generally necessary.
Larger maltings are equipped for 600 t of bar-
ley per unit. The tower diameter is 34.5 m and
the central colunm 4.5 m.
2.4.2.2.4 Systems with daily displacement
In box maltings the green m.alt is always hlrned
where it is. It is, however, also possible to use
the turner to move the green malt away from
the steep towards the kiln. in this case the stee-
p ed goods are moved once or twice daily one
stage nearer the kiln. This gives rise to the name
for the oldest of these systems, which was often
used even in floor maltings - the moving piece
system.
Movillg piece 111 a Itillgs
The mov ing ba tch plant (Fig. 2.53) consists of a
large germination box, 50 to 60 cm long and 3 to
4 m wide - the germination path. TI,is germ inati-
on path is basically laid out like a normal germi-
nation box, but is divided beneath the false bot-
tom (2) into 16 half-day regions (4). TI,e turner (5)
in the first plants was made, as shown, of bucket
scoops and rubber scrapers. Newer plants opera-
te with inclined screw hImel'S (Fig. 2.54).
The steeped goods are cast onto the first half-
day region from the steep tank (7) located direct-
ly above the box. Twice a day the bed on a half-
day fie ld is moved forwards, so that the bed is
displaced every 24 h over a one-day section. TI,e
turner, which handles the green malt extremely
gently, is for this purpose moved twice d aily
from the end of the path (i.e. from the oldest
batch) to the beginning of the path (to the cast
batch) at a speed of 20 to 30 cm/mill. As soon as
the turner has huned over all the batches it is rai-
sed and moved back at a faster speed.
At the end of germination the green malt is
deposited by the hU'ner into a concrete trough
at the end of the box from which a screw con-
veyor (8) moves the green malt to the elevator
to the kiln. In order to ensure correct cleaning of
the false floor of the germillation box, at regular
If-
Fig.2.53 Mavillg unteII (WnllnerlIn lljeII) plnllt
(1) genll illn tiall pntlI, (2) ben sllppart, (3) gerlllillntillg undey, (4) IInlr-nny sectioll nivis iolls, (5) tllmer (oln type), (6) sectioll
beillg denllen, (7) steep, (8) nisclInrge suew
173
2
Fig. 2.54
Suew tllmf/' (llew type)
time intervals a one day region is kept free for
cleaning purposes (cleaning region 6). In order
to be able to supply different portions of the
steeped goods with different amounts of air, the
air supply valves to the half-day regions are se-
p arately controllable.
Moving piece maltings plants are no longer
built.
Movi1lg batch II1flltillgs with cOll11ecterl1ciZIl
Lausmann system, Regensburg
In the Lausmaml system, a moving batch m al-
tings with cOlmected kiln (Fig. 2.55), the stee-
ped goods are moved forward one section each
day and kilned in the adjoining kiln .
In the steeps (1), sihlated earlier in the pro-
cess, the barley is steeped il, the manner descri-
bed above and then cast by means of a castillg
lmit (2) into the first day's section. The barley
rests here on a movable germination floor (3),
(9)jnll, (10) vClltilntioll nllct
174
175

which can be raised or lowered by four syn- every individual day's section. Advantages
chronously operating lifting devices (4). mentioned are:
ri'- I ' til
I 1
.. .---J Each day's section is supplied, by a separate
!) L the pOSSibility of carrying out different mal-
• ••
:' 0"
/ ventilating system for each day's section, with ting processes, 2
jL the appropriate amOlUlt of cold air for the state the small building space required for the sy-
l! of germination (9, 10, 11). The necessary tempe- stem,
··li·· ;! /
rature measurements of the steeped barley and high operational reliability with minimal
"
-.. "" .. air are made by means of gauging cylinders (5) maintenance,
J:" built into the middle of each germination region, favourable utilisation figures with no high
':
The transfer and turning of the steeped bar- peak loadings,
"
ley is performed by means of a turner (6) which favourable cost-performance ratio.
.. '"
consists of an endless belt with scrapers and The LausmaJUl moving batch system is built
-- I which moves the steeped barley gently in lay- for 5 to 75 t daily charges of barley.
g
c
ers. For turning the turner is positioned over
, .'\
two sections and moves the steeped barley Gerlllil/ntillg-Ici/Ilillg III/it
<!)
<6
from one day's section into the next. During this "Unima lzer" malting system of Hillmer,
.J
the day's section to be turned is raised slowly Diespeck

i
upwards whilst the neighbouring section is It is possible to cany out germination aJ1d kilning
;:;
\/ \1 synchronously lowered. This occurs daily for in one vessel (static malting) . For this purpose, the
;' '\
5
<9
L.
every day's field beginning with the kiln. container has of course to be equipped with an
"

In order to enable additional wa tering of the aeration device for germination as well as for the
steeped-out barley, a distributing device (7) is kilning process, including heating. Such LUlits me
:; built into the turner to provide surface moiste- also built nowadays in a circular form.
\, I
/\ ;\ rung to raise the moisture content of the steeped
""
<9
'<i goods by up to 5 %. A spraying device (8) enab-
AdvaJ1tages of this are:
i
transport of the green malt and hence dama-
les the water content to be raised by 1 to 1.5%. ge to it are avoided,
g
The first and second germination sections are energy is saved because no traJ1sport is neces-
i ' ,
laid out like the other four sections but the illu- sary,
"
"-'
.; stration shows the cross-section through the time and space are saved because all proces-
plant,
.. "" I ses occur in one place.
,,] The cOlmected kiln is separated from the ger-
d iI.,g 1 T1r
Problematic are the high temperature diffe-
t,'r mination room by the kiln door (12). To load the rences which occur between germination and
, kiln, using the same turner, the kiln door is ope-
I

, .1 kilning and lead to stress in the building. In the

0 i
:
:. IF--
},
ned and then afterwards, for heat technology
reasons, closed again. Loading of the kiln (13)
case of the Unimalzer System ® (Fig. 2.55a), this
is counteracted by the use of a segment-like

:<:. I!
1"[
lasts about 45 min, emptying of the trough (15) steel coat which is heat insulated on the outsi-
[ill - about 20 min. The kih1 is provided with a fre-
r----; . de. On heating the steel coat expaJ1ds, whereby
. quency-controlled powerful radial fan (17) no stress occurs. The insulating material in the
D; :. ·1 -!
F- e
a
-
which draws in fresh or recirculated air form of mineral wool mats is located between
, e through a heat exchanger (18) and forces it the stainless steel walls and a weather resistant
0
J
0

J ".-'IF-
I .
through the malt which is being kilned.
The entire plant is controlled fully automati-
trapezium sheet facing .
I Rotating floors are used with a loading density
cally and thus enables a different treatment of of up to 600 kg barley/m 2 The floor is moved at a
176 177

the cone is at the bottom, and emptied . The cessary to proceed with germ ination as quickly
plant is designed for up to 3.8 t batches. This as possible. For this purpose fresh air is blown
corresponds to a possible a nnual production of through the steeped goods and the turner kept
130 t = 7,600 hi of beer and so has a size which contin ua lly in operation, In the following days 2
is of iJlterest to restaurant or pub breweries. the germinating goods are turned tw ice daily.
To keep the water content at about 45 % water is
2.4.2.3 Carrying out germination s prayed once daily.
Ind ependently of w hi ch malting system is The temperature increases in the fo llowing
used, the same or almost the same parameters days to a ma ximum of 17 to 18 °C, and the re-
ha ve to be maintained to carry out germination. spiration heat which is produced has to be eli -
Steeping occurs with water using pneum ati- minated by increased venti lation to avoid furt-
Fig.2 .55a
cally driven malting systems. The steeped bar- her rais ing of the temperature. At the sa me
Cross-secfioll of Ullilllii/ zer:
vessel, gerlllillafio ll veil fila- ley is evenly spread out by means of a turning time, from the third day of germination, the
fill g alld killlillg plallf system to enable uniform ve ntilation. The proportion of fresh air is initially cut by half
(Ha llller Sys felll ) and then in the fo llowing days by 80% and mo-
height of the steeped goods depends on the
plant and in the case of modern systems is bet- re and more CO,-containing recirculated air ad-
speed of 0.4 to 0.5 m/min by two to fom geared ween 1.20 and 1.30 111; the green malt then mixed to increasingly limit respiration,
engines which are fixed on the stainless steel grows to a height of 1.80 to 1.90 m. Th e tempe- Germ ination las ts fiv e to six days. Nowadays
walls and effect a circulation of about two homs. rature of the steeped goods depends on the wa- it is completed in five days and so mod ern
The screw turners, which are fi xed into posi- ter temperature and is 12 to 14 °C. It is now ne- plan ts are therefore equ ipped with five boxes.
tion and have an uneven number of spindles,
turn wi th an increasing speed towards the out-
l. 3 - - - -- -
side because of the different circulatory speeds
- as is the case with all screw turners - in order
to achieve a lUliform turning. As all processes in Fig. 2.55c DC
Cenllillafioll procedllre wifl, fal-
the Unima lzer occur in one vessel, the tempera-
lillg felllpemf llres (accord illg fo 18 - - - -
ture and ventilation control can be varied for
each box and is not bound to a fixed schedu le.
Up to eight vessels are arranged arolUld a
Narziji)
(1) felllpemfllre ill file gerlllilJa -
fillg goods - af fi,e fop;
16

14
_ .. -
---
.. _. - ..
- \
central kilning, ventilation and heating centre 5 h 7 8
(2) felllpemillre ill ti,e gerlllilla- \
- - - - - - 1
and each is equipped with its own germination
venti lation plant.
Fig . 2.55b
Ulli-Collf -Malfillg Sysfelll (Hallll er Sysfelll)
(3)
fill g goods - af file 00110111;
felllpemfllre of file illflo-
willg air;
12 \
- . - - .- .-' -.-' 2
3
(1)fil/illg, (2) sfeepillg, (3) fllmillg, (4) dry sfeep pilase, 10 l.-

(4) fell lpemfllre ill °C;

(5) galllillafioll, (6) Illmillg, (7) killlillg, (8) rellloval of lIIalf
• Ulli-Collt lIIaltillg systelll (5) day of genllillafioll;
of HaLl1ler, Diespeck (6) Cenllatl desig llafioll of ileap
i 2 3 4 5 6
A malting system which is of interest from the sfages; Fl'ftrglli:;cc.; YOCA'lll=i<.'OO M:llLcdli;x,; OfJ""",
heat technology point of view, but which can distribution (3) and, in accordance with a pre- (7) proporfioll of recirClllafed ...::.:.\.\,
, j'";." '.. V", ,
n;r; '., .,0 .(0 "
only be used for small quantities, is the Uni- programmed schedule, dry steeped (4), during \ ;."

(8) spmyillg; X
Cont malting system of HalUler, Diespeck. In which time CO, is drawn off and replaced by
(9) wafer collfellf of file gallli- 42
"
42 .5 _ 45 .. 48 47.7 47 .5
this all the processes a re carried out in a single fresh air. Germination and turning are perfor- 350 430 500 500 400 350 310
ltafillg goods;
rotatable vessel (Fig. 2.55b).
The barley is steeped in the up to 3.5 m high
vessel (2), turned in order to get uni form water
med in the same way (5 + 6). For kilning (7) a
controlled supply of hot air is attached. To re-
move the malt (8), the vessel is rotated so that
(10) vellfilafioll perfonllallce per
III '/ f-l /II- I;
(11) fllmillg
Hit
•
,.I I t r t i t 1 n
- -- - -
 178
A peculiarity is germination occurring with fal-
ling temperatures following a steeping procedure
with germination in the steep accordulg to Narzill
2 (Fig. 2.55c). In this case the fu'st active phase of li-
fe is particularly emphasised durUlg gennulation
and respiration reduced from the third day of ger-
nlination by means of slight cooling.
2.4.2.4 Control of germination
To conclude this section on germination, a few
of the factors which must be controlled durulg
germination are summarised here . The traditio-
nal basic preconditions are:
To produce Pilsner malt all conditions must
be avoided which lead to more extensive modi-
fication and thus to the formation of more sugar
and amino acids, as well as to more DMS and
DMS-P (see Sect. 2.5.1.4). These include:
slow increase in the germination temperahll'e
to a maximum of 17 to 18 °C
Rootlets should be thick and shunpy and re-
ach 1.5 to 2 times the corn length. Long root-
lets lower the quality.
Acrospires should have a uniform length
equal to 2/3 to % of the length of the corn. Hus-
sars are undesirable.
The water content on loadulg the kiln should
be about 1 % lower than at the end of steepulg.
The green malt should smell fresh and cuc-
umber-like, not sour, musty or mouldy.
To produce dark malt a more extensive modi-
fication is preferred since the sugars and amUlO
acids are needed for the formation of colouring
materials. This involves durulg germulation:
an increase in germination temperature to re-
ach up to 25 °C
longer rootlets
acrospire lengths up to % of the full corn
length.
In addition to these empirical controls, ger-
mination in modern plants is of course monito-
red very precisely by thermometers and other
control instruments which by means of auto-
matic controllers regulate the airflow, the tem-
perature, the amount of recirculated air and the
turners.
2.5 Malt kilning
The germinating process is interrupted by
drying the malt and kilning to prevent further
transformation and losses. To do this, one aims
for the following :
The water content is lowered from over 40%
to less than 5% to make the malt more stora-
ble and to increase its preservability.
With the lowering of the water content, allli-
fe processes in the malt such as germulation
and modification as well as further enzymic
activity are stopped.
In contrast, the enzymatic potential formed
should be completely retained .
Great attention must be paid to the formation
or avoidance of colour and flavour com-
pounds corresponding to the type of beer to
be produced from the malt during this pro-
cess.
The rootlets are cut off and removed.
2.5.1 Changes during kilning
Based on the targets set, the following occur:
The water content is lowered.
Germination and modification are stopped.
Colour and flavour compounds are formed.
2.5.1.1 Lowering of the water content
To make the malt storable, the water content
must be decreased from over 40 % to 4 to 5 %.
Water removal is effected by passing a large
amolUlt of hot air through the green malt.
When heating the moist green malt durulg
kilning, care must be taken not to destroy the
enzymes by wet heat - they withstand dry heat
much better. Because the enzymes are needed
to break down substrates in the brewhouse it is
important to protect the enzymes to a large ex-
tent.
To protect the enzymes the malt must first be
predr ied before it is subjected to high tempera-
tures.
The moist starch in the green malt gelatinises
at high temperatures and after cooling the malt
is no longer suitable for use. Its inside has a
steely appearance (vitreous malt).
On h eating whilst the starch is wet, unusable
vitreou s steely malt is formed. The temperature
must only be raised above 50 °C when the wa-
ter content has been decreased to 10 to 12 %.
The slow lowering of the water content at
tem peratures of 40 to 50 °C is known as ste-
wing. Long stewulg times at low temperatures
have a favourable effect on the flavour stability
of the beer.
2.5.1.2 Termination of germination and
modification
As a result of the removal of water, germination
is stopped and consequently the rootlets do not
grow any more. A major portion of the kernels
are killed by tlle effect of the heat durUlg kilning
and so the malt is barely able to live and respire.
Modification is also stopped with the ending of
germination. No further breakdown processes
occur and the malt is now a durable good.
2.5.1.3 Formation of colour and flavour
compounds {Maillard reaction}
At temperatures above 90 °C and a longer expo-
sure time, amUlO acids iJlcreasingly bind with
sugars to form red-brown, aroma-intensive
compOlmds, the melanoiduls . The reaction bet-
ween amino acids and carbonyl groups of redu-
cing sugars occurs on several levels and in dif-
ferent ways.
Alongside these, reactions occur between
amino acids and dicarbonyl compounds which
are known as Strecker aldehydes; the process is
known as Strecker degradation. Most Strecker
ald ehydes are very aroma-intensive (Fig.
2.55d).
179
These very complex and differentiated com-
pounds are collectively referred to as Maillard
products. The scale of the formation of the va-
ryulg compolmds depends on the temperahlre, 2
the duration of the temperature effect, the pH
value and the humidity content of the green
malt during the kihling process. The varyulg
formation of colour and flavour compolmds in
different types of malt is due to this.
The Maillard reactions and their products
CaI1Jlot be differentiated between without enor-
mous analytical effort. On the other hand, w e
know today that exactly these products are the
precursors of substances which, amongst ot-
hers, give rise to the unpleasant stale flavour in
bottled beer. There therefore has to be a control
as to what extent these reactions have already
proceeded . Because they are more intensive the
higher the temperature and the longer they act,
one also speaks of the "thermal exposure" of
the malt or later of the wort or beer. The forma-
tion of these substances is collectively referred
to in the thiobarbihll'ic acid amount (TBA). TBA
is a non-dimensional figure.
The higher the TBA, the higher the thermal
exposure of the malt, the wort or the beer. The
thermal exposure is an important yardstick for
the flavour stability of the beer.
As Maillard products are colour and flavour
compounds, Ul the case of dark malt importan-
ce is attached to producing a lot of these com-
pounds, and in the case of pale malt, to avoi-
ding the formation of Maillard products.
Maillard products are formed from sugar
and amino acids at high temperatures.
If the production of these compOlUlds is to be
avoided, the formation of their starting pro-
ducts has to be (predominantly) prevented or at
least limited . The proportion of ageing relevant
Strecker aldehydes increases with increasing
kilning temperatures [381] .
Temperature plays a particular role as the
transformations only start slowly and change

180
lr.q.1 (0".0,.1
Furiur<l l
Caruo nyb
t Mclanoidi ns
lmder the influence of the pH value, the water
content and other influential factors.
There are a series of possibilities and measu-
res which can be taken to obtain a low content
of Maillard products during m alting. These in-
clude [1 83]:
the use of barley varieties w hich tend to h ave
a low degree of protein modification
a low degree of steeping
reduction of oxygen from the third d ay of
germination
keeping the degree of protein modification
under 41 %
initial drying at a starting tempera ture of 35
to 50 °C
curing preferably for a short time at high tem-
peratures (see Sect. 2.5.1.5).
The TBA in malt (measured in con gress wor t)
sh ould be <14.
There is a correlation between the TBA pro-
ducts and the degree of protein modification and
the stale fl avour to be expected in pale beer. In the
production of dark malt the starting materials
Am ino bonds
Strecker <l ldehydes
Fig. 2.55ri
FOl"lllntioll of !Vlnillnrri prorillcts
produced in the initial dryin g phase, as well as
the curing temperatu re, playa decisive role in the
Maillard reaction. If initial drying takes place at a
high temperature and high humidity, beer can be
produced which has a more pleasant, intensive
malt aroma. The Strecker aldehydes formed here
have a positive effect on the flavour which is not
the case for pale mal t [186]. Because changes in
the aroma profile occur after storing dark malt, it
should be stored for two to tlu'ee montl1s prior to
processing. In this way, a very malty aromatic
beer with a high flavour stability is obtained.
The polyphenols found mainly in the husk
can if n ecessary also be called upon to produce
a colour In this case the proanthocya-
nidins, which are a colourless precursor of an-
thocyanidins, playa role. On heating in an aci-
dic soluti on, the fla van-terminated units are
re-released as ca rboca tions, which are then ox i-
dised by the oxygen in the air to produce red
anthocyanidins. This produces the red shades
which are necessary fo r the production of beer
with a red tint.
2.5.1.4 Formation of DMS precursors and free
DMS during kilning
Oimethylsulphide (DMS) is a compound w hich
can produce an und esirable vegetable-like or
cabbagey fla vour and smell in beer. Since the
formation of DMS s tar ts during m alting, it is
necessary to know h ow it or igina tes.
There are two ways in which DMS is formed :
An inactive precursor of DMS, S-methyl met-
hionine (SMM) is formed during the germina-
tion phase, is hea t-labile and is split into an ac-
tive precursor (DMS precursor = DMS-P) and
free DMS on h eating. The active precursor -
the DMS-P - breaks down on heating to volati-
le DMS. To dispel this DMS it is tl1erefore ne-
cessary, by means of long and intensive heating
(kilning, wort boiling), to split the DMS-P and
completely remove the volatile DMS which is
produced. DMS-P which is not converted can
later be taken up by the yeast and transformed
into free DMS.
At higher kilning tempera tures a small part
of the S-methyl methion.ll1e (SMM) can be con-
verted to difficultly volatile dimethyl sulphoxi-
de (DMSO) . This DMSO can later be reduced by
wild yeast or also contamination organisms to
OMS which can n o longer be removed and can
render the beer undrinkable. The amOLmt of
OMSO and its influence is however normally
small and for our purposes can be disregarded .
In the case of high kilnll1g temperatures (above
85 °C) and the presen ce of contaminants in the
beer, DMSO can be significan t. In the following,
therefore, we will continu ally onl y di fferen tiate
between the precursor, the DMS-P, and free
OMS. As long as DMS-P is present, this can be
converted to free DMS and expelled .
The influence of the barley and the malting
on the DMS-P content is very great [181].
l1w badey variety h as a grea t influence on the
DMS-P content. 111e va riety "Alexis", for exam-
ple, has a low DMS-P content, whilst wll1ter
barley varieties always have about 2 ppm more
1 i
181
than SUllU11er barleys.
The growing region h as a considerable ll1flu-
ence, as do year and climate.
The influence of moisture on the germinating 2
barl ey has already been discussed in Sect.
2.4.1 .3.5: the higher the germination moisture
level, the higher the DMS-P con tent and also
the TBA. Greater protell1 breakdown also re-
leases more DMS-P' Higher germination tem-
peratures also lead to the production of DMS-P'
In creasing the dura tion of germin ation
brings about a large increase in DMS-P.
An ll1Crease of the initial drying tempe rature
reduces the DMS content, but increases the
TBA.
The curing temperature h as a very grea t ll1-
fluence on the DMS-P content. The hi gher the
curll1g temperature, the more DMS-P is COl1 -
velted to DMS and expelled.
The DMS-P content is on average 400 g
(4 ppm) in dry weight fo r pale malts.
2.5.1.5 Effect of kilning tempera ture and
duration
The temperature and the period of time h ave a
decisive influence on the quality of the malt and
beer. Two aspects are of p ar ticular importance
h ere: ll1itial drying and kilning.
TIl e effect of illitinl nryillg
The initial dryll1g procedure influences the fac-
tors w hich h ave a positive effect on the flavour
stability of the beer [214]:
Low initial drying tempera tures of abou t
50 °C and long initial drying times at these tem-
pera tures h ave a favourable effect on the fla-
vour stability of the beer.
The effect of Idlllillg
For pale malts the kilning tempera ture should
be at least 80 °C.
For the flavour stability of the beer it is of ex-
treme importance that the therm al exposure of
I
I
d
 182
the m alt remains low (TBA max. 14) and the
DMS-P con te nt is kept as low as possible (below
6 mg/I = 6 ppm).
2 The thermal exposure of the m alt, expressed
in the TBA, however, increases proportionally
with increasing exposure time and temperatu-
re; the DMS-P content, on the other hand, de-
creases more the longer the exposure time, a t
first very quickly and then becoming continual-
ly slower.
The higher the temperature, the greater the
decline.
In this regard there are diam etric require-
ments for
high tempera tures to completely convert the
DMS-P and
low temperatures for a low thermal exposure
of the m alt.
It is therefore necessa ry to find a solution
which sa tisfies both of these requirements.
In Fig. 2.55e [214], the values for the develop-
ment of the DMS precursor and the TBA for 82 °C
and 84 °C, which are dependent on the kilning
time, are recorded and linked by curves. If one
now tries to obtain a desired DMS-P content of
5.7 ppm, for example, it can be seen from wh e-
st l ·····'I·······-1-········I-----------------;
15 . .
10
0-
J,
5
o {(-Amyla5/:
2 3 4 5
Kli ninQ lime (il)
re the lines cross wi th the DMS-P curve at 82°C
that 5 h o urs kilning time is necessary and if this
is the case, a corresponding TBA value of 17 is
to be expected.
If the kilning temperature is, however, in-
creased to 84 °C, the DMS-P curve cuts the de-
sired DMS-P value of 5.7 ppm after only 2.8
hours, and in thi s case the TBA value falls to 13.
This means tha t it is possible to obtain the sa-
m e DMS-P values with high but short kilning ti-
m es at low therma l exposure and instead of the
som e times still usual kilning time of 5 hours at
80 °C, the sam e quality can be obtained w ith
shorter kilning times of 2 to 3 hours at 85 0c.
2.5.1.6 Formation of nitrosamines
N ih'osamines (nitrosodimethylanune = NDMA)
are carcinogenic substan ces which are formed
at hig h tempera tures from amines (amino
acids) and nitrogen ox ides .
Since the conversion from direct to indirect
h eating of kilns the hot nitrogen oxide-rich
(NOx) gas used fo r kilning is no longer passed
through the m alt. Con sequentl y n owadays
only small amounts of nitrosamines are for-
m ed.
..' TSMl "l
OMSPMI '(
OMSPS'I "(
6 Fig. 2.55e
Developillellt of tile DMS precllrsor olld
TBA depe/ldcll t 011 telllpemtllre olld lillie
The present limit val ues in Germany are:
for malt 4.0 pg NDMA/kg and
for beer 0.8 pg NDMA/kg
In the production of sm oked m alt, smoke is
fed through the malt before kilning, which g i-
ves it its scratchy fl avour. This does not incur
the forma tion of nitrosa mines. It is different in
the case of sm oked m alts which are produced
in small manual maltings.
2.5.1.7 Enzyme inactivation
It has already been mentioned tha t en zymes are
associated with high m olecula r weight proteins
(Sect. 1.1.3.5.3). As a result of the heating during
kilning, the structures of proteins are changed
to some extent and they become denahlred. De-
nah lration is, however, very d ependent on the
struchue of the carrier protein and therefore af-
fects enzymes to different ex tents.
In the first phase of kilning the enzymatic ac-
tivity of the am ylases, in particular a-amylase,
increases up to a tempera ture of about 50 °C
and then decreases again . At the end of kilning
there is about 15% more a-amylase activity
than in green m alt (Fig . 2.56), whereas the acti-
vity of the more tempera hIre sensitive
se and of limit residu al d ex trinase is about 40%
.,.,
Imtial drYIng Heatlno CunnQ
lJ-AmyiaSJ: GlucJnJsc
Fig. 2.56
El/z!!lIIe illOClivotioll dllril/g kill/ illg
183
less than in green malt. Th e resu lts rela te to the
production of pale m alt.
In the case of the even more tempera hIre sen-
sitive glucan ases, the loss of enzym e activi ty is 2
even grea ter. In the case of
the loss is 20 to 40 %; in the case of
nase 50 to 70 %. In contrast to this, the temp era-
ture resistant protein degrading enzym es in-
crease in activity during kilning by 10 to 30%.
In the case of the tempera hlre sensitive Iipases,
the Iipoxygenase in p ar ticula r is only partly
inactiva ted, so that a not inconsiderable en zy-
m e ac tivity is s till presen t in malt.
2.5.2 Kiln structure
The German word for kiln "Darre" comes from
"darren, to m ake dry", in other words to dry. To
dry something heat is required, but since the malt
is in deep layers a great deal of hot air is required
to dry the malt. Heating and passing air tlU'ough
must therefore be the core hmctions of the kiln.
There have been fundamental changes in re-
cent deca des in the art and m allller in which the
h ot air is sent thl'Ough the green malt in order to
opera te as cost-efficiently as possible.
In all the changes, the basic principle
of having two stages in kilning has been kept.
In the firs t phase the drying of the g reen malt
is performed at different, relatively low tem-
perahll'es and water contents, depending on
the type of malt to be produced; this phase is
called the initial drying phase or withering
phase.
In the second phase the tempera ture is in-
creased to the final kilning tempera ture and I
cured a t that temperature. This is called the I
cllring phase.
I
This division into two phases usually d eter-
mines how the kiln is built.
2.5.2.1 Heating and ventilation of the kiln
Previollsly kilns were almost all hea ted by bur-
ning coaL The hot combustion gas cannot be
 184
pressed directly through the malt since it often
contains a considerable amount of foul smel-
ling components and the malt quality could be
2 impaired by nitrosamine compounds. An ex-
ception is made when beechwood is burnt to
kiln the malt. Such malt gives a smoky flavour
to beer mad e from it - a flavour which is desi-
red in some special beers (Rauchbi er).
185
The hot gases were therefore passed through haus t air is 40 to 50 °C hot on heating the kiln The glass h ea t exchanger is therefore a com-
large metal pipes (Fig. 2.57, 11) along which the and 80 to 85 °C during curing. ponent of every mod ern maltings so as to save
ex te rnal air flows and is thereby h ea ted. This In orde r to recover at leas t a subs tantial energy and costs.
customary type of hea ting is called indirect am ount of the energy, the warm exhaust air is The possible savings amOlU1ting to 30 to 35% 2
heating, since the air does not come into direct used to heat the drawn-in cold air in a glass he- are hi gher in winter than summer owing to the
contact with the hot gases . More recently coal at exchanger. lowe r ex ternal temperatures in winter.
fi ring has been replaced by the use of oil or na- A glass hea t exchanger consists of hundreds Circulation of the air in kilns of the older ty-
tural gas and this also allows substan tially bet- of horizontally arranged glass tubes which are pe of construction was performed by a power-
ter control. meshed together between the walls of the ex- ful top fan (Fig. 2.57, 18). With the greater load
The large combu stion gas pipes have now haust air chalU1el (Fig. 2.57a). The cold air is high (up to 1.30 m) in modern kilns this is no
been replaced by heat exchangers hea ted by drawn in through the glass tubes and is hea ted longer possible. Nowadays axial or radial fans
steam or hot water. by the warm exhaust air which flows at ri ght are used which pneumatically force the requi-
Through the use of indirect heating the nitro- angles to the glass tubes. This heat exchanger is red amOlU1t of air from a pressure chamber un-
gen oxide (NOx)-rich combustion gases CaIU10t therefore referred to as the cross-flow hea t ex- derneath the ki ln bottom through the malt bed,
react with nitrogen compounds in malt and changer (in Gennan, KWT) . Such heat ex- wluch becomes increasingly permeable to the
thu s cannot form nitrosamines. changers for heat recovery are an integral part air. The discharge is adapted by means of a fre-
Modern kiln heating is performed with pri- of the maltings today. quency controlled drive.
mary energy (natural gas or oil). In these furna- Glass tubes made of tecluucal glass are used
ces the hot combustion gases change direction beca use they are considerably cheaper than The amount of air required decreases
many times in the pipes of a multiple pipe heat steel tubes and unlike steel tubes do not corro- from about 4,300 - 5,000 m 3 of air p er ton of
exchanger and thereby heat the kilning air flo- de when coming into contact with the aggressi- malt per hour
wing past. To protect against (sulphuric) acid ve exhaust fumes. In addition they are easy to to about 50 % of this value after the break-
condensates the pipes of the exchaI1ger are ma- clean. tlu·ough is reac hed.
de of stainless s teel. By condensation of the wa- The energy savings obtained using heat reco- Instea d of one high performance radial fan, in
ste gas at the end of the heat exchanger circuit, very are subs tantial. Thmugh heating the inco- many countries several smaller ones are used.
additional hea t is released in order to provide ming air as d escribed, the following heat requi- The specific loading of modern high perfor-
aI1 optimal yield. rements (in the middle of the year) can be mance kilns is 350-500 kg of barley as green
calculated: malt per m 2 floor space.
Heat recovery rlllrillg killlillg
If one is not able to reuse the warm exhaust air Example
withi.n the kilning plaI1t, thi s exhaust air and Heating of incoming air Heat requirement in
with it a considerable amount of energy is lost, from to °C kWh/t finished malt
particularly when one considers that the ex- winter summer middle with without
beat exchanger
-10 °C +25 °C +8°C
initial drying 18.0 25.0 21.6 837 618
hea ting 28.5 41.0 37.6 159 83
Fig. 2.57
Two floor kil ll (olrilype) curing 35.0 57.0 53.6 94 38
(1) fire slokillg 1"0011/, (2) henlillg chnll/vel; (3) CIIIIII colleclillg tota l 1091 740
clwlI/bel; (4) lower killl, (5) I/pper killl, (6) vnpollr chill/lley,
(7) killl cowl, (8) killl f l/mnce, (9) illlcl"llIeriinle)7ool; (10) clo-
difference =351 kWh
snble flnps (fl"es), (11) henlillg pipes, (12) illlel"llleriinle floOl ;
(13) nir pipes, (14) killl beri SlIpporl sheel, (15) III m el; (1 6)
II/nllllOppel; (17) collriCIIsnle shielri, (18) fnll In our example, there is a saving of 32%.
186 187

Fig. 2.57n
Cross-flow Ilent exc/wlIger
(1) fresll cold Fig 2.58
(2) fresh hen ted Sillglefloor dlllllpillg killl
(3) exlwllst air ill let, warlll (1) 1101 nil' press llre c/lnlllber
(4 ) exlwllst nil' olltiet, cooled (2) ki/llillg chnlllber
(3) fnll olltiet
(4) dis triblltor plate
(5) trollghed c/will cOll veyor
The higher the specific loading, the deeper cally shaped w ind va ne on the kiln man (see (6) collect illg plates
(7) tippillg floor
the bed depth and the grea ter the fan perfor- Fig. 2.57, 7) . (8) side wnll
mance capacity must be. The green malt is laid in these kilns on floors (9) pllllrods
Higher loadings are therefore more sen sible made of rOlmd or wedge wire and the ho t air (10) WO I'I1l drive
in cow1tries with low electricity charges. passes through it. A shovel turner with m ovable (1 l! greell IIInlt delivery
(12) exlwllst air
The heat requirement for kilning is greater shovels is used to move the m alt. Nevertheless,
for one floor kilns than for two floor kilns be- with su ch kilns much manual labour is, or was
cause in the latter a larger proportion of the required. The green m alt must be sp read out on
energy within the kiln can be reused . Using a the upper floor. Transfer from the upper to the
Fig. 2.60
heat interchanger or exchanger, one can assume lower floor was performed by opening flaps,
Dlle floor killl with lander nlld
a h eat requirement per dt finished malt of but the malt had to be moved to the flaps and II II lander

MJ kWh kWh sprea d out again on the lower floor. (fixed floor)
mean value for cleaning out with a power shovel, the "don- (1) IIwlt illiet
7
(2) killled IIwlt
one floor kilns 250-300 70-83 75 key", m anual labour is necessary. As a loading
(3) fres h nil'
two floor kilns 200-250 55-70 61 depth each m 2 of kiln floor surface should carry (4) exhnllst nil'
65 to 80 kg finished m alt. That is a small capaci- (5) hentel'
Without a heat exchanger the values increase ty for a grea t deal of work. (6) velltilntioll flnp
(7) cooled nil'
by up to 35 %. Ins tead of the old two floor kilns, high perfor- 2
A further improvement of primary energy mance kilns have therefore been introduced.
use can be achieved by using block type ther-
mal power s tations (in German, BHKW), in 2.5.2.3 Kilns with dumping floors
which electricity and heat are generated (see Kilns with dumping floors are n ow seld om
Sect. 10.2.5). seen. As a result of suitable temperature and air frequently tipped in one piece to the side; larger 2.5.2.4 Flat kilns with a loader and unloader
control, turning is lUU1ecessary and these kiIJ1s ones are usu ally tipped in two parts towards Like germin a ting boxes, there are two varieties
2.5.2.2 Older type two floor kilns have no turners. To empty the kiln the floor is the middle for emptying (Fig. 2.58). These kilns of h orizontal kilns:
In the p as t kilns were m ostly con structed as dumped so that the m alt slides down. are provided with variously d esign ed loading fixed floor kilns with a rotating loader and
two fl oor kilns, su ch as can still som etimes b e Dumping is performed by a shaft w hich causes devices so that it is no longer necessary to enter lmloader, or
fOlmd today in sm all and older maltings. These a rotation of the floor downwards about its cen- the kiln. Kilning w ith such kilns lasts 18 to 20 h. rotating fl oor kilns with a fixed loader and
can be recognised from a dis tan ce by the typi- tre of gravity. Smaller dumping floor kili1s are Single floor dwnping kilns are n o longer built. lmloader.

188
A turn er is no lon ger n ecessary for these
kilns.
Modern kilns are built in circular or rectan-
gular form as single floor or two floor kilns (Fig.
2.60). Circular kilns are becom ing increasingly
popular these days.
In the example, a hlgh p erformance kiln with
a circulating floor is shown .
The kiln is equipped with a loading and un-
loading device . The floor sections, constructed
of p erforated or slit plate, with about 30% free
passage (see Fig . 2.50a), are supported at the pe-
riphery on rollers and are driven uniforml y by
3 to 6, 1 to 2 kW rating, gea red motors. The
drives are reversible for right and left move-
ment and h ave two sp eeds.
The loading and unloading device, which can
be raised or lowered, consis ts essentially of a
hori zontally ananged throu gh cOlneyor, which
transports the goods inwards from outside or
vice versa, as required . This takes about 1 h
each time.
For loading, the loading and unloading devi-
ce is brought into the positi on corresponding to
the predetermined bed depth. In the case of ro-
tating floors the transport and 10adiJlg is from
outside inwards whllst the floor rotates. After
about 1 h the kiln is fully loaded .
After the kilning process is finished, in the ca-
se of rotating floors the loading and tmloading
device automatically drops tmtil it is in the bot-
tom position and moves the ki lned malt to the
outlet openlng.
The total kilnlng process, including loading
and unloading, opera tes autom atically and
las ts 18 to 20 h.
In the case of fixed floors, the process nms the
other way round.
The maUl advantages of rotating floors are
that:
the malt husks w hleh are abraded by the con-
veyor screw fall down in only one place and
can be remo ved from there, and
•
on clearing the kiln the malt can be moved to
a fi xed opening Ul the wa lls.
Two floor kilns consist of two floors one abo-
ve the othe r. Whils t on one floor curing takes
place, on the oth er floor g reen malt goes
through the initial drying or withering phase. It
is possible here to pass the hot but dry exh aust
all', mixed with fresh air, from the curing floor
tmder the drying fl oor and then to release the
moist exhaust air from the initial drying pro-
cess into the open air.
One can arra nge the two floors of a two-floor
kiln
ve rtically above one another or next to each
other, and work
with or without s hifting the malt.
If the malt is to be shifted, ulitial drying and
kilning processes occur on sep arate floors. Shif-
tUlg can be omitted if the ulitial drying and kil-
ning processes take place on the sa me floor. In
this case the air ducts h ave to be reversed .
Both fo rms h ave both advantages and disad-
vaJltages. The adva ntage of reversin g the air
ducts lies above all in the longer dryulg period,
due to not havulg to shift the malt which lasts
about two hours.
In principle it is possible to opera te two one-
floor kilns in the same way as a two-fl oor kiln.
In order to operate a two-floor kiln in two sta-
ges (drying and Curulg) Ul 2 x 20 h, the process
shown in Fig. 2.61 is used. The air supply for
the upper floor is controlled completely ulde-
pendently of the temperature of the lower floor.
The amount of air is measured su ch that the ex-
hau st air above the upper floor at 25 to 30 °C is
always saturated with mois ture, whllst the lo-
wer floor can, co mpletely independentl y of
this, be brought to the curing tempera ture.
Loadulg and llllloading of the floors occurs in
the previously described maJU1er. For unloa-
ding from the upper to the lower both
floors and both devices move a t th e same
speed.
Fig. 2.61
Two floor circll lnr kill/
(1) fresll nil; (2) IIenfil/g, (3) cool ni l; (4) exllnllsf nil; (5) IIenf recovery, (6) [n il, (7) kill/il/g, (8) illifinl riryillg
For cost reasons the hea t potenti al of the re-
circ ula ted air is used as much as possible. The
fan draws fresh air through the h eat exchanger
and thereby warms the air which is brought to
the desired temperature by the subsequent hea-
ting. The exh aust air Ul the case of a one floor
kiln is led over the heat recovery unit. With a
two floor kihl this is naturally not the case. He-
re, the air, after it has passed through the lower
floor, is brought through the controlled additi-
on of hot or cold air to the predetermined tem-
perature. This necessitates a completely separa-
te temperature aJld airflow control of the upper
and lower floors.
2.5.2.5 Vertical kilning
An entirely different form of kill1iJlg is used in
ver tical kilns. In vertical kihls the malt is laid Ul
an approximately 20 cm wide layer betvveen ver-
tica lly ar ranged kihling floors, and hot ai r is p as-
sed through them laterally (Fig. 2.62). Such a
ma lt layer is called a malt shaft or malt cell. De-
pendulg on the size, 3 to 12 such malt cells are se-
pat'ated from one another by 80 cm wide au'
ducts. By means of intermediate floor plates the
killl is divided into two or three superimposed
189
floors. For thi s purpose there are access passages
Ul the air ducts. The malt shafts are divid ed into
floors which h ave the same h eight as the sections
Ul the air sha fts. On opelling the flaps the malt
fall s by g ravity onto the floor beneath it or ulto
the conveyor for movulg it.
In a vertical kiln the malt falls by gravity from
one floor to another. The green malt is not tur-
ned.
SU1Ce the kilning space is ve ry well utilised Ul
ve rtical kihlS they are considered to be hi gh
performan ce kihls. Heating of vertical ki lns is
the sa me as for hori zontal kilns. Hot air is intro-
duced through air nozzles loca ted at the bottom
of the air shaft passages and flows through the
malt.
The energy requirement of vertica l kilns is, at
about 1.2 mio. kJ per 100 kg m alt, very hi gh and
so scarcely any of these kilns are still in use .
2.5.3 Management of kilning
During kilnulg, green malt is heated to the cu-
ring tempera ture wllich is maintained for 3 to 5
h. Heating mu st, howeve r, be performed very
carefully and with controlled reduction of the
water content, otherwise
II
190 191

starch in the malt gelatinises and steely malt IlIitinT riryillg 01' witherillg Kill/ il/g 2.5 .3.1 Production of Pilsner malt
is produced Throu gh the introduction of a large amount of This means maintaining the kilning temperatu- In the production of Pilsner m alt all conditions
breakdown products can still be formed du- warm air, the wa ter content of the green malt re for 3 to 5 h ours. For more d etails on the de- which favour melanoidin production must be
ring kilning. is slow ly lowered to 12 to 14%, whereby the penden ce of the curing temperature on the cu- avoided : 2
The way in w hich kilning is performed is d e- tem perature in the layered malt sh ould not ex- ring time, see Sect. 2.5.1.5. barleys with a low protein con ten t (up to 11 %)
pends on what type of malt is to be produced. ceed 55°C. are used,
To make it easier to see the differences, the ba- Lower drying temperatures and lon ger dry- the degree of steepin g is kept low (42 to
sic conditions for producing pale and dark malt ing times at moderate temperatures cause: 1"1 (Cj 44%),
are compared with one ano ther in the fo llowing more fat breakdown p rodu cts in the kilned breakdown processes during germin ation
table: malt and 40 80 are not driven ve ry far on (maximum tempe-
better flavour stability [151 ]. JO 60 rature 17 to 18 °C, limited modification, acro-
Pale (Pilsner) Dark (M1U1ich) spire 2/3 of the corn length, rootlets 1.5 times
malt malt 10 20
the corn length),
Protein content o 2 -\ 6 0 10 12 14 Hi In 20 22 24 (h)
during kilning the water content is lowered
of the barley 8.5 to 11 % 11 to 13 % to 8 to 10 % in the first half of the process at a
Degree of lW\f t t t ttl tit t low tempera ture (55 °C) by strong fan suction
steeping 42 to 44% 44 to 47% I" J (Ci - , so that the enzymes calUlot continue to ca ta-
I ; I ;
Highest 50 100
I bolise substrates,
germination
tem perature 17 to 18°C 22 to 25 °C
40 80

60
t 1 , tI the curing temperature for Pilsner malt is 80
to 85°C. To obtain the lowest possible ther-
40
Modification limited extensive 1
mal exposure whilst achieving maxim um ex-
10 20
I
Acrospire length 2/3 to 3/4 1 pulsion of DMS, it is preferable to cure for 2
2 ·1 6 6 10 12 14 16 10 20 2£ 2·1 (h)
Kilning on the ra pid drying provision of to 3 hours at 85°C than for 5 hours at 80 °C
upper floor by strong fan a moist warm (see Sect. 2.5.1.5).
suction. climate by air
Inactivation of recircu lation, Prorillctioll Of Pilsller Malt all a two floor kiTH
enzymes, n o strong en zyme Fig.2 .63 Dryillg nlld killlillg dingrmll for pnle IIlnlt ill n two When Pilsner m alt is produced on a two floor
floor killl (nccordillg to NarzijJ)
breakdown of activity, kiln with turners in 2 x 24 h, a different proce-
(A) IIpperfioOl; (8) lowcrfloor
large molecules. production of (1) telllpera tll re below tile floOl ; (2) telllperatllre nbove tile dure is used (Fig. 2.63).
breakdown flool ; (3) telllperatllre of tIle IIlnll, (4) water cOlllellt of tile The tempera ture is controlled at three locati-
products IIlnlt, (5) fn ll, (6) tllmer ons (upper, middle, lower) by thermometers
Lower floor
curing ProdllCtiOIl of Pilsller maTt all n aile floor kiTlI
temperature 80 to 85 °C 105 to 110 °C
Melanoidin Time temperature m easured water content in % fan
formation very little ablmdant (hours) in the malt in °C
above middle below above middle below
Kilning is therefore divided into tlu'ee phases: lt03 20 28 37 41 39 33 full power
4 to 7 35 45 52 35 30 17 full power
Heatillg Fig. 2.62 8 to 11 55 59 62 19 16 8 full p ower
Tilree fl oor vertical killl (diagralllllln tic)
This refers to the slow hea ting of the malt to the 12 to 15 71 73 78 7 6 6 % power
(1) axial fall, (2) stenlll nir ilentel; (3) lower floor, (4) lIIiddle
curing temp erature while at the same time lo- flool; (5) IIpperfioOl; (6) londillg screw, (7) telescopic pipe, (8) 16 to 19 79 82 85 6 4.5 4.5 '/2 power
wering the water content to 4 to 5%. elevator 20 to 22 84 85 86 4 4 4 V2 power
 193
192
To lU110ad the kilned m alt is the setting of the fresh and recirculated air
Productioll of MlIl1iclllllnlt Oil n two floor1cilll in older plants, pushed out by a power sho- valves, etc.
damper dampers vel, All these factors can be programmed and in
water content operation of
Opera- temperature meas-
operation in tipping kilns, tipped out, or modern plan ts can be automatically contro1led. 2
ured in the malt in °C in % turners in (h)
tion pushed out by an unloading dev ice into a Because loading and unloading of the kiln can
upper lower upper lower hours
hours upper lower malt hopper at the side.
floor nowadays b e fully automated, control stations
floor floor floor floor floor
and monitoring screens are becoming increa-
1-10 open singly used. But for the prac tising maltster this
1-4 20 44
means that the knowledge of the relationships
30 30 every 2 h
5-9 between all the processes becomes increasingly
11-14 !f4 shut
10-14 40 25
14-17 1/2 shut important.
15-19 60 22 "., !c.;t-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
17-19 % shut
every 1 h 19-23 shut 2.6 Treatment of malt after kilning
20-24 65 20
25-34 open After kilning, the malt is cooled and the sti1l at-
50 16 every 1 h
25-29 tached rootlets (culms) are removed as soon as
30-34 50 12 In '':. :"i ;OJ

35-38 !f4 shut possible. The malt is then stored lmtil delivery
65 7 every 1 h
35-39 and often cleaned or polished again before dis-
38-41 1j2 shut I t:

40-44 90 5
41-43 % shut !II m, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1 patch to improve its appearance.

3 continuous 43-47 shut

45-48 105
which must be at a constant distance from the
floor. Although the malt is not constantly tur-
ned, uniform malt can be expected.
Drying proceeds on the floor upwards from be-
low. 111e water evaporated thereby keeps the tem-
perature in the moister malt layers down
and so hinders the formation of steely malt.
The temperatures in the upper part of the bed
during the first half of the kilnjng process are
considerably lower than the temperatures in
the lower half of the bed and only rise after the
breakthrough. By breakthrough is meant the
point of intersection when the falling line sho-
wing the water content cuts the rising line re-
presenting the temperature of the malt on the
lower floor. At this point in time, the malt will
sag somewhat if touched.
2.5.3.2 Production of Munich malt
When producing malt a1l the conditi-
ons which favour m elanoidin formation are
promoted:
high protein barleys are used,
the degree of steeping is kept high (44 to
47%),
• the enzymes are very active and during ger-
mination form large amounts of breakdown
products (maximum temperature 20 to 25°C,
extensive modification, acrospires % the
length of the corn, rootlets twice the corn
length),
in the first half of the water content is
lowered only to 20 % by closing the flues, and
so the enzymes are provided with more favou-
rable conditions for forming further catabolic
products. process is referred to as withe-
ring or drying (Fig. 2.64). The typical CLUing
temperature for MLUuch malt is 105 °C.
2.5.3 .3 Unloading the kiln
After kilning, the kiln should be emptied as
soon as possible so that it can be loaded again.
L- _ _ _ __
Fig. 2.64
DrlJillg (witilerillg) nlld killlillg dingmll/ for dnrk II/nlt 011 n
two(loor killl (nccordillg to NnrzijJ)
(1) tell/pem tllre below tile floOl; (2) tell/pemtllre above tile
flool ; (3) tell/pem tllre of tile II/nlt, (4) wnter COlltellt of tile
IIInlt, (5) tllmillg, (6) fllles n = opeJ/, b = closed .
2.5.3.4 Control of kilning
Proper control of kilning depends on continu-
ous control of:
• the temperatures in the malt, above and be-
low the malt, and of the external air, the inflo-
w ing air and the recirculating air,
• the air humidity in the layers of malt,
• the operating times of the turner - if present,
• the operating times of the fan,
2.6.1 Cooling of the kilned malt
The kilned malt is sti1l at about 80 °C and can-
not be stored at this temperature. It must first
be cooled . Tlus is performed
by blowing cold fresh air through lU1til the
temperature is no more than 35 to 40°C, or
by cooling in a special cooling hopper, or
• in smaller maltings by slow passage through
the malt cleaner.
Because the amount of energy contained in
the kilned malt is very large, nowadays at-
tempts are increasingly being made to recover
this heat during cooling to perform the initial
drying of the next batch . In addition, the air to
be used for drying can be passed through the
kilned malt and thereby heated . Cold air then
no longer needs to be blown in.
Once the cooling is completed the rootlets
and germs have to be removed .
2.6.2 Malt cleaning
A large part of the rootlet fraction is still atta-
ched to the kilned malt up to 3 to 4 % of the to-
tal weight. These rootlets (culms) are of no use in
194
the further processed malt and must be remo-
ved. This process is referred to as malt cleaning.
The germs constihlte the most valuable by-
product of the maltings. The average composi-
tion of the germs of Pilsner malt is:
water 8.8%
protein 30.0%
fat 2.0 %
ash 6.0 %
fibre 8.6 %
non-nitrogenous extract 44.6 %
A small portion of the rootlets has already
been broken off during kilning and removed at
that stage. In modern rotating floor kilns,
troughs with screw conveyors are attached be-
low the fixed himel'S or unloading devices to
remove the culms.
In older kilns the germs fall tlu'ough the floor
plate into the germs chamber below it. If the
germs are strongly heated there they become
brown and become much less useful nutritio-
nally. It is therefore a disadvantage when too
many germs fall onto the heating duct or into
the heating chamber. The colour of these germs
is always darker than the germs removed by
cleaning.
Cleaning of malt is performed by a malt
cleaning machine or a cleaning screw. All malt
cleaning machines operate by pressing the ker-
nels against a sieving cylinder. This breaks off the
attached rootlets and they are removed by a
screw conveyor located at the bottom (Fig. 2.65).
It is important that the kernels are not damaged
, , ,
..... ! . ;
I . .n _n_n
3 6
by this and so the kernels are moved gently by a
stirring device which causes removal of the atta-
ched germs (cleaning).
2.6.3 Malt storage
The water content slowly increases during sto-
rage to 4 to 5%. This results in physical and che-
mical changes in the endosperm which make
further processing easier. Freshly kilned malt if
used immediately can cause lautering and fer-
mentation difficulties.
Malt is therefore stored at least 4 weeks in si-
los or stores. Since most of the seedlings are no
longer alive and respiration in the corn would
only cause undesirable losses, the malt silo is
not ventilated. A precondition for proper stora-
ge is that the malt does not become moist be-
cause it is hygroscopic. Moist air therefore has
to be kept away. The malt which is to be stored
has to be well cleaned, cold and dry.
In silo storage, because of the smaller surface
area, the risk of water uptake is lower than
when storing in malt stores. In malt stores the
malt layer is about 3 m high. Previously this
was often covered by a layer of germs which ab-
sorbed the moisture and consequently preven-
ted water uptake by the malt.
2.6.4 Malt polishing
Before dispatch malt is often cleaned from still
attached dirt particles and split-open husk frag-
ments. This process is called polishing and it
improves the appearance of the malt.
Fig . 2. 65
Malt cleallillg screw
(1) lIIalt ill let, (2) paddle screw,
(3 ) lIIalt olltlet, (4) screell, (5)
!i
screw cOll veyOl; (6) Willi olltlef
Th e polishing machin e, which is connected
to the central aspiration unit, comprises, in
ad dition to a magnet, a sieve shaker which re-
moves all large and small admi xtures in the
malt (split husk fragments, etc.). The malt is
then rubbed by a soft bris tled roller brush
against a corrugated plate and thus cleaned
from dust particles. Depending on the modifi-
cation of the malt the polishing machine can
be se t more or less "ti ghtly" . The material re-
mo ved by polishing is rich in extracts because
during polishing broken kernel fragments al-
so drop out.
2.7 Yield during malting
Malting of 100 kg of barley does not of course
result in 100 kg of malt, but less. The percenta-
ge ratio of the amOlU1t of malt produced to the
amoLU1t of barley used is called the malting
yield. The difference from 100 % is called the
malting loss. The yield should be as high as
possible and the loss as little as possible.
In general it is calculated for Pilsner malt that
100 kg of cleaned barley produces, on average:
100 kg barley steeped produce,
148 kg fully steeped barley,
140 kg green malt,
78 kg freshly kilned malt,
80 kg stored malt
So the loss is 20 kg on average.
Role of tllllll1b:
100 kg of barley produce 80 kg pale malt
About half the loss is due to the difference in
water content:
water content of barley 12 to 14 %
water content of malt 3 to 4 %
This already accounts for a difference of
about 10% without any loss of other material.
But there is also a loss of kernel dry matter du-
ring malting which can be set out as follows:
195
pale malt dark malt
steeping loss 1.0 % 1.0 %
res piration loss 5.8 % 7.5%
2
rootlet loss
total dry
3.7% 4.5%
I
weight loss 10.5% 13.0 %
Most of the loss is the result of respiration
and the building of biomass in the rootlets.
To keep the malting loss as low as possible,
the respiration and development of rootlets
must be restricted. This can be achieved by
cold germination tempera hires
limiting respiration from the third day of ger-
mination by increased use of CO 2-rich recir-
culated air.
2.8 Malt evaluation
Malt can be evaluated by using the official bre-
wing teclmological analysis methods of the Cen-
tral European Brewing Analysis Commission
(MEBAK).
Malt can be examined by
hand evaluation,
mechanical examinations and
chemical-teclmological methods.
2.8.1 Hand evaluation
The hand evaluation of malt involves examina-
tion of the colour, smell, taste and aroma,
brightness and the amount of impurities.
It is important to check the grain batch for
grain weevil infestation, particularly if the
batch is not immediately going for further
processing. Grain weevils which have crept
in can cause great and lasting damage if they
are not detected and combated . Grain weevil
infestation can mainly be detected by bitten
grains (holes on the grain surface). Sensitive
sensors are now offered by specialist firms,
which make the eating sound made by grain
weevils audible, thus verifying their pre-
sence.
196 197

2.8.2 Mechanical examinations
2.8.2.1 Screening
Grading is performed as for barley. At least 85%
should be grade I and screenings should be less
than 1 %.
2.8.2.2 Thousand corn weight
The thousand corn weight is determined in the
sa me way as it is w ith barley. Normal values for
this are
28 to 38 g in the case of air dried malt and
25 to 35 g ca lculated as m alt d ry weight.
2.8.2.3 Hectolitre weight
The hectolitre weight is also measured by the
method used for barley. However, it is hardly
ever measured since it has little predictive va-
lue.
2.8.2.4 Sinker test (floaters)
Whilst barley kernels sink to the bottom w hen
immersed in water, malt kernels normally float
on the surface beca use of included air. The floa-
ter fraction is grea ter the greater the acrospire
development and thus the extent to which mo-
dification of the malt has proceeded . The sinker
fr action is usually
w ith well modified pale m alt 30 to 35%
nels are p ressed by a rubber roller against a ro- Density in kg/d m 3 Friability in well modified m alt. Then the h omogeneity
tating sieve drum and thereby sepa rated in to below 1.10 very good (H) of the m alt is determined . The grains are he-
easily disintegrated and hard kernels. The re- 1.10 to 1.13 good reby di vided into six categories (from unmodi-
sults are expressed as percent friability and per- 1.14 to 1.18 sa tisfac tory fied to completely modified) to determine the 2
cent completely steely kernels. above 1.18 p oor homogeneity of the malt. The homogen eity (H
Normal va lues are: va lu e) sh ould be at least 75 %.
Friability (pale m alt)
above 81 % ve ry good 2.8.2.10 Calcofluor-Carlsberg method 2.8.3 Chemical technological methods
78 to 81 % good (Corn sharpening method)
75 to 78 % satisfactory, and It cannot be excluded that in the batch of malt 2.8.3.1 Water content
below 75% unsa tisfactor y there may be malt kernels with very different The wa ter content is determined by the me-
Glassiness levels of modifica tion and even non-germina- thod used for barley. Norm al values are:
below 1 % very good tin g grains. On further processing malt kernels for pale m alt 3.0 to 3.5 %
1 to 2 % good with insufficient modification and hence too (freshly kilned 0.5 to 4 %)
2 to 3% sa tisfactory, and high a proportion of can lead to laute- for dark m alt 1.0 to 4.5 %
above 3% unsa tisfactory ring and filtrati on problems. This should b e (freshly kilned 0.5 to 4 %)
monitored by the Calcofluor-Carlsberg method The commercially acceptable limit is usually 5%.
2.8.2.7 Acrospire length (corn sharpening method) .
Acrospire d evelopment gives an indication of 2.8.3.2 Congress mashing method
the uniformity of germination . With this me- ,... . , . &" .... The most important feature of malt is of course
thod, the kernels are separated according to the its behaviou r in the mashing process and its
length of their acrospires and cOLmted. ability to catabolise as much of its contents as
o to %, inclusive, of the kernel length Class 1 p ossible. A standardised mashing procedure,
V4 to V2, inclusive, of the kernel length Class 2 the Cong ress mashing method, is therefore per-
1/ 2 to %, inclusive, of the kernel length Class 3 formed in the laboratory with the aid of a mas-
% to 1/1, inclusive of the kernel length Class 4 lung bath (Fig. 2.65b), and following thi s the
above 1/1 (hussars, overgrown) Class 5 yield from the malt is determined . It is assumed
From the fr actions the average acrospire that a malt is better modified the less the grin-
length is calculated. For p ale malts this should ding of the m alt affects the yield. Consequently

with dark malt 25 to 30 %
2.8.2.5 Steelyness
Steelyness is measured u sing a longitudinal
cutter. The completely glassy kernel fraction
sh ould not exceed 2 % and at least 95% of the
kernels should be mealy.
2.8.2.6 Friability
Malt w hich is too steely or too ha rd, or insuffi-
ciently, m ay cause difficulties with lautering,
wort clarification and beer filtration.
The friability is d etermined with a Friabili-
meter (Fig. 2.65a). With this method, malt ker-
be 0.7 to 0.8.
2.8.2.8 Germinating capacity
Normally, 6 to 10 % of malt kernels still li ve and
grow on renewed steeping. If germinating ca-
pacity is above 10 %, there is the danger that the
malt has not been kilned for long enough or at
high enough temperatures.
2.8.2.9 Density
The density gives an indication of the modifica-
tion of the endosperm. The lower the density,
the better the friability of the kernel. Densities
are classified as follows:
J
Fig. 2.65n
____ Frinbi/illleier
This method is based on the fac t that the
glucan -rich end osperm cell wa lls are progressi-
vely degraded durin g malting. This can be ma-
de visible by d ying the intact cell walls with the
flu orchrome Calcofluor. The kernels are shar-
pened longitudinally and d yed by means of
Calcofluor to m ake the d egree of modification
visible.
First the m odification in the malt sample is
determined; the M value sh ould be at least 85%
the Congress mashing method is performed as
a double an alysis in whi ch
50 g of m alt is very coa rsely ground so that
the flou r content obtained is only 25% (coa r-
se grind analYSiS), and
50 g of m alt is very finely groLmd so that the
flour content obtained is 90 % (fine grind an a-
lysis).
In accordan ce with EBC regulations, a DLFU
disc mio is used wluch mus t be sp eciall y stan-
dardised for this purpose.
Each 50 g of coarse grind and fine grind is mas-
hed into 200 ml of distilled wa ter at 45 to 46 °C
with constant stirring in a speci al mash beaker

198
and mashed for 30 min with constant stirring at
45 °C.
The tempera ture in the mash vessel is then
raised to 70 °C in 25 min (1 °C/min), then 100 ml
of water at 70 °C is added and the temperature
maintained for an hour with stirring. In this ti-
me the saccharification is monitored.
The mash is then cooled in 10 to 15 min to
room temperature and the volume made up to
450 g by adding distilled water. The entire con-
tents are then filtered through a folded filter pa-
per. The first 100 ml of the filtrate are returned
to the filter and filtration is terminated when
the filter cake appears dry.
Fig. 2.65b
Masilillg batil
The wort obtained is called Congress wort
and is immediately analysed. The most impor-
tant analysis is that of the extract obtained. Be-
cause measurement with a hydrometer - as
performed in the brewhouse as will be descri-
bed later - is too imprecise, the extract content
is measured by means of a pycnometer (Fig.
7.3), refractometer, special hydrometer or preci-
sion density measuring device. The extract
yield is obtained from the Plato table. The ex-
tract yield is reported as a percentage both on
an "as is" basis and also related to dry weight.
The extract yield on a dry weight basis is of
much greater importance than the as is value
since the latter depend s on the water content of
the malt.
Extract yield
Normal values for ex tract yields from the Con-
gress mash are:
for pale malt 79 to 82 % dry weight
for dark malt 75 to 78 % dry weight
The malt is considered better the higher the
extract yield .
Great value is also attached to the malt's
being well modified. With a well modified malt
the extract difference between the coarse grind
and fine grind is small, because the grinding
then has a smaller effect on the dissolving of the
extract. It is evaluated from the difference
% extract in the fine grind dry weight
% extract in the coarse grind dry weight
The evaluation of the difference is
tmder 1.8 % good
over 1.8 % moderate.
The Congress wort is also used to make the
following analyses:
The odollr of the IIlnsh: this should be regar-
ded as "normal" when it corresponds to that ty-
pical for the malt examined.
The iodi11e 11onnality: the time required for the
mash, after it has been brought to 70°C, to reach
iodine normality, i.e. it gives a pure yellow colom
with iodine. The results are expressed as "less
than 10 min", "10 to 15 min", "15 to 20 min", etc.
The filtration rate: this is considered to be
"normal" when filtration is complete within an
hour. If it lasts longer it is recorded as "slow".
The appeara11ce: the appearance is either "cle-
ar", "opalescent" or "turbid".
The pH vallie: this is measured 30 min after
the start of filtration with a glass electrode. The
pH of Congress wort is normally 5.6 to 5.9.
The wort colollr:
although the wort colour provides no reliab-
le information about the beer colour, it is al-
wa ys measured because it gives an indication
of the malt type used . It is measured by a com-
pari son of the wort colour with an appropriate
coloured disc in the Hellige Neo-Comparator.
No rmal values are:
for pale malt up to 4 EBC milts
for medium col. malt 5 to 8 EBC units
for dark malt 9.5 to 20 EBC milts
The boiled wort colour: the wort is boiled for
two hours using a reflu x condenser and clari-
fied by a membrane filter. From the boiled wort
colour conclusions can be drawn about the beer
colour, but the relationship is not statistically
reliable. Pale malts produce an average of 5.1
EBC lll1its and a maximum of 7 EBC.
Th e wort viscosity:
from the viscosity of the Congress wort conclu-
sions can be drawn about the future behaviour
of the wort during lautering and about beer fil-
tration. Congress wort has a viscosity of 1.5 to
1.6 mPa·s. Vollbier, calculated at 12 %, has 1.6 to
2.01nPa·s.
The lIitrogell cOlltellt:
this is determined directly in the malt by the sa-
me method as for barl ey. It is up to 0.5% lower
in malt than in barley. It is usually expressed as
protein content - calculated as N . 6.25. ll1e ni-
trogen content in malt should be below 10.8 %.
ll1e soluble nitrogen content: this refers to the
nih'ogen compOLmds which have dissolved in the
Congress mashing process. Normally there is
0.55 to 0.75% soluble nitrogen in the dly weight
extract of the Congress wort, or 650 to 750 mg/l =
soluble nitrogen content of 4.0 - 4.4g/l00g.
Th e soillble nitrogell ratio (Kolbad/ illdex):
the soluble nitrogen ratio shows what percenta-
ge of the total nitrogen in the malt is dissolved
in the Congress mashing process. Consequent-
ly the soluble nitrogen ra tio is an indicator of
the proteolytic modification of the malt, and it
199
ca n be assumed that the higher the soluble ni-
trogen ratio the better dissolved the malt is. The
malt is judged by its Kalbach index:
below 35 undermodified 2 II
35 to 41 well modified
over 41 very highly modified
A very high soluble nitrogen ratio, in con-
jtll1ction with a high FAN, has a nega tive effect
on the foam .
The free alllillO lIitrogell cOlltellt (FAN):
the FAN incorporates the termina l amino
groups and provides information about the im-
portant bonds for yeast nutrition . The FAN is
normally:
120 -160 mg/100 g malt dry matter (barl ey malt)
90 - 120 mg/lOO g malt dry matter (wheat malt)
The forllloillitrogell cOlltellt:
the formol nitrogen analysis measures the low
molecular weight nitrogen compounds. Nor-
mal values for this are 180 to 220 mg/lOO g malt
dry weight.
The diastatic power:
the amylase potential is decisive for enzymatic
breakdown of starch. The activity of amylase
enzymes is therefore important for malt quality.
The diastatic power is expressed in Windisch-
Kolbach units (WK tll1its). Normally,
pale malt contains 240 to 260 WK
dark malt contains 150 to 170 WK.
Hartollg-Kretsc!tlller mash 111etllOd:
the Hartong-Kretschmer mash method compri-
ses four hour-long mashes at temperatures of
20 °C, 45 0C, 65 °C and 80 °C in order to measu-
re specific processes. The only significant ones,
however, are VZ 45 °C and VZ 65 °C.
VZ45°C
A beaker containing 50 g fine grind is mashed
for an hour at a temperature of 45 °C (VZ 45 °C),
200 201

and then the ex tract content is measured. The should not exceed 14 to 15 TBA units. Dark malts Lmder 200 mg/l the malt sh ould contain no red gra ins (Fusa-
VZ 45 °C is an am yloly tic ind ex dependent on have a considerably higher TBA reading (Mlmich VZ 65 °C Lmder 350 mg/l rium infesta tion),
va riety, location and year. The VZ 45 °C provi- dark > 100, roas ted malt > 1,500 luutS). Modification over 90 % price supplements or reductions sh ould be
des inform ation about the amylol ytic quality. The pale m alts examined at the VLB Berlin Homogeneity over 75% made in the case of devia tions in water and 2
Without knowledge of the variety, however, it (242] had the followin g ave rage values: DMS-P Lmder 7 ppm ex tract content,
has no predictive value. Water content 4.4 % (3.0 - 6.1) varietal purity and homogenei ty in the m alt
There is n o connection with the soluble nitro- FS (fine) 2.8.4 Malt supply contract must be guaranteed,
gen ratio. The VZ 45°C provides no informati- extract dry weight 78.2 % (75.5 - 81.3) In the malt supply contrac t the malt supplier duration of storage of the m alt sh ould be de-
on about proteolysis and cytolysis (338]. CS (coarse) guarantees a specific quality of its products. On term ined.
extract dry weight 81.8 % (79.6 - 85.7) the other hand the brewery has a series of spe- For the brewer and maltster it is important to
VZ 65°C Extract differen ce 1.1 EBC (0.5 -1.8) cifications for the qu ality of the malt w hich en- know wh ether the bal'ley or malt suppli ed cor-
A bea ker containing 50 g fine grind is mashed Colour 3.9 EBC (3.1 - 6.4) SLlre that consistently good beer quality can be responds to the values promised in the contrac t
for an hour at a temperature of 65°C. At this Boiled wort colour 5.8 EBC (4.6 - 7.9) obtained without loss of time using the mash (compliance). A laboratory analysis wo uld take
temperature, the is alrea- Viscosity 1.52 mPa' s (1.45 - 1.64) process in use in the brewery. too long in tlus case. It is however possible to
dy inactivated and only the Protein in malt dry weight 10.4% (8 .9 - 11.9) A good malt meets the following criteria: measure the most important data from a 300 g
can degrade still undissolved high molecular Kolbach index 40.9 (34.4 - 67.6) Protein content below 10.8 % malt sa mple within one minute by means of
glucans, which then calU10t be degrad ed furt- VZ 45 °C 36.5 (29.9 - 45.7) Kalbach index 38 to 42 % Near-infrared Reflection Spectroscopy (NIR) to
her (see Fig. 3.27c). The VZ 65 °C is therefore a DMS-Pin Extrac t yield above 82% ascertain the compliance of a delivery.
good measure of the cytolysis of the m alt. The malt dry weight 514 p g/100 g (151 - 1269) Fine-coarse-difference 1.2 to 1.8 % Near-infrared is the barely visible fraction of
following maximlUn values are required, whe- Friabilimeter value 85.4% (74.3 - 93.1) Viscosity less than 1.55 mPa x s electrometric waves (see Fig. 7.15). If barl ey or
reby for the abridged-mash method there are Carlsberg Test M 95% (85 - 99) content under 300 mg/l malt gra in s are irradiated w ith nea r-infrared
addi tional requirements: H 80% (67 - 97) Colour less than 3.4 EBC beams in the wave range of approx. 800 to 2500
COl1tel1t of the 65 °C mash < 400 mg/l; FAN in the Congress wort 138 mg/l (104 - 179) Boiled wort colour less than 5.0 EBC nm, different molecule groups display clear ab-
for abridged-mash method < 350 mg/l content in the N in malt dry weight more than 0.65 g/lOO g so rption bands. By a very thorough ca libration
Viscosity of the 65 °C lI1ash < 1.65 mPa· s; Congress wort 218 mg/l (69 - 516) dry weight the absorption bands can be assign ed to parti-
For abridged-mash method < 1.60 mPa·s. Grading Friabilimeter value above 87% cular substances . The near-infrared li ght can
The OMS-P cOl1tel1t should be under 7 mg/kg Whole grain fraction 95.9% (90 .7 - 99.5) Viscosity 65 °C less than 1.65 mPa·s h ereby be applied in reflection (reflection spec-
(ppm, anhydrous) . Screenings 0.9 % (0.2 - 4.2) 65 °C under 400 mg/l troscopy, NIR) or as a backlight (tran smission
• The NOMA (l1itrosamil1e) cOl1tent should be For malts which are processed using the ab- DMS-P below 6 ppm spectroscopy, NIT); this, however, makes no
max. 3 ridged-mash method, the following analysis Totally glassy fraction below 2% fundamental difference. Since the light penetra-
The difference between the viscosity of the values are required: VZ45°C 37 to 41 % tes two to tlu-ee millimetres into the grains, the
65 °C mash and that of the Congress mash pro- Extract, anhydrous over 80 % Water content below 5% sa mple does not have to be comminuted . In this
vides a good prediction about the filterability of Diastic power over 200 WK Screenings less than 0.8 % way a sample of approx. 300 g is measured and
the wort. The smaller the difference, the better Final degree of fermentation 81- 84% Acrospire length eva luated without contact, within the wave
the expected filterability (373]. Protein content 9 -11 % homogeneous, e.g. range of 850 to 1050 lUn, within a few seconds.
Soluble up to %: 0% By this method, a relatively large amount of
Thiobarbitlll'ic acid (TBA) iudex nitrogen 650 - 750 mg/g malt dry weight up to Yz: 3% gra ins is measured, which enabl es a fuller state-
The (non-dimensional) thiobarbituric acid (TBA) Kolbach index 39 - 42 % up to %: 25% ment about the homogeneity of the sample.
index is a measure of the thermal exposure of FAN 130 - 160 mg/lOO g malt dry weight up to 1/1: 70% The NIR teclmology is used in particular for
malt and wort. With rising TBA there is a sharp Friabilimeter over 85% above 1/1: 2%. badey acceptance (compliance control) and for
decrease in the flavour stability of the beer. It is Totally steely fraction lmder 2% In addition, it should also be determined that: malt inspection. The following data are measu-
therefore desirable, especially in the case of pale Viscosity under 1.56 mPa·s (8.6 %) malt should be produced without gibberellic red: water content, fine grind ex tract content,
malts, to have a low TBA reading. Pale malts Viscosity VZ 65 °C under 1.60 mPa's (8.6 %) acid, protein content, soluble nitrogen content and
202
viscosity. The accuracy of this method is com-
parable to the accuracy of conventionallabora-
tory analysis. However, it is not a substitute for
the lat ter.
2.9 Special malts and malt from other
cereals
Most beers worldwide are pale beers. Conse-
quently the demand for pale malt is very high
and therefore most maltings produce almost
excl usively pale malt in large batches. On the
other hand, more and more beer types are being
produced worldwide which differ considerably
from one another in taste, colour, aroma, mouth
feel, foam and other quality features. However,
this means that to produce them, different
malts h ave to be used which contribute to the
particularities of these properties. These malts
are considered here under the term "special
malts". They are almost exclusively produced
in special maltings which have inevitably spe-
cialised in the production of small batches and
possess the necessary equipment for this.
The va lues whidl pale and dark malts should
fulfil have already been described; for comparati-
ve purposes they are listed again in the following.
According to the type of heat trea tment, spe-
cial malts are divided into cured malts, caramel
malts and roasted malts.
2.9.1 Pilsner malt (pale malt)
An important criterion is the monitoring of cy-
tolysis and proteolysis.
Because new barley varieties have a tendency
to overmodify, a somewhat shorter modification
schedule is suitable during malting. Targets are:
a colour of 2.5 to 3.5 EBC,
a maximum fine-coarse differen ce of 1.7 to
2.0%,
a viscosity less than 1.55 mPa's,
a soluble nitrogen ratio of 40 % (+ 1 to 2 %),
a free amino nitrogen content (FAN) forming
at least 20% of the soluble nitrogen,
a VZ 45 °C above 36%,
a non-dormant, uni for mly germin a ting bar-
ley.
The curing temperature can be increased in
order to depress the OMS precursor content.
This is especially important for modern brew-
houses .
2.9.2 Dark malt (Munich type)
To produce dark malt all the conditions which
lead to the formation of aroma-producing Mail-
lard products (melanoidins) are promoted.
These include:
processing barley with a higher protein con-
tent,
intensive germination at temperatures of 18
to 20 °C,
a higher degree of steeping of 48 to 50%,
a moist-warm initial drying or withering,
a curing temperature of 100 to 105 °C for 4 to
5 h,
a colour of 15 to 25 EBC,
a fine-coarse difference of 2.0 to 3.0 %.
A malt with 13 to 15 EBC (Mtmich pale) pro-
vides the b asis for the dark beer character and
is used for up to 85 % of the grist. A malt with
20 to 25 EBC (Munich dark), when used as 25 to
40% of the grist, helps to intensify the aroma.
This is particularly important when u sing a
short mashing procedure.
Up to 85% dark m alt of the Mtmich type is
used to emphasise the typical dark beer charac-
ter of dark beers, fes tival beers and strong
beers.
2.9.3 Vienna malt
Vienna malt is used to correct over-pale m alts,
to produce "golden" beer and to improve pala-
te fullness. For this
a steeping d egree of 44 to 46% is used,
the malt is normally modified and not over-
modified,
it is cured at 90 to 95°C and thereby
a colour of 6 to 8 EBC is obtained.
Vielma malt is used up to 100% for the pro-
duction of "Marzen" beer, festival beers, s trong
export beers and pub brewery beers.
2.9.4 Brumalt/melanoidin malt
Brumalt production is rather exp ensive. It is
produced by using:
barley which is processed as for d ark malt,
with moisture con ten t of 48 %,
and which has been brought in the las t 36
hours to 40 to 50 °C.
Previously, to do this heaps were stacked 1.5 m
high and covered by a tarpaulin or the green
malt was held in special boxes with "low"
aeration with a low flame. In any case respi-
ra tion mus t be minimised. As a result seed-
ling grow th comes to an end but the enzymes
are still active and at this high temperature
produce a large amount of low molecular
weight su gars and amino acids.
During initial drying different procedures
are used but essentially the green malt is £lut-
her "stewed" .
It is cured for 3 to 4 h at 90 to over 100 °C.
Brumalt h as a colour of 50 to 80 EBC units. It
can be used
in amounts up to 50% together with pale or
dark malt,
up to 25% to improve the aroma of dark malt,
to replace coloured malt in malt beer or Alt-
biers.
Bnunalt is today known as melanoidin malt. It
is produced in an analogue maJmer in boxes aJld
no longer on the malting floor. TIle temperature
procedure aJld reduced respiration are,
identical aJld lead to well modified malt with a
colour of 60 to 80 EBC. It is used in a proportion
of 5 to 20% of the malt grist. Melanoidin malt, so-
metimes shortened to melamalt, lends beer a so-
mewhat reddish conh'ibutes by virtue of
its low pH value to flavom stability, strengthens
the body and rounds off the colom of the beer.
203
2.9.5 Caramel malt
Caramel malt is used to give the beer an increa-
sed depth of colour and improved body and to
em phasise the malty character. The starting point 2
for the production of caramel malt is green malt
with very good modification and a water content
of 45 to 48%. Production usually occurs on the
malting floor and is initially similar to the pro-
duction ofbnml alt. The temperature in the pile in
the last 30 to 36 h is increased to 45 to 50 °C to
achieve increased enzymic breakdown and con-
sequent formation of low molecular weight nih'o-
gen compOLmds and suga rs.
In further processing a difference is made
between pale and dark cara mel m alt. In both ca-
ses th e green malt comes into the roasting
drum.
In the roas ting drum the cara mel malt is sac-
ch arified at a temperahlre between 60 and 70 °C
for 60 to 90 min and the dark carame l malt is
hea ted in about 60 min w ith rapid removal of
stea m to 150 to 180 °C for 1 to 2 h to ca ramelise
the corn contents. As a result of this, brown co-
loured compOLmd s wi th a typ ica l caramel aro-
ma are formed from the suga r in the malt which
was form ed earlier. Depending on tempera ture
and ex posure time, this process can either be in-
tensified or reduced.
After th at the malt is remo ved from the drum
and rapidly and uniformly cooled. As a result
the kernel contents are still soft with a wa ter
content of 6 %.
Pale caramel malt is treated like dark caramel
malt, but not for as long a time and n ot so inten-
Sively.
In the past few decades the production of ca-
ramel malt h as wldergone a further differentia-
tion. This includes the special malts Carahell®,
Carapils® and Carami.inch®, as well as varie-
ties such as Carared® and others.
Germ in ation thus occurs in a germinating
drum to achieve better homogeneity. At the end
of the ex tend ed steeping and germinating time,
204
the germinated goods are brought to a tempe-
rature of 40 to 45 DC, hence bringing about in-
tensive enzyme degradation .
Saccharification and caramelisation then oc-
cur in a roasting drum (Fig. 2.65c). The contents
of the kernel thereby liquefy at temperatures of
70 to 80 DC [243].
Following that, the temperatures in the roa-
sting drum are increased to 180 to 210 DC within
1.5 to 2 hours and then maintained until the de-
sired depth of colour is obtained. This is:
for Carahell® 20 to 40 EBC (8 to 15.5 Lovi-
bond)
for Caramlinch® 80 to 160 EBC (30 to 60 Lo-
vibond).
The water content thereby sinks to 6 to 7%.
TI,e malt varieties Caramed® and others, by
means of a special production procedure, have a
reddish shine and typical aroma which serves to
intensi fy and stabilise the flavour. Caramed®,
with 40 to 60 EBC (15.5 to 23 Lovibond), is paler
than Caraamber®, which has 60 to 80 EBC (23 to
30 Lovibond). Caraaroma®, which has a depth of
colour of 300 to 400 EBC (113 to 150 Lovibond) is
considerably darker than Caramlinch®.
Carahell® is used in festival beers and nu-
trient beers to increase the body and improve
head retention, whereas Carami.inch® is used
in dark festival beers and nutrient beers.
Carared® and Caraamber® are used for up to
25% of the grist particularly in the production
of ale (red ale, amber ale, brown ale), red lager,
Altbier or lager. Caraaroma® is used for up to
15 % of the grist for dark beers, such as amber
ale, dark ale, stout or porter.
The very pale Carapils® and Carafoam®,
owing to their colour of only 3.5 to 5.0 EBC, are
only saccharified in the roasting drum and then
kilned at temperatures of 60 to 65 DC to a water
content of 6 to 7%. This malt shows only very
little thermal exposure because of the very
short roasting phase. With application of up to
15 %, the body and head retention are increa-
sed . In the case of light beers and alcohol-free
beers up to 30% can be added.
Caramel malts are produced in several colour
s tages . They make a considerable contribution
to the palatefulness or body, intensification of
the malt aroma, the full taste and colour, and to
the head retention.
2.9.6 Acid malt
Acid malt is produced from normal germinated
green malt which has been sprinkled with or
steeped in a solution of biological lactic acid
and then cured. The lactic acid in the malt is
thereby concentrated to 2 to 4%. The pH value
of the acid malt is between 3.4 and 3.5, and the
colour is 3.5 EBC. Through the addition of acid
malt of up to 10 % of the grist, the pH value in
the mash is somewhat reduced and the buffe-
ring increased. However, nowadays this acidifi-
cation is better and more conveniently achieved
by biological acidification in the brewhouse.
Acid malt is nowadays only used for the manu-
facture of a few special beers:
It can be used for light beers to increase the
palatefulness and contribute to a special
smooth note, in particular in combination
with a hard mash liquor. Usually 6 to 9% is
required in the grist for this.
It can be used for alcohol-free beers, made by
restricted ferm entation, to produce a more
acceptable malt flavour. But for this large
amotmts of acid malt are required to reach a
pH of about 4.5.
It is used for malt beers to reduce the pH va-
lue.
2.9.7 Short grown and chit malts
Short grown and chit malts are characterised by
very short germination times and therefore ha-
ve all the disadvantages of a very tmdermodi-
fied malt (lautering problems, beer filtration
problems, etc.). In the case of chit malt, germi-
nation is terminated at the end of steeping on
Fig. 2.65c
Ronstillg rll'lllll for cn-
ralllelisniioll nllrl ron-
stillg
(Piloto: Miell. Weyer-
111a1111 Mnlzfnbrik,
Bnll/berg)
the splitting of the corn, and in the case of short
grain malt, on the third or fourth day of germi-
nation. The malting loss is correspondingly re-
duced to 1.5 to 2.5% for chit malt and 4.5 to 5%
in the case of short gra in malt. They are very
little used and then, only in order to use their
advantages:
improvement of foam stability
less pronounced palatefulness
less aromatic malty flavour.
Since these malts show only very little modi-
fication, they can only be used in conjunction
with a very intensive mashing procedure.
2.9.8 Smoked malt
Smoked malt is a speciality required for the
production of smoked beer. The smoke of burnt
beechwood shavings is fed through the malt be-
fore kilning. The condensing clouds of smoke
which are formed lend the malt a scratchy fla-
VOUl', which is also present in the smoked beer
produced, for which it is typical. In Germany,
smoked malt is only produced in the Bamberg
region.
2.9.9 Diastase malt
By diastase malt is meant a malt which has
mainly retained its en zymic potential through
205
2
curing at a low temperature (diastatic power
above 250 kW; see Sect. 2.8.3 .2). Because of its
high enzymic potential the malt is in a position
to inlprove the mashing work or even to break
down a proportion of grist in the unmalted
grain.
2.9.10 Roasted malt
Roasted malt is used in amounts of 0.5 to 2 % of
the grist to obtain a dark beer colour.
For the production of roasted malt, perfectly
modified pale kilned malt is used . The roasting
process is carried out in a roasting drum (Fig.
2.65c). For this the kilned malt is evenly moiste-
ned for 1.5 to 2 hours at 70 to 80 DC to a water
content of 10 to 15 % by spraying water whilst
the malt is evenly rotated.
Then it is heated for the actual roasting pro-
cess which takes 1 to 1.5 hours at a temperature
between 180 and 220 DC. During this caramel
substances and other products of roasting are
formed .
This is followed by quick and even cooling.
With increasing temperatures, burnt tasting
products (assamars) are formed which are only
desirable in a few types of beer such as stout. In
order to prevent a burnt flavour in colom"ed
malt, a controlled amount of water is sprayed
206
during roasting: the steam that is formed remo-
ves volatile burnt tasting components and de-
bitters the malt. For beers which are supposed
to taste more smooth, roasted malt from dehus-
ked barley is produced. The tam-tins and bitter
substances in the husk can then no longer have
an effect on the flavour.
Coloured malts are produced with colouring
values of 800 to 1600 EBC (chocolate malt). Co-
loured malts with less colour, 400 to 600 EBC,
are sold as coffee malt.
For top fermenting beers wheat coloured
malt is used which is produced in the same way
and used in amOlmts of up to 1 % for Altbier or
dark wheat beers.
Since roasted malt is only used in small pro-
portions to a maximlU11 of 2 % of the grist, sepa-
rate small bins are required for storage.
2.9.11 Roasted malt beer
Using a high proportion of about 40% roasted
malt, a very dark roasted malt beer can be pro-
duced, which is characterised by its strength of
can be easily dosed, and can be added at
any time during the production process. Roa-
sted malt beer is produced according to the
Reinheitsgebot.
The mashing procedure is adapted to the va-
riety of roasted malt beer in question [244], and
following wort boiling with the addition of only
a few hops and with an extract content of 20%,
cooling is initiated to a pitching temperature of
15 to 20°C. Fermentation occurs with bottom
fermenting yeast and, since the fermentable ex-
tract is small, completed within 24 hours. Thjs
is followed by filtration over kieselguhr and a
debittering activated carbon until a clearness of
below 1 EBC is obtained. In the case of roasted
malt beers which contain pale brewing malt, an
additional chillproofing is carried out. The roa-
sted malt beer is then carefully thickened in a
vacuum down flow evaporator at a temperature
between 50 and 60°C. The homogelusation and
final completion of the production batches then
occurs in special boiling vessels.
Roasted malt beers have - depending on the
variety - a depth of colom between 1,000 and
17,000 EBC; the exh'act content is on average 45 to
50%, but in some varieties it is 65%. The pH va-
lue of roasted malt beers lies between 3.5 and 4.5.
The colour of roasted malt beers varies bet-
ween amber-brown, red-brown, dark-brown,
coffee-black and black with a red tint. Both in-
teresting and desirable - in particular for the
production of beers with a red tint - are roasted
malt beers with a red colour shade (see Sect.
2.5.1.3). There are also considerable differences
in the flavours of roasted malt beers [245]. Roa-
sted malt beers which are produced from de-
husked barley are characterised by their parti-
cularly mild flavour.
2.9.12 Wheat malt
Wheat malt is used for the production of wheat
beer but also for other top fermented beers,
such as Kolsch. To achieve optimal results, in
recent years there have been increased attempts
to breed and grow suitable brewing wheat va-
rieties [120]. Because an intensive malting pro-
cess should be avoided with wheat, so as not to
harm the sensory properties of beer, the seal"ch
is for varieties wluch show low protein modifi-
cation and low viscosity (e.g. Estica, Obelisk,
Andros, Kanzler, Ores tis, Atlantis) [201].
In comparison with barley the greatest diffe-
rences are the absence of a husk and the lugher
protein content, which under some circumstan-
ces can lead to problems in the brewing pro-
cess.
As a result of the absence of a husk the kernel
can absorb steep water very quickly and so the
steeping time can be shortened. Initial steeping
is to a water content of 37 to 38% but the water
content should be increased later to a maxi-
mum of 44 to 46% during the seven steeping
and germination days.
Germination is performed as with barley, but
whea t is more difficult to process. Because of the
risk of c1mnp formation wheat must be turned
more often. The temperatures can be a little lower
than in the case of barley, bu t should be raised on
the last day of germination to 17 to 20 °C to pro-
mote cell wall breakdown (cytolysis).
To obtain a typical wheat beer aroma a re-
stricted protein degradation is preferable. A re-
latively low quantity of nitrogen compounds in
the wort leads to a livelier and more pleasant
wheat beer. This is important because in wheat
beer a more abundant spectrum of fermentati-
on by-products is desired and this is prevented
by an excessive supply of free amino acids. The
beer then becomes lifeless and dull. Conse-
quently a low lutrogen content of the grain and
a low soluble lutrogen value should be aimed
for [121].
The pH of the Congress wort should prefera-
bly be on the high side (pH 6). Note that a hig-
her malt pH does not necessarily result in a
high beer pH.
For some varieties, pregermination at a high
temperature (19 °C) is desired, with a gradual
increase of the degree of steeping to values of 45
to 47%, followed by a lowering of the tempera-
ture to 13 to 15 °C [201]. Tlus proced ure has pre-
vailed for wheat varieties wluch have average
to rather high viscosity values in the malt and
tend towards a rather low soluble nitrogen con-
tent. The application of this technology to
strongly soluble varieties, however, would pro-
duce varieties with a weak aroma. In order to
cmb excessive protein degradation, the moistu-
re in the malt is reduced while the temperature
is raised. Required conditions are:
a soluble ni trogen ratio of 42 % maximum,
a FAN in the wort forming 18 % of the total N,
a viscosity below 1.65 mPaxs,
a fine-coarse difference of about 1 % EBC.
The initial drying process begins at 40°C and
ends at 60 0c. By using different curing tempe-
207
ratures one obtains:
pale wheat malt, wluch is very rapidly cured
at 80 °C to avoid increased colour formation.
Pale wheat malt has a colour 3.0 to 4.0 EBC 2
and produces smooth, sparkling beers which
emphasise the typical top fermentation and
wheat aroma; or
dark wheat malt, which is cured at 100 to
110 °C. This produces a colour of 15 to 17
EBC. Dark wheat malt is used predominant-
ly for dark wheat beers, Alt beers and dark
low alcohol beers.
As well as the standard varieties, there are al-
so all the special varieties that we have come
across for barley malt in the case of wheat malt.
Special maltings have a wide range of these.
The composition of a malt grist made of in-
dividual special malt types is kept secret by
the brewery using it and it is carefully tested
and evaluated in order to achieve the desired
beer character. On the other hand recommen-
dations have been made for use of the diffe-
rent malt types and these will be introduced
later.
2.9.13 Malt extract
By malt extract is meant tluckened wort (see
Sect. 3.4).
In recent times there has been a growing de-
mand for malt extract, in particular by the
home brewer. Some home brewers wish to fo-
rego the mashing process and the time-consu-
ming lautering process at home and begin their
brew with diluted malt extract as finished
wort. This malt extract is today being offered
by an increasing number of shops.
To produce thjs malt extract, well modified
malt is somewhat more thickly mashed, laute-
red and the resulting wort carefully thickened
to 75 to 80% in a vacuum downflow evaporator
at 50 to 60°C. In the vacuum the boiling tempe-
rature sinks considerably so that no Maillard
products can form.
208
On evaporation, a thick syrup is formed which,
on dilution to 12 %, yields a golden yellow wort.
After boiling with hops and cooling this can be
fermented. The range of malt extracts on offer in
terms of colour value and aroma is very large;
there is, for example, caramel malt extract, roa-
sted malt extract or also wheat malt extract.
Through the removal of water in a spray dry-
ing plant, malt extract powder can be produced
from malt extract. This tastes very sweet and -
similar to candy floss - disintegrates complete-
lyon the tongue. Malt extracts are also used in
the production of bakery produce, ice cream,
sauces and similar products.
For breweries operating commercially, the
use of malt extract for the production of wort
does not come into consideration for financial
reasons.
2.9.14 Malt from other bread cereals
The use of malt other than that produced from
barley is also permitted for top fermented beer
brewed according to the German Reinheitsge-
bot. As well as wheat this includes a range of ot-
her bread cereal varieties.
Spelt
Spelt (also known as Swabian corn) is a variety
of wheat on which the husk remains on the
grain. Spelt is grown in small quantities (e.g. in
south Germany).
It is sold as dried lmripe spelt grain. Spelt can
be malted in the same way as wheat and the re-
sulting spelt malt can be used in the production
of top fermented spelt beer.
Emmer
Emmer is a thick husked wheat, the awns of
which only have two rows of corn. It is the ori-
ginal form of wheat but is now hardly ever
grown. Emmer is occasionally malted to form
diastatic malt or in very rare cases processed in-
to special beer.
Rye
Rye is very difficult to malt because of its very
high pentosan content. Rye malts therefore ha-
ve a viscosity of 3.8 to 4.2 mPa 's (normal barley
malt: less than 1.5 mPa xs).
It is steeped somewhat less to a steeping de-
gree of below 40%; the steeping and germinati-
on time lasts about seven days. Rye malts are
usually darker than barley malts. If rye malt is
cured in the dark maImer, the resulting beer
which is produced has a definite bread- or bre-
adcrust-like taste.
Rye beers have only local significance; howe-
ver, their interesting flavour profile can be used
for special beers.
Triticale
By triticale is meant a cross between wheat (tri-
ticum) and rye (secale) . Triticale is becoming in-
creasingly significant as an undemanding ce-
real variety with good resistance properties
particularly for baking purposes but also for
malt and beer production. However, triticale
tends to get hotter than wheat, has a higher
wort viscosity and extreme protein degradati-
on. The Prego variety achieves the best malting
results.
Oats
Oats are relatively low in extract and were al-
ready being used in malted form in the early
Middle Ages alongside barley for the producti-
on of simple, cheaper beers [5] . In more recent
times, the processing of oats to malt and beer
has become significant for quite another reason:
persons suffering from Coeliac disease have an
intolerance of certain amino acid sequences of
the prolamin fractions, particularly gluten. Al-
most all types of cereal contain these amino se-
quences. However, oats, like rice, corn,
buckwheat and sorghwn, contain no prolamin
and can be absorbed by Coeliac sufferers wit-
hout risk. Top fermented beers produced with
209
malted oats ha ve a particular, very distinctive entan g led (Fig. 2.67) even during initial drying,
taste [300]. so they must also be turned in the kiln to avoid
further matting of the seedlings.
2.9.15 Sorghum malt The Ct.-amylase activity of the sorghum malt 2
Sorghum malt is used for the production of is 25 % lower than that of barley malt. On the ot-
(turbid) sorghum beer. In South Africa alone, her hand, sorghum malt tends to have a higher
160,000 t of sorghum malt is processed almual- polyphenol and protein content.
Iy [1 26], partly using pneumatic malting pro-
cesses. Furthermore, so rghum is also malted in
households for the production of beer. The total
consumption of sorghum beer is estimated to
be 30 mio hI .
Fig. 2. 67
Sorglllllll grnills growillg vigorollsllj
(Photo: P. Seidl, Mllllicil)
In a number of African countries, such as Ni-
geria, only sorghum malt is used for brewing
because the import of barley malt is forbidden
Sorghlllll grnills ntthe begillllillg of growth and barley C31mot be cultivated lU1der the local
(Photo: P. Seidl, MIIllicil)
climatic conditions. Furthermore, the supply of
sorghum in m311Y areas is suffiCiently large. In
Since the enzymic potential of sorghum is some counh'ies, with the sorghum malt ulUnal-
weaker than that of barley, intensive steeping ted sorghum is processed as raw grain.
has to occur at temperatures of 27 to 30 °C with
frequent chaI1ging of water for 17 to 21 hours
[163]. The green malt is cultivated at 17 to 21°C,
well aerated and moistened so as to achieve
green malt moisture of 52 to 58 %. The sorghlUl1
corns demonstrate very intensive growth du-
ring malting, rootlet growth is very pronoun-
ced (Fig. 2.66) and the roots become extremely
210 211

2.9.16 Usage of different types of malt for various types of beer

(according to NarziB) [24] Beer type EBC colour Malt type (EBC colour) Fraction in %

CarahellC® (25) 5 2
Beer type EBC colour Malt type (EBC COIOll r) Fraction in % Pale malt (3.5) 25
or 12 Wheat malt 70
Pilsner 6-7 Pilsner malt (3.0) 100-95 Dark malt (15) 15
Carapils'" (4.0) 4-5 Pale malt (3.5) 15
or 40 Pale wheat malt 60
Pale 8 Pale malt (3.5) 100-95 Dark malt (15) 40
(Hell) Carahell" (25) up to 5 (Coloured malt 0.5
or 40 Pale wheat malt 40
Export 12 Pale malt Dark wheat malt 30
or Pilsner malt Dark malt (15) 30
Cara-Dunkel (120) up to 1
Alt 35 Pale malt (3.5) 99
Dark 50-60 Dark malt (15) 90 Coloured malt 1
(Dunkel) Pale malt (3.5) 9 or Dark malt (15) 90
Coloured malt 1 Pale malt (3.5) 10
or Dark malt (15) 40 or Pale malt (3.5) 85
Dark malt (25) 40 Cara-Dunkel (120) 15
Pale malt (3.5) 14 or Dark malt (15) 50
Cara-Dlmkel (120) 5 Bl'lU11alt (35) 50
Coloured malt 1
or Dark malt (15) 50 Kolsch 10 Pale malt (3.5) 95
Brumalt (35) 30 Cara-Hell (25) 5
Pale malt (3.5) 19 or Pale malt (3.5) 85
Coloured malt 1 Vienna malt (5.5) 15

March beer 30 Vienna malt (5.5) 90 Alcohol-Free 8.5 Pale malt (3.5) 70
(Marzen) Pale malt (3.5) 10 (7.2 %) Dark malt (15) 15
[optional Carahell'" (25) 10] Carahell'" (25) 15
or Dark malt (15) 70 or Pale malt (3.5) 40
Pale malt (3.5) 30 Alcohol-free Dark malt (15) 10
[optional Cara-Dlmkel (120) 5] (cont'd) Carahell® (25) 15
or Dark malt (15) 50 Vielma malt (5.5) 30
or Pale malt (3.5) 30 Acid malt 5
Brumalt (35) 20
Dark malt (15) 10 or Pale malt (3.5) 70
Vienna malt (5.5) 23
Wheat 12 Wheat malt 50-90 Cara-Dlmkel (120) 2
Pale malt (3.5) Remainder Acid malt 5
or 12 Wheat malt 70
212
2.10 Safety precautions in maltings
A munber of possible causes of accidents, fires or
explosions exist in maIlings whid, can result in
damage to persons or to the plant. Some of the im-
portant potential causes will be mentioned here.
Accidents can occur near conveyors. Conse-
quently a series of regulations has been issued
by authorities in several countries. As an exam-
ple, the following quotations are given from the
German Accident Prevention Regulations VGB
10 - Continuous mechanical handling equip-
ment - of the Professional Association for Food
and Restaurants.
In this it says in § 4:
Endless conveyors, drums, wheels and rol-
lers arolU1d which the traction elements move
or at which their direction is changed, as well as
sprocket wheels, must be made safe so that per-
sons cannot enter the regions of movement.
In the case of bucket elevators, according to
§ 27, the emptying outlets in the base of the
bucket elevator must be so attached or instal-
led,
that the load on emptying drops out
downwards and cleaning out is possible wit-
hout risk when blockages occur.
§ 33 (1) specifies for screw conveyors
that they must be covered and the cover must
be screwed on or secured by hinges and a lock .
Covers which can be walked on must be suffi-
ciently able to bear loads.
§ 34 to § 37 of the regulations are concerned
with accident prevention near pneumatic con-
veyors. Here it is particularly important that the
compartmented rotary discharge drums are
made safe by sufficiently long sleeves or other
devices so that no one can reach into the com-
partments. It is also stated that the lids of the as-
sociated hand holes must be closed.
The entry of silos, which is necessary from ti-
me to time for various reasons, also presents
problems. In Germany, the Accident Prevention
213
Regulations VBG 112 - Silos provides a series of In maltings there is also a considerable risk of the creation of an atmosphere in which there
instructions. dust explosions. The risk with dust is that al- is an explosion risk.
In § 5 (1) it says mos t any combus tible solid material, in suffi- avoidance of hot surfaces, spark formation
that openings in the ceilings or walls which cient concentration, tends to detonate or explo- and open fires, and 2
can be s tepped into or driven into must be de. Dust-air mixtures ignite at temperatures constructional measures which suppress the
equipped with security devices to prevent lU1- above 400 °C. But when the dust lies in thin lay- effects of an explosion to make it harmless.
authorised entry. ers on hot metal sheets or overheated parts, it In maltings there is also a considerable fire
In § 14 it says: also ignites at temperatures below 200 0C. The risk. This concerns not only fires caused by ex-
(1) Protected persons who enter silos must be critical exp losion concentrations in maltings are plosions bu t, in particular, older maltings
attached to a rope until they have come out between 20 and 2,000 g of dust per m 3, if dust is which contain a lot of wood in their structures
again. sufficiently fine (below 100 pm). Particularly at and, especially, older kilns which operate on co-
(2) The supervisor as specified in § 13, Clause 1 risk from explosions in the maltings are al or modern kilns which are directly fired by
must ensure that dust removal plants, natural gas or oil. A kiln is therefore separated
protected persons who enter silos are held silos and bmlkers, and by fire doors from the rest of the maltings.
from outside on a taut rope lU1til they have overheated bucket elevators. The fire risk arises primarily because rootlets
come out again and Methods to be employed to avoid dust explo- and dust particles which have fallen tlU'ough the
the rope must in addition be fixed outside the sions are: floor can begin to smoulder. It is therefore impor-
silo. control of dust formation and continuous and tant to clean out the rootlets whjcl, accumulate in
(3) Notwithstanding Clause 1, protected per- thorough removal of dust. This helps preven t the germination chamber at least once a week.
sons may enter incompletely emptied silos
from below or through lateral openings lo-
cated near the floor without being secmed
to a rope, provided there is no danger to
them from the contents.
(4) Rope ladders may not be used for entering.
There is a great accident risk in maltings on
entering the germination and kilning plants.
When it is really necessary to enter the boxes for
operational reasons, it must be ensured that the
turner or the loading or lmloading device is
switched off and during this time cannot be
brought into operation again (by lU1screwing
the safety fuse and keeping it on one's person;
by removing the operating key from the control
room for the dlU'ation of the examination). Ac-
cidents mostly occur because the protected per-
son believes that such a slow moving device
can cause no damage because one can easily
move out of its way. If, however, any part of the
clothing or the hair of the person becomes
caught, they can no longer do anything to esca-
pe the powerful machinery. The result is usual-
ly catastrophic.
VLB Berlin

Research Institute for

Raw Materials (FIR)

www.vlb-berlin.org/fir
G rath@vlb-berlin.org
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3 Wort Production
The most important process in beer production is
the fermentation of the sugars contained in the
wort to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. To pro-
vide the necessary conditions for this, the initial-
ly insoluble components in the malt must be con-
verted into soluble products, and in particular
soluble fermentable sugars must be produced
with the aid of the enzymes that have been for-
med. The formation and dissolving of these com-
pounds is the purpose of wort production. It pro-
vides the starting point for fermentation of the
wort in the fermentation and storage cellars.
The wort is produced in the brewhouse (Fig.
3.1).
Malt is transferred from a malt storage hop-
per (1) into the grist mill (2) in which it is
ground to a suitable size .
3 3
Fig . 3.1
Wort pl'Orillctioll
(1 ) Illnlt I/Opper
(2 ) g rist /IIill
(3 ) Illnshillg vessels
(4 ) Inllter tllil
(5 ) wort kettle
(6 ) whirlpool
(7) plnte hent exchnllgcr
223
3
In the brewhouse the malt grist is mixed with
water (mashed) and converted in a mash kettle
or in two mash vessels (3): the mash conversion
vessel (or mash ttm) and the mash cooker (or
mash kettle), to give as much soluble extract as
possible. Often there is also another vessel, the
adjunct cooker, for processing adjunct mashed
with the malt.
In the lauter vessel (mash separation vessel)
(4), which comes next, the soluble extract in the
wort is separated from the insoluble material,
the spent grains.
The wort is then boiled in the wort kettle (5)
with hops and the bitter flavour of the beer is
produced at this stage. At the end of wort boi-
ling in the kettle, the brewhouse yield is deter-
mined to control the brewhouse operation.
1
224
The hot wort is freed from the precipitated
particles, the trub (or break) in a whirlpool (6)
or a centrifuge and cooled in a plate hea t ex-
changer (7), since the subsequent fermentation
must be performed at a lower temperature.
3.1 Malt milling
In order to give the malt enzymes the opportuni-
ty, du ring mashing, to act on the malt contents
and break them down, the malt must be broken
into small fragments. This process is called mil-
ling. The malt used for a brew is called the grist
and the am olmt used is called the charge.
Milling is a mechanical process and during it
the husks must be h'eated carefully because they
are used as a filter material during lautering.
A whole series of considerations mus t be ta-
ken into account when fragmenting the malt.
But before the m alt is mmed the amount used is
weighed with a weighing machine.
The malt is fragmented in a grist mill . Depen-
ding on the process used a distinction is m ad e
between
dry milling
• wet milling
• hammer 111illing and
dispersion milling (fine comminution).
3.1.1 Pretreatment of the malt
The malt delivered to the brewery is stored in
silos LUltil use. Th ese silos are not aerated since
the malt no lon ger respires. Before acceptance,
quick tests are p erformed to ch eck tha t the
batch conforms to the agreed sp ecifica tion s
(Sect. 2.8.3.3).
Before p rocessing the malt is freed from im-
purities and the amount required for the brew
is weighed out.
3.1.1.1 Removal of dust and stones from the
malt
Before processing dust is removed and the malt
is passed through a des toner (see Sect. 2.1.2.3)
in which dust remo va l also occurs. Despite the
intensive cleaning in the maltings, small stones,
about the same size as the grains, still remain in
the finished malt and these damage the grooves
(flutes) on the mill rollers an d consequently
shorten the working life of the rollers (see Sect.
3.1.3.5).
It is also necessary to remove all iron objects
by means of a magnet which is usually located
just before the mill . Despite the presence of ma-
gnets in many positions, there are always iron
objects (nails, screws, etc.) in m alt which not on-
ly damage the mill rollers but which can cause
explosions as a result of spark formation.
The dust inevitably produced during dry
milling is explosive in certain concentrations
and can destroy the mill. Con sequently every-
thing possible must be done to prevent su ch an
explosion w hen dry milling. This includes the
removal of iron objects which can cause sparks
(see also Sect. 2.1.2.2) .
In dry mills, to protect again st explosions,
metal explosion sheets are arranged below the
rollers. These sheets hold back the grist so that
no explosive grist-air mixture can occur bene-
ath the mill gap. Sparks can still be formed in
this region but do n ot cause explosions. Howe-
ver, it is essential to fit these sheets on again af-
ter setting the mill gap - at first they appear to
have no purpose and they are often "forgot-
ten".
To limit damage in the case of dust explosi-
ons which may nevertheless occur, dry mills
have on their side a very fra gile rupture disc
whkh breaks if there is a build-up of pressure
and thereby diverts the pressure sideways. It is
important h ere th at the pressure outside the
mill and the building can be released above the
height of a person to ensure that no damage to
people or property occurs.
As well as this means of releasing pressure
into the atmosphere, the following are also
used today [128]:
Explosion press m e release by Q-pipes (Quench
pipes). In these pipes the kinetic energy of the
explosion is transformed into thermal en ergy.
The ex ternal sh ape of the pipe is n ot changed
but the installation must be cleaned again af-
ter an explosion.
Explosion suppress ion. In this case, a few
milliseconds after the beginning of an explo-
sion a non-flammable gas, havin g a substan-
tially higher pressure, flows out of a pressure
container and prevents the spread of the ex-
plosion.
The amount of dust produced during milling
is consid erable and figures of 0.4 to 1.4 kg per
100 kg of malt charge are quoted [40] . This dus t
must be regularly removed . In small breweries
it is packed in sacks, larger breweries first col-
lect it in a dust silo. The dust can be mixed with
the spent grains and sold, since it contains nu-
trien ts. Because of the mois ture in the pipelines,
di rect mixing into the spent grain silo is proble-
matic at the least, since moist dust fo rms balls
an d consequently blocks the passage.
The dust can also be added back to the grist
since it contains a lot of ex trac t, but the quality
of this ex tract is not particularly good. Dust re-
mo val serves primar ily to protect the plant
agains t the risk of explosion and it is not instal-
led to clean the malt.
3.1.1.2 Weighing the malt charge
The amolmt of grist used for each brew must be
recorded exactly. This is essential for internal
control purposes because one wants to know la-
ter how efficiently the raw materials employed
were used . This is obtained
• from the brewhouse yield (Sect. 3.5) and, la-
ter
from the calculation of the amount of malt
used per hi of beer (kg malt/hl beer).
The amount of grist is m onitored by an auto-
matic weighing machine. There are basically
two kinds of these in use:
225
tipping weighing machines, and
hinged base weighing machines
of mechan ical or electronic type.
In add ition, pressure measuring devices are
often used for measuring empty and full contai-
3
ners. These can also be used for measuring the
total malt hopper.
3.1.1.2.1 Tipping weighing machines
Tipping weighing m achines are the type most
commonl y used . They ha ve been mad e fo r de-
cades as automatic balances (Fig. 3.2) and, be-
ca use of their robust constru ction and reliabili-
ty in operation, are predominantly used for
control of weighing in breweries and maltings.
The tipping balance operates periodically in
that an exactly predetermined amo unt of malt
is weighed into a pivotable trough and when
the predetermined weight is reached it pivo ts
downwards. This unmistaka ble process is
known as tipping and it gives the balance its na-
me.
Fig. 3.2
Dingmlll of n lippillg weigilillg IIIncilille
The tipping balance is constructed as a beam
balance with equal anns. The balance arm on
one side supports the container with the inser-
ted weights and the other supports the weighing
226
container. This is a pivotable trough-like bucke
for receiving the bulk-like material.
The malt passes through an opening into the
bucket which consequently gradually sinks.
This causes the balance ann to change; as a re-
sult of a lever transmission the supply of malt is
first restricted and then completely blocked.
Thus the tipping weigher operates in severa l
stages (Fig. 3.3):
Fig. 3.3
Operalillg prillciple of a lippillg weigllillg lIlachille
(1) lIlnll illflow
(2) reslricled illflow
(3) blocked illflow
(4) lippillg alld elllplyillg of the bllcket
(5) retll/'ll to ol'igillal posilioll alld opell illg of the ill lei
The malt rLms in a wide stream and fills the
bucket quite quickly (1).
When the tipping weight has almost been
reached, the flap is closed so that now only a
narrower stream of malt trickles in until the
exact tipping mass has been reached (2).
When the tipping mass is reached the inlet is
closed completely (3) .
The bucket now sinks, pivots and empties
downwards (4).
The bucket rotates again so that the op ening
is at the top and the filling process begins
again (5).
The amount tipped by grist mill b alances is
5 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg or 25 kg, or in the case of lar-
ge breweries 50 or 100 kg. Two cOlmters are fi-
xed to the weighing case (Fig. 3.3a).
Fig.3.3a
'JIB ! II )
COllll lillg devices of a
lippillg weighillg II/a-
chille
(1) resellable coll llier
(2 lotal nlllollllt
weighed recorder - ner the inlet to the weighing container opens. The
The number of tippin g operations for the
brew are set on the upper counter and the total
throughput is continuously registered by the
lower counter.
Small hand w heels in the setting COlmter are
used to set the desired number of tippings after
activating a small blocking lever.
Exnmple:
2,200 kg of m alt must be milled for a brew in a
brewery.
The balance tips an amolmt of 20 kg.
What number of tip pings must be set?
2,200 kg / 20 kg per tipping = 110 tippings
The number of tippings must be set at 110.
The balance h as a magnetic stop mechanism.
Tipping and bottom flap weighing machines
can be calibrated and can be easily equipped
with remote counters and pulse outputs. They
are also built for high performance rates (up to
more than 400 t/h).
3.1.1.2.2 Bottom flap valve weighing machines
Bottom flap valve weighing machines consist of
three connected containers, arranged above one
another, with bottom fl ap va lves. Since they
look very much like a pipe they are also known
as tub ul ar weighing machines. These weighing
machines operate accord ing to the following
principle (Fig. 3.4):
Fi rs tly the upper container is filled .
Precolltl1iller
Whilst the main weighing container is weighed
and emptied, the precontainer must take in the
malt still flo wing in. When the balance has regi-
stered the empty weight of the weighing contai-
malt heaped up in the precontainer falls out into
the weighing container. Then more malt flows
through the precontainer (3) lll1til the predeter-
mined desired weight is reach ed. Then the outlet
closes and the further malt flowing in is again col-
lected in the precontainer (1 and 2).
We iglzillg cOlltl1iller
After the stable state of the vessel has been rea-
ched the weighing process occurs. In this the
Balance
Fig. 3.4
Flow seqllellce ill all electrollic weighillg
lllachille
227
weight of the malt filled into the weighing con-
tainer is determ ined from the weight of the fu ll
con tainer and th at of the emp tied con tainer. For
this the we ighing balance beam requires time
on two occasions to reach a stable position, na-
3
m ely
after the filling process, and
after the emptying of the container and befo-
re refi lIing.
Calcula tion of this weight, w hich differs
every time, is performed by an attac hed com-
puter and so at any time the exact amOlmt can
be read off and /or set.
Fillnl cOlltl1iller
The final container receives the goods flowing
out of the weighing container and so is made re-
latively large.
Electronic weighing machines satisfy all the
requirements demanded of them . Nowad ays in
new and large plants, electronic weighing m a-
chines are almost always used (Fig. 3.5).
Preconlainer
Weighing container
Finat container
Empty tndicalor
228
3 Nowadays the general preference is for
4
Fig. 3.5
Eleelrollie IlIulllnr
weigllillg IIInellille
(1) preeolliniller
(2) illiel slide vnlve
(3) weigllillg IIl1il
(4) jilml eOlllniller
3.1.2 Basic aspects of milling
During mashing the enzymes must be able to
get at the malt contents in order to degrade
them. For this the malt must be broken into
smaller pieces (conuninuted). The greater the
extent of comminution, the larger the surface
area available for enzymic attack and the better
the breakdown of the malt material. But after
mashing the wort must be run off. This is a fil-
tration process in which - depending on the
mash separation equipment used- the husks
are needed as a filter material.
Because the husks are required for mash se-
paration (lautering), they must be disintegrated
as little as possible during milling. A dry husk
fragments easily and filterability is greatly re-
duced by the small fragments produced by dis-
integration of the husks. On the other hand the
husk is more elastic the wetter it is and it is then
easier to protect. Consequently lautering is mo-
re rapid. The process of wetting the husks is
known as conditioning.
If a lot of water is added, however, the entire
contents of the grain become moist and are then
squeezed out of the husk during comminution.
This process is known as wet milling.
a dry endosperm which can be grolmd as re-
quired during milling and, if possible,
a moist, elastically deformable husk.
Comminution of the malt depends on its mo-
dification.
A more modified malt presents little resi-
stance to the grinding roller during milling sin-
ce the interior of the corn is friable and loosely
packed. Therefore the fraction of flour and fine
grits is high in the case of well modified malts.
These grits and the flour from well modified
malt samples contain enzymes and readily dis-
solve later in the brewhouse.
Badly modified corn tips and badly modified
malt corns are harder and not so eaSily commi-
nuted. This can be seen from the larger fraction
of coarse grits. Because their internal conversi-
on has been retarded they still require extensi-
ve enzymic degradation. They release their ex-
tract only with difficulty. A smaller yield must
therefore be expected if these coarse grits are
not completely degraded in the brewhouse:
Milling must be finer the less well modified
the malt.
The degree of comminution has a decisive in-
fluence on the volume and filtration efficien-
cy of the spent grains.
In the case of commonly used lauter vessels:
the finer the milling the smaller the volume of
spent grains,
but the finer the grist, the less porous the fil-
ter bed, the sooner it becomes pressed toget-
her and so the longer the filtration takes.
It can even happe n that the wort no longer
fl ows through at all. Consequently, when Llsin g
a lauter tlm, milling mus t not be too fine, or el-
se the spent grain depth mu st be reduced if fi-
ner milling is used .
When a modern mash filter is used none of
this applies because the filtration is performed
through a very small pore polypropylene cloth.
Therefore when using such a mash filter the
malt can be very finely grOLtnd by a hammer
mill and very good yields are consequently ob-
tained.
100 kg of malt (2 centner = 220 Ib) corre-
sponds to the following volumes:
1.7 hi malt
2.7 hllauter tlm grist
2.2 hI mash filter grist
2.0 lauter tun spent grains
1.2 to 1.4 hI mash filter spent grains
3.1.3 Dry milling
The most commonly used mills in breweries are
dry grist mills. In them the malt is crushed in a
dry state between rollers arranged in pairs. De-
pending on the number of rollers these are clas-
sified as
two roller mills
four roller mills
Fig. 3.6
Six roll III ill (prill ciple)
(1) disiriullior roller
(2) preiilllillnrlj e/'llsllillg roller pnir
(3) IIl1sk roller pnir
(4) roller pnir
(5) IIpper viurnlillg serew IIllil
(6) lower viurnlillg screell IIl1il
(7) IIl1sks willi nffnclled g rils
(8) g rils
(9) fiollr
(10) IIl1 sks
t ,
229
five roller mills and
six roller mills
3.1.3.1 Six roller mills
The six roller mill is the best and most frequent-
3
ly used type of grist mill (Fig. 3.6). Its three
pa irs of rollers are called
the preliminary crushing roller pair (2)
the husk roller pair (3) and
the grits roller pair (4).
There is a vibrating screen mut (5 and 6) with
two different mesh sizes suspended between
each pair of rollers. These screens sort the mil-
led material from the preceding pair of rollers
into three fractions:
coarse components - husks with attached
grits - (7), or husks (10)
middle components- grits - (8) and
fine components - fine grits and flour - (9) .
The flour is led directly into the grist case sin-
ce it is not milled any more. The husks are crus-
hed, with as little damage to the husks as possi-
ble, by the second pair of rollers (3) . The grits
are ground by the third pair of rollers (4) to the
extent desired.
Modern six roller mills operate to a large ex-
tent with considerably changed roller positions
,

230
'...0
3 Five roller Illill (prillciple)
and a greater sieving surface. An example of
this is the six roller mill "Maltomat" (Biihler,
Braunschweig) (Fig. 3.7). In the Maltomat the
entire malt stream is led through the first two
pairs of rollers, arranged one above the other,
which crush the contents out of the husks. The
crushed contents are then graded in four sieve
units and only the grits are grOlmd as finely as
desired in the third passage.
The reason for the first two pairs of rollers im-
mediately following one another is that in the
conventional six roller mills only about 10 % of
the milled material is sieved off by the first sie-
ve unit. However, with the doubling of the
screening surface after the rollers, a much bet-
ter sieving effect is obta ined by reducing the
sieve loading from 34 - 42 kg/dm2 to 18 kg/dm2.
Furthermore the two sieve casings are oscilla-
ted in opposite directions by an eccentric drive
Fig. 3.7
"Mnllolllnt" six roll lIIill (prillciple)
(Biihler COlllpnllY, Brnllllscillveig)
(W1) prelilllillnry c/'ll shillg roller pnir
(W2) IllI sk roller pnir
(W3) grits roller pnir
(1) IIInlt ill let
(2) distriblltor roller
(5) IIletnl g llidillg sheets
(6) stripper
(10) g rist
(13 + 24) g rits
(15 + 27) flail I'
(23) snlllpler
and so, tmlike conventional mills, do not cause
vibrations of the I1lill or the building.
Up to 14 t of malt per hour, as lauter tun coar-
se grist, can be milled with it. There are fixed
guidelines for evaluating the grist (Sect. 3.1.6).
The following can be used for a preliminary
eva luation:
After the preliminary crushing rollers all the
corns shou ld be broken to some extent - the-
re should be no completely intact corns pre-
sent.
After the husk crushing rollers the grits adhe-
ring to the husks should be removed without
any extensive damage to the husks being ap-
parent.
The grits rollers should produce fine grits
and no flour, since flour can impede filtrati-
on.
- --------
1 0
Fig. 3.8
(1) distribllto r roller
(2) {Jrel illlillnry c/'llshillg roller
(3) {Jrelilllillnl'l/ crllsh illg nlldllllsk
c/'ll silillg roller
(4) hllsk c/'llshillg roller
(5) g rits roller pnir
(6) IIpper v ibrntillg screell IIl1il
(7) lower vibrntillg screell IllIit
(8) hllsks willi nffnclled g rits
(9) gri ts
(10) flollr
(11) illisks
3.1.3.2 Five roller mills
A five roller mill is, in principle, a six roller mill in
which one roller performs the £lmction of two
(Fig. 3.8). One preliminary crushing roller also
acts as a husk crushing roller. The rest of the ope-
ration is the same as in a six roller mill. With six
and five roller mills, by using a suitable mill set-
ting any desired grist composition can be obtai-
ned. Five roller mills are no longer made.
3.1.3.3 Four roller mills
These are found commonly in medium-sized
breweries. They contain two pairs of rollers ar-
ranged above one another. The grist crushed in-
itially by the first pair of rollers, the first or co-
arse grind, is either
sorted into fractions in an intermediate sieve
lmit, and only the coarse fractions milled by a
second pair of rollers (four roller mill with an
intermediate sieve unit), or
the husks freed from small components by a
rotating beater or beaters in order to obtain the
same milling effect after the second pair of rol-
lers (fom roller mill with rotating beaters).
Method of operation of a four roller mill with
an intermediate sieve wut (Fig. 3.9). The malt is
231
3
6
passed by the feed or distributing roller into the
first pair of rollers and coarsely ground by the
latter. This coarse grind consists of about
30% husk with adhering coarse grits,
50% grits and
20% flour.
The already finely divided small grist com-
ponents, such as flour and fine grits, are remo-
ved through the intermediate vibrating sieve
and sent to the grist case. The husks are freed
from the adhering coarse grits in the second
pair of rollers. After the second grinding pro-
cess the grits consist of about
20% husk,
50% grits and
30% flom.
3.1.3.4 Two roller mills
Two roller mills for dry m illing are fOlmd only
in small brewhouses and restaurant/pub bre-
weries. Because no £luther differentiation of the
grist can be obtained with on ly one pair of rol-
lers during dry milling, optimal yields cannot
be obtained. Tlus does not apply to two roller
mills used for wet milling or with conditioned
malt.
 232
3
3.1.3.5 Rollers of malt mills
The mill rollers have a decisive influence on the
grist quality. Consequently the structure and
positioning of the rollers relative to one another
must satisfy specific requirements.
Feedillg device
An essential precondition for optimal milling is
correct feeding of the malt into the roller gap.
This involves ensuring that the malt flows in a
continuous stream along the entire length of the
rollers, automatically compensating for any
supply fluctuations.
For this purpose every mill has a feed roller
which is fluted or grooved. The fluting of the feed
together with the rotation speed and the
gap, determines the amolmt of malt flowing in.
Rollers
Nowadays the rollers are made by centrifugal
casting or chill casting. This type of process en-
sures a hard surface which is, of course, neces-
sary.
233
./ .. .......
X """ '' ' ' ' '' ' '''
1 :::'
:
"\
3
:
Fig. 3. 10
Roller gnp nlld flllt e sellillg
(1) benrillg sllell
(2) roller pivots
(3) flll te wllillg edge
Fig. 3.9 (4) flll te renr
FOllr roller llIill (prillciple) (5) 1I0tcil deptll
(1) distrilJ/ltor roller (6) roller gnp
(2) illflow COli troller (7) stntiollnry positioll
(3) prelilllillnry cru sllillg roller pnir (8) operntioll
(4) IIlIsk crusllillg roller pnir left roller: drive roller witll propllisioll
(5) vibrntillg scree1l
(6) eccelltric drive
(7) IIlI sks witll nlfnclled grits This more rapid rotation is termed leading. In
(8) illitinlly gro lllld grist
the case of plain rollers the milling is achieved
(9) flail I'
by the speed difference -the ratio being about
1.25 : 1-, the pressing together of the rollers and
Diameter a rough ening of the surface struchlre of the rol-
The roller diameter is usually about 250 mm. It lers. The pressing together of the rollers causes
should not be smaller, otherwise the angle for them to bend slightly and as a result the same
receiving the corns (angle of nip) is too small milling effect CillUlOt be obtained in the middle
and the mill performance is reduced. By recei- part of the rollers as in the end regions. An ab-
ving angle is meant the angle existing when the solutely uniform milling performance is achie-
projections grip the corn. ved by a "convex" procedure in which the rol-
lers are slightly tapered a t the end s.
Flutillg
Modern mills always have fluted rollers. These
rollers contain 600 to 900 milled out grooves
(Fig. 3.10). In general these flutes do not nm
parallel to the roller axis but have a lateral twist
as a result of which their rolling together and fast
cutting action is intensified. Both rollers always
Fig. 3.11
have the same twist, which is between 4 and 14% Cllllillg netioll offlllted rollers
(Fig. 3.11). Corresponding to the different set-
tings of the flutes with regard to one another,
-* -*
there are four different possibilities (Fig. 3.12).
Of these the setting a is always used for the grits
rollers. Fig. 3.12
The ratio of the rotation speeds of the two rol- Groove orielltntiollS
c d (n) clllfillg all wttillg, (b) wttillg all renr edge, (c) renr edge
lers in the case of fluted rollers is about 1.25 : 1. all renr edge, (d) renr edge all elllfillg
 234 235

The flutin g of the rollers is quickly worn A parallel setting of the rollers is essential for power requirement of modern malt mills is the yield and final attenuation are increased,
away by any hard objects introduced (iron ob- uniform milling. This is checked on setting the about a faster iodine normality is obtained during
jects, stones, etc.) . It is therefore appropriate to mill by mea ns of adjustment frames, adapted to 2.3 to 2.5 kW for lauter Ql11 gris t and m ashing.
install a des toner before the mill in addition to the roller diameter, and feeler gauges with 30 3.3 to 3.8 kW for mash filter grist. The only disadvantage is the increased
the magnets present in any case (Sect. 2.1.2.3). cm long feelers. A rapid check can be made by The malt mill is a place of work with a high amOlll1t of work n eeded for the equipment, in
3 3
introducing a card. The card must be pulled in- risk of accidents. It is therefore essential to ob- particular the cleaning of the malt mill.
Rotation speed of the rollers: to the mill so that it is straight. serve the advice given in Section 3.11.1 and the The gris t-husk volume increases to
The rotation speed of the rollers is The drive for the rollers. One of the rollers is instructions regarding accident protection and 0.5 to 0.7 hI I 100 kg malt in the case of Lll1COn-
in the case of the fixed and driven by a belt or directly. The oppo- danger of explosions. ditioned dry gris t and
precrushing rollers 400 to 420 rpm sing roller is spring mounted and driven by the 0.8 to 1.0 hI I 100 kg malt in the case of condi-
in the case of first roller. In this way the rollers are not dama- 3.1.3.6 Conditioned dry milling tioned dry gris t.
husk crushing rollers 400 rpm ged so much when hard objects are introduced. When the husks are dry, they are brittle and easi- The conditioning of the m alt occurs in a m alt
in the case of the Modern mills are equipped with individually ly split on milling. The husks, however, are requi- conditioner. An example of this illus trated here
grit crushing rollers 380 to 440 rpm driven pairs of rollers. red as a filter layer during lautering. To protect the is the conditioning screw of the type "Condi-
The roller length is usually 0.8 to 1.0 m. It can The movable roller is driven by a pair of gear husks the malt is often moistened before dry mil- mat" (Biihler Company, Braunschweig) [49].
vary between 0.4, in the case of very small, and wheels and this also determines the speed ratio. ling. This procedure is referred to as conditioning. This malt conditioner (Fig. 3.13) consists of a
1.5 m, in the case of very large mills. Nowadays the gears are usually made of plastic In the case of conditioned dry milling, the trough in which the malt is moved by a screw
The roller gap is continuously adjustable bet- and do not need lubrication. malt is moistened using sa turated s team or wa- (3). During this the m alt is sprayed with water
ween 0 and 2.5 mm. The following roller gaps, The throughput of the mill is up to 14 tlh no- ter at 30 to 35 °c for one to two minutes before at 30 °c by spray nozzles (4). After that a uni-
rotations and speed differences are commonly wadays and thus it is possible to mill the grist milling. This moisQlre increases the water con- form distribution of moisQIl'e is achieved using
used: for a complete brew in less than an hour. The tent in the husks mixing paddles (5), so that after 1 to 2 min the
in the case of steam trea tment by 1.2 to 1.5% husk has reached the desired elasticity for mil-
using warm water by 2.0 to 2.5%, ling. The mill installed immediately following
fluting gap rotations rotational speed whilst the water content in the interior of the the screw can grind the malt to the selected ex-
in mm per min difference corn only rises by 0.3 to 0.5%. tent whilst preserving the husks.
The advantages of this are regarded as being:
Precrushing rollers smooth 1.3 to 1.5 250 1 : 1 to1.3 : 1 the husk becomes considerably more pliable 3.1.3.7 Grist case
Husk rollers partial 0.7 to 0.9 250 - 280 1.3 : 1 to1.4 : 1 and can be grOlU1d more thoroughly, When the grist produced by the mill is mashed
Grits rollers 10 -12 0.3 to 0.35 280 - 300 1.7 : 1 to 2.6 : 1 the vollU11e of the husk increases by 10 to 20 % imm ediately, mashing in takes exactly the same
flutes per and hence provides a looser filter layer and a time as milling. Mos t dry m alt mills, however,
10 mm circumference higher lautering speed, mill over a longer period of time. The gris t has

Different roller gaps and flute settings for lauter tll11 coarse grind and mash filter fine grind :

dry lauter QU1 conditioned dry mash filter Fig . 3.13 5

"Colidilllal "
coarse grind fine grind
lIIali cOlldilioller
flute setting flute setting (J) waler dos illg IIl1il
willi swilcllbo.r
Precrushing rollers 1.6 R :R 1.2 0.9 C:C (2) lIIall ill lei
(3) cOllveyo/, screw
Husk rollers 0.8 R:R 0.6 0.4 C:C 3
(4) spray 1I0zzies
Grits rollers 0.4 C:C 0.4 0.2 C:C (5) II/i.rillg paddle
(6) sall/ple/'
Numbers in mm, R = rear edge, C = cutting edge (7) olillel

236
therefore to be temporarily s tored. Storage oc-
curs in a grist case which is a rectangular or cy-
lindrical vessel with a pyramid or conical sha-
ped outlet for complete emptying. The capacity
of the grist case must be 3 hi per 100 kg grist.
3 3
The grist case permits milling outside the pe-
ak energy periods of the brewery. In former ti-
mes several mobile grist cases were often used
to make use of, for example, cheap rate night
electricity to mill the grist load for the following
day. Nowadays milling occurs directly before
mashing and the storage periods of the grist are
kept as short as possible, because
oxidation processes begin immediately (see
Sect. 3.2.3.3) and
microbes develop, especially in conditioned
grist.
Filling and emptying of the grist case is pro-
cess controlled. In smaller and older breweries,
these operations are performed by the malt mil-
ler or the person responsible for mashing.
3.1.3.8 Hammer mills
In modern type mash filters lautering is perfor-
med by means of small pore polypropylene filter
cloths with a spent grain layer thickness of only 4
cm. In such cases the husks are not needed as fil-
ter material and the malt can be grOlmd finely.
This is done using a hammer mill.
Fig. 3.14
Rotor of vertical mtor lIIill
black = f ixed parts with IIJill sieve aliter casillg
red = mtati11g parts with steel beaters
Replaceable steel beaters (2) rotate about a ro-
tor (Fig. 3.14) (1) at a speed of 60 to 100 m/s and
thereby comminute the malt until all the parti-
cles are small enough to fall through the holes
in a mill sieve (3). Fine particles which pass di-
rectly through the holes are produced by this
milling procedure. The hole size of the sieve de-
termines the fineness of the grist and the
throughput of the mill. To avoid blockages the
inflow has to be well regulated. Consequently
particular importance is attached to the feeder
of the hammer mill. So as to obtain uniform we-
ar, the direction of rotation of the rotors is rever-
sed at regular intervals with some systems.
Hammer mills are constructed
with a hori zontal rotor shaft or, increasingly
nowadays
Fig. 3.15
\fertical mtor lIIill, lIIodel "\fertica "
(Biihler COlllpa11Y, Brnllllschweig)
(1) lIIalt i11le/, (2) (3) lIIill llOlIsi11g, (4) 1'1111doW11 pipe,
(5) ruptllre disc, (6) segllleJ1ted wheel co11veyor
with a ver tical rotor shaft in the form of a ver-
tical rotor mill.
CO/lstr/lctio/l am/workillg lI1ethod of a vertical
rotor mill
A vertical rotor mill (Fig. 3.15) model "Vertica"
(Biihler Company, Bralmschweig) consists of
the rotor housing (3) with the vertical drive po-
sitioned above it. The i..n£low contains a feeder
to suck off light impurities and once again re-
move all iron objects. The high speed of the ro-
tors means the danger of spark production is
very great and furthermore the mill sieve will
be slightly damaged.
For the same reason, a heavy object separator
for removal of stones and other foreign bodies
is also connected to the inlet to the mill.
In the mill housing (Fig. 3.14), the thin sh'eam of
inflowing malt grains are caught by the steel bea-
ters, crushed and centrifuged tlu'ough the fine-
meshed outer sieve. The milled material is collec-
ted in a funnel and removed by means of a
segmented wheel conveyor (6). In tl1e case of a
dust explosion, a rupture disc (5) and l'lmdown
pipe (4) release the bu.ilt-up pressure into tl1e at-
mosphere. Alternatively, a Q-pipe can be inserted.
3.1.4 Wet milling
When malt is milled dry, even with careful
handling, the husks are damaged to a greater or
lesser degree, and so can only perform their
hmction as filter material to a limited extent. If,
however, the malt is steeped before milling, the
husks, like the internal contents of the grain, ab-
sorb moisture and become more elastic. The
malt contents can then be easily squeezed out of
the husks which remain almost undamaged
and are therefore better for mash separation,
whilst the corn contents can be more finely
grOlmd and therefore better utilised.
A we t mill (Fig. 3.17) consists of a mill hou-
sing on which the malt silo with a conical outlet
is placed. The malt is steeped in this malt silo.
237
The mos t important part of the we t mill is the
pair of crushing rollers (3) w ith a very narrow
roller gap of 0.45 mm. A dis tributor roller (2) is
installed before this roller pair. The mashed-in
grist is collected by a conveyor and delivered to
the mash pump (6). A comprehensive system of
sprinkling and spraying nozzles is used for
steeping the malt and also for cleaning the
equipment.
A wet mill operates as follows:
a) Steepillg
The automatically weighed malt is conveyed
into the malt hopper (1) above the mill and
steeped there with water at a temperature of
30 to 50°C. The water draining off below is
circulated to the top again by the mash pump
so that lmiform steeping of the grist is obtai-
ned . This process lasts about 15 to 30 min .
During this time the water content of the
malt increases to about 30 %. At the same ti-
me the malt swells by 35 to 40 % as a result of
the water uptake and the malt enzymes are
slowly activated .
b) PlIlI1ping off mash water
c) Mashing ill
The steeped malt passes over the feed roller
(2) to the pair of crushil1g rollers (3) with
their very narrow gap (0.45 mm) . Here the
corn contents are pressed out smoothly and
almost without resistance from the scarcely
damaged husks. The spent grains from a wet
milled malt appear almost as though they
still consist of corns. A particular problem is
that the ulUTIodified corn tips pass unchan-
ged and lmground into the mash vessel into
which the milled grist is now pumped.
The amount of water to be supplied to the
mash vessel depends on
the selected mashing process, takmg into
accOlmt
the amount of extract-contail1i.ng water in
the malt steepil1g hopper,

238
3 3
c)
the water addition during crushing, and
the water to be used for cleaning the wet mill.
d) Was/dllg
. All parts which come into contact with the
malt are then intensively cleaned by means
of built-in spray nozzles.
Wet mills are no longer manufactured.
3.1.5 Steep conditioning
During steep conditioning, use is made of the
advantages of wet milling in that the malt is in-
troduced for 50 to 60 sec to 60 1 of warm water
Fig. 3.17
Operatioll of a wet III ill
(a) steepillg
(b) pl/lllpillg off steep water
(e) IIlashillg ill
(d) rillsillg
(1) Illalt hopper
(2) feed roller
(3) crt/ shillg roller pair
(4) Illashlllixillg cltnlllber with spray Ilozzles
(5) wa ter regulatioll
(6) lIIash pUIUp to the kettle
at 60 to 70 DC per 100 kg of malt. To reduce the
activity of lipoxygenases, a conditioning tem-
perature of 80 DC is recommended. In this short
time only the husk (about 151/100kg) is able to
take up water, to increase its water content from
18 to 22% and thereby become more elastic. The
same amount of water remains stuck to the
grains, whereas the surplus amounting to 20 to
301 water per 100 kg malt is drained off. Such a
short conditioning time, however, also requires
a forced circulation of the malt in order to be ab-
le to maintain the exact water uptake for the
processing time . This for ced circulation is
achieved either
with a segmented wheel conveyor (Fig. 3.18)
or
with a conditioning sh aft (Fig . 3.19).
2 - -----..
5 Fig. 3.19
Fig. 3. 18
Couditiollillg usillg a segllleuted wheei collveyor
(1) lIIalt hoppel; (2) illflow colltrollel; (3) seglllellted wheei,
(4) water illlet, (5) cOllditioll edlllalt
As soon as the malt grain has been crushed, it
is subject to oxygen uptake. Oxygen uptake du-
ring mashing in already leads to considerable
oxidation reactions (see Sect. 3.2.1.6). Lipoxyge-
nases thereby playa particular role through the
breakdown of unsahll'ated fatty acids into hy-
droxy fatty acids and other precursors of the
ageing substances (see Fig . 3.28a4). The lipoxy-
genases are in the peripheral parts of the malt
grain, particularly concentrated in the acrospi-
reoBy means of peeling the malt and removing
the acr'ospire, it is therefore possible to reduce
the damage caused by the lipoxygenases. Fur-
thermore, as well as cellulose, the husks also
contain polyphenols and other components
239
Steep cOllditiollillg Sltnft
which crea te an lmpleasant bitter taste and ha-
ve a negative effect on the colloidal stability of
the beer.
To this end, it is possible to u se a peeler (Fig.
3.20a) (BUhler, Braunschw eig) immediately
prior to milling, in which the malt grains are
treated gently (rubbed) in order to limit breaka-
ge and minimise extract loss. The ensuing abra-
sion makes up 15 - 16 %, the yield thus accoun-
ting for 84 - 85 %. A loss of yield of 2 - 3 % occurs
assuming an acrospire removal of 85 %.
If a loss of yield of 2 - 3% can be accepted, the
quality of the grist is improved using this me-
thod, which has to be employed immediately
before milling.
Another method to prevent the acrospire
from damage is whole grain conditioning (Zie-
mann, Ludwigsburg, together with BUhler,
Braunschweig) . The water content of the malt is
hereby increased increm entally to about 12 %
 241
240

before milling, thus increasing the elasticity of
the husk. As a result, no damage to the acrospi-
re occurs during comminution, and thus there
is no, or at least considerably reduced, release
3
of lipids. A further important advantage is the
considerably higher lmltering speed, and the
increased brewhouse capacity related to this.
1 2
A wet mill with steep conditioning operates ses. Because water uptake proceeds faster with
as follows (Fig. 3.20): increasing temperature, the process mu st of
course be monitored and controlled. In the pre-
sent example the control is achieved by the feed
roller (3) of the mill. The moist husks are retai-
ned in the draw-in fluting of the following pair
of crushing rollers (4) and the corn contents are
comminuted.
7 The milled grist is then, by means of spray
nozzles, thoroughly mixed with water at mas-
hing in temperature and transported by means
1 of a pump (6) from below into the mash vessel.
ing in the CIP process. Such malt mills are ma-
nufactured in sizes of 4 to 20 t/h.
With wet milling the milling time is the same
as the mashing in time because a grist case can
no longer be used . Consequently these mills are
3
d es igned for a fast throughput and therefore in-
volve high peak currents and relatively high
operating costs.
Oxygen uptake occurs during milling becau-
se of the longer grist mashing in time.
A complete malt milling installation - for
conditioned dry milling - is shown in Fig. 3.21.

·t
The pump is regulated in such a way that the The malt coming from th e silo is passed
mill is never completely emptied during com- through a sorting sieve (1) and thereby large
minution. Thereby an undesirable oxygen up- impurities are removed. Dust is removed in an
10
take is prevented . attached aspiration duct (2). Any stones still
The feed roller is also of great
importance here. It must deliver
the required amount of malt dis- j I
tributed over the entire length of
the rollers. For this it has a conti-
12
nuously adjustable drive which
provides rotation speeds of 25 to
I
2 10
Fig.3.20n 138 rpm.
Horizolltnl Mnlt Peelillg (Bii/zlel; Brn/lllschweig)
(1) illfeeri, (2) feerier screw, (3) operntillg nren, (4) screell bns-
The crushing rollers are fluted 8
ket, (5) roto/; (6) nil' sellsor plnte, (7) press llre sprillg, and their "teeth" oppose one 9
(8) hnllri wheel, (9) nil' ill let, (10) llOlIow Sllnft, (11) nbrnsioll/ another. The gap between them,
peelhlgs, (12) pee/eri ll/nlt which may vary be tween 0.25
6 8 and 0.40 mm, can be continuous- 't
lyadjusted .
Fig. 3.20 The rotation speed of the rol-
Since the lipoxygenases (LOX) begin their ac-
Steep cOllriitiollillg
tivi ty immediately after the comminution of the lers depends on the malt modifi-
(1) grist llOppel; (2) cOllriitiollillg shnft, (3) feeri rollel;
malt, it is sensible to gas the grist case and all (4) grist rollers, (5) height cOlltrol, (6) II/nsh P/lII/P, (7) illfeed cation. Poorly modified malts ha- I
areas with which the grist comes into contact of illert gns, (8) to the II/nshillg tlill ve hard corns and therefore
with an inert gas (CO" N ,). After it has passed increase the electricity consump- 5 (;

through the conditioning shaft, the malt is com- tion of the mill. By means of a
minuted in the following wet mill and after- In the grist hopper (1) the weighed amount of control device the roller speed is
wards immediately mixed with the mashing in grist is stored and is continuously supplied reduced, making a longer stee-
water and the surplus steep water. with hot water (3) in the conditioning stage (2) ping time necessary. Fig. 3.21
for arotmd 60 s. The water temperature can be The conditioning region and COII/piete II/il/illg plnllt
chosen as desired and is usually 60 to 70 °C, so- mill are made of chrome-nickel (collriitiolleri riry II/illillg)
Since mashing in is followed by immediate
(Explnllnlioll ill lext)
activation of the enzymic processes, biological metimes even as much as 80 °c, in order to de- steel in order to be able to obtain
acidification is recommended at this time. activate the temperature-sensitive lipoxygena- optimum cleaning by surge flush-

h
 242 243

present are ex tracted in a des toner (4) and dust
is removed (3). Then the malt is weighed by an
automatic weighing device (5). Depending on
the arrangement, conveyors are ins talled bet-
ween this equipment and the milling plant,
3 3
mostly bucket elevators (6) and screw convey-
ors. A magnetic lmit (7) removes all iron objects
and thereby prevents spark formation and da-
mage to the rollers. A malt conditioner (9) uses
a water supply line (10) and a flow controller
(8). A segmented wheel conveyor (11) or other
controlling device supplies measured amounts
of malt for the malt mill (12). The effluent grist
is collected in a milling body. The malt milling
installation shown is one of many possibilities.
3.1.6 Fine comminution with water
In recent times procedures for fine comminution
of malt as well as for raw grain have become avai-
lable (e.g. Dispax made by Ziemcuul, HydromiII
made by Meura). In the Dispax procedure (Fig.
3.21a) water culd grist are both introduced into a
pump-like dispersing device (IKA works, Stau-
fen) culd in a 3 stage sequence of operations, vor-
texed at great turbulence in the increasingly
small shear gaps between the rotor, w hich rotates The " H ydromill " procedure - fine milling (1) is thereby mixed intensively with water (2)
at 21 mis, culd a fixed stator. The particles are the- with wa ter- made by Meura operates accor- and ve ry finely c0I1U11inuted in the pulveriser
reby comminuted by the edges of the rotor teeth ding to a similar principle (Fig. 3.21c) . The malt (3). The mash is then conveyed into a lauter tun.
to such an extent that at the end, all the cell sh·uc-
hu·es are broken up, the starch grcu1ules are expo-
sed and hence a good yield can be expected. In
Fig. 3.21b, the increasing comminution from
right to left (stators at back, rotors at front) is ea-
sily recognisable in the three meshed gear rims.
The rotors rotate internally in the meshed gear
rims cu1d crush the grains; the rotors CCUU10t be
seen in Fig. 3.21a, but have similmly shaped gear
rims. The gear rims in Fig. 3.21b have been taken
from a larger culd therefore more clearly laid out
mill. The complete installation of a Dispax di-
spersing reactor is illustrated in Fig. 3.21bl.
The fine comminution with water produces
lump-free mashing at the same time. Since the
Rolors nlld sln lors of Iile dispersillg renclor " Dispnx"
husks are also completely cOllU11inuted during
the process, this procedure is mainly intended
for work with mashing filters . However, in the
case of fine comminution, the particles assem-
ble more closely together, thus reducing the
flow, especially if they are compressed by me-
ans of pressure for better causticisation.

Fig.3.21 n
Dispersillg renclor "D ispnx"
(Zielllnllll, LIII!wigsbllrg)
(1) IIInll - wnler ill lei
(2) ollfiel
Fig.3.21c Fig.3 .21bl
Hydmlllill Melilod (Mellra) Dispersillg renclor " Dispnx"
(1) IIInl l, (2) wn ler cO lldiliollillg, (3) we i lIIillillg (plliveriser), COlli pie Ie illslnllnlioll
(4) Illnsil 11111, (5) wn lel; (6) CIp, (7) CO, (Zielllnllll, Llldwigsbllrg)
 244 245

3.1.7 Evaluation of the grist In 2001 the following mean values were de- In tlle case of all mill s the initial grind should also produced. Most of the ex tra ct is produced
Regular monitoring of the grist is essential for termined at the VLB [247]: be set to produce a husk fraction of about 40%. during mashing by the activity of en zymes
proper milling. Such an evaluation is, however, which are then allowed to act at their optimum
only possible with dry milling or conditioned Figures in % Lauter Hammer 3.2 Mashing tem pera hIres.
malt milling. Wet milled grist can only be evalua- tun mill Mashing is the most important process in wort
3 3
ted by manual examination. To obtain a true sam- grist grist production. During mashing the grist and water 3.2.1.2 Properties of enzymes
ple, sampling devices are fixed in the dry mill be- Sieve fraction 1, husks 20.6 1.0 are mixed together (mashed) and the contents of The most important property of enzymes is
neath each pair of rollers and a special device is Sieve fraction 2, coarse grits 16.3 3.6 the malt are thereby brought into solution and their ability in breaking chemical bonds in their
arranged at the mill outlet to take a 150 to 200 g Sieve fraction 3, fine grits I 34.1 20.9 with the help of enzymes, the extract is obtained. substrates (Fig. 1.6). This activity depends on
total grist sample which, to avoid errors, must Sieve fraction 4, fine grits II 14.0 39.1 The changes which take place during mas- various factors.
not be further divided. Large errors in the grist Sieve fraction 5, flour 5.3 30.8 hing are of great significance.
composition can be determined empirically by Sieve bottom, fine flour 9.9 4.6 Depellriellce of ell zyme activity all temperature
hand. For accurate evaluation a laboratory gra- 3.2.1 Transformations during mashing The activity of enzymes depends above all on
ding sieve must be used. For an accmate evalua- It is important here that no intact or merely the temperature. It increases with rising tempe-
tion a PhUlgsUidter plansifter is used. TILis is a broken open corns remain on the husk sieve. 3.2.1.1 Purpose of mashing rahlre and each enzyme reaches its maximum
small plansifter in which 100 to 200 g of grist are The grist quality affects The substances in the malt grist are only partly value at its own specific optimal tempera hIre
separated thl'Ough five sieves into six fractions. the mashing process and soluble. Only soluble substances can pass into (Fig. 3.22). At higher temperatures a rapidly in-
the saccharification time, beer. It is therefore necessary to convert the in- creasing inactivation occurs as a resu lt of unfol-
Sieve Fraction Wire thickn. Mesh hole lautering, soluble materials in the grist into soluble mate- ding of the three-dimensional struchlre of the
no. inmm size in ITIm the brewhouse yield, rials dming mashing. en zyme (denahuation) . The inactivation and
1 husks 0.31 (0.800) 1.27 (1.25) fermentation, All of the substances which go into solution destruction of enzymic activity is greater the
2 coa rse gri ts 0.26 (0.630) 1.01 (1.00) beer filterability content), and are referred to as extract. more the optimum temperature is exceeded.
3 fine grits I 0.15 (0.315) 0.547 (0.50) beer colour, taste and overall character. Examples of soluble substances are sugars, The enzymes also work at lower temperatures,
4 fine grits II 0.07 (0.160) 0.253 (0.25) To obtain an optimal grist composition: dextrins, inorganic substances and certain pro- but then considerably more slowly.
5 flouT 0.04 (0.080) 0.152 (0.125) teins.
Sieve mill finely mill more coarsely Insoluble substances include starch, cellulo- 700
malts with a malts with a very se, part of the high molecular weight protein
/ !,
bottom fine flom
high water content low water content and other compounds which remain as spent
I \
/ \
I
The mesh hole sizes slightly changed by ME- grains at the end of the lautering process. / \
I
BAK (Mitteleuropaische Brautechnische Analy- poorly modified well modified and On economic grounds one attempts to con- / \
/ I \
senkommission e.Y.) lead to the same results. malts friable malts vert as much insoluble material as possible into I
soluble compOlUlds, in other words to get as
/ \
The following grading can be taken as nor- ./ I
when using a when using an much extract as possible. This is shown by the 20
mal values for a good hm or mash vessel grist: .-/' I

intensive brewhouse yield (Sect. 3.5) and the spent grains

less intensive
mashing procedure extract (Sect. 3.3.5.2).
o
Lauter Mash filter grist mashing procedure Temperature in °C 0 M
hm grist Conventional 2001 However, not only the amOlmt but also the
Fig. 3.22
Sieve 1 18 - 25% 11% 1% when there is a poor when using long quality of the exh'act is important, because as litt-
Depellriell ce of elIZY"le nctivity all tell/pemtllre
Sieve 2 <10% 4% 2% brewhouse yield lautering times le as possible of certain compolUlds is wanted, 0 = optilllni tell/pemtllre M = IIlnxill/lIlI/ tell/pemtllre
Sieve 3 35% 16% 15% whereas others (e.g. certain sugars or protein de-
Sieve 4 21% 43% 29% To set the malt mill correctly, in addition to the gradation products) are particularly desirable.
Sieve 5 7% 10% 24% evaluation of the grist classification results, use The purpose of mashing is to completely de- The typical enzymic activity for a particular
Sieve bottom <12 - 15% 16% 29% should be made of the extractable exh'act and the grade the starch to sugar and soluble dextrins. temperahlre is not unalterable. Whereas the ac-
Husk volume >700 ml/100g >650 ml/100g extract which can be washed out (Sect. 3.3.5.2). As a result of this other extract substances are tivity at low temperatures remains constant al-
 246 247

most indefinitely, it decreases rapidly with time lases, is dependent on the mas hing process. merge into one another: Depending on the enviromnen tal conditions
at higher temperatures (Fig. 3.23). Thicker m ashes receive longer en zy mic activity gela tinisa tion, in the year of harvest, the malt starch begins to
than thim1er mashes (Fig . 3.25a). In the graph, liquefaction, gelatinise at 59 to 65°C. Complete gelatinisa ti-
700 65 'C
:::-- the part by weight of the g rist load is in relation

--- -- -
sacch ari fication . on is the precondition for a complete break-
80 to the part by weight of the mash (wa ter) . down of the starch . If this is not the case, the re-
3 3
;fi
.S;
\ ""- 1-.......... 70'(
GelntiHisntioll sults can include a lower extrac t yield, lower
,
--
.c- 60 \ '\
<..>
\' \. ............. In hot aqueous soluti on a large amount of wa- final attenuation, filtration difficulties and
'" \ "- ter is incorporated into the starch molecules. starch haze. Gelatinisa tion is not usually con-
75'(
Cl>
\' "-
......... This results in an increase in volume which cau- trolled.
Qj 20
......... ses the closely packed starch gran ules to swell Some types of starch, for example rice starch,
' 85°C 80 t- I---
1
0 and finally to burst. The starch molecules lose gelatinise at conSiderably higher temperatures
20 i;O 60 80 100 720 140
lime in min. their crys talline s tate and become amorphous. (75 - 85°C) and swell up far more than malt
An increasingly viscous (sticky) solution is for- starch. If this is not taken into accOlU1t, it can
Fig. 3.23
Depelll/ellce of eJlzYllle nctivity all tillle (E.\'nlllple Ct.-nlllyinse) med. The degree of viscosity depends on the ex- h appen that the gelatinised starch scorches and
tent of wa ter uptake but is different for diffe- can only be removed with great difficulty.
Mashing time at 65° Iminl
Depeuriellce of ell zyme nctivity all pH rent types of cereal. This process is ca lled Gela tinisation is not an enzymic process and
Because the three-dimensional structures of en- Fig.3.25n gelatinisation (Fig. 3.25a 1). n o metabolic breakd own occurs. Gelatinisa tion
zymes change depending on the pH value, the- Residllnl nctivitl! of {3-nlllylnse nt 65 °C depclldeJlt all III nsh is an important component of everyday food
re is also a dependence of enzymic activity on ratio (nccordillg to NnrzijJ)
production (e.g. boiling custard, soups or thi-
pH. The enzym e activity reaches an optimal va- ckening sau ces).
lue, which is speci fic for each en zyme, and de- The degradation processes of importan ce for Because the gelatinised starch is no longer
creases at higher or lower pH values (Fig. 3.24). the brewer are: h eld together in the solid starch granules it can
s tarch degradation, be directl y attacked by the enzymes contained
700 degradation, in the liquid mash. In contrast, degradation of
"I protein degradation, ungelatinised starch, e.g. in germination, takes
80 7 I the conversion of fatty acids, and
7 I \ . several hours or even days .
I I \ a range of other degradation processes. <..> I ,

II I \ Liqllefnctioll
l
I--
II
,
1\
3.2.1.3 Starch degradation
The most important component of beer is the
alcoh ol fo rmed during fermentation from su-
time
The long ch ains composed of glu cose residues
in starch (amylose and amylopectin) are very
Fig 3.25nl
\ gars. It is therefore important to degrade the Progressioll of viscosity dllrillg
o o pH-value starch to a large extent to maltose. In addi tion, stnrch degradntioll
intermediate products, limit d extrins, are al- (1) IIl1gelntillised IIInsll, (2) geln-
Fig. 3.24 tillisntioll, (3) liqllefnctio" ,
Depe/ldeJlce of ellZlJllle nctivity all pH
ways produced which are not fermented.
(4) sncchnrificnt iOIl
0 = optilllni vnllle Starch must be degraded to sugars and limit
dextrins which are not sta ined by iodine. The
The effect of pH on enzyme activity is in ge- complete degradation to this - iodine normal - a-amylase f3-amylase
n eral not as large as the effect of temperature. state is n ecessary on economic grounds, other-
w ise residues of undegraded starch cause a
Depellriellce of ell zYllle nctivity all tIle IIInslzillg "starch h aze" in beer.
Fig. 3.25b
process Starc h degrad ation occurs in three stages, the Differellces ill tile effects of Ct.-
Enzymic activity, particularly that of the sequence of which is unchangeable but wh ich nlld {3-nlllylnse
 248 249

rapidly broken open to form smaller chains by
a.-amylase (Fig. 3.25b). This causes a very rapid
reduction of the viscosity of the gelatinised
mash. can only slowly degrade the
long chains from the non-reducing end, and so
3 3
degradation by this enzyme alone would take
days. Furthermore, it would not be possible to
break down the chains between the 1.6-bonds.
By liquefaction is meant the reduction of vis-
cosity of the gelatinised starch by a-amylase.
Saccharificatioll
a-amylase progressively breaks open the chains
of amylose and amylopectin to form dextrins
oj
containing 7 to 12 glucose residues.
splits off groups of two residues (= maltose) from
the new non-reducing ends produced on these
smaller chains (Fig. 3.25; c). With each splitting,
the a-amylase thereby in hml creates two fina!
chains which can be attacked by by
splitting maltose. Due to the different lengths of
the chains, as well as maltose, other sugars SUdl
as glucose and maltotriose me produced .
In all cases the breakdown stops 2 to 3 gluco-
se residues away from the 1.6-bonds in amylo-
pectin because neither a-amylase nor
se can break these 1.6-bonds.
Malt does in fact contaill an enzyme, limit
-
dextrinase, which as well as the lA-bond can al-
SO break the 1.6-bond, but since it has an opti-
Illum temperature of 50 to 60 °C it has little ef-
fect during mashing becau se it is already
inactive after gelatinisation.
The following therefore summarises the ef-
fects of malt amylases in starch degradation:
a.-amy lase breaks down th e long s tarch
chains to smaller dextrins. It acts optimally at
70 to 74 °C and is rapidly destroyed at 80 dc.
The optimum pH is 5.6 to 5.8.
splits maltose off from the non-re-
ducing ends of chains, but it also produces glu-
cose and maltoh'iose (Fig. 3.25; b). It acts opti-
mally at 62°C (58 - 65 0c) and is very sensitive
to higher temperatures. It is rapidly inacti va ted
even at 65 °C. If mashing is thicker (1 : 2), the
amylase is better preserved (Fig. 3.25; a); this is
important for high gravity brewing. The opti-
mllin pH is 5.4 to 5.5. In the presence of pro-
teins, is more heat-stable.
starch breakdown mLlst be monitored becau-
se residues of undegraded starch and larger
dextrins cause starch hazes in beer.
It can be calculated that during a normal mas-
hing procedure about two thirds (65.5%) of the
sugar which goes into solution consists of mal-
tose, about 17.5% maltotriose, and the same
amolUlt of sucrose, glucose and fructose [258].
Starch degradation is monitored using 0.02N
tincture of iodine (a solution of iodine and po-
tassium iodide in alcohol). The examination is
called the iodine test and is always performed
on a cooled mash sample. The iodine test is ba-
sed on the fact that the iodine solution gives a
blue to red colour at room temperature with
starch and large dextrins, whereas all sugars
and smaller dextrins no longer cause a colorati-
on of the yellow-brown tincture of iodine.
Higher to medium size branched dex trins
still produce a violet to red iodirle coloration.
This coloration is not always easy to see but it
indicates a wort which is still not iodine nor-
mal. A more sensitive iodine test described by
W. Windisch monitors the presence of these
dextrins by precipitation with ethanol, removal
of the ethanol, redissolving the precipitate and
examining the colour with iodine. This method
is used in problem cases.
The brewer in charge of wort production must

dJ Enzyme Degradation products with iodine tincture

"""
"""
\.IV
} Glucose ungelatin ised starch
gelatinised starch } blue colomllon

}
\A.lUJ W VJI.N
\A,;wI..!JW.......,
higher dextrins not iodine normal
ww"""'.......- ...... Maltose
"""u...w""""""",,
""....,...., , erythrodextrins 1 violet to red
""" """
""" ....., } Maltotriose
62-65°C

} Limit dextrins limit dextrins

maltotriose
maltose no coloration
• • Fructose
} pre-formed glucose
iocline normal
. ... Au Sucrose

a: a-amylase - Glucose or Glucose residual Fig. 3.25

Starch riegrariatioll Fig. 3.26
13- amylase • Fructose or Fructose residual
rillrillg mashillg Starch riegrariatioll to reach ioriille 1I0rmaiity
 250
be able to evaluate the iodine test correctly.
When a coloration with the iodine solution
no longer occurs when it is added to the mash
sample, the mash is said to be iodine normal.
Degradation of the starch molecules until the
3 3
iodine normal condition is reached is called sac-
charification.
By saccharification is meant the complete de-
gradation of starch to maltose and iodine nor-
mal limit dextrins by amylases. The iodine test
is used to see if it is complete (Fig. 3.26).
The starch degradation products formed du-
ring mashing differ substantially with regard to
fermentability by brewer's yeast:
Limit dextrins are not fermented; these in-
clude all glucose chains of up
to 10 glucose molecules
Maltotriose is fermented by all top fer-
mentation strains. However, it
is not fermented by yeast until
the maltose has been fermen-
ted, in other words during
storage (late fermentation su-
gar)
Maltose and other disaccharides are
easily and rapidly fermented
by yeast (main fermentation
sugar)
Glucose is the first sugar used by yeast
(initial fermentation sugar)
The percentage of fermentable sugar in the
total wort extract determines the attenuation li-
mit (end fermentation limit = Vscnd). The atte-
nuation limit establishes the potential alcohol
content of the beer and consequently has a de-
cisive influence on the character of the beer.
The proportion of fermentable sugars is de-
termined by the variable activity of the enzy-
mes. Consequently the attenuation limit is also
established during mashing.
The normal composition of the fermentable
extract in pale beers (helle Vollbiere) with an
apparent degree of attenuation of 80% is:
251
Fermentable % of the gin 100 ml % of 1-2 °C higher gelatinisation temperature. With 1. The maximum enzyme activity is reached a f-
sugar extract 12 % wort fermentable nlaits from barley with a higher proportion of ter 10 to 20 min. The ma ximum enzym e acti-
extract smaller grains, problems with starch breakdown vity is greater at temperatures between 62 to
Hexoses 7-9 0.9 - 1.2 11.9 have to be reckoned with. The temperature sensi- 63 °C than at 65 to 66 0c.
Sucrose 3-4 0.4 - 0.5 5.1 tive is then largely inactivated, so that 2. After 40 to 60 min enzyme activity at first de-
Maltose 43 - 45 5.6 - 5.9 65.4 there is a reduction in the formation of maltose. creases rapidly, but the reduction in activity
Maltotriose 11-13 1.4 -1.7 17.6 The final attenuation thereby sinks and the cha- continuously decreases.
Total 62 - 6S Av.S .S 100.0 racter of the beer changes. In such cases, special From this it mllst be concluded that the effect
The composi tion is very dependent on the measures need to be taken (see Sect. 3.2.3.2). of the mashing temperature must always be con-
mashing procedure . Since the amounts of the Although, because of the lower viscosity of the sidered in relation to the duration of mashing.
various sugars and dextrins in the wort affect wort, lautering proceeds much faster at even hig- In general:
both the course of fermentation and the qUality her temperatures, it must be remembered that the 1. With increasing mashing time the concentra-
of the beer, the factors which influence starch still active ex-amylase is increasingly inactivated at tion of the extract solution increases. But the
degradation during mashing are important to temperatures above 78 0c. However, dming lau- rate of increase becomes slower and slower.
the brewer. The important factors me: tering still Lmdegraded starch passes into solution 2. With increasing mashing time (especially
temperature during mashing and must be degraded (late saccharification). This when mashing at 62 to 63 0C) the maltose
mashing time needs the still present a.-amylase. Otherwise the- content increases and with it the attenuation
pH during mashing re is a risk that the previously iodine normal wort limit. These worts should produce a vigorous
mash concentration. will cease to be iodine normal (starch haze). main fermentation.
3.2.1.3.1 Effect of temperature on starch degra- 3.2.1.3.2 Effect of mashing time on starch 3.2.1.3.3 Effect of pH on starch degradation
dation degradation When discussing en zymes it was mentioned
By mashing at 62 to 65 °C the highest possible The enzymes certainly do not work uniformly that their activity is very dependent on the pH.
maltose content and highest attenuation limit is throughout mashing. Instead two time-depen- It has also been shown that the in
achieved. Maltose-rich worts ferment more dent stages in enzyme activity can be distin- the mash have a pH optimum of 5.4 to 5.5.
quickly and hold the yeast longer in suspension. guished (Fig. 3.27) [19]: By mashing within a pH range of 5.5 to 5.6,
By mashing for a long time at 62 to 65 °C, beer which can be regarded as the optimum pH ran-
with a higher attenuation limit is obtained. By ge for both amylases, the extract content can be
exceeding these temperatures and mashing for 400 increased in comparison to that obtained at a
a long time at 72 to 75 °C, a dextrin-rich beer higher pH value. More fermentable sugar is
with a low attenuation limit is obtained . produced and the attenuation limit is higher.
The mash temperature has an exceedingly .£ The "normal" mash pH is, - depen-
>
large effect and so during mashing, rests at the E ding on the composition of the brewing water and
optimum temperatures for the amylases are al- '" 200- the malt - considerably being 5.5 to 5.8.
ways used. These are: '"
>, It is therefore advantageous to lower the pH
E
Maltose production rest at 62 to 65 °C '"
en. value when mashing to 5.2. How this can be do-
(= opt. temp. for ne is discussed in Section 3.2.1.8.
Saccharification rest at 70 to 73 °C
O+------.-----r------,-----,
(= opt. temp. for ex-amylase) u 3.2.1.3.4 Effect of mash concentration on starch
60 ')0 120
Mashing-off temperature of 76 to 78 0c. mash duration in min degradation
Under particular location and harvest conditi- In thin mashes more extract goes into solution
Fig. 3.27
ons, the gelatinisation temperature can rise to 64 fJ-nlllylnse nctivity depelldellt all lI/asiI tell/pemtllre nlld rest but thicker mashes protect the enzymes from
-65 0c. Smaller starch granules already have a dumtioll too rapid thermal inactivation (= protective col-
 252
loid effect of the mash solids and the dissolved
material). Consequently in thicker mashes the
amount of fermentable sugars, and with it the
3
attenuation limit, is increased.
This effect of mash concentra tion on starch
degradation is, however, smaller than the effect
of other factors.
3.2.1.3.5 Monitoring of starch degradation
What has been said about the monitoring of
starch degradation can be summarised again as
follows:
The starch must be completely degraded to
the iodine normal state.
Starch breakdown is examined at the end of
mashing by the iodine test. Since the iodine
coloration with starch and higher dextrins
only occurs in the cold mash, the mash sam-
ple must be cooled. The cold ma sh sample is
then brought into contact with a drop of
tinchll'e of iodine in a porcelain dish or on a
gypsum block. No coloration of the yellowish
0.02N iodine solution should occur.
Saccharification is examined again at the end
of wort boiling (late saccharification) .
If the wort still produces a colour it is not io-
dine normal. It is then referred to as a "blue
brew" and it gives rise to beer with a starch ha-
ze since the larger dextrins are insoluble in the
finished beer. Such a wort can be made suitable
for fermentation only by addition of an extract
from malt or first wort.
3.2.1.4 degradation
It has already been mentioned that cytolysis
(breakdown of the cell wall) is one of the most
important tasks of the maltster.
Inadequate cytolysis causes lautering diffi-
culties owing to increased viscosity as well as
filtration problems owing to gel formation. Dif-
ferent contents do not, however, have
an effect on h ead retention and body.
Since also undergoes changes du-
ring mashing, it is necessary to consider
can somewhat more closely.
As shown already, during malting the high
molecular weight
This is encouraged by:
is largely degraded.
processing barley varieties with a low
can content
producing malts with a high
se content (at least 120
Lmits/kg malt)
good modification of the corn interior (Friabi-
limeter value greater than 80%).
In contrast to the intertwined starch structure
(a.-glucan, see Sect. 1.1.4.1.1) the molecules
glucan are unbranched and extended . Several
of these molecules are bOLmd together, or asso-
ciated, by hydrogen bonds . Because of their ir-
regular appearance these are referred to as frin-
ged micelles (Fig. 1.5a). In this form they are
soluble.
Fig. 3.27a
Elo1lgatio1l a1ld cross-li1l ki1lg of {3-glllca1l 11Iicelles IIlIder
shearjorces at Iligh tell/pemt ll re
Several of these micelles are linked together
in a network and partially permanently bOLUld
to protein in the cell walls. This applies most
particularly to the poorly modified part of the
undi sso lved high molecular I3-Glucan s
disso lved high molecular I3- Glucans
Fig.3.27u
low molecular l3-glucans + glucose
Degradatio1l of /3-gIIlGn1lS dllrillg lI/ashi1lg
malt corn such as, for example, the corn tips.
This is also the initial situation at the begimling
of mashing [122, 123, 124] .
During gelatinisation the structure of the
stard1 granules is broken down and the interlin-
ked fringe d micelles partially bOLmd to protein
are released. can now degrade
the part of these interlinked micelles.
glucanase has a tempera hire opti-
mlUl1 of 40 to 45°C. By means of a long rest at this
temperature and use of a well modified malt and
a high content, most of the so-
luble high molecular is broken down to
soluble low molecular
as soon as the temperature is increa-
sed the temperature sensitive
is deactivated and is therefore ineffective. Now
the temperature insensitive (opt. 62 0c)
solubilase is active and releases the lmdissol-
ved high molecular weight com-
pounds from the protein and the unmodified
corn tip, but only degrades it to high molecular
Because has been
deacti vated long ago at this temperature, with
poorly modified, enzyme-poor malts high mo-
lecular weight must always be expec-
ted but these must not be considered to be the
same as gels .
As a result of shear forces (swirling fOl'mati-
on caused by high-speed agitators etc.), these
high molecular become stretched out
253
J3- GI uca n-sol ubilase
1 50- 70°C
3
1 endo- J3 - 1.4-g lucanase
40-48"C
and interlink with each other particularly at
temperahll'es above 60 °C (Fig. 3.27a), leading
to an increase in viscosity. The increase in visco-
sity rises with the increasing viscosity of the
wort (see Fig. 3.27c).
Stretchillg muf illterlillkillg of the mi-
celles nile to shear forces at higher temperatll -
res
This underlines again the observation that cyto-
lysis is the solely the task of the maltster and
can only be partly compensated for in the brew-
house.
The optimum temperatures of the cytolytic
enzymes are :
glucanase 40 to 48°C
glucanase 60 °C (weak enzyme)
62 °C (50 - 70 0c)
This is made sh'ikingly dear once more in tl1e
mashing experiments [295] shown in Fig. 3.27c.
The same infusion procedure (45 °C-62°-70 °C -
red unbroken line) is carried out once with pu-
re malt (0 % chitmalt) and then with increasing
parts (30 %, 50%, 70% and 100%) of chitmalt,
the analysis data of which differ only marginal-
ly from those of barley. Mashes are thereby
created as if they were produced with increa-
singly poorly modified malt. It can be clearly
seen that the dissolved high molecular
cans are initially completely degraded (left
hand side). However, as soon as the temperahl-
 II
254 255

3,5

Solution and breakdown , Solution no further breakdown possible 3,3 Viscosity 65 °C APH _ Viscosity 65 °C APH sheared
1000 80
3, 1
900
70
2,9
3 800 3
700
60 £E 2,7
C;;
-=::. 50 G 2,5
0> 600 o
u
§. 52,3
c:: 40 .3
500
'"
u
.3 2, 1
0>
I
400 30 E
'"
CL

C!l.
1,9
300
20
200
1,7
Number of samples 144
10
100 Fig. 3.27ri
0 Effect of s!tenrillg 011 viscosity (nccorriillg to Krcisz)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Fig. 3.27c
Effect of IIInsllillg telllpemtllre 0 11 ti,e Solllvle
re rises above 50°C, the dissolved con-
centration greatly increases, because the
can solubilase then continues to convert insolu-
ble high molecular into soluble high
molecular This can no longer be de-
graded because the can no
longer act (right hand side). The curves with an
increasing chitmalt fraction illustrate the effect
of the modification of the malt on the
concentration of the mash and wort. They illu-
strate vividly that the breakdown of the
cans - cytolysis - has to occur completely du-
ring malting, and cannot or only partly be
compensated for in the brewhouse.
Time (mins)
coll tell tllsillg illcrensillg pnrts of c1litlllnlt [295]
during wort boiling, and
during wort cooling.
This gives rise to thermally activated
can which behaves very differently on cooli11g:
if one
uses well modified malt with a high enzyme
content,
cools slowly,
allows calm sedin1entation and does not cau-
se swirling,
avoids the production of shear forces,
the hydrogen bridges are not formed again
even within the molecules and the danger of
gel formation is small, but
of direction in the external boiler, cell walls [252]; this tffiderlines the necessity of
by vigorous swirling in pLUnps, thorough cytolysis in the maltings.
by vigorous swirling in the whirlpool,
by too narrow or varying pipework cross-
sections, or
by centrifugal forces
the hydrogen bridges of the glucan strands
cross link and with the molecules stretched out,
this can lead to increased viscosity and subse-
quently to filtration difficulties (Fig. 3.27d). The
diagra m, in which the tffisheared wort samples
in wort at 65 °C are ordered according to increa-
sing viscosity, illustrates clearly the difference
in the viscosity between LU1sheared and sheared
wort [252]. A clear increase in the viscosity due
to shear forces of 0.22 mPa·s on average and a
temperature
maximum of 0.928 mPa ·s can be recognised;
this increase is greater the higher the viscosity
of the unsheared wort (the abbreviation APH Fig.3.27e
merely illustrates the type of treatment of the Fnctors nffcctillg gel fOl'lllntioll

If the high molecular insoluble are if one (3) samples).

not degraded, the problem begins with the parti- produces shear forces at high wort tempera- By far the greatest part (75 to 96%) of the vis- The factors affecting formation are
al breakdown of hydrogen bonds (Fig. 3.27b) hires e.g. cosity increase, which is caused by shearing, is summarised again in Fig. 3.27e.
within the associations of above 60 °C, by too fast-moving agitators - depending on variety and germination time - Important inspection methods for monito-
in other words by high flow velocities and repeated changes due to and pentosans in the starch ring the high molecular are provided
 256
by the friabilimeter value of the malt, the Carls-
berg corn sharpening meth od (see Sect.
2.8.2.10) and the viscosity of the Congress wort
from the malt. Both of these show a high corre-
lation with the content of the wort and
3 3
this in turn has a high correlation with the filte-
rability of the beer. A friabilimeter value of 85%
should be aimed for. The homogeneity of the
m alt based on the corn sharpening method
should be at least 70% and preferably 75%.
Another good inspection method is in the
form of the 60 °C mash by Hartong-Kretschmar,
by which the brea kdown of the can
be very well monitored.
Fig. 3.28
Hopplerfa llillg ball viscollleter
The wort viscosity is therefore measured as an
expression of the content and the diffi-
culties to be expected during lautering and filtra-
tion. 111e viscosity is measmed by means of a
Happier fallin g ball viscometer (Fig. 3.28).
With this the fall ing time of a standard ball is
measured as it sinks betwee n two calibration
marks in a glass tube filled with the test li-
quid. The result is given in milli-Pascal-se_
conds (mPa·s). Norma l va lues are:
Congress wort (standardised to 8.6%)
1.51 to 1.60 mPa·s.
Casting wort (s tandardised to 12%)
1.73 to 2.20 mPa·s.
Beer (standardised to 12%)
1.78 to 1.95 mPa·s .
or with an
Ubbelohde capillary viscometer, with w hich
automatic measurements can also be made.
3.2.1.5 Protein breakdown
After wort boiling, at the latest, all (high mole-
cular weight) proteins ha ve been precipitated.
This precipitation is all the more complete, the
longer and more intensive the boiling. Beer the-
refore contains only degradation products, so-
m e of which are, however, absolutely n ecessa-
ry in wort for yeast growth and rapid fe r-
mentation.
The enzymic d egradati on of proteins has to
be viewed in a differentiated marmer:
• at 45 to 50 °C more low molecular weight pro-
tein degradation products are fo rmed, parti-
cularly p eptides and amino acids,
at 60 to 70 °C more high molecular weight de-
gradation products are formed, which are re-
sponsible for foam stability, body, but are al-
so responsible for a tendency towards haze.
The optimum temperatures for proteolytic
enzymes are:
endopeptidase
ca rboxypeptidase
aminopeptidase
dipeptidase
The amino acids are essential as nutrition for
the yeast - this is exceedingly importar1t. Yeast
consumes at least 10 to 14 mg freeamino nitro-
gen (FAN) / 100 ml wor t.
257
coa g. N Since the amino acid prolin calmot be utili sed
as an acid supplier by the yeast, the
high molecular wor t mus t contain at least 20 - 22 m g / 100 ml. If
we ight N this is not the case, the result is:
80 % -+- - - - -----j
a reduction in yeas t propagation,
a delay in fer mentati on and maturation, and
medium molecu lar
hence
weight N
60% there is a retention of undesirable green beer
bouquet substar1Ces in the beer.
The better modified the malt is, the more
FAN is formed at temperatures of 45 - 50 °C
40 0/0
low molecular [295]. In Fig. 3.28a3 the effect of the modificati-
weight N on can be clea rly seen.
From well modified malt it is always possible
to obtain wort with sufficient a-amino acids. If,
20% however, raw gra in, su gar or syrup are also
used, these d o not introduce amino acids to the
free amino- N
wort and there has to be ar1 (amino acid) res t at
(FAN)
45 °C. If well modified malt is used, however, it
m akes little sense to h ave a res t at 45 °C beca u-
Fig. 3.28nl se of the protein degradation .
COlllpositioll of pmteill ill tile IIlnsil
A long res t at 45 °C always causes bad foam.
Proteins which ha ve a positive effect on foam
originate from the hordein and glutelin fracti-
undissolved high molecular weight proteins
proteinases
1 60 - 70 °C
dissolved high molecular weight proteins
foam creators
peptidases
1 45 - 50°C
low molecular weight proteins - amino acids
Fig. 3.28n2
Proteill degrndntioll dllrillg
yeast nutrition, negative effect on foam
lIlasil illg
 258 259

lipids im malt

80 +
45
70 !
3 40 l 2 60 (s. Fig. 1.5b) 3

------
linoleic acid
E 35 -- G
50
=
=
ro-
Fig.3.28a3
FAN cOllcelltmtioll de- [LOX-2 ['o,v-11
C» 30 40 .3 pelldellt Oil llIaltlllodifi-
S 4
Q)
Cl. catioll
z: 30 E (1) well lllOdifiedlllnlt
<C
L.L. 25 (2) 70 % well lllOdified hydroperoxide hydroxperoxide
20 Illait alld30 % cilit-
(hyd roxy fatty acid)

20 10
llIalt l
(3) 30 % welllllodified

0 lIlalt alld 70 % cilit- [P,

15 llIalt
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (4) 100 % cilitlllfllt + +
Time [min] /'VV CHO
(5) IIlflsilillg telllpemtilre
Fig. 3.28a4
hexanal 2-nonenal
Lipid deg mdatioll dllrillg aminObonds

ons. Particularly positive for foam is the lipid
transfer protein (LTPl) w ith 10 kDa and the
protein Z with 40 kDa. Their formation or re-
lease only occurs at temperatmes above 60 °C.
The interrelationship of protein degradation
(proteolysis) emerges in Fig. 3.28a2. In the case
of well-modified malt, it is more or less possible
to dispense with the rest at 45 °C because
enough amino N is present and too many foam
positive compounds would be degraded,
which would lead to a poor head. In the case of
poorly modified malt, the situation is of course
different. Here, a rest at 45 °C should definitely
be observed. In this context, the d egradation
processes during cytolysis can be seen (see Fig.
3.27b2), illustrating the importance of comple-
ting cytolysis and proteolysis in the maltings .
The composition of protein in the mash is
shown in Fig. 3.28al. The proportion of FAN
should make up about 22% of the total nih·ogen.
3.2.1.6 Conversion of fatty matter (lipids)
During malting, a part of the lipids contained in
the malt is broken down to fatty acids by fat de-
grading enzymes (lipases). During mashing,
this process is continued by the lipoxygenases,
which break down the (especially lU1sahlrated)
fatty acids to glycerine and hydroxy fatty acids.
Hydroxy fatty acids are the oxidised degradati-
on products of fatty acids and simultaneously
the precursor of the compounds which are
known as ageing carbonyls (Fig. 3.28a4).
Deserving of particular attention is the oxida-
tive as well as enzymic degradation of the reac-
tive unsaturated fatty acids which are conver-
ted to hydroperox ide by the lipoxygenases and
oxygen, and then to nonenal, hexanal and other
compoLmds (by autooxidation is meant the oxi-
dative breakdown by the oxygen in the air) .
Although it is later itself broken down, it is
generally thought that trans-2-nonenal is the
conducting substance responsible for the oxida-
tionflavour caused by ageing [253]. Trans-2-no-
nenal is responSible for the cardboard flavour
in aged beer (see Fig. 4.97b).
Even very small amounts of hydroxy fatty
acids which find their way in the form of inter-
mediate products into beer represent a danger
IIInsilillg
for the flavour stability of the beer. Unsaturated
fatty acids are very quickly degraded to inter-
mediate products which come into question as
a precursor for the stale flavour [168]. In Fig.
3.28a4, the process of lipid degradation during
mashing is shown in abridged form [352, 353];
the intermediate products are generally sum-
marised under the denotation hydroxy acids or
hydroxy fatty acids.
Oxidation of the unsa huated fatty acids be-
gins with the destruction of the reduced system
of the malted corn, i.e. with comminution. Sin-
ce, however, unsa turated fatty acids are always
present in malt, their oxidation can only be pre-
vented by the strict avoidance of oxygen. A
glance at the mashing in d evice shows, howe-
the intensive interaction of malt grist, water
and also oxygen during milling, which can be
detected by using the chemiluminescence de-
tection method [239] (Fig. 3.28a). It is therefore
desirable to stop the effect of oxygen from the
beginning.
However, even the complete removal of oxy-
gen would not be able to prevent enzymic de-
gradation by the lipoxyge nases. The lipoxyge-
nases (LOX) are formed during germination
and preferably stored in the acrospire and root-
lets. In malt the enzyme is therefore particular-
ly enriched in the acrospire. The enzyme has an
optimum pH value of 6.0 and is very suscepti-
ble to high temperatures. A considerable pro-
portion of the lipoxygenases (LOX) is therefore
d estroyed during kilning, more in the case of
dark malt than of pale. Nevertheless, more than
a third of the lipoxygenases rema in activated in
the malt.
Through milling, the lipoxygenases (LOX)
present in the acrospire are quickly ac tivated
and at the still frequent low mashing tempera-
hU'es and high pH value of the mashing water
are able to split the unsahlrated fatty acids in a
relatively short time and thereby produce auto-
oxidation products, which ca n later lead to
ageing carbonyls. By means of malt peeling, it is
 260 261

possible to remove the acrospires and thus a
considerable amOlmt of the lipoxygenases (see
Sect. 3.1.5).
Altoge the r, the amount of h ydroxy fatty
3 acids in the brewing process is influenced by
the following factors [256, 349]:
barley variety and location affect the hydroxy
fatty acids of the malt,
inert gassing of the grist casing and the distri-
bution screw leads to low LOX activity du-
ring m ashing,
high m ashing in temperatures and high m as-
hing temperatures as well as short mashing
duration reduce the h ydroxy fatty acid con-
tent,
malt conditioning with hot water at 80 °C
ca uses an effective deactivation of LOX,
the gris t fineness affects the LOX activity;
16000
14000
there is an increase in LOX ac tivi ty with in-
creased grist fineness,
milling temperature and grist s torage have
an effect on LOX ac tivity,
short mashing in time and low mash pH va-
lue of 5.1 to 5.2 reduce the LOX activity.
During mashing, ho wever, other saturated
fatty acids are di ssolved, not least the 5 to 7% fat
which is contained in the amyloplas ts. Cloudy
latltering and poor trub excretion lead to large
amOlmts of free fatty acids in the wort, w hich
the yeas t cells require to produce new cell sub-
stances, but which can also contribute to a re-
duction in flavour s tability.
fatty aci ds are also formed during
fermentation which the yeast cell requires to
form the cell membrane. For the formation of
fatty acids the yeast requi res oxygen.
3.2.1.7 Other degradation and dissolving
processes
Relense of pltosplwtes
Part of the sti ll undisso lved organically bound
phosp hates is dissolved by phosphatases . The-
se phosph ates are absolutely essential for the
alcoholic fermentation. A part of the phospha-
tes reacts w ith the sa lts ca using the hardness of
the 'Nater and thereby contributes subs tantially
to the pH alteratio n and to the buffering of the
wort.
Po lypltellols
During mashing, with increasing time and te m-
perature polyph en ols are released from the
husks and also from the endosperm. This pro-
cess can only be controlled to a limited extent
during m ashing.
The use of malts rich in polyphenols provides
protec tion from oxid ation in the brew house
and improves the anti-oxidative potential of the
wort and of the beer [381]. This means that oxy-
gen access h as to be prevented from the begin-
run g.
a low mashing in temperature,
a grist : liquor ratio of 1 : 2.5
Several possibilities exist to compensate for
the zinc deficiency:
the addition of zin c chloride, which though
3
frequently used in other countries, is not per-
mitted lmder the Reinheitsgebot,
sin ce only a proportion of the zinc dissolves
in the m ash and the m ajority remains in the
spent grains, it is possible to achieve the ne-
cessary zinc con tent by mixing a small
am oLmt of spent gra ins and biological lactic
acid a t a ratio of 1 : 1 for abo ut a day, allowin g
it to settle and then ste rilising the solution en-
riched with zinc and the n adding it in small
doses to the yeast dosage,
since it is relatively easy to convert zinc in
acid solution, it is also possible to manufactu-
re the walls of the souring tank from zin c. Ho-
wever, as they soon becom e full of holes and
destroyed, it is suffi cient to place a zinc sh eet
in the form of a zinc "sacrifi cial an ode" in the
biological souring tank. This measure, howe-
ver, is not permitted lmder the Reinheitsge-
bot!

12000
Relense of zillc 3.2.1.8 Biological acidification
The trace element zinc is of great physiological Through the interaction of the pH-effective cal-
10000 importance fo r protein synthesis and for cell cium and magnesium water salts particularly
C'O
c growth of yeas t and thus for fermenta tion. If w ith phospha tes and other components of the
OJ
en 8000 there is a zinc deficiency yeas t g rowth is re ta r- m alt, the pH-value of the m ash levels off at 5.6
---l
<:...) ded, the fermentation proceed s slowly and the- to 5.8. We h ave already seen, h owever, that there
6000 re is incomplete reduction of diacetyl. It is the- is a series of processes and changes w hich pro-
refore advantageous to retain the zinc presen t ceed considerably faster and better at low pH-
Fig.3.28n in malt as much as possible. values.
4000
Oxidntioll processes dll-
However, only abo ut 20% of the zinc in the It is therefore of interes t to con sid erabl y re-
rillg tiTe lIIasiTillg ill
process malt goes into solution on mashing in and the duce the pH to 5.2.
2000
(1) grist nIId water gas- zinc content then decreases further during the The pH can be lowered
sed witiT N, course of mashing. If a threshold of 0.10 to 0.15 by adding mineral acid in so far as this is le-
o -, (2) grist gassed witiT N,
mg/l is not reached, the above-mentioned fer- ga lly permitted, or
(3) wa ter gnssed witiT

L
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 mentation difficulties m ay occur. by biological acidification, i.e. by cultiva ting
N,
time [s] (4) 1I0t gassed, Factors favouring a higher zinc content are: lactic acid bacteria which are in an y case a
(5) grist gnssed witiT 0 , a low pH, component of the malt surface - and hence
 262
n ot a foreign substance. They develop a lot of
lac tic acid which lo wers the pH.
According to the time of acidifi ca tion one dif-
fer entiates between:
3 mash acidification and
wort acidification.
Both m ethods - combined or separate - are
common.
An important measure is mash acidifica tion
at the beginning of the mashjng process and/or
acidification of the wort. The ad vantages are
[137]:
the range of enzymes is considerably impro-
ved because all the important enzymes, with
the excep tion of p-am ylase, are ac ti vated,
at low pH-valu es more growth promoting
substances go into solution, e.g. the supply of
zinc is increased,
the extract yield is increased,
the protein excretion improves (better break
formation),
the redox potential improves, a reduced sus-
ceptibility to oxygen thereby develops,
lautering proceeds faster,
colouring during wort boiling is suppressed,
the activity of the phosphatases is promoted
and they s treng then the buffering capacity
through the release of phosphates,
fermentation is fas ter due to better trub ex-
cre tion, a faster drop in the pH and higher de-
gree of attenuation in the cellar,
filtration is improved by lower viscosity va-
lues,
the flavour is mellower, fuller and softer,
the hop bittering is more pleasant and does
not
the beer is fresh, and has a s tronger
and more characteristic tas te,
the foam has finer bubbles and is more s table,
the colour of the beer is lighter,
a better flavour stability is to be expected,
particularly as the lipoxygenase is sensitive
to pH values below 5.2 and is then no longer
effective,
the chemica l-physica l stability is be tter, less
tendency to protein haze,
digestion is aided, which is a positive effect of
the lactic acid,
reduction of the biological suscep tibility of
the beer beca use of:
the low pH: beer spoiling orga ni sms no
longer grow below a pH of 4.4,
the highe r degree of attenuation leading to
a lowe r amount of non-fermentable su gar,
and hence
a g rea te r pressure toward s selectivity of
the yeas t which forces back the beer-spOi-
ling competitors.
These are all good reasons for a biological aci-
dification of the mash a t the begilming of m as-
hing.
Biological mash acidification has a positive
effect on flavour stability. By reducing the pH
value of the mash to 5.2, few er ageing compo-
nents a re form ed [326]. The m ash acidification
should only be used with w ell modified m alts
a t temperatures above 60 DC, otherwise only
mod erately, because protein di ssolution is pro-
moted by lowering the pH value.
Since the phosphatases release a considerable
proportion of the phosphates during mashing,
which playa substantial role in the buffering,
the pH shift is partly compensated. It is also
therefore worth acidifying the wort.
During wort production an optimal pH of 5.1
to 5.2 should be aimed for.
According to the type of acidification, one
differentiates between
addition of mineral acid, and
biological acidification.
3.2.1.8.1 Addition of mineral acid
Except in cOlmtries which produce beer only in
accordance with the Reinheitsgebot, acid is so-
m e times added to the mash and/or wor t. In ge-
neral, phosphoric acid is used, but often indu-
strially produced lacti c acid, and more seldom
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid are used .
The alTIOLmt of acid to be added must be accu-
rately determined by titration (Sect. 3.2.1.8.2).
This acid dissocia tes immediately in the very
large amount of mash or wort respectively, and
is then present only in the form of ions . This
should also be told to customers who s uddenly
feel indi gestion after their las t beer as soon as
they hea r of acid addition.
To lower the pH by 0.1
fo r the mash 0.64 equivalent acid/100 kg malt
into the mash or
for the cast wort 0.32 equivalent acid/lOO kg
malt into the kettle of wort
must be added. This results in the following
acid dose per 100 kg malt [167]:
Acid Addition Addition
to mash to wort
g = ml g= ml
100% lactic acid 58 29
80% lactic acid 72 60 36 30
37% hydrochloric acid 63 53 32 27
98% sulphuric acid 32 17 16 9 they also show growth at high te mperatures
The addition of nuneral acid should however
be seen as a last resort; the addition of biological-
ly obtained lactic acid offers more teclmological
advantages and better sensory characteristics.
3.2.1.8.2 Biological acidification
In Germany biologically obtained lacti c acid is
used for acidifica tion and referred to in the fol-
lowing.
The basic reasoning behind the biological aci-
difica tion of the mash and/or wort is as follow s:
The addition of foreign substances is not allo-
wed according to the Reinheitsgebot. Malt is not
a foreign substance but it contains on its surface
massive amOLmts of lac tic acid bacteria. These
lactic acid bacteria form, at an optimlll11 tempera-
ture of 48 DC, up to 2% lactic acid in solution.
They themselves cannot withstand more.
263
If the lactic acid bacteria ""ere given the chan-
ce to multiply and produce lactic acid in the e n-
tire m ash or wort the whole brew would be aci-
di c and ruined . In order to lower the pH to a
targeted extent it is necessary to
3
prodllce a la ctic acid sollitiol1 and add all exactly cnl-
CIlIated all/Olln t of it to the ll/ash nlld/o r wort.
For the biological acidification a suitable lac-
tic acid strain is the basic pre requi site. For tlus,
pure cultu res of
Lactobacillll s nlllylovo/'lls or
Lactobacilllls amylolytiClis
are recommended [137,206]:
both types of Lactobacillu s grow very stron-
gly in beer wort,
they have a high acidification capacity of up
to 2% lactic acid and are effective up to a pH
of <3,
they form - in comparison to other lactic acid
bacteria - two molecules of lactic acid from
glucose (they are homo fermentative, i.e. they
form only the homogeneous m e tabolic pro-
ducts),
of up to 52 DC,
they also ferment dextrins and starch,
they form a high proportion of L-lactate
which is of nutritional-physiological signifi-
can ce,
they are not harmful to beer (they are sensiti-
ve to hops and do not grow at temperatures
below 30 °C),
they do not form amines or other toxins and
no diace tyl, and
the cultures are easy to handle.
Propagation occurs in an acidification plant
(Fig. 3.29), which consists of a propagator (5)
and a storage tank (6) which should have two to
three tim es the volume of the propagator.
Acidified wort a nd diluted firs t wort are
ITlixed at a ratio of 1 : 1 at exactl y 48 ± 1 DC in the
propagator and thi s tempera ture must be strict-
ly maintained. Since the lactic acid bacteria
264 265

grow better under the exclusion of air, and be- wort from the following brew. The acid content For wort acidification to stand in a constant temperature cabinet for
cause oxygen-loving contaminants (e.g. candi- is about 0.8 to 1.2% lactic acid. 2% is added to the first wort. 48 to 72 h . The flask should be provided with a
da yeasts, acetic acid bacteria) are thus repres- The acidified wort pumped into the storage Based on the number of daily brews and the fermentation lock .
sed, the acidic substance is gassed with CO, (3). tank continues to acidify up to 1.8 to 2.2% and size of the business, the corresponding number
The course of biological acidification should can be removed from the bottom with the final of vessels is required (Fig. 3.29a). It always has COlltrollillg the lactic acid COllcelltl'l1tioll 3
preferably be so regulated that the fermenter in acidification value. to be borne in mind that continued acidification The lactic acid concentration is controlled by
the storage tank (6) is half emptied according to Based on experience, for mash acidification up to a lactic acid content of 1.8 to 2.2% occurs titration. For this 25 ml of the stock solution is
the brewing rhytlU11 and then immediately fil- about 1% is added on mashing in, and in the storage tank. The lactic acid bacteria do titrated with O.lN NaOH. The following ap-
led again with the same amount of diluted first 1 to 2% is added at the end of boiling. not tolerate any more of their own excreted me- plies:
tabolic product lactic acid, and so this equilibri- 1 1111 of O.IN NIlOH is equivlllel1t fa 9 IIlg of Illctic
lUll is automatically established. Ilcid.
It is possible to calculate the required amount Bromothymol blue (0.1 bromo thymol blue in
2 of lactic acid. The required amount can be deri- 100 m120 % alcohol) is usually used as indicator
3 ved from the table below. To lovver the pH in a for the titration. This indicator changes colour

II 4
mash or wort which is produced from a 1000 kg
grist load by 0.3 (65 hi with 11.5%), the follo-
wing amounts are required using a 0.8% lactic
at pH 7.0 (acid-yellow; alkaline- blue).

EXlllllple:
acid solution: A25 ml solution requires 14.1 ml NaOH befo-
8
in the mash re the colour change.
Fig. 3.29 3(x 0.1 pH) x 60 ml/kg x 1000 kg = 180,000 ml
Biologicnl acidificatioll plallt = 180 I 1 ml O.lN NaOH = 9 mg lactic acid
diagrnlll
in the wort 14.1 ml O.lN NaOH = 9 x 14.1
(1) water (degassed 01'
earvollised) 3(x 0.1 pH) x 30 ml/kg x 1000 kg = 90,000 ml = 126.9 mg lactic acid

J
(2) first wort = 90 I 25 ml of solution contain 126.9 mg lactic acid.
(3) em'voll dioxide It follows that when using a 0.8% lactic acid 100 ml of solution contain 126.9 x 4 = 507.6 mg
(4) ClP SOl lltioll
solution, the following requirement of lactic lactic acid.
(5) propagator
(6) storage tallk acid (in ml) can be calculated per kg malt (= IIt
grist load): 507.6 mg = 0.51 g/100 ml
The solution contains 0.51 g/lOO ml = 0.51 %.
Lowering of the on addition
pHby: to mash to wort 111creasillg the I11ltollllt of stock sO/lltioll
0.1 60 30 From the initial incubation about 2 I of lactic
0.2 120 60 acid stock solution can be obtained and this is
0.3 180 90 transferred to a container which can hold about
0.4 240 120 10 I. At intervals of 8 to 12 h the amount of stock
Fig. 3.29a solution can be increased by 41 additions of 8%
Biologicnl acidificatioll plallt
3 wort (48 0q. When there is about 10 I further
(1) propagator
(2) storage tallkfor acid Illedilllll Deterlllillillg the lactic acid COllcentratioll operations can be performed in a thermostati-
(3) fro II I tile lallter tllll In order to identify the concentration of the cally controllable culture production vessel. It is
II II dervack lactic acid present, first of all a stock solution important to maintain the temperatm'e at 48°C
(4) to tile lUort kettle
has to be produced [15]: (± 1 K), since at lower temperatures other mi-
(5) acid lIIedilllll plllllp
(6) to tile lIIasil vessel 4 1 of supply water at 46 to 48°C is put into a cro-organisms can produce other metabolic
(7) to tile lUort kettle 51 flask with 1 kg of unmilled malt and allowed products which can spoil the flavour.
266 267

EXllll1ple: 11 requires 0.147 lactic acid

Calculation of the amOlL11t of lactic acid requi- 1 hi requires 14.7 g lactic acid Curing temperatures
red for an unboiled wort. -------+ Precursor

In order to bring 1 I of unboiled wort with a Addition of lnctic acid

pH of 5.54 to a pH of 5.20, 14.25 ml of a lactic The addition of the acid occurs as early as pos- 3
acid stock culhlre were used. The titration va- sible . It is thus possible to activate the work of
lue of the culture solution was 28.7 ml O.lN Na- the enzymes to a large extent and to stop the ef-
OH. How many grams of lactic acid (100 %) fect of the acid sensitive lipoxygenases, which
must be added per hl? would otherwise immediately begin with the
It is known that enzymic breakdown of the reactive lL11sahua-
1 ml O.lN NaOH = 9 mg lactic acid, ted fatty acids. The acid can of course be added Resting pH
therefore: to the mashing in water so as to obtain the ear-
28.7 ml O.lN NaOH= 28.7 x 9 liest possible admixture but for this a special
= 258.3 mg lactic acid vessel is required . Furthermore, such an admix- LOX Lipase
45-55 DC 50-65 DC
25 ml of solution contain 258 .3 mg lactic acid ture is forbidden according to the Reinheitsge-
Wet milling pH 5.0-7.0 pH 6.8-7.0
100 ml of solution contain bot.
Enzymes
258.3 x 4 = 1,033.2 mg lactic acid It is both possible and makes sense, however, Peroxidase
1,033 mg = 1.033 g to apportion the acid during mashing in a wet > 60 DC, pH 6.2
Polyphenoloxidase
100 ml wort contain 1,033 mg lactic acid grist mill (Sect. 3.2.3.3). 65 DC, pH 6.5-7 .0
14.25 ml wort contain Addition of the acid during wort boiling is Fig. 3.31
usually performed shortly before the end of boi- FaclO/'s a[fectillgj7avollr stability wltell IJ/nsltillg, accordillg to Bnck {326].
1033 x 14.25 = 147 mg ling. This mal<es it possible for the hop resins to
100 be better isomerised previously in the more alka- Furthermore, the half reaction time in the The non-fermentable remaining part of the
= 0.147 g lactic acid line range and consequently better utilised. splitting of the DMS-P into DMS is shortened extract mainly consists of limit dextrins, nlalto-
because of a higher pH. tetraoses, proteins, gums and mineral matter
Ofo (see Sect. 4.3.3.3).
100 3.2.1.9 Composition of the extract

H
90 About 75 to 80% of the malt mass is dissolved 3.2.1 .10 Conclusions for carrying out mashing
Ofo
(extracted) during mashing - this more or less For the mashing process there is a series of con-
80 corresponds to the later brew house yield (see clusions and the followin g parameters have to
other matter 100
mineral matter
70 pentoses
90 Sect. 3.5); the insoluble remainder is excreted be observed from mashing-in onwards:
gums
protein
80
} "0 f"meo
extract
"bI, in the spent grains. About two-thirds of the ex- maintaining the optimal temperature and ob-
60
tract formed during mashing (Fig. 3.30) - 63 to serving the maximal temperature of the en-
'0
ro
dextrins
70
.2 50 68 % - consists of fermentable sugars. With an zymes,
.'C! maltotrTOse 60
(5 u original wort content of 11 to 12%, the average avoiding the harmful effect of oxygen on the
40 50
x
LU
composition of these fermentable sugars is beer quality,
maltose 40 fermentable
30 extract [258]: using the effect of the pH on conversions and
30 maltose 65% processes,
20
20 maltotriose 17.5% avoiding the formation of shear forces .
10 sucrose 10 sucrose 5% This entails the following factors:
glucose
0 fructose 0 glucose and fructose 12% conditioning of the malt at a high temperatu-
Fig. 3.30 The proportion of fructose is very small here re,
COII/positioll of tlte extmct (0.8 - 2.8%). short mashing in time,
268
uniform mixing, no lump formation,
avoiding oxygen entry,
pumping in from below,
use of decarbonated mashing in water,
agitator with variable frequency operated
setting,
high power when heating, rests at half power,
frequency operated mashing pump without
air contact,
avoidance of unnecessary shear forces,
pipelines with wide cOlmections,
high mashing in temperatures (above 60°C),
mash pH below 5.4; optimal 5.2 produces
softer, more rOlmded beer in a fresher con
dition,
better flavour stability
lower oxygen content of the brewing water by
. degassing the mashing in water or gassi
with nitrogen or CO,.
Fig. 3.31 provides another overview of the
positive (green) and negative (red) effects on
the flavour stability when mashing.
3.2.2 Vessels for mashing
One or two vessels are required for mashing be-
cause, in the decoction process, part of the mash
is boiled whilst the other part is not. For this it
must be possible to heat at least one of the two
vessels; in modern brew houses both vessels can
be heated (mash cooker and mash hm or con-
velter [heated]) (Fig. 3.31a).
3.2.2.1 Mash vessels
The mash cooker design is essentially similar to
that of the wort kettle but it is smaller since the
total mash volume is much smaller than the un-
boiled wort volume. when an infusi-
on process is used only one mash vessel, the
mash cooker, which can be heated, is used .
Of great importance is the size of the agitator.
Its ro tation speed must be appropriate for the
diameter of the vessel and its peripheral speed
should not exceed 2 m/s (maximal 3 m/s), other-
w ise shear forces are applied to the mash patti-
des which can change the mash viscosity (Sect.
3.2.4.1).
Fig. 3.31n
Mnsil collver IeI' (oldlype)
The mash tun heating system is particularly
important. The previously customary double
bottom steam heating system is no longer up-
to-date. Because of its large surface there is a
great risk of damage by vacuum formation if
someone forgets to open the air valve at the end
of boiling. In this case the hm bottom surfaces
collapse towards one another and are deformed
to the point where they are no longer usable.
Double bottoms also have poor heat transfer
properties.
Heating by semicircular pipes
Nowadays heating is performed through semi-
circular pipes welded onto the hm bottom and
269
onto the grooves (Fig. 3.32). This provides an
approximately 20% better heat transfer.
Instead of the highly heat conducting
stainless steel is now used. FLUthermore, copper is
not suitable for the CIP procedure. Because c1U'0-
3
me-nickel steel has a relatively poor heat transfer
coefficient, the heated parts of the mash vessel are
nowadays often made of "black" steel, which has
considerably better heat transfer properties, and a
thin layer of dU'ome-nkkel steel is rolled onto the
internal side (so-called plated steel). Plated mate-
rials are, however, expensive to process so stain-
less steel with a correspondingly increased hea-
ting surface is mostly used (Fig. 3.33).
Steam with an overpressure of 2 to 3 bar is in-
troduced, sometimes in several zones, and con-
densed whilst it delivers heat energy through
the vessel wall (see Fig. 3.72a). Because the semi-
Fig. 3.33
Healillg vy selllicirclllnr welded-all pipes
(1) vlnck pin Ie sleel vnse, (2) rolled-all cilrollle-llickel sleel
plnle, (3) selllicirclllnr il enlillg Illves, (4) illslliniioll
circular pipes have a rigid structure there is no
longer any risk of collapse if a vaCLllU11 is formed
when the steam valve is closed. Therefore it is no
longer necessary to ventilate at the end of boiling
and hardly any air can now be drawn in.
The condensation formed is drained off
through a condensation trap which usually
operates as a float valve. As a result the pressu-
re is maintained in the heating pipes while the
condensation is drawn off at normal pressure.
Heati1lg bYlllealls of a direct steall1 injectioll
Nowadays the mash vessels are heated by di-
rect steam injection of some manufacturers
(Meura Company, Peruwelz/B; Aflosjet tedmo-
logy). This has a number of advantages because
Fig. 3.32 a steam jacket or fire hlbe is no longer requi-
lvlnsillllil kettle red,
(1) vnpollr cilillllley, (2) lop covel; (3) ClP clen llillg, (4) illle-
rial' ligill, (5) viewillg alld nccess openillg, (6) side, (7) illSllln-
the steam provides its evaporation heat di-
lioll, (8) Inddel; (9) ngilnlol; (10) ilenlillg pipes, (11) IIlnsil ill- rectly and without loss,
lei nud ollilel, (12) drive 1110101' no separate condensation is formed.
j .
270
Fig. 3.33 b
Masil grollp
A problem arises in that the steam which is
used must be free from oil and salt. This is not
always the case with steam from the business's
normal boiler. Therefore pure steam has to be
produced in a special plant by bringing pure
water to boil by means of steam heated coils (2)
in a pure steam generator (Fig. 3.33c), and di-
recting the pure steam (3) formed into the mash
cooker (5). Since the process is continuous, a
pre-co1U1ected reserve tank (7) is appropriate,
the water content of which is prewarmed by a
preheater (10) and can be brought almost to boi-
ling point by additional steam injections (6).
Whether an additional water treatment plant
(8) or reverse osmosis (9) has to be used earlier
in the process depends on the quality of the wa-
ter available. Since the water in the steam gene-
rator completely evaporates, there is a problem
not only with hardness-forming salts but also
non-hardness forming salts due to increasing
concentration and thus a deterioration in heat
transfer. The steam generator is supplied in al-
:
!
[1
ready assembled form, and is able to create the
required steam in a short period of time.
The pure steam (3) is apportioned to the wort
stream by means of two-fluid nozzles fixed in
the lower wall or at the bottom of the mashing
vessel and thereby finely sprayed. The steam
then passes its evaporation heat (2,257 kJ/kg;
see Sect. 10.2.2.1) to the wort and condenses. It
is therefore sufficient to produce and introduce
steam with very low overpressure (0.7 - 1.0 bar)
because we are primarily concerned with using
the heat of evaporation in the condensation of
the steam bubbles. Steam bubbles which rise to
the surface, however, pass their heat of evapo-
ration to the outside and do not achieve their
purpose of heating the wort.
Fears that steam over 100 °C could harm the
enzyme potential of the mash are unfOlUlded
since the higher temperature is only effective
against the en zyme for a fraction of a second. In
recent times, the steam jets are arranged on the
bottom of the tank so that the steam-mash mix-
271
3
7
Fig.3.33c
D
Prodllctioll of pllre stenm for ileatillg masil (M ellrn, PCl'llwe/zIB)
(1 ) steam sllpply, (2) steam gellerntol; (3) pllre steam, (4) colldell satioll, (5) pllre stenlll to tile masil cookel; (6) pllre steam to tile
reserve tallk, (7) reserve tallk, (8) preilea tel; (9) reverse osmosis, (10) lImter tren tmellt plallt.
ture is swirled intensively by the agitator and
no impairment occurs (Fig. 3.33c1).
The advantages of heating by means of pure
steam are
a short heating-lip time
the omission of the hea ting jacket or fire tube,
and
a reduced energy requirement and hence lo-
wer costs.
SllillcesBeer procedure
(Antoll SteillecJeer, Fre;s;llg) Fig. 3.33c1
Sometimes shorter heating times are desired Arrnllgemellt af stenm jets all Iile 11111 bollolll
during mashing. This can be necessary in order
to shorten the mash times. For this, better heat
transfer in the heating zone is required . steel sheet. This steel sheet is tack-welded onto
In the ShakesBeer procedure (the pun is in- the 6 mm thick tun grooves at equal intervals
tended), semicircular welded-on pipes are not and the spaces in between are bulged out with
used; instead, the part of the tun edge (someti- pressurised water (Fig. 3.33d), just as they are
mes also of the tun bottom) that can be heated when cooling using Dimple Jackets or Templa-
is equipped on the inside with a 1 mm thick tes. The good heat transfer provided by the
272
steel layer w hi ch is only 1 mm thick, in combi-
n a tion with the virulent mixing-through inside
the "pocke ts", ensures an excellent hea t ex-
chan ge, short h ea ting times and a reduced ener-
gy requirem ent. Becau se of sw irl forma tion
around the pockets, microturbulen ces are pro-
du ced whi ch improve mixing and the exchan ge
of m a tter.
Because a lower s team pressure is used, the
boundary surface temperature is lowered . This
affec ts the product quality, since fouling is re-
duced . The procedure is also equipped with a
specially shap ed agitator which produces b et-
ter mixing and a quick transfer of the heat from
the heating surface while preventing the emer-
Fig.3.33e
Mnsllillg cooker IIsillg tile SIInkes Beer procedllre
(S teilleckel; Freisillg)
Fig.3.33d
Tn llk wnlls (Sect.)
gence of shea r forces. Spray ing in wa ter to the
lower part of the agitator can produce a targe-
ted inflow of wa ter, whi ch can increase the heat
tran sfer coefficient and therefore the k value.
This en ables rapid hea ting ra tes of up to 2.5 K
per minute . A t the sam e time, energy savings
are m ade. It is also possible, using this m ethod,
to m ash m ore thickly a t the s tart, for gentle
trea h11ent of the en zym es (Fig. 3.25a) .
Another special feature of this procedure is the
continuously variable agitato r (Fig. 3.33e) Witll
vibration teclmology. The vibrator sends high
frequency sOLU1d waves into the mash. The agita-
tor and vibrator are adjusted by frequency. The
use of the vibra tor enables an accelerated ca tala-
se and a reduction of the oxygen uptake. 0.2%
more exh'act is released [336, 346] and a conside-
rably better w ort flo w is produced . The deep cuts
take place much later in the case of the vibrator.
The effect of the vibrator is that the air holes
are exp elled more quickly, enabling the w ater to
penetrate the grist particles m o re quickly and
release them m ore efficiently. This means that
gelatinisa tion of the sta rch tak es place earlier
and the h omogenisation of the m ash is impro-
ved . Lautering off is accelera ted .
Arfjllllct cooker
For the treatment of raw grain, a cereal cooker
is some times used in which the raw grain is
heated with a sm all am ount of malt and boiled
followin g gela tinisation and liquefaction . The
cereal o r adjLU1ct cooke r has a similar design to
the mash cooker but is sm aller since the adjLU1ct
m ash is sm all er. Previously the cereal cooker
was b uilt as a closed pressure cooker and boiled
the adjunct under pressure a t a tempera ture
above 100 °C. The additional ex tract, h owever,
bore no rela tionship to the ene rgy u sed and so
for some time now, open vessels h ave bee n
used insofar as the altitude of the brew e ry does
not de mand pressure boiling.
N owad ays one very often o mits the sepa ra te
adjunc t cooker and instead uses the m ash coo-
ker. It h as to be quick and as cheap as p ossible!!!
3.2.3 Mashing in
Mashing in is the name used fo r the extrem ely
thorou gh mi xing of the g rist (milled m alt and
adj unct) with wa ter (m ashing liquor) a t a pre-
specified m ash ing-in tempe ra ture.
3.2.3.1 Addition of the brewing water
(brewing liquor)
Th e ra tio of the grist to the brewing liquor used
before sp arging is important since it d e termines
the con centra tion of the first wo rt rLllmings. It
can be calcul a ted tha t
100 kg of grist with 3 hi of liquor (1 : 3) produ -
ces a 20% fi rs t wort.
The mash is made 5 to 6% stronger than the ori-
ginal gl"avity of the beer sh ould be; for an 11 - 12%
beer at 16 to 18%. Sufficient wa ter can then be
passed through the spent grains to w ash ou t the
sugars, whilst the wort is diluted .
The addition of the water determin es the com-
position of the wort and with it the beer type.
For pale beers in general a large quantity of
wa ter is selected amoun ting to
3 to 4111 / 100 kg grist (1 : 3 to 1 : 4) .
Tlu'ough this, m ore rapid enzymic reactions a re
ob tained.
For d ark beers a thicker m ash is chosen w ith
3 to 3.5 hI / 100 kg grist (1 : 3 to 1 : 3.5).
In this w ay the aroma compounds of the m alt
can contribute to the mash to a grea ter extent by
cal'amelisation .
273
With H ig h Gravi ty Brew ing (see Sect. 4.8 .1),
mashing in is s tronger.
The volu me of the gris t mash ed in is 0.7 to 0.8
hl/l00 kg gris t.
3
Problelll:
H ow ma ny hi of wa ter mu st be used for m as-
hing-in to obtain an 18% first wort w ith a gris t
cha rge of 1,600 kg?
100 kg produces a 20% wort with 3 hi wa ter
(see above)
1,600 kg produces a 20% wort w ith
3 . 16 = 48 hi water
1,600 kg produces an 18% wort w ith
48 · 20% = 53.33 hi wa ter
18%
53.33 hi of wa ter a re needed w ith a g rist cha r-
ge of 1,600 kg to produce an 18% firs t wort.
These 53.33 hi of wa te r yield w ith 1,600 kg
grist
53.3 hi + 1,600 kg x 0.7 hi / 100 kg = 53.3 hi +
11 .2 hi = 64.5 hi m ash
3.2.3.2 M ashing-in temperature
Basically m ashing in ca n be performed a t an y
temperature. The mashing-in tempera ture is in-
flu en ced by the optimum temperature of the
enzymes w hich one wants to ac tiva te initially.
Previously in sm all breweries mashing-in was
performed cold on the evening before m ashing
proper and the m.ix ture was allowed to stand
overn.ight. Th.is was known as digesting (dige-
stion p rocedure) and it gave som ewha t better
yields since the m a teri al had sufficient time to
go into solution. However, less desirable sub-
stan ces also dissolved and w ith the present ti-
m e constraints this process is now out of the
question .
Low er m ashing-in temperatu res are, h owe-
ver, being con sidered aga in because of a recent
discovery: the starch granules in the m alt grist
are s till surrounded by a protein m a trix which
 274
binds together the hemicellulose and
of the endosperm cell walls like putty. To be ab-
le to get at the s tarch, these materials must firs t
be broken down - the more so the less well mo-
dified the malt.
Before degradation of the starch itself, break-
down of the must take place. These
substances are degraded optimally at tempera-
tures of 45 to 48 DC (protein breakdown 45 to
50 DC, 45 DC), but the enzymes go
into solution even at 35 DC so the substrate is al-
ready in the dissolved state at the optimum
temperature if mashing in is performed at 35
DC. Consequently a higher attenuation limit is
obtained with lower mashingin temperatures
although the temperature of 35 DC has nothing
to do with starch degradation directly. These
facts argue for mashing in at 35 DC. Neverthe-
less scarcely anyone mashes at such low tempe-
ratures because
the process takes too long,
the energy usage is therefore much too high,
and
problems with foam stability can be expected
because protein breakdown has proceeded
too far.
The usual mashing-in temperature of 45 DC
(45 to 48 DC) used in most breweries has the task
of continuing the not yet complete modification
tlU'ough the breakdown of and thus
prevent lautering and filtration problems (see
Fig. 3.27c). Good filterability and long filter ti-
mes are, however, decisive factors for the effi-
ciency of the brewery.
Although a mashing-in temperature and rest
at 50 DC is referred to as a protein rest, it in fact
increases the usually already adequate pool of
FAN, whilst at the same time reducing the con-
tent of foam forming substances. A long rest at
these temperatures always causes poor foam.
Nowadays in Germany, about 35 - 40% ofbre-
weries use mashing-in temperatures of 60 to 63
DC [251] and over 70 % of breweries have their
first res t above 60 DC. At these temperatures the
can optimally degrade the qUickly
gelatinised and liquefied s tarch and through
the breakdown of protein form high molecular
weight products, which guarantee a better head
retention. The prerequisite for this, however, is
very well modified malt.
A limiting factor is the undissolved high mo-
lecular content, which is dissolved by
the heat stable solubilase, but calUlot
be degraded by the heat sensitive
at tempera tures above 50 DC (see Sect. 3.2.1.4
and Fig. 32.7c), thus increasing the viscosity
which can lea d to lautering and filtration diffi-
culties. This applies above all to non-pure varie-
tal grown barley or to the processing of mixed
varieties and to malts which, in order to achie-
ve a certain cytolytic index value (degree of
protein modification, friabilimeter value etc.),
have been mi xed with short grown malt in the
maltings. Short grown malt inevitably has a
very high content which does not re-
flect the average values of the normal cytolytic
index.
It is therefore proposed [206] that malt
should be checked for homogeneity by means
of the corn sharpening method according to
Carlsberg (see Sect. 2.8.2.10), if it is to be used
for high mashing-in temperatures. A homoge-
neity value of 70% or preferably 75% should be
obtained. The friabilimeter value should be
above 85% and the viscosity 65% (correspon-
ding to 8.6%) < 1.6 mPa·s.
For mashing in at high temperatures, therefo-
re, very well modified and homogeneous malt
is an absolute prerequisite.
If very well modified malt is mashed in at 62
to 63 DC, there are a number of advantages, par-
ticularly if it occurs in combination with mas-
hing acidification (pH - 5.2):
the time advantage is considerable; the infu-
sion procedure with a mashing-in temperatu-
re of 60 to 63 DC is less than 120 min; in extre-
me cases times of only 80 to 90 min can be ob-
tained. It is, howeve r, also possible to use
high-temperature short-time mashing proce-
dures with one or two cooker mashes,
this also brings about energy sav ings,
the protein breakdown is reduced; more hi gh
molecular weight protein d egradation pro-
ducts are formed,
this in turn leads to better foam,
the FAN content in the wort is lower beca use
of reduced protein breakdown,
tl'lis leads to fewer amino acids available for
Maillard reactions,
the flavour s tability is improved, not least be-
cause of the deac tivation of the lipoxygenases
at these high temperatures.
The gelatinisation temperature of malt starch is
usually 59 - 64 DC. It is also dependent on yea r
and location [358]. The gelatinisation temperatu-
re can thus rise to 65 - 66 DC, which leads to lower
levels of fermentation, because the temperature
sensitive are then mainly deactivat-
ed. The naturally forms large chains of
up to ten glucose molecules which are indeed io-
cline normal; they Cillmot be fermented
because the yeast does not have enough el'lZymes
for further splitting. Furthermore, small starch
grillluies gelatinise at 1 - 2 DC higher thilll larger
ones, whidl can have a considerable effect on de-
gree of ferm entation. It is therefore advisable to
check the gelatinisation temperature of the new
bmley malt at the beginning of a new cillnpaign
to guard against lUlpleasant surprises. By using a
2 - 3 DC higher mashing in temperature, the initi-
al activity of the Cilll be utilised to pre-
vent greater losses.
3.2.3.3 Mixing of the water and grist
Mashing in must be performed in such a way
that the water and grist are thoroughly mixed
together without illly clumping. In traditional
processes water is first put in the vessel and the
grist then added in a thin stream with the agita-
275
tor running in order to achieve uniform mixing.
This, h owever, results in losses caused by the
escape of dust. Even more disadvillltageous for
quality is that oxygen enters the mash with the
inflowing m alt illld consequently the oxygen 3
content of the mash is increased conSiderably.
During the mixing of water and gris t, clumps
are always formed through the agglutination of
fine particles which later only dissolve with
great difficulty and lead to iodine abnormal
spent gra ins.
3
Fig. 3.34
Prclllnslier
(1) II/nlt iI/let, (2) pelfom ted tl/ve, (3) /Unta sllpply, (4) wn-
terllllnlt I/Ii.rtllre (IIInsll)
In order to achieve thorough mixing of the
water and grist, premashers are built into the
mashing-in pipe (Fig. 3.34). These are devices in
which water at mashing-in temperahlre is injec-
ted whilst the grist flows past and is thereby
mixed without the formation of lumps . This
mashing-in without clumping and the stirring
operation are very importilllt. In order to avoid
illly clumping whatsoever, mashing-in devices
on the basis of two fluid nozzles are now avai-
lable. Since mashingin water also contains dis-
solved oxygen, it should be degassed.
276
The larger the plant, the more difficult is a ra-
pid and lump-free mixing of the wa ter-g rist
mixture. One p ossibility of managing this p ro-
blem is the Mech aMasher (Meura, PeruwelzlB)
(Fig. 3.34a), which is constructed to handle a
throughput of up to 70 t m alt grist/hour.
The incoming malt grist (1) is mixed in a hy-
drator (2) with h ot mashing-in w ater and is
mixed intensively in the MechaMash er benea th
i\- - --« MALT I MAl2
4 prepnmtioll
MASH/ I,v,JSCHE
Fig. 3.34n
MecllnJ'vlnsller (Me ll m, Peru-
welz)
(1) grist sllpply
(2 ) lIyrim tor
(3) MecllnMnsller
(4) specinl plllll p
it by means of screws . Prior to this the entire sy-
stem is completely de-aerated to remove any
possible enh'y of oxygen. By means of an eccen-
tric screw pump (monopump), the malt-grist
mixhll'e - the mash - is plunped into the mash
hm w ith no oxygen enh-y.
We have seen that the oxidation process com-
mences during m ashing in with the intimate
mixing of grist, wa ter and air (also air from the-
I the lower pH value.
Fig. 3.34b
Ellcnseri nir-free grist nllrilllnsil
(1) collriitiollillg sllnft
(2) Jeeriillg roller
(3) crusllillg rollers
(4) level colltrol
Fig. 3.35
Mnsll illg anI' ill tile brewers' illsigll in
malt and wa ter) . Measures taken later to avoid
the oxidation process are thereby relativised . If
this oxidation process is to be stopped at the be-
ginning, there is the possibility of enclosing the
entire gris t and m ashing-in area, from the m alt
silo to the m ash tun, and filling it w ith inert gas
(CO, or N,) (Fig. 3.34b) .
At the same time the opportunity should also
be taken to carry out biological acidification du-
ring the mashing-in p rocess to prevent the p os-
sible ac tivity of the lipoxygenases because of
It should be remembered here, however, that
it was not always as easy as it is for us n owa-
days. A symbol in our brewers' insignia still re-
minds us h ow tiring m ashing used to be. Becau-
se there were n o mech anical agitators then, the
mash h ad to be stirred by han d with a m ashing
rak e or mashing oar (Fig. 3.35).
3.2.4 Mashing
Mashing involves increasing the temperature
of the mash to the optimum temperahlre for the
enzymes w hich on e wa nts to ac ti vate, and
maintaining a rest (i.e. holding for a period of ti-
me) at that temperature.
277
The rest occurs at the tem perature optima of
the enzymes:
45 to 48 °C pro tein and rest
62 to 64 °C maltose production res t
70 to 72 °C saccharification rest 3
75 to 78 °C final mash temperature
Dependin g on the way in w hi ch the tem pera-
tu re is raised, mashing processes are cl assified
into two typ es:
in fusion processes, and
decoc tion processes
In infusion processes the entire mash is hea-
ted up, with appropri ate rests, to the fin al mas-
hing temperahll'e and no p art of the mash is re-
moved to be boiled sep ara tely.
In d ecoction processes the tempera hire is in-
creased by removing part of the mash (cooker
mash) an d boiling it. By pumping it back to the
remaind er of the m ash the temperatu re of the
total mash is increased to the next hi gher res t
temperature. This process can be repea ted seve-
ra l times (one, two or three mash procedure).
3.2.4.1 Parameters to consider when mashing
When selecting a mashing procedure a number
of fac tors must be considered in order to obtain
a mash and wort with the appropri ate composi-
tions to produce the desired beer.
These include, for example, the prop ortion of
fe rm entable suga r, which determines the fin al
attenuation, or the production of su fficient high
molecular weight protein for palate fullness
and foa m s tability of the beer. Because the mas-
hing p rocess provides good opportunities to in-
fluen ce the beer charac ter, important aspects
are d iscussed h ere [7].
Mnlt qunlity
The protein in malt is often highly modified . If
su ch a m alt is given a long rest at 50 °C there is
a risk that too much high molecular weight pro-
tein w ill be degraded . The beer then tas tes emp-
ty and in Sipid and the foam stability is poor. If
 278
-tl-, e- n-,a- l-t-i-s-v-v-el-l-n-,-o-d-i-fi-e-d- C
at 45 to 48 DC during mashing can be restricted
-)-,t-o-1)-,t-i-ca- l-l)-,,-t-h-e-r-'e-s-t- - -T-l-'1-'s-
crease saves energy because there is u sually an
T
n-, e-t-h-o-d- o-f-a-c-c-e-le-r-'a-te- d- t-e-n-'P- e- r-'a-t-u-re-in-
and mashiJlg-in temperatures of 60 to 62 DC can excess of hot water in the brewery.
be selected. If it is desired to reduce the attenuation limit
If, because of poor cell wall modification, one - as in low calorie beers or low alcohol beers - a
wishes to encourage cell wall degradation wit- special alternative, the jump mash process, cm,
hout breaking protein down, mashing iJI is per- be used (Sect. 3.2.4.3.4).
formed at 35 DC because the temperatm'e sensiti-
ve work even at this temperattu'e, Optimal cOl/tact betweel/ the ell z ymes aHd
thus preparing the endosperm for subsequent 111alt cOllstitllellts
attack by other enzymes, whilst no protein de- It is particularly important for good mashing to
gradation occurs at this temperattne. have optimal contact between the malt compo-
nents mid the enzymes dissolved in the water to
Temperatllre iI/crease by additiol/ of hot water enable them to act. It has been mentioned that a
It has been shown that in the case of pale beer great effort is made to obtain thorough mixing
the proportion of grist to mashing-in water is 4 of the malt grist / water mixttue even during
to 5 hi / 100 kg malt (1 : 4 - 1 : 5). If, however, a mashing in to allow the best possible start of the
thick mash is made (malt: water 1 : 2.5) when enzymic reactions.
mashing in at 35 DC (or 50 DC) and the tempera- During mashing the agitation plays an im-
ttlre then raised by the addition of hot water at portant role. Today agitation is performed less
above 95 DC to obtain the next rest at 50 DC (or vigorously but the agitator rota tion speed is in-
63 DC), degradation processes are slowed down creased in parallel with the vessel contents, in
mid in particular protein breakdown is limited . steps or continuously, by a frequency control-
After the hot water addition the normal propor- led motor.
tion of grist to mashing-in liquor is obtained To draw off part of a thick mash the agitator
again. must of course be stopped for 5 to 10 min so that
,,[Ida
dw = 0
d
Fig. 3.36
dy
Defol'llialioll of SIIInIl bodies ill
"
Ih e bOlilidary layer
dw (a) shape whell at res l or I/Io ved
slowly
(b) defol'lllalioll by shearforees
(aecordillg 10 Hilge- Berdelle)
tl-,-e-l-
m-d-i-sS-o-l-v-e-d-r-n-al- t- p- m
- t -ic-le- s-cm
ter the mash is plUllped back the agitator is ope-
- , -s-e-tt-le-o-u-t.-A
- f- - -d-jf-f-e-r e-r-, c-e-s-o-c-c-l-n-"-Sl-l-cl-, -a-s-,-fO- l- '-e x-'a-r-'1-p-l-e-:- - -
rated for another 30 min at a medium speed.
Too intensive stirring always cau ses the intro-
duction of air and produces additional shear
forces . Shear forces are the deformation of bo-
dies as a result of shear or pressure differences.
A m ash, wort or beer contains mmly substances
which consist of high molecular weight com-
pounds or, as in the case of yeast cells, have a
complex structure. These "small bodies" can
easily be squeezed by large pressure diffe-
rences and as a result, their structtlres may be
changed or completely destroyed [8] .
Fig. 3.36a
Pl'Odli CliOIi of shear
forces
(1) agilalor blade
(2) IlIrblilelil regiolls
Large pressure differences occur, for exam-
ple, when pumps or agitator blades rotate
much more rapidly than the liquid can flow
(Fig . 3.36). Whilst the body (a) moves muform-
ly in the rotating mash, and therefore retains its
shape, the deforming forces are quite different
in the case of the body (b), particularly in the
turbulent bOlmdary layers (Fig. 3.36a) on im-
pellers, in pipes with sharp bends, at rough in-
ternal surfaces of pipes through which fluid
flows, and at the narrow gaps of positive-dis-
placement pumps, etc. These forces are called
shear forces. Such shear forces occur wherever,
as a result of rapid movement, large pressure
279
in all types of pumps (Sect. 10.5.1),
in centrifuges, or
in pipes and vessels in which turbulence oc-
curs. 3
tends towards an increase in visco-
sity under shear forces, and all the more so the
higher the viscosity of the lmsheared wort (see
Fig. 3.27c). The increase in viscosity occurs as a
result of stretching and cross-linking of
can micelles at temperattnes above 60 DC under
shear stress (see Fig. 3.27a). In this context, the
term gel is used, although we are not
referring to real gel. An increase in the viscosi-
ty is linked to a deterioration in the filterability
of the beer, so everything is done to avoid she-
ar forces (see Sect. 3.2.1.4).
It is possible to contribute to the prevention
of shearing by carrying out well-targeted stir-
ring without creating whirls. On the other
hmld, too short a use of the agitator may, as a re-
suit of separation, lead to considerable tempe-
rature differences, as a result of which extracti-
on of the malt contents suffers. This means that
stirring operations must be very specific mid in-
structions must be adhered to.
To keep shear forces as low as possible it is
necessary to use large agitator blades (Fig. 3.37)
with as Iowa rotation speed as possible with a
peripheral speed of less thml 1 m/s.
The rotation of the agitator can be regulated.
During mashing in and heating up, a rotation
speed of 20 to 25 rotations/min is preferred; du-
ring rests the speed is decreased to 9 - 10 rotati-
Otis/min.
The mash, however, does not always have the
same viscosity and hence offers different de-
grees of resistmlCe to the agitator.
At low temperatures (30 to 35 DC) the viscosi-
ty is initially high, at 50 to 52 DC it is considera-
bly lower and it increases greatly at above 60 DC
due to the commencement of gelatinisation. In
the case of rice mashes, viscosity only increases
 280
1 xing w ith mashing-in liquor in the mill (Sect.
3
Fig. 3.37
Agitntor blnde for gelltle trent//lellt of //Insh
later beca use of the higher gelatinisa tion tem-
pera ture and reaches a ma ximum of 80 °C or
hig he r. If ri ce is mashed too thickly, it can
scorch, causing the agitator to come to a s tand-
sti ll!
Oxiaatiol/ al/rillg 11laSTlillg
Air is soluble to a limited extent in wa ter. Its so-
lubility depends on tempera ture, the pressure
and the ex tent of mixing.
In practice air uptake is shown by
darker wort and beer colour,
a less refined beer fla vour,
decreased flavour stability.
Oxidation processes occur more rapidly in
copper vessels.
These are reasons to avoid or reduce aeration.
How and where does air get into the m ash?
Examples are:
as a result of introducing the mash from abo-
ve,
as a result of using a high agitator speed,
as a result of vortex formation during transfer
by pumps,
as a result of overpumping.
Oxidation during mashing can be very
greatly reduced
by using degassed water,
by incorp orating a mashing-in Sect. or mi-
281
3.1.5.2) and
wer yield is obtained beca use temperature dif-
ferences occur which cau se less efficient extrac-
a paler beer colour,
be tter foam stability and pala te fullness,
by pumping the mas h in from below, tion and lower enzy me ac ti vity. be tter colloidal stability due to a sh arp fall in
by controlling the agita to r speed, and The main advantages of infusion processes pH,
by avoiding vo rtex formation when plU11ping are: be tter flavour stability. 3
from one vessel to a nother. they ca n be easily a utoma ted, The advan ta ges are more pronounced if bio-
It will also be shown in the following Sect.s they require less ene rgy than decoction pro- logica l mash acidification occurs.
that everything is being done by the relevant cesses, The great ad vantages of infusion mashing ha-
equipment man ufacturers to prevent, or at least they are easier to monitor. ve resulted in tlus process being increasin gly
to decrease, the d amaging effect of oxygen. Infusion mashing which takes place at tempe- used nowadays.
In practice when ope rating with a low oxy- ratures of 62 - 63 °C and las ts two or less than two
gen content hours is known as short time m ashing procedure 3.2.4.3 Decoction processes
the degradation of p-glucan is improved, (Fig. 3.38). The precondition for tlus is a well-mo- In d ecoction processes part of the mash is w ith-
the attenuation limit is higher, di fied malt with a fri abilimeter value of at least drawn and boiled. When it is pumped back the
lautering is faster, 90% and homogeneity of over 70%, preferably temperature of the total mash is higher. A di-
the wort and beer colours are paler, 75% and a protein content of 40 - 43%. Advan- stinction is made between tlu-ee, two and single
the beer tas te is less coarse, tages of tlus are: (decoction) mash processes dependil'lg on the
flavour stability is improved .
These are reasons to minimise oxidation in
the brewhouse.
3.2.4.2 Infusion mashing
Infusion processes are the simplest mashing 80
processes beca use the entire mash is always
70
kept together. The total mash is heated with
rests being used at temperatures determined by 60
/
the enzyme properties.
Only one vessel is required for infusion mas-
Fig.3.38n
50
/
lung but it must be possible to heat it. As no min
IlIfllsio ll //Inshillg
mash is transferred by pump there is little upta- (Illnshillg ill nt 50 ec) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
ke of air. This is advantageous since oxygen
present during m ashing causes oxidation of the
unsaturated fatty acids with their negative ef-
fects on the s tability of the beer flavour (see
Sect. 4.6.4.1). 80
Stirring plays an important role in infusion
70
processes. The agitator should be driven by a
two-speed pole-ch an ging motor which adjusts it
60
/
to each stage of the process or have a continuous-
ly variable adjush11ent. The design of the agitator Fig. 3.38
Higll-le//lperntllre sllOrt 50 min
blades is of great importance. If the agitator is 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
lillie illfllsioll IIInsllillg
switched off during the rests, the saccharificati- (Illnshillgill nl 62 ec wilh
on time and lautering times are longer and a 10- very wel/Illodified //Inlt )
I
:.J

282
number of boiled mashes and the re is an over- during m ashing. If the agitator is sw itd1ed off,
all tendency to use fewer boiled mashes. the still undissolved mash partides sink to the
The removal and boiling of the boiled mashes bottom of the vessel to form a thick mash, where-
has the following effects: as the dissolved mash components form a thin
less protein breakdown in the boiled mash mash in the upper pa rt of the vessel. The thin
3 3
because of the more rapid hea ting, mash can be drawn off with an articulated pipe.
more ex tensive gelatinisation and liquefacti- The thick mash mu st be boiled to break open
on of the starch, the starch p articles s till contained in it. The thin
increased ex traction of the husks, mash should n o t be boiled becau se it is enri-
increased formation of melanoidins, ched with the enzy mes which ha ve already pas-
in creased removal of dim e thyls ulphid e sed into solution .
(OMS), If possible the thick mash is used as the boi-
reduced amount of active en zy mes in the to- led mash .
tal mash, On second mashing (that is the pumping to-
possibly a higher brewhouse yield. gether of the boiled and unboiled mash), to pro-
Decoction processes use more energy becau- tect the enzym es the boiled mash is pumped
se of the boiling part of the mash, which in ge- with continuous s tirrin g into the unboiled
n eral is about 10 to 20% higher than with infu- mash, and n ever the other way round (Fig.
sion processes since the heating u p of the total 3.39), so tha t if possible, no enzymes are dama-
mash also of course needs energy. ged or d estroyed .
In order to avoid unnecessary and harmful
BoiTed 11Inshes ae ration of the ma sh, nowadays the bo iled
The type and amount of boiled m ash is of parti- mash is no longer plU11ped back in from above
clum importance for the breakdown processes but, if possible, pumped in from below.
To heat up the entire mash from
50 to 64 DC, 1.3 to 1.35 kWh/hi
sa les beer is required.
The amount of boiled 111ash
which must be removed for boi-
ling, in order to reach the desired
temperature after readdition, is
known to the brewer in charge of
mashing from experience and is
about a third to a quarter of the to-
thin mash, tal m ash quantity.
residual mash,
also standing mash On changing the mashing pro-
or lauter mash cess the boiled mash fraction can
be calculated according to the fol-
lowing formula. For this purpose
thick mash it is assumed that it is better to
boiled mash con sider the temperature of the
Fig. 3.39
boiled m ash, because of cooling,
Secolld IIInsitillg to be 95 DC.
des ired tempera - total mash
Boiled ture increase in DC
in hI
mash =
in hI (95 DC - temperature of the
unbo il ed m ash in DC)
Example:
130 hI of mash at a tempera ture of 50 DC must be
heated to 64 DC.
What amo unt of m ash mu s t be boiled?
(64 DC - 50 DC) . 130 hi
Vb111=-'--,.,----,--::---,:.--,--::---
(95 DC - 50 DC)
Vbm = 14 K· 130 hI = 40.4 11.1
45K
TI1e volume of the boiled m ash is 40.4 hI.
All the en zy mes are destroyed by boiling.
Added amylases a re there fore required to ob-
tai.n compl ete s tarch degradation and these are
produced by the unboiled m ash . Thus it is not
possible to boil the entire mash . The duration of
boiling also plays a role, sin ce with longer boi-
ling more starch is dissolved. But since boiling
is associated with con siderable consumption of
energy and therefore costs a lot of money, the
boiling time is limited to that which is absolute-
ly necessa ry. When possible any evaporation
durin g boiling is comple te ly avoided to save
energy.
Normal boiling times are:
mashing of pale beers 10 to 15 min,
mashing of dark beers 20 to 30 min.
Since u se of m an y boiled mashes involves
more energy and time, attempts are made to
use as few boil ed mashes (1 or 2) as possible
and thus to m ash at lower cost and in a shorte r
time.
If the mash is thicker and h eating occurs not
as a result of hea ting up the (entire) mash, but
by mean s of h ot water infusion u sing already
hot wa ter (see ene rgy saving system, Sec t.
-- m
283
3.4. 2.5.3) a t 97 DC, it is possible - particularly
w hen using the infusion process - to save not
inconsiderable am o unts of energy [374]. Hot
water infusion also saves time.
New research [298] h as shown that the quali-
ty and fl avour of beer prod uced USi11g the infu-
sion and decoction processes does not differ. In
the past, the d ecoction process was used above
all to compen sa te for poor m a lt quality. From
tod ay's point of view, as a result of the good
malt qu a lity, decoction is no longer necessa ry
for pale beers. The tecluuca ll y complex decocti-
o n process can be replaced by the derived infu-
sion procedure, w ithout incurring significant
changes in the flavour or qu a lity of the beer.
Th e advantages of the infusion process (lower
energy consumption, the use of o nly one mas-
hing vessel) are considerable and ha ve led to in-
fusion being u sed more and mo re.
Depending on the number of boiled mashes a
differentiation is made between
single m as h processes,
two m ash processes, and
three mash processes.
3.2.4.3.1 Single mash processes
Single mash processes are in principle infusion
processes in wluch a tempera ture increase - usu-
ally tha t between 65 and 75 DC - is aclu eved by
removing, boiling and pumping back a boiled
mash . For example: mashing in at 35 DC and a
slow heating up to 50 DC (or alternatively mas-
11il1g in at that temperature; Fig. 3.40), and a rest
at 50 DC is followed by hea ting of the total mash
to 64 DC with a longer rest at that temperature
(maltose formation) . The cooker mash is then re-
m oved and boiled for 15 to 30 min followed by a
second mashing at 75 DC and saccharifica tion.
A cooker mash ma y also be used be tween the
rests a t 35 and 50 DC or be tween 50 and 64 DC,
but it mus t be remembered that in these cases a
sma ller amount will be boil ed and con sequ ent-
ly the e ffects will be less.
 284 285

80
75 ;--
10
/ \ 70
/4
90
80
v \ 65 .,. -
/3
-- /
3 ---.I 3
70 / \ ".-
;,:> 60 /
/
I

60
/ .-/ .!:
55 /
/ ..=! / "'-.2 I
/
50 50 I
30 60 90 120 150 180
min
Fig. 3.40
w
c.
E 45
/
/
Sillgle IIlnsh process
40
/ I
Fig. 3.40n2
/
/1
process for brenkdowlI 35
60

70
! (1) Ihill IIlnsh
(2) Ihick IIlnsh
30
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
60
/ I" / (3) solu bilnse resl
Time in min
.S
50
\\ / (4) nddilioll of cold wnler

... 40
Cl..
E: 30
1/
20 - --
20 40 60 60
time in min
Maltase process
In the case of normal mashing processes the su-
gars formed consist of about 90% maltose and
maltotriose and only about 10% glucose (and
some fructose). It may, however, be desirable to
considerably increase the maltose content in the
m ash and wort for aroma formation. If the lar-
gest part of the grist load is mashed in normally
(1 : 3) at 62 DC (Fig. 3.40a) and has reached 70 DC
after about 40 min, the gelatinised and partly
degraded mash is cooled to 45 DC by means of a
cold part mash, whereby the rest of the grist lo-
ad is mashed in additionally (1 : 5.5). This part
of the grist load contains the temperature sensi-
tive maltase, which now acts for around 40 min
(maltase rest). This is how the process got its
name (Fig. 3.40a). As a result of this, the gluco-
se content can be increased by the maltase acti-
vity to 35 to 40% (maltase process) [251] .
The composition of the fe rmentation by-pro-
ducts is considerably altered by doing this: ethyl
acetate and isoamyl acetate (banana aroma) are
I
100 120 140 160 Fig.3.40n
Mnllnse process
increased by 70 or 120%, whilst the acetaldehy-
de is lowered by about 40%. In this way it is
possible to have a considerable effect in particu-
lar on the aroma of wheat beer with yeast (He-
feweizen). The longer the rest at 45 DC is obser-
ved, the higher the increase in the glucose
content and thus the composition of these fer-
mentation by-products. The optimml1 is, howe-
ver, reached with a glucose content of 40%.
Process for illcreased /3-glllC(l.1l degmdatioH
When using under-modified malt, care has to
be taken to ensure a subsequent degradation of
the if filtration difficulties are to be
avoided. In this case the grist load is mashed in
thickly at 35 DC and three-quarters of the mash
(Fig. 3.40a2) is heated up to 65 DC (it is also pos-
sible to mash in normally and draw off a quar-
ter as thin mash (1) into a separate vessel). A
half hour rest is observed at 65 DC (3) for the
glucan solubilase, which causes the tmdissol-
ved to become soluble. Through the
addition of cold water (4), the entire mash is
cooled down to 45 DC and the soluble high mo-
lecular weight are degraded to low
molecular weight products by the
canase. Following this, it is possible to mash
normally [326].
The same effect can be obtained by observing
a longer rest at 45 DC, at which the so-
lubilase is also active. At this temperature, ho-
the proteolytic enzymes are also active,
so tha t a poorer foam stabili ty can be expected .
Kettle mash process
A special variation of the single mash process is
the kettle mash process . In this mashing in is at
35 DC and about 20 % of the mash is then remo-
ved to constitute an (unboiled) lauter mash
fraction. The remainder of the mash is, w ith the
observation of rests, heated to boiling and boi-
led for 30 to 40 min. It is then cooled to 65 DC
and wi th the help of the added lauter mash
maltose is formed. The mash is then raised to
saccharification temperature and after sacchari-
fication the mashing off occurs. More extract is
obtained using this method; however, the addi-
tional energy costs which are necessary for this
are, in most cOlmtries, higher than the additio-
nal extract yield .
3.2.4.3.2 Two mash processes
The classical two mash process begins with
mashing in at 45 - 50 DC (Fig. 3.40b). After a brief
rest the thick mash is removed and, with a short
rest period, heated to boiling and boiled for 15
to 20 min . The total mash temperature is raised
by addition of the boiled mash to 64 DC and this
is followed by a maltose formation rest. After a
short time the second decoction mash is remo-
ved and heated to boiling. The second boiled
mash is usually heated for a somewhat shorter
time and it is then returned to raise the total
mash to about 75 DC followed by mashing off.
The two mash process takes about three to three
and a half hours.
It is noticeable from the mashing diagram for
this process that the temperature of 50 DC is over-
emphasised, and consequently there is extensive
protein and breakdown. As a result pa-
late fullness and foam formation suffer and the
beer produced is insipid. Its taste can only be par-
tially restored by the use of dark malt.
In order to avoid this, mashing in can be per-
formed at 50 DC followed by heating to 62 DC
 ...
286 287

to improve the beer quality tu re can of course be perform ed at an y other

100
(e.g. the Kubessa process) or
90 / \ to improve the yield
te mpera ture.

c
80 / \ (e.g. pressure mashing processes, digestion pro- K llbessn process

3 "§
'"
70
/ 1. KM \ cesses). In a mashing p rocess w ith sep ara te g rist frac ti-
3
E
CL [..J / -j" ons, as described by Kubessa and Merz, the
60
/

50
/ / I JII IIIP IIIllsli process (F ig . 3.42)
A th ick m ash (1 pa rt grist, 2.5 parts liquor) is
husks are re ta ined in a separate Sect. of the g rist
30 60
Time in min
90 120 150
180 j Fig. 3.40b ho pper o r mashed into hot wa ter a t 60 °C. The
made a t about 35 - 45 °C and boiling ho t wa ter hu sks a re not added until the end of m as hing.
Two //Iasll process
is add ed until the temperature reaches about 72 The aim of this m as hing m e thod is to p re vent
- 73 0c. In this w ay the OptiJllLU11 temperature of the extracti on of husk constituents. During boi-
·c down . Nevertheless there is s till extensive pro- the p-am ylase is "jumped over". TIle p-amylase ling a large p art of the polyphenol and bitter
100 , ,
.., ,'- tein b rea kdown which leads to the ex pectation does in fac t cause saccharifica tion bu t the large
,, m a te rials in the husks go into solution and the-
, am OLU1t of dextrins g ives a low attenuation linut
,, ,, ,,
of a good foam . H owever, there is n o p-glucan
90 ,, reby sp oil the quality of the ex trac t. This p ro-
, ,, ,,, -
breakd own a t all and so very well m odified of 70 - 73%, as is wanted in nUh'ient-beers or alco- cess is seldom used .
80 15· : , 30' , / malt is essential fo r this m ethod . hol free beers where fermentation has been stop-
,,
70 30· 1/ ped. TI1e jump mash process is performed only Pressure II/n slti Ilg
3.2.4.3.3 Three mash processes with well modified malt. Since the tempera hu'e In norma l m ashing the soluble subs tances are
60
In three mash m ethods the te mpera ture increa- where p-am ylase is effective is jLlln p ed over, after never bro ug ht comple te ly into solution. Th e
50 se between the m ain mash tempera tures a mashing dura tion of two hours at 72 - 73 °C on- spent g rains still conta in some starch and other
35 °C IItnshil1gil1 tell/peratllre ly "red normality" (R) is adueved, in other words, components. If the mash is boiled at an excess
30 60 90 120 mIn
50 °C proteil1 res t / rtlbber lI1aterial degradntioll iodine abnormal. pressure of 2 to 3 ba r, the yield increases by 2 to
64°C IIlaltose fO rti tn tioll res t, al1d Since boiling hot w a ter is infused, su ch a pro- 3%. This is undoubtedl y a substantial improve-
Fig. 3.41
75°C saccharif icatioll res t cess is a lso kno wn as a hot w ater infu sion pro- ment but the quality of the additio nally dissol-
Abridged Iwo IIlns/l process
is produced by the removal of cooker m ashes, cess. Adding hot wa ter to increase the tempera- ved ex trac t is poor, an d in general quality is
boiling and second mashing. Because the un-
and/o r hot water added in order to be able to boiled m ash in these m ethods remains for a
control the protein res t accura tely. very long time a t the m ain m ash temperatures
Another possibility is m as hing in at 35 °C and and the thick mash is subjected to abn ormally =::> for low gravity beer worts with a Vsend (final attenuati on) < 73%
withd rawing the first cooker mash. Of course it severe heat treatments, th ree mash processes
is also necessary to ensure there is a monitored produ ce very arom a tic malty beers. Becau se the 100
protein degrad a tion, which nowadays is u sual- process las ts 4 to 5 hours and requires a great "l
90 ,, wa it to red normal
,,
T,
ly p erformed by control of the FAN content. deal of energy, it is only seldom employed - and
,
A special typ e of two m ash process is the ab- then usually for special da rk beers. Pilsner Vr- 80
ridged two m ash process (Fig. 3.41). The m as- quell is produced u sing the three m ash process.
hing-in tempe ra tlU"e is 62 °C and the process
=>
"§
70 I I- malt mash
'" - water/spent grain mash
lasts onl y two hours - w hi ch gives rise to the 3.2.4.3.4 Special mashing processes CL
E 60
n a me of this process, w hi ch can also be perfor- Sp ecial or unusual mashing processes are those
med as a single m ash or in fusion process. The whi ch have some unusual feature or are used 50
l pump mash into kettle
process requires well and Llluformly modified before or after a conventional mashing process.
40
malt. TIle purpose of special mashing processes is: Fig. 3.42 o 50 100 150 200
The mashing-in tempera ture of 62 °C is abo- to restrict the a ttenuation limit to a low value /111/11' //Iasll process (1101 waler
ve the optimum temperature for p ro tein break- (e.g. jump m as h process), illfl/sioll process )
 288
preferred to the extra yield. Moreover, the pres-
sure mash process requires a pressure maslLing
vessel which can be sealed and tlLis is not often
available.
3 3
DigestioJ/ process
In the digestion process (pre-mashing process)
mashing in occurs on the evening before mas-
hing. In the time up to the begimLing of mas-
hing, dissolving processes already take place,
and the enzymes also begin to work, although
with a very low intensity. Using the digestion
process it is possible to increase the yield so-
mewhat, but the process only functions if one
brew a day is made. This process is hardly ever
used nowadays .
3.2.4.3.5 Mashing with adjuncts
It has been shown that the sugar required for
fermentation is obtained, with the help of enzy-
mes, from the starch in malt. However, starch
does not only occur naturally in malt but in all
types of cereal. In many cOlmtries such cereals
are substantially cheaper than the relatively ex-
pensive malt. As long as one is not bound - as
in Germany - to brew according to the Rein-
heitsgebot, these cheaper cereals can also be
used as partial replacements for malt in wort
preparation, thus reducing costs . These non-
malt materials are called adjuncts. 85 - 90% of
beer brewed worldwide is produced with the
use of adjuncts .
The enzymes in the malt must then break the-
se materials down during mashing. If not more
than 15 to 20% tUlmalted cereal (adjunct) is
used, the enzyme potential in the malt is suffi-
cient for this breakdown. With higher proporti-
ons of adjunct, however, enzyme preparations
must be added to support this degradation pro-
cess, otherwise the breakdown would take a ri-
diculously long time or even come to a stop.
Rice and maize are used in particular as ad-
juncts, but also barley, wheat and sorghuIl., the
latter primarily in African countries. Sugar and
maize syrup are, of course, not lllUl1alted cere-
als, but in tlLis connection they are also used as
a source of extract.
The chemical breakdown of starch when
using adjuncts is in all cases the same as the
breakdown of starch in malt. However, the
starch granules in different cereals have diffe-
rent sizes, are deposited differently in the
starch-containing cells (Sect. 1.5), and are sur-
rounded by different enveloping substances.
T1Lis leads to different behaviours of the starch
granules during gelatinisation and consequent-
ly different processing methods are needed de-
pending on the type of cereal. In addition other
substances in these cereal grains are dissolved
or degraded by the malt enzymes and so the
composition of the mash and wort, and conse-
quently of the beer, is changed . There are effects
on the fermentation, filtration and taste of the
beer and on other parameters.
Thus beer produced using rice has a light and
dry taste. Beer brewed with maize tends to ha-
ve a softer flavour.
In particular, when using adjuncts it must be
remembered that the protein is deposited in the
adjunct in a more stable form and as the result
of the absence of a malting process is degraded
by only a slight extent during mashing. Conse-
quently adjunct mashes contain less low mole-
cular weight nitrogenous material (FAN) than
malt mashes. Care must therefore be taken that,
as a result of sufficient protein degradation,
enough FAN is made available to the yeast. Ne-
vertheless, adjunct beers always contain less ni-
trogen and polyphenols, and they contain less
the higher the adjtUlct proportion is. To accele-
rate the breakdown of protein and produce mo-
re FAN in the wort and beer, it is necessary to
acidify the mash at 62 DC [284] .
The co-use of adjunct always causes an alte-
ration to the beer taste and this increases with
increasing adjllllct usage. This change in taste,
-
......
which should not necessarily be considered in-
fe rior, must be taken into accotmt from the start
when using adjuncts, in particular when it is
necessary to compete in the market place with
competitors who do not use any adjlllKt, but
produce their beer using only malted barley.
Finally, it should be mentioned tbat it is not
possible to produce beer using only adjuncts
(unless through the addition of enzyme supple-
ments); the enzyme potential of malt is requi-
red for the very differentiated breakdown pro-
cesses .
Since adjuncts are acquired above all with
cheaper extract yield in mind (e .g. broken rice),
it is easy to overlook the fact that impurities in
the form of foreign seeds (0.8 % and above) may
be present with the adjlmcts, wlLich, after fer-
mentation, can result in a very high and varia-
ble value [313] . This can have a
considerable effect on the flavour of the beer
(see Sect. 4.6.4.1).
3.2.4.3.5.1 Mashing with rice
Rice is the hardest adjunct to use. The starch
granules of rice are very small and very firmly
embedded (Fig. 1.30). These granules swell only
slowly in warm water. The gelatinisation tem-
perature varies between 67 and 91 DC. For gela-
tilLisation to occur, the temperature has to be
raised to 75 - 90 DC or higher; however, at these
temperatures the amylases are soon destroyed,
and so rice must be processed differently.
Moreover, rice starch swells a great deal on
gelatilLisation, more than starch from other ce-
real s, and tlLis can lead to a burning of the paste
on heated surfaces. If a tlLick mash is made, this
swelling can be so great that the agitator has a
problem stirring the mash, or may even fail to
move unless something is done about it. It is
therefore necessary to find a compromise so
that the malt are able to liquefy the
viscous paste and make it less viscous. The
am ylases are, however, rapidly deactivated at
289
temperatures of about 80 DC and are no longe r
able to liquefy the starch. There are several so-
lutions to this problem:
1. If the rice mashing in produces a less tlLick
mash there is less dange r of any charring. To
disintegrate the rice an adjunct cooker is pre-
ferably used. In older plants this is a closed
kettle in wlLich the rice mash is gelatinised
under pressure (i.e. at a temperature above
100 DC) and thereby optimally disintegrated.
Nowadays adjunct mashes are usually boiled
without excess pressure because the additio-
nal energy required is scarcely justified by
the extra extract.
2. The rice grist is mashed with 10 to 20% of the
malt mash and held for 10 to 20 min at 78 DC
(Fig. 3.43). Thereby almost all the starch is ge-
latinised and liquefied and so there is hardly
any risk that the rice mash will be burnt on
subsequent boiling.
3. There are many rice varieties which do not
gelatinise below 85 DC. The rice mash must
therefore, to be certain, be heated to 85 to
90 DC, gelatinised at that temperature and
then cooled again to 70 to 75 DC in order to be
saccharified in a shorter time by the addition
of a malt mash.
This process has, however, the disadvantage
that it is very difficult to mix the malt mash
with the highly viscous rice mash. It is always
better, when it is possible, to mix the rice
mash before its gelatinisation with part of the
malt mash (at least 10%).
4. Another possibility is to heat the rice mash
with 10 to 20% of the malt mash slowly to
above 80 DC (Fig. 3.44) to liquefy the gelatilLi-
sing starch by the still active in the
malt.
5. A very reliable method is to add commercial,
heat resistant bacterial which is
still active at temperahlres above 80 DC and
consequently liquefies the rice mash. Thus,
for example, the bacterial amylase "Terma-
 290 291

2. The tempera ture is slowly raised to 72 to 75 DC the adjlUlct a t this temperature). The rice starch
(f2.
and held fo r 10 min . is ce rtain ly gela tinised by this. By m ixing w ith

3
'';::;
()
cu 80
/"
,..,--- i'
3. The tem pera ture is increased in 15 to 20 min
to 85 DC; the ri ce is the re by gelatinised and li-
quefied .
a colder m alt m ash, a tem pera ture of about 75 DC
is obtained. Further p rocess ing then occurs wit-
ho ut problem s.
3
U) 60 /' 4. The adjunct mas h is brought to boi ling p oint
Q)

ct: 40 / and boiled for 30 to 40 min .

5. When the boiling of the adjLUlct m ash has be-
M nshillg with rice: Exnmple 2 (Fig. 3.44)
1. The rice is m ashed by itself at 85 to 90 DC and

20
/ gun the malt is mas hed in a t 50 DC (protein
40 50
myl" (N ovozymes Switzerland, Dittingen)
produced from Bacillus licheniform is, is still
effective at temperahues above 90 DC (Fig.
3.42a) . This can be utilised in the processing of
rice. For information about bacterial
see Sect. 3.2.4.3.5.6. The varying optimal tem-
peratures of the same enzym e in different or-
ganisms depend on which gene the enzyme is
linked to in the organism in question.
When it h as been possible to gelatinise and li-
quefy the rice mash, the hardest obstacle has
been overcome. Further processing can then be,
for example, as shown in the following. The
rest).
gela tinised . TIle viscosity of the mash must not
be too high after the gelatinisation, otherwise
Fig. 3.42a
6. The adjunct m ash is s lowly pumped into the the mash will be too thick an d possibly bmn on
11Ij1I1eJ/ce of tempera tllre 0 11 tile
60 70 80 90 activity of tile bacterial nlllylase ma lt m ash w ith continuous stirring. The te m- the vessel (in extreme cases the agitator may
"Tefl llamyl1 20 L" pera ture of the to ta l m ash is then 63 DC (m al- not move) and sacch arifica tion difficulties m ay
tose form a tion res t) . occur. The rice on its own is therefore mashed
starting point is a fine rice gris t. Because the ri- 7. After 15 min rest, the thi ck mash is drawn off, in w ith at least 5 hI of liquor (water) per 100 kg.
ce swells consid erab ly on gelatinisa tion, it h ea ted to boi ling and boiled for 15 min. 2. The ho t rice mash is mixed with colder malt
should be m ashed with no t less than 5 hI of wa- 8. By adding back the cooked mash the tempe- m ash (30 to 50 DC), made up with 20% of the
ter p er 100 kg of rice g rist (1 : 5). rahue of the total m ash is raised to 74 DC (sac- malt, so tha t the temperature is 72 to 75 DC.
Rice gives an approx imately 2% higher yield ch arification rest) . 3. A 20 to 30 min res t is u sed a t 72 to 74 DC and
than malt. 9. After sacch arifica ti on the entire m ash is hea- the gela tinised rice starch liquefied by the in-
ted to 78 DC and m ash ed off. tac t malt en zy mes.
Mashing witl, rice: Exa/llple 1 (Fig. 3.43) TIl ere are certain rice va rie ties whose s tarch 4. The liquefied rice m ash is brou ght to boiling
1. The rice is mashed in w ith 10 to 20 % of the does n o t gela tinise below 80 DC. To obtain com- point and boiled for 30 to 40 min.
malt grist at 50 DC and held at this temperatu- plete gela tinisa ti on man y breweries, followin g 5. When the rice m ash h as started to boil the re-
re for 10 to 15 min. A ratio of 4 hl of w ater to a proposal by Le Corvaisier, heat the pure ad- mainder of the m alt is m ashed in at 50 DC
100 kg of grist is u sed so that the mash is not jlUlct m ash firs t of all to 85 to 90 DC (or mash in (protein rest).
too thicle

'c

boWrig
100

·c
'" Rice mash
100
1 -\ gelaJjnisaJion

90
/ \ 1 \

80
/ \ 1
1
\
\
\
70 j lique,acliO/l
-
r \\ _ I
1

""
1/
70
I /
60
/ ,. maH mash

50
/ 2, I Fig. 3.43 40

Mas/lillg witll rice

(Exnl llple 1) Fig. 3.44
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
(1 ) rice Illnsll Mas/lillg witll rice
Time in min Time in min
(2) malt mas/l (Example 2)
 292
6. The ri ce mash is pumped into the malt mash
with con tinuous stirring and the temperature
of the total mash is increased to 63 °C (malto-
se formation rest).
7. After 15 min rest, the thick mash is drawn off,
3 3
hea ted to boiling and boiled for 15 min .
8. By adding back the cooked m ash the tempe-
rature of the total mash is raised to 74 °C (sac-
charification rest) .
9. After saccharification the entire mash is hea-
ted to 78 °C and mashed off.
3.2.4.3.5.2 Mashing with maize corn
Maize corns have very oily seedlings (up to 5 %
fat content) which are removed during proces-
sing of the corns to produ ce corn oil. Breweries
use maize in the form of grits or flakes. Maize
starch only gelatinises at 73 to 79 °C.
Grits are supplied finely milled and are usu-
ally diSintegrated in a cereal cooker, with or
without malt, and gelatinised.
Flakes are squashed flat in a flake rolling mill.
In this process the steeped corns are passed bet-
ween smooth, internally cooled, rollers apply-
ing a 50 t pressure and nnUling at the sam e
s peed, whi ch squeeze the corns to form flat fla-
kes. Gelatinisation and drying then occurs in a
turbulent flow drier at around 160 °C. These
pre-trea ted flakes can be added to the mash tun
without further pre-treatment.
Flour can be added to the mash vessel wit-
hout further pre-treatment. Syrups are added
to the wort kettle before casting.
The same factors must be considered for the
use of maize adjlU1ct as for pure m alt ITlashes,
and in general two mash p rocesses are used.
Untreated maJt starch gelatinises between 73
and 79 °C.
3.2.4.3.5.3 Mashing with barley as adjunct
Up to 20 % barley can be used as an adjlU1ct with
mal t without addition of enzymes. There are two
possible ways of pre-treating the barley:
as barley grist by gri nding the very h ard bar-
ley corns in a specia l roller frame or h ammer
mill. The closely ad hering husk is thereby
ground with it, which mu st be taken into ac-
count when Imltering, or
as barley flakes from d ehusked or lU1d ehus-
ked barley by fl akin g in a special roller frame.
This method req uires a large investment ex-
pense and cannot be used in breweries wit-
hout a lot of additional effort.
The barley adjunct trea ted in thi s way can be
mashed with the m alt. Whilst there is no grea t
problem with s tarch degradation, an eye must
be kept on protein breakdown. Above all, pro-
blems can occur with which h as not
yet been broken down and may give rise to fil-
tration problems. At leas t part of the work of
the maltings h as to be repea ted . Longer rests at
45 °C, the tempera ture optimum of
canase, have proved successful (Sect. 3.2.1.4).
Barley inevitably contributes less extract than
malt. About 125 kg of barley (or 120 kg of de-
husked barley) mu st be used to replace 100 kg
of malt. Use of barley as adjunct only pays
when the malt prices are llIlusually high or very
cheap, low protein barley is available .
If more than 20 - 25% barley adjlU1ct is used,
the addition of enzymes is necessary (see follo-
wing Sect.).
3.2.4.3.5.4 Mashing with sorghum
Sorghum beer is brewed in many African CO LU1-
h'ies; in South Africa the annual output is now 30
million h1. It is made from 30% sorghum maJt
and 70% adjlU1ct consisting of sorghum, maize
or millet. The latter is a small grained cereal
which is also used fo r human nutriti on in
Europe.
Usually 80 to 90% maize is used when ma-
king sorghllIll beer, the maize being milled and
mixed with lac tic acid. The lactic acid is thus a
major flavour component and it also extends
the life of the sorghum beer, which is in any ca-
se only about 100 hours. Wa ter is added to the
mixture which is then boiled for two hours and
then cooled to 80 °C. Sorghum Inalt is then ad-
ded and the entire mixture is cooled to 40 °C.
The remainder of the sorghum malt is added at
this tempera hIre before cooling to about 22 °C.
It is filtered at this tem pera ture and yeast is ad-
ded. After three d ays fermentation is comple-
ted and the alcohol content is then about 4% by
vol. The cloud y sorghum beer is packaged llIl-
filtered .
In severa l African countries it is becoming in-
creasingly common to produce beer in conven-
tional brewing plants from 100% sorghllIll and
millet, without an y barley malt or commercial
en zymes. However, a special mashing procedu-
re is necessary [131]. Sorghum malt can achieve
extracts of 79 to 84% which also give satisfacto-
ry yields. The desired attenuation limit can also
be obtained without any problem.
The wort is acidified before it is boiled toget-
her with the adjunct. For protein degradation a
pH of 4.6 at a tempera ture of 52 °C is aimed for,
in order to have sufficient low molecular
weight protein brea kdovvn products (FAN) for
yeast nutrition. Particular attention must be
paid to protein composi ti on. It is not possible to
achieve a colloid s tability for millet beers wit-
hout additional aid. In sm all rural breweries
sorghum beer is not hopped, is cloudy when
sold and only keeps for a short time [129].
3.2.4.3.5.5 Mashing with sugar or sugar syrups
Sugar is soluble and fermentable . Sugar is, na-
turally, not used by itself but as an addition to
the malt mash of 5 to 15%, possibly with an ad-
junct addition. Howe ver, because the sugar do-
es no t have to be broken down during m ashing,
it is ad ded to the hop kettl e a mere 10 min befo-
re casting. A ttention mu s t be paid to the
amoun t of ex trac t obtained from the su gar
used. Instea d of 100 kg of malt, 78 kg of sugar
are used. The su gar contributes no protein or
293
zinc to the wor t. This must be remembered par-
ticul a rl y in relation to the FAN so that fe rmen-
tation difficulties are not encountered.
Instead of the often expensive sugar or sugar
syrups, HFSS corn syrup (high fructose sucrose
sy rup) is often employed (see Sect. 1.5.7). The ad-
dition is similarly made to the hop kettle.
3.2.4.3.5.6 Use of enzyme preparations
in mashing
All life processes in living organisms are con-
trolled by enzymes. This applies to synthetic
processes in plants and animals as well as all
breakdown processes. Enzymes are therefore
essenti al for the fLU1ctioning of all liv ing orga-
nisms.
All micro-organism s also con tain enzymes
speci fic to the particular organism, able to p er-
form a series of operations by means of which
they are able to break do wn specific substances
in order to obtain the energy they need to sur-
vive and grow.
Importllllce of ellzYl11es ill everyday life
Enzymic cataJytic reactions have long since been
used in the processing of food. The enzymes are
thereby either an original component of the food
(as, for example, in the case of badey) or they are
introduced by means of micro-organisms (e.g. by
yeas t). Many traditionaJ teclmologies such as, for
example, wine or cheese production, are based on
the action of microbiaJ enzymes. Here, the enzy-
mes are in fact formed by the micro-organisms
but they achlally work outside the Li ving cell. This
was first proved in 1897 by the Buclmer brothers
who, after completely grindulg up the yeast cells,
were nevertheless able to produce fermentation
with the cell-free yeast extract (E. Buclmer recei-
ved the Nobel prize for this in 1907).
Nowa d ays there is an enzyme indus try
w hi ch manufactures pure enzymes by the ton
and w ithout w hich everyd ay li fe wo uld be uni-
maginable . Thus, modern was hing products
 294
contain microbially p roduced p roteases, lipa-
ses, am ylases, cellul ases and o ther en zy mes
which make it possible to clean dirty tex tiles at
lukewa rm temperatures and disp ose of the dir-
ty wa ter in a largely environmentally friendl y
3 3
way.
Dish washing detergents are also high ly effec-
ti ve at low temperatures as well as being envi-
ronmentally friendly.
In the m anufac ture of textiles en zymes pl ay
an important role in d e-dressing, bleaching, as
well as the fini shing of jeans (rubbing in the
blue dye). Th e manufacture of textil es, as well
as the paper and lea ther industries, would n o
longer be able to fun ction w ithout enzymes.
Enzymes are especially important in baking,
where they make pastries light and crusts brown,
make it possible to work with cooled or frozen
dough and delay the process of going stale.
Their importance for the starch and sugar in-
dustries, the production of wine and fruit juice,
the isolation of proteins, the manufacture of ani-
mal food and particularly for the pharmaceutical
industry receives just a brief mention here.
Such enzyme p reparations can also be used
in the production of beer in as far as the b eer is
not brewed according to the Reinheitsgebot. In
this case, of course, no other en zymes can be
added other than those contained in the barley
and yeas t.
Since in man y cOtU1tries, however, the additi-
on of adjunct is used for purely econ omic rea-
sons and fu rthermore technological problems
may arise in the production of beer, inform ati-
on on the advantages, the isolation and use of
enzymes in the production of beer should be gi-
ven here.
The targe ted use of enzymes offers, tU1der
certain circums tances, a ran ge of ad va ntages:
en zyme preparations have a distincti ve sub-
s trate and reaction specificity,
they have a high reaction sp eed at mild tem-
peratures,
others are extremely hea t resis tan t,
they allow a con trolled and fas t sequen ce of
reactions, and
they can be produ ced tech n ica ll y in p ure
form.
Enzym es mallufac tured fr om mould s or bac-
teria for the p rodu ction of beer are in particular:
amylases to promote the break-
down of starch in the brewh ouse in the case
of a high proporti on of adjunct alld the com-
pl ete degrad ation of s tarch in the production
of low carbohyd ra te beers (diet beers),
proteases to increase protein d egrad ation
alld raise the FAN p roportion,
glucan ases to brea k d own hi gh molecul ar
weight glu cans in the brewhou se so as to pre-
vent filtration problems,
decarboxylases to p revent the formation of
diace tyl during fermentation .
These mould or bac terial enzymes h ave a dif-
ferent configuration to the barley and malt en-
zymes because they are coupled to other pro-
tein ca rriers . They there fore have different
temperature alld pH optim ullls from m alt en-
zymes; some are even still ac tive at temperatu-
res above 90 °C (e.g. Term a-
m y!, mad e by Novozy mes; Fig. 3.42a). The
concentrati on of the en zyme supplements lies
between 100 and 400 ml/t malt or adjtU1ct alld
the m al1Ufac turer's instructions should be foll o-
wed .
MmlllfactHre of el/z yllles
In order to manufacture enzymes, a micro-or-
galnsm which develops the d esired enzyme (or
enzymes), becau se it requires it for its metabo-
lic process, is cultivated in pure form. This mi-
cro-organism can be a mould or a strain of bac-
teria . The pure culture is produ ced, exactly as
in yeast cultiva tion, in cylindrical conical tanks
Lmder conditions w hich are optimal for the mi-
cro-organism (nutrient solution, optimal pH
and tempera hire, ae rati on or atlaerobic etc.).
When stifficie nt biomass has been created the tis-
sue is conmlinu ted . This tissue maceration requi-
res particular attention. The tissue is homogeni-
sed in the presence of all extraction buffer which
often contains appropriate admixtures to protect
the enzym e fr om ox id ation . As a rule large
atll0lll1tS of the starting material have to be pro-
cessed during ex traction because the enzyme
proportion in the ex tracted protein fraction is
smail alld large am ounts are lost on cleaning. Fi-
nally the enzyme is enriched alld cleaned, where-
by most emphasis is on the separation of the ac-
comp an ying pro teins with fractional preci-
pi ta tion methods or according to molecul ar
weight areas. The fraction which contains the de-
sired enzyme is collected alld further separated .
The total sep aration fro m the accompallying pro-
teins is carried out using an elech'ophoretic p ro-
cedure with a high separa tion efficiency, so that
at the end of the process there is a pure enzyme
which is fully separated from the original micro-
orgaln sm alld also fully sep ara ted from other en-
zymes alld enzyme complexes of tins orgalnsm .
The culture filt rate thus won does n ot keep
long. To obtain the required longer storage life,
atl enzyme prep ara tion has to be converted:
Cl/ ltl/re cOllcentrates
These are produced by further concentration of
a p urified and concentra ted filtrate and,
tlu'ough the addition of s tabilising agent, h ave
a longer s torage life. They are offered in liquid
form and h ave to be stored under cool conditi-
ons. In general a declared storage life of over
thJee months at 25°C is gu aranteed . By cooling
the storabiIity Call be increased to a year but the
activity then slowly decreases.
Dry proal/cts
These are m anufactu red by spray, vacuum or
freeze drying concentra tes and are sold in
powder form. Before addition they are stirred
into warm wa ter and ac ti vated .
295
Gralll/la tes
Enzyme grallul ates have a grain si ze of 0.4 to
0.6 mm, are easy to store and can be preserved
for a lon g time.
Use of eHZYlll e preparatiolls
Enzyme preparations are brought onto the mar-
ket by the lllallLifachlrers using made-up naln es.
In the insh'uctions, in particular the safety data
sheet, the mallufachlring, area of applica tion,
p roduct speci fications, properties of the enzyme,
dosage, application, h alldling, sa fety information
all d storage conditions are described.
The ad vice provided by the manu facturer
should be followed exactly.
3.2.5 Mashing duration
In a smail brewelY the time it takes to mash is not
of major importal1Ce. If only one brew is mashed
per d ay, mashing in is performed early alld cast-
ing out in the afternoon . In that case tile mash do-
es not have to be made within all exact time.
However, the greater the number of brews
winch have to made per day, the more one is sub-
jected to time restraints. In large modern brewe-
ries often eight brews or more per d ay are cast.
With eight brews a d ay, mashing in alld cas t-
ing out must occu r every three h ours; in the ca-
se of twelve brews, every two hours. Tins de-
m ands not only the use of short mash processes
but also of al1 exact time plal1 wInch tolerates no
delays alld w ith winch everytlnng must work
to the minute.
Such a time regime leads nahl ra lly to the in-
troduction of computer cont rol of the entire
brewing process, through which subjecti ve er-
rors are exclud ed and the brewer h as m ore reli-
able control.
Th e following mashing times have to be cal-
cula ted :
inf usion p rocess with well modified malt
1.5 to 2 hours
decoction process 2 to 3 h ours.
 296 297

3.2.6 Control of mashing paration process is called lautering. During lau- % concentration ratio of amou nts If the first wor t has a higher concentration its
Mashing is performed according to the schedules tering as much as possible of the extract should of the first wo rt first wor t: amount is inevitably smaller, and therefore mo-
established by the management of the brewery. be recovered. sparging wa ter re sparging water can be used the higher the
In the brewing record all relevant details Lautering is a filtration process in which the 20 1: 1.5 first wort concentration is. Thus with a higher
(amount of grist, amOlmt of cast wort, times, tem- spent grains play the role of the filter materia l. 22 1: 1.9 percentage first wor t, a higher y ield is also ob- 3
3 The larger the amount of sp arging ,,,,ater pas- tained. The lautering temperature is thereby
peratures, etc.) must be entered by the person in It occurs in two stages which, strictly delimi-
charge of mashing. These entries must be made ted, succeed one another: sed through the spent gra ins, the 1T1Ore tho- very important.
exactly and form the basis for the records in the running off of the first wort (main mash), roughly they a re ex trac ted and consequently As the temperature increases the viscosity of
brewhouse book which the brewery must keep. sparging (washing out) of the sp ent grain s the higher the yield. the liquid decreases and filtration occurs more
In modern brewhouses the values are registe- (second wort). But the larger the amOLLI1t of water passed rapidly.
red by computer in the records. They can al- through the spent gra ins, the larger the amOLLI1t This means that lautering would be fas test at
ways be ca ll ed up on a display screen, are s to- 3.3.1 First wort and second wort of water w hich must be evaporated again. 100 °C. Although undissolved residual starch is
red and, when needed, called up for display The wort draining off from the spent grains is cal- Thu s a compromise mus t be fOlLl1d between in every case washed out of the spent grains du-
and printed. led the first wo rt. When this wort has been drai- lautering tim e and yield, and ring sparging, late saccharifica tion by
But in every case the iodine test is performed ned from the spent grains, the latter still contain boiling tim e and energy costs . se can only occur provided it h as not been deac-
by the person in charge of mashing. extract. For economical operation this extract
must now be recovered. Consequently the spent
3.2.7 Mashing intensity grains are sparged after the first wort has l'LLI1 off. Lautering volume in hI
Control of the mash intensity m eans that infor- Sparging gradua lly dilutes the wort. o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
I
mation is available regarding the degree of pro- In order to obtain the d esired wort concentra- 20
tein breakdown, and thus the intensity of other tion at the end of lautering, the first wort must 19 I I I I I I
1\ ......
18 \ ...... -..
brea kdown processes during mashin g. To contain 4 to 6% more ex tract than the beer to be -..,
17 1
achieve this, the nitrogen content of the plant produced, e.g. for a 12% beer it must contain 16 1' -..,
16
wort is divided by the nitrogen content of the
congress wort. This quotient, which has an in-
to 18 %.
The extract retained by the spent grains is
15
14
\ " ./, 3
dex va lu e of 104 % and can fluctuate between washed out by hot water. This process is called
?f?
.S:
13
12
1\ I',
" ,
105 and 115 %, can be drawn on to compare dif- sparging. The thillller wort nuu1ing off is called Q)

E: 11 \ 1/2
ferent mashing processes. Higher values indi- second wort. Its extract content decreases ra- 10 1\ -
cate higher mashing intensity. pidly at first and then more and more slowly,
since the last ex trac t is washed out of the spent
't5 9
8
'\ ,
7
3.3 Lautering grains only with difficulty; this is above all a
6 "-
diffusion process (Fig. 3.45).

"
At the end of the mashing process the mash 5
consists of a wa tery mixhue of dissolved and The amount of sparging water used depends 4
undissolved substances. on the amolmt and concentration of the first 3
wort and the concentration to be reached in the 2
The aqueous solution of the extract is called
1
40 50 55
176 ,3%
wort, the insoluble part is referred to as the spent kettle. The following ratios apply to a 12 % beer:
0
10 20 30 , 60 65
, , 70 71 72 73 74
, , ,
grains. The spent grains consist essentially of the 0 130 140 150 2 210 2 20 2 30 2 40 2 50 3 305
husk, the seedling and other materials which do % concentration ratio of amounts
not go into solution on mashing or have agajn of the first wort first wort: I-- 4 .1 5 .1 6
been precipitated during wort boiling. sparging water
Fig. 3.45
Only the wort is used for beer production and 14 1: 0. 7
Lnllterillg dingrnlll (exnlllple)
for this purpose it must be separated as comple- 16 1: 1.0 (1) collcetltrntioll of firs t wort, (2) COllcelltrntioll of secolld wort, (3) wort collcetltrntioll ill tlte first ""Illlillgs vessel or wort kett-
tely as possible from the spent grains. This se- 18 1: 1.2 le, (4) first wort, (5) secolld wort, (6) Inst ""Illlillgs
 298
tivated by tempera tures above 78 °C. Lautering
at 100 °C con sequently always results in blue
mashes. In this case an attempt has to be m ade
to make up for the oversight by adding m alt ex-
tract in the ferm entation cellar - although with
3 3
negative results.
Because is quickly destroyed at 80 °C
it is n ecessa ry to keep below this temperature
during lautering.
The wor t rLllUling off is more or less brilli ant.
Th e degree of turbidity can be p articularly af-
fected in the lauter hm. The substances causing
h aze contain fatty acids and breakdown pro-
ducts which are required by the yeast for the
d evelopment of new ce ll subs tan ces. Turbid
worts therefore often lead to a shorter fermen-
tation time of 1 (to 2) d ays [309]. Furtherm ore,
research studies [296] h ave sh own that beers
produced from wort w ith a hlrbidity of 40 EBC
taste somewhat fresher, fuller, more palatable,
more floral, purer, softer, mo re pleasant w ith a
clea ner bitter flavour and generally have m ore
character. These beers, h owever, are not so sta-
ble w ith regard to ageing . A setting of 20 EBC
hlfbidity va lue [381] is therefore recommended
for lautering, with no cold break removal.
3.3.2 Last runnings
Sparging is performed lUltil the desired concen-
tration is reached in the hop kettle. The low per-
centage wort whi ch runs off las t is called las t
runnings. In the case of a regula r beer (Vall bier)
the last runnings still h ave an extract content of
about 2 (-3) %; longer sp arging is lUleconomical
because the costs for eva porating the additional
amount of sparging water would conSiderably
exceed the benefits in the form of more extract
(cos t-ben efit threshold). This is sometimes used
as m ashing-in wa ter or sp arging water for the
next brew. In the case of Bockbier the sp ent
grains cannot be sufficiently sparged because
otherwise the wort con centration would be re-
duced too much. In the case of these beers the
299
las t secon d worts are often used as mashingin therefore dep ends on the energy price and the are retained and fi lter the wort. In recent yea rs
wa ter for li ghter beer (Ein fa chbier), w hich is malt p ri ce in the COL1I1try. the d esign and man ner of operating lauter tuns
made as the follow ing brew. Mash sepa ration is p erformed either w ith a have un dergone many chan ges. Beca use m any
Towards the end of sp a rging, increas ing lauter h m or a m ash filter. old er type lauter h 1l1s are s till in use in Germa-
amounts o f lmdesirable material (polyphenols ny, the s tructure of older typ e lauter tlU1S will
and bitter subs tan ces from the hu sks, silicic 3.3.3 Mash separation w ith a lau ter tun be considered fi rs t in the following and new
acid, etc.) pass into solution: Lauter tLms are the oldest and by far the mos t lauter tuns will then be consid ered. Th ere are,
% composition of the extract widely used m as h sep ara tion equ ipmen t. A of cou rse, a large number of in termed ia te mo-
in the in the second wort lauter h m consists of a cylindrica l vessel, on the difica ti ons, but these canno t all be considered
firs t wort (sp argings) slotted do uble bottom of wluch the sp ent gra ins here.
Ma ltose 58.95 53.07
N-containing
subs tances 4.34 5.38
Inorganic
compound s 1.54 2.54
Silicic acid
(as SiO,) 0.1481 0.4536
If one wishes to p roduce a high qu ality beer,
the spent grains mus t no t be ex tracted too
mu ch, i.e. not sparged too long .
In this connection one mus t also think care-
fully about the use of the las t nUUlings as mas-
lung-in liquor for the next brew.
Prolon ged sparging and reuse of las t run-
nings improve the yield but reduce the quality.
The qu ality of the wort should therefore b e con-
sidered in cOlUlection with the extract yield.
Wh en the la s t runnings are n evertheless
used, they should be treated with active carbon
to remove undesirable fl avo ur compon ents.
Spargin g is therefore usually completed with
the las t second wort.
In addition to quality consideration s about
the use of untrea ted las t nuulings, the increased
energy cos ts also impose a limit w hich is refer-
red to as the economic threshold for use of las t
nuulings. Use of last runnings is financially ad-
Fig. 3.46
vantageous only up to the p oint at which the Lnllier 11111 (old Iype)
value of the additional extrac t exceed s the cost (1) chill/lley, (2) lop covel; (3) Inll ier 11111 bottoll/, (4) rell/ovable fa lse bottoll/, (5) illsll iniioll, (6) II/nsh ill lei pipe, (7) rake IIllil wilh
of the energy required for evaporation of the kllives, (8) rake IIl1il drive, (9) rake liflillg device, (10) high press lire wnler pipe, (11 ) spmge waleI' slI pply pipe, (12) Scottish cap-
wa ter. The threshold for use of las t flumin gs slnll, (13) I'IIII -off pipes, (1 4) Wal'l col/eclioll cOll lrol llllil, (15) swall lIeck valves, (1 6) spell l graill discharge
 300 301

3.3.3.1 Desig n o f an older lauter tun (Fi g. 3.46) Equipment parts Fun ction s Co mm en ts
Equi pment part Fun ction Comm ents
Dri ve fo r the To move th e The ro tation of the drive sha ft m oves the raking arm s. There are two
Chimney (1) Vapour re moval Many lau te r tLU1S d o not have a chimney. Since there is no delibera- kni ves (S) rak ing uni t speeds: slow speed for cut ting the spent g rains; hi gh speed for spent
3 te evaporati on, it is not absolutely necessa ry. However, it is useful g ra in re moval.
3
fo r remo ving wa ter va pour.
Knife u nit li f- To ra ise an d The bottom end of the dri ve shaft fo r the rake LUlit is cOlUlected to a
Lid (2) To cover the tun. Re- ting dev ice (9) lower the kni ves piston whi ch ca n m ove u p o r dow n in a fixed built-in cylinder. By
du ction of hea t loss m eans of water or stea m p ress ure be low the piston the rake unit is
raised, and w ith it the kni ves. On re lease of the pressure they are lo-
TWl bottom (3) ColJection of wort The lauter tun s' bottom is made co mpletely fl a t and has an opening we red again .
an d sp a rgings for every 1.2 to 1.S m' of su rface to whidl a lauter l'LUl-off pipe is con-
nected from below. The openin gs are called tapping openin gs. They Pressure pi pe Supply of The water pressure must be produced by a special hand pump or
are distributed as evenl y as possible over alJ the nUl bottom . (10) pressurised wa ter the ra ke wlit must be moved up and d own m echani cally.

Rem ovable fal- Retention of the A 3 to S mm thi ck false bottom made from hard phosphor bronze of ot- Sparge wa ter Spa rge w ater The sparge wa ter, wllich comes fro m the hot wa ter storage tank,
se Bottom (4) s pent gra ins her material. There are about 2,500 to 3,000 slits, 30 to 70 mm long and 0.7 pipe (11) supply must be b rough t to the d esired tempera ture of 7S to SO DC in an in-
to 0.9 mm wide per 1 m' fo r the nUUling wort whid l widen out below to termedi ate mi xing tallk.
3 to 4 mm, so that they CaiUlot beco me blocked by the spent grains. The
free passage surface is up to 10% of the total surface. For easier manipu- Scottish ca pstan Sparge wa te r The sparging d evice con sists of two m ovable arms which are arran-
lation the false bottom is divided into 0.6 to O.S m' segments which are (12) di stribution ged either freely mova ble above the ra ke unit (Scottish ca pstan) or
lifted Halld moved in and out tlu'ough a door in the lid. are perm anently fi xed to the rake LU'lit and can only rotate toge ther
with the latter.
Insul a ti on (S) P revention of wort Built as a wall arOlUld the lauter nUl with hea t insulation . Cooling
cooling would OCCLU' a t the periphery first, the outer wort layers would then RLUl-off p i pe Removal of the The pipes slope gentl y d ow n to the wor t collecting trough (grant) .
flow more slowly because of their lligher viscosity and the yield (13) wort and spargings
would be reduced .
Wor t collection Collection o f wort All the nUl-off pipes open into nUl-off valves above a copper collec-
Mash inlet pipe Introdu ction of the The m ash inlet pipe lead s from the mash pump beneath the m ash contro l uni t (14) and spargings for ting vessel, the run-off grant, wllich is equipped wi th three outle ts:
(6) m ash into the lau- vessel of the lauter nUl. The mash is pumped in at a speed of 1.6 m/s; d e livery to wo rt 1. to the cloudy wort pump, 2. to the wort kettle, 3. to the waste w a-
tel' nUl the final m ash pumping lasts up 30 min . ke ttle ter drain.

Rake unit (7) Loosening the The rake LUlit is often a lso called a cutting unit. It con sists of two
spent g rains a rms to w llich one or two rows of knife blades a re fi xed on the bot-
tom side. The knives are usu ally stra ight but often wavy and they
have small plough-like cross pieces for loosenin g the spent grains.
By means of a gear unit the blad es a re moved parallel to one allOt-
he r. By m ea ns o f a h andle or h and w heel the blades can be aligned
with or a t right angles to the rotati on direc tion. To cut the spent
g rains the kni ves mus t point in the direction of ro ta tion.
Di scharg ing the To push the spent grains out (spent grain re moval), the blades are
spent gra ins se t a t right angles to the direction of rotation .
Swan neck val- Even run- off The run-off val ves are swan neck va lves (also known as Emsland
ves (IS) hens) (Fig. 3.47), so called because of their shap e. The w ort must rise
up again in the vertical pipe of tllis va lve. The hyd rostatic pressure is
thereby greatl y reduced, tile spent grains are not compacted and wort
separa tion p roceed s faster. A pipe is connected to the nUl-off valves
tlu'ough wllidl hot water can be forced before tile start of mashing of
tlu'ough the n Ul-off pipes below the false bottom to remove the air.
Spent gra in Spent grain remo- To remove the spent grains the discharge cover is opened . There is
di scharge cover va l a tro ugh fixed below the di scharge opening in which a screw con-
(16) veyo r m oves the spent grains away.
 302 303

3 3

Fig. 3.47
Swall lIeck tap
(1) /"/III-off pipe, (2) tap ill /"/III-off positioll, (3) risillg pipe with
air escape, (4) drmuillg-offoll tiel, (5) lallter gmllt

Fig. 3.48a: Lallter tllil (Z ielllallll type)

(1) vellt pipe, (2) ClP cOllllectioll, (3) COllllectioll to hydmlllic sys telll, (4) brillg-ill openillg, (5) sealed covel; (6) sparge watel; (7)
hyrlmlllic cylilldel; (8) kllife bars, (9) spellt gmills blades, (10) spellt gmills flap (opell), (11) IIlnsh ill let valve, (12) drive, (13)
fal se bollolll rillsillg, (14) /"/Ill-off pipes, (15) rillg pipes, (16) grillage for stable erectioll, (1 7) sllbst/"/lCtll re, (18) lIIash ill let, (19)
filtratioll systelll 1, (20) filtratioll systelll 2, (21) wort PllIllP, (22) Ilydralllic liftillg all rllowerillg device, (23) Illash PllIllP, (24)
SPellt gmills collveyor

The damaging effect of oxygen on wort has
been known for a fairly long time. Especially
when the wort l'lms out of the swan neck valves
into the wort grant, the oxygen uptake is very
high. In order not to h ave to buy a new lauter
h.m, m any breweries have cOJU1ected the run-
off pipes (13) behind the swan neck valves into
a collecting pipe and lea d the wort, without
oxygen uptake, directly into the wort copper or
Fig. 3.48 underback. The beautiful appearance of the
Lallter tllll "Lallterstar" (Hllpplllall" , Kitzillgell)
(1) lIIash sllpply pipe, (2) mash illiet valve, (3) rakillg alld wllillg IllIit, (4) kllife, (5) spellt gmill removal beam (mised), (6) drive
lauter grant is retained but it no longer has any
alld liftillg device for mke IIl1it, (7) /"/III-off pipes, (8) celltml wort collectioll cIlnlllbel; (9) wort removal to wort PIllIlP, (10) sparge function. It is still used, however, as a rinsing
wa tel; (11) CIP spmy Ilend, (12) spellt gmill hoppel; (13) viewillg willdow alld lightillg water outlet.
3.3.3.2 Design of newer lauter tuns
(Figs. 3.48 and 3.48a)
Like all otl1er brew house equipment, lauter tuns
are now made of chrome-nickelsteel and ther-
mally insulated on all sides. The mash is fed in
from below in order to keep oxygen uptake as
low as possible (Fig. 3.49). The 2 to 6 closable in-
let valves are operated from below (Fig. 3.50) and
must ensure a l'lm-off tin1e of not more than 10
min . At the same time the velocity in the inlet
opening should not be greater than 1 m/s.
The false bottom is made of chrome-nickel-
s teel and is constructed (Fig. 3.51) as a bar-
 304 305

screen bottom w ith slit widths of 0.7 to 0.9 111m
and a free flow through surface of up to 12 % or
as a slotted floor with slits 0.7 mm by 80 mm
and a free flow through surface of 8 to 10 %.
The specifi c fal se bottom loading is carried
3 3
ou t as follo ws:
140 to 175 kg/rn2 in the case of dry milling
150 to 210 kg/m 2 in the case of conditi on ed
milling
200 to 280 kg/m 2 in the case of s teep conditio-
ned milling.
Thro ugh a slightly tilted p ositioning of the
segment elements (Fig. 3.51; 4) the fl ow rela ti-
onship is imp roved, which is reflected in p urer
wort. The p ositioning of the segment ele ments
during sp ent grain rem oval prevents the spent
g rain p articles fro m clogging the slits, so that
they can be more easily removed from them .
The false bottom is fi xed 20 mm above the h.m
bottom and, as a result of an arran gement of
spray nozzles below the false bottom, easy and
thoroug h cleaning of the space beneath the fa l-
se bottom is possibl e (Fig . 3.52).
If the false bottom is lowered nearer to the h.m
bottom there must be more run-off openings. The
lower limit is about 10 nun since the spray nozz-
les for the cleaning device must also be installed
below it.
Raising the false bottom by a furth e r 10 nUll
increases the a mount of wa ter in the bottom by
about 1 % of the run-off volume and thereby Wl-
necessarily dilutes the first wort.
A run-off op ening w ith a nUl-off
cone is provided in every 1 m 2 of
which are at tac hed to the rake unit arms in s uch
a way tha t each kni fe has its own cutting pa th.
The shape of the kn ives (Fig . 3.53) and their ar-
Fig. 3.52
ClP clenllillg II llder tile fn lse bottolll
rangemen t on the rake Lmit arms g uarantee the
uni fo rmity of the sp ent grain and prevent an y
undesira ble channelling.
The la u ves are shaped so that they cause the
spent grains to "swim" in the shortest possible ti-
me, without dish.ll·bing the layering. It must be
possible to m ove the l<luves as closely as p ossible
over the false bottom . The speed of the outer klu -
ves should be as low as possible, but there should
be enough kni ves to p roduce the desired result.
Th e height of the rake unit is a utoma tically
cont rolled by the turbidity of the wort. With in-
creas ing turbidity the rake is raised; with de-
creasing turbidity it is lowered (Fig. 3.53a) .

IVVVI
the tun bottom. In the commonly
Fig. 3.50 used rin g main lautering systems
Mnsll ill let vnlve, the bottom is divided into several
tra llsferfrol1l below

.
concentric zones and the run-off

EO 30 •... •. ' •.•• ••••. _

pipes connected into common cir-
cular collecting pipes. This m akes
lUliform. lixiviation possible. In ot-
her systems (Fig. 3.48) all the rWl-
1\ (\ (\ (I 2

.S off pipes a re led into a central

wort collection vessel without the
w o rt coming into contact w ith
oxygen.
In all systems probes ensure air-
fre e laute ring and switch the
pump off if air enters.
The rake unit (formerly known
5 10 15 20 as the cutting unit) is built w ith 2,
Mash introduction time in min
3, 4 or 6 arms, depending on the Fig. 3.51
- mash introduction from below mash introduction from above
tun size, and there is infinitely va- Differellt desiglls of tllll bottollls
(1) dOllble lIIilled fn lse bOttOIll, III nde of brollze (old type), Fig. 3.53: Kllife nrlll drive
riable speed control of the rake
Fig. 3.49 (2) sillgle lIIilled fnlse flool; (3) wedge wire fn lse bottolll, (pnrts SIIOWII ill red nre rotnted mid cn ll be raised nlld lowered)
Oxygell cOll tell t ill n Inllter tllll dll rillg IlInsll ill trod llCtiol1 milt. The special feah.u·e of the rake mnde of stnilliess steel, (4) wedge wire fn lse bottolll witll (1) rotntir lg mid liftillg sllnft, (2) kll ife nrlll, (3) cll ttillg kllife,
COlllpnrisOl1of ill trodllCtiol1 fro lll nbove mid frO Ill below unit consists of the special knives, sliglltly tilted profile wires (4) liftillg device, (5) lIendstock witll benrillg
 306 307

0,'0
mm

30 11 0
Fig. 3.S4a 9
LallieI' 11111 syslelll "Pegasll s"
3 (1) Int/illg ill of IIlasll 1III'OIIgh a 3
25 rillg dlm lllel
88 2 (2) fal se bollolll
(3) plollgll pari
20 (4) cllllillg kllife
(5) dmillage rillg dWllllei
66
(6) swel/illg rallies
(7) wave Pl'OdllClioll
15
(8) level pl'Obe
(9) swel/illg area
44 (10) slil for rellloval Of spell I
10 gmills

22
5 Lauter tllll systel11 "Pegaslls"
a a 0
a 10 20
Fig.3.S3a
The COll rse of differwi pamlllelas dllrillg lallierillg
(1) eximci cOlllwl all discharge frolll tile Iml ler 11111, (2) height of Ihe eleva 101' ill
rellce ill 111111 ill Ihe waleI' col 11 1111 I
With increasing differential pressure (Fig. 3.54)
the rake unit is lowered becau se the spent
grains have then packed closer together. When
the pressure difference becomes smaller, the ra-
ke unit can be raised again. For this purpose the
appropriate measuring and control ins tru-
m ents must be built in.
The rake lmit drive is provided with a gentle
start by a gear unit. A suitable shaft seal pre-
vents entry of wort into the shaft region.
The sp arging water is introduced through fan
nozzles fixed in the upper p art of the lauter tun
which en able trouble-free surface application
of the sparging water.
Spent grains are removed through several
sp ent grain £lap valves. For this purpose sp ent
grain removal beams articulated on the rake
system, given a false bottom load of 320 kg/m3,
-, The lauter tun sys tem "Pegasus" (Steinecke r, show very short lauterulg tUlles Witlllow extract
Freisi.ng) operates on a different principle. At the (0.8%) which can be washed out.
same angle sp eed, the knives in a normallauter
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Time in min
hm are inevitably moved less in the cenh'e than 3.3.3.3 Operating sequence when lautering
in the peripheral areas. This results - despite the with a eonventionallauter tun
knives being closer together towards the outside- The sequence of operations with a lauter nm
111111, (3) 111I'bidily ill EBC, (4) pressllre diffe- in a non-uniform washing out of the spent proceeds in several stages:
grains. In. the case of Pegasus (Fig. 3.54a), this si- 1. Expulsion of air
hlation is changed in that the umer area is exclu - 2. Pumping the mash in
unit can be folded down and, because of their ded from lautering and a rUlg shaped lauter sur- 3. Mash settling
special construction, they provide rapid empty- face created . As a result, the cutting speed of the 4. Pumping back nll'bid wort
ing of the lauter tlm (max. 10 min) . knives is more or less the sam e tlu·oughout. Two 5. First wort nm off
nm-off openings per m 2 and dralllage pipes of 6. Spargulg / second wort
the same length ensure a tulliorm washing out of 7. Drawing off of last rtumings
-========::::::::::=:=: 6 the spent grauls. The laying in of the mash oc- 8. Spent graul removal
:=::::::::::=t:::: ::::: 8
ems throu gh the centre (1), the false bottom con-
T sh'uetion has a new storage area and greater free EXPllisioll of air
surface area and the cuttUlg device is totally re- To achieve rapid lautering the false bottom
designed with a spent grains discharger (10). A mu st be free from dirt and air bubbles . Conse-
7
level probe (8) ensures a lulifonn level of spar- quently, hot water is forced through the false
gUlg water. Thus, irregularities in the wort treat- bottom from below an d at the same time it
ment that occur Ul traditional lauter nms have heats the latter.
Fig. 3.54: Press llre differellce dllrillg lallierillg been thoroughly removed. Despite havulg no in-
(1) wal'l / sparge walel; (2) spell I gmill s, (3) false bollolll, (4)
/'ll1I -off opellillg, (5) false bollolll spmy jels, (6) fil/illg level ill
ner zone, a Pegasus is built as a conventionallau- PlIlI1pillg the mash ill (mash trallsfer)
lallier 111 11, (7) VaCl/III11 pressllre, (8) pressllre differellce tel' nm w ith a smaller diameter and a smaller The mash is transferred as quickly as possible
(spe/ll gmill resis lallce) lauterulg smface. Reports [259] on the use of this into the lauter nm and distributed evenly there.
 308
An wlequaL distribution of the spent grain will
cause unequaL extraction and a reduction in
yield. Consequently the veLocity must be kept
as low as possible during pumping in, in order
to avoid unequaL mashing. The voLumetric flow
3 3
rate must nevertheless be large to carry out the
final mashing within 10 min, which requires
large cross-Sect.s. The mash is preferably pum-
ped in from below. The stirrer in a mash tLm is
allowed to operate during pumping so that the
mash remains mixed .
Masll settlillg
After the pLLI1lping in of the mash, at a specific
Lauter tlmload of 150 kg/m2 the spent grains sett-
le to a height of about 25 cm, and at 200 kg/m2 to
a height of 34 cm. The first wort collects above
them. This is essential because the spent grain is
needed as a natural filter layer. This process is re-
ferred to as the lauter rest and lasts about 5 to 30
min. At the end of this process the spent grains
have settled in three layers:
bottom dough: a thin layer of large and heavy
particles which some times still contain
starch,
main dough: by far the thickest Layer formed
by the spent grains,
top dough: a thin layer consisting of the
lightest mash particles, mainly protein and
small husk fractions.
The top dough actually consists of two layers
of which the lower consists to a large extent of
spent grains. This top dough layer has an ad-
verse effect during lautering since it is less per-
meable than the other layers. For luuform ex-
traction of the spent grain it is essential that this
layer is distributed evenly overall. The top
dough should be broken up as early as possible.
The lugher the finaL mash temperature the
looser the spent grains and so the faster the lau-
tering.
For this reason cooling during lautering must
be avoided.
During the final mashing the rake unit, wluch
is controlled by the lauter contents indicator, is
raised about 20 cm and at the end of mash
transfer, raised fully and its rotation stopped.
Drawi1lg off alld pllll/plllg bacle of cloudy wort
A tun bottom dough, which consists of particles
which have passed through, collects at first bet-
ween the tun bottom and the false bottom. It is
pumped back with the first wort which in any
case is always turbid. This first wort is called
cloudy wort and it is pumped back under the
surface of the wort in the Lauter tlUl, so as to in-
troduce as littl e oxygen as possible, from 5 to 10
min before the end of mash transfer Lmtil the
wort is clear.
In the case of lauter tlms which still use val-
ves during lautering, the twl bottom dough is
first removed by, in turn, fully opening and im-
mediately closing two valves. TIlis produces an
eddy current in the enlarged part of the valve
which carries the bottom dough with it. Tlus
process is called drawing off or tapping and it is
repeated two or three times .
RlIllllillg off of first wort
The first wort should rlm off as quickly as pos-
sible so as not to lose time needlessly. The con-
centration of the first wort is the same every-
where.
The first wort passes through the spent grains
and is thereby filtered . The spent grains present
a resistance to the wort flowing tluough them
which causes a suction effect, because more
wort tries to flow out than can flow in. The suc-
tion causes the spent grains to be drawn toget-
her (compressed) and so the resistance increa-
ses. This can eventually lead to the situation
that less and less wort can flow away. As a re-
sult the lautering process takes substantially
longer.
It is therefore necessary to try to keep the
pressure difference as low as possible and to
keep the spent grains loose. Consequentl y in
modern lauter tuns the operation of the rakes is
controlled by the pressure difference.
In the case of lauter tuns which use swan
neck taps, these are onLy opened a quarter or a
tlurd . In addition the suction is decreased be-
cause of the rise in height in the swan neck.
Spnrgillg alld rIlllllillg off of tile secolld wort
The first wort is allowed to nm off only lmtil the
spent grains become visible, in order to main-
tain their buoyancy. Then the sparge water is
layered on top of the wort and gradually dis-
pLaces the wort downwards. The spent grains
are thereby extracted but thi s process needs a
little time because the ex tract is not dissolved
from the spent grains very rapidly.
Spargillg
It is possible to sparge continuously, i.e. add as
much fresh water as second wort flows out be-
low, or sparging can be done in several separa-
te sparges. Of course sparging is rather quicker if
it is done continuously, but the yield is higher if
two or three small sparges are used because the
sparge water then has more time to extract the
spent grain contents. The limited mixing, and
therefore greater extract difference between the
sparge wa ter and the extract solution contained
in the spent grains, accelerates the washing out
of the extract (extraction) .
Both procedures are commonly used in prac-
tice. Continuous sparging does, however, have
advantages in that there is
clear Lautering,
less husk Iixi via tion,
less uptake of oxygen,
time savings,
it produces finer beers, and
better flavour stability.
Before or during sparging the cutting device
is set in motion. The starting of the cutters de-
pends above all on the ease of lautering of the
309
mash. The surface of the spent grains is cut first
and the cutting device is then slowLy lowered
until the knives are 5 to 10 cm above the false
bottom. The knives must not be sunl( lower ot-
hen,vise the wort runs cloudy again. The cut-
ting operations essentially determine the lauter
time and clarity of the wort rLltUling off.
To be able to operate optimally, it is necessa-
ry to measure and indicate continuously
the volumeh'ic flow rate of the wort rLUUling off,
the pressure difference (Fig. 3.54) and
the turbidity.
When the turbidity increases, the knives
must be raised and vice versa. When the pres-
sure difference increases, the spent grains resi-
stance has increased and the knives must be lo-
wered to loosen the spent grains. However the
turbidity soon increases again and the process
must start again from the begilUling.
The end of lau tering is determined by measu-
ring the wort concentration in the wort kettle.
In this way it can be arranged that with the last
hectolitre of sparging from the spent grains lau-
tering is completed and no last nUUlings are
produced. If the last rLmnings are not reused,
they represent only a waste of energy and an in-
creased waste water Load .
It is of course possible to draw off the first
wort from above. Extract losses do not thereby
occur because the concentration of the first wort
- in contrast to sparging - is exactly the same
before and after the spent grains. TIle only pro-
blem is the solid matter content beca use the fi-
ne particles only settle slowly. If, however, the
wort is drawn off from the top and finely filte-
red, it is possible to shorten the Lautering time
by about 20 min without suffering a loss in
yield. Such additionallUlits are nowadays offe-
red by specialist compmues.
Spel/t graill removal
After the last nmnings have run off, the knives
are set at right angles or, in modern lauter tuns,
 310 311

the spent grain removing bearn is lowered and tes and frames. The plate and frame filter uni tis
the spent grains pushed out through the spent delimited by a fi xed (3) and movable end plate
grain opening. (4) which are pressed together during filtration.
Using a two-hourly rhytlun the following ti- The essential operating parts of the filter are
mes need to be calculated (in min): the frames and plates (5). The frames serve to
3 3
Water supply 2 hold the spent grains, they are square and u su-
Filling 8 ally about 1.2 x 1.2 m in size. The frame depth is
Drawing off 2 6 cm which allows the frames to hold 0.8 to 1.0
Pumping off of hI each. Their number can vary between 10 and
cloudy wort 3 total 15 60 depending on the size of the filter. Since on-
First wort 45 ly the frames receive spent grains, the capacity
Second wort 45 total 90 of the filter can be calculated by multiplying the
Emptying 3 capacity of a frame by the number of frames.
Release 1
Removal of spent grains 8
Rinsing of false bottom 2
Emptying 1 total 15
Total time required 120 min Fig.3.5S
Mnsh filter (tmditiollnl type)
3.3.4 Wort separation with a mash filter (1) Sllpport jrallle, (2) cnrrier uenlll, (3)fi.red wd plnte, (4) IIlOvnule elld plnte, (5) frn llles nlld plntes, (6) cOlllpressillg device, (7)
IInlld PllIllP, (8) Illnsh sllpply pipe, (9) colltml vnlve, (10) Illnsh slIpply pipe fixed to end plnte, (11) IIlnsh sllpply pipe to lIlovnulc
Mash filters provide a competing system to the
elld plntc, (12) sh II t-off vnlve, (13) sigh t glnss, (14) 1IlnllOlllctel; (1S) snfety vnlve, (16) IlOt wnter sllpply pipe, (17) cold wn ter
lauter tWl, but they are not as widely used . In- slIpply pipe, (18) lIlixillg IIl1it, (19) tllel'lllOllletel; (20) spnrgc wntcr sllpply pipe, (21) IIlnll ollleterfor spalge IOn tcl; (22) valve for
stead of the thick spent grain layer in the lauter lower spnrge pipe, (23) valve for IIpper spnrgc pipc, (24) /'/III -off tap, (2S) IIl1iversnl tnp, (26) wort gm llt, (27) wort rllll-off pipc,
tun, through which filtration occurs, in a mash (28) dirty watcr drnill pipe, (29) spellt grnill t/'OlIgh, (30) grnte unrs
filter the spent grain layer is only about 4 to 6
cm thick and the filtration occurs here primari- form a continuous mash delivery channel washing the filter cloths
ly through close-meshed filter cloths. This en- which is not cOlmected to the plates at all. The- Traditional mash filters are hardly ever used
Fig.3.S9
ables better recovery of the extract absorbed in Seqlle/lce offmllles nlld plntes ill n fi lter se holes are cOlmected to the interior of the nowadays. As a result, detailed descriptions of
the spent grains . Recently mash filters have (1) fmllle frames by a slit-like channel. Rubber seals are the operating sequences are omitted here, illld
been developed starting from completely new (2) plnte witll slIpply pipe nt tile uOttO/II (wn ter plnte) inserted in each frame to prevent wort loss. The their descriptions can be referred to in previous
(3) plnte witll slIpply pipe nt tile top (wort plnte)
points of view. In considering mash filters a di- seals must be renewed illmually since the elasti- editions of this book.
(4) filter clotll
stinction must therefore be made between tra- (S) tnp (ch ick) city of the rubber decreases with time illld the
ditional mash filters, such as were made before filter is no longer sealed (Fig. 3.59). 3.3.4.2 New generation mash filters
about 1970, and the new filters . In the competition for yield illld brew frequen-
Because, after mashing off, all the frames 3.3.4.1.2 Operating sequence of a traditional cy between lauter tuns illld mash filters, a new
3.3.4.1 Traditional mash filters mllst be filled with spent grains, the amOlmt of mash filter generation of filters was brought onto the mar-
grist must be adapted to the filter capacity. It is The sequence of operations when using a tradi- ke t in the last decade which was a substantial
3.3.4.1.1 Traditional mash filter design calculated that 1.2 to 1.4 hi of spent grains are tional mash filter consists of several stages: improvement on the old filters .
The traditional mash filter has undergone a produced from 100 kg of grist. The vollU11e is preparation of the filter
number of changes in the course of the years less the finer the milling was. At the top of each pumping in of the mash illld rwming off of 3.3.4.2.1 Mash filter Meura 2001
but its basic structure has remained the same. It frame there is a circular hole twice as deep as the first wort The mash filter Meura 2001 (Fig. 3.63) consists
comprises (Fig. 3.55) a stable carrier frame (1) the body of the frame. When the filter is assem- sparging and rum-ling off of the second worts of illl alternating series of membrillle chamber
with supporting crossbeams (2) to hold the pla- bled by pushing the units together these holes opening up the filter modules and plates (Fig. 3.63a) made of the
 312
ve ry poor hea t conductor pol ypropylene . The
plates were initially made as grid plates, and la-
ter as grooved full plates which, h owever, is not
significa nt as far as their function is concerned .
The pl ates and modules h ave an external size of
3 3
2.0 x 1.8 m and a filter contains up to 60 plates.
Fig. 3.63
Maslt fi lter lVreum 2001
(Pltoto: Mellm, Pel"ll we/z, Belgilll1l)
The membrane chamber module (1) consists
of a thin, approximately 1 cm thick grooved
plate (2) covered on both sides by an elastic pla-
stic membrane (3). The plate is cOimected by a
hose connector (4) to a thick compressed air pi-
pe above the filter. This enables compressed air
to be forced between the thin plates and the pla-
s tic membranes at the appropriate time. Beca u-
se the membranes are elastic they bow out and
press against the spent grains located in the ap-
prox. 4 cm thick frames (5) screwed together on
both sides of the membrane. On the other side
the spent gra ins are held back by grid plates (6).
These polypropylene plates, too, are approx.
4 cm thick and are covered on both sides by a
polypropylen e filter cloth (9) through which
the firs t wort and spa rged wort can flow. When
the filter is pressed together, therefore, there is
a space abo ut 4 cm thi ck which receives the
sp ent gra ins between each membrane ch amber
module and filter plate.
In the lower part of the filter, wide ch annels
nm at the front and back through all the modu-
les and grid plates. One channel (7) is for deli-
vering the mash, and later the sparge water. It is
cOimected with every membrane module. The
chalmel at the other side (8) receives and remo-
ves the wort and spa rgings. As a result of the
Fig.3 .63a
Mas/l filter Mellm 2001 - l1Iel1lVmlle clln/llver 11I0dllie alld
grid plate
(1 ) 11I0dllle, (2) cltn/11Ielled plate, (3) elastic plastic l1Iel1lVml1e,
(4) Itose col1l1ectorfor col1lpressed air (frol1l ti,e side),
(5) fral1le, (6) grid plate, (7) l1Iasit il1let clWl1l1e/, (8) wort 011t-
let clwl1l1el, (9) filter clotlt
a eft
delivery and remova l from below minima l oxy-
gen uptake is achieved.
A chaJmel in the upper portion enables remo-
va l of air whilst filling the filter.
In tota l the filter (Fig. 3.63b) consists of a fixed
(1) and a mova ble endpl ate (2) between which
the up to 60 plates (3) and modules (4) rest mo-
vably on support beams (5). The mash inl et (6)
and wor t outlet (7) are iJl the fixed endpJ ate.
Compressed air is suppli ed through a fixed pi -
pe (8) above the filter which is connected to the
modules through long compressed air pipes, al-
lowing them to be moved for spent grain remo-
val. The spent g rain trou gh (9) receives the
spent grains and removes them. The entire pro-
cess is automatically controlled by built-in mea-
sming and control devices.
Opemti/lg sequellce whell Tauteri11g witlt the
filter Meum 2001 (Fig. 3.64)
In the following the opera tional sequ en ce is
described and clarified by means of diagrams.
In the diagram s specia l value has been pl aced
on the clarification of the inflow and discha rge.
As a result the representation of the filter cloths
above the plates has inevitably had to be so-
mewhat reduced. In all the illu strations, a close-
ly fitting filter cloth is visible either side of the
1 8
Fig. 3.63v
Ivrashfilter Mellm 2001 (pril1ci-
pie)
(1) fixed mdplate
(2) 11I0vavie cl1dplate
(3) grid plale
(4) 11I0dllie
(5) slIpporl veal1l
(6) l1Iasit slIpply lille
(7) worl rel1loval
(8) col1lpressed air Sllpply
(9) spel1t gm il1 trollgll witlt ap-
plicalioll screw
313
plates, without w hich the description of the
funct ions could not be followed .
FiIliug the filter (a):
Th e mash is pumped from below, using a pres-
sure of 0.15 to 0.2 bar overpressure, through the
channel at the bottom (Fig. 3.63b, 7) into both si-
des of the membrane chamber module. The
firs t wort nms off through the cloths on the grid
plate immediately.
Filteri/lg the /IIash, 1'I11/I/i/lg off the first wort (b):
Wh.ilst the mash is pumped in completely the
increasingly thick spent grain cake can build up
grad ually inside the chamber becau se the first
wort is numing off all the time. The pressure in-
creases slightly during the firs t 10 min and then
remains approximately constant at 0.4 to 0.5 bar
overpressure. When all the mash has been nm
into the filter, all the chambers should be full of
spent grains. Running off of the first wort takes
abo ut 20 min.
If a part of the malt grist has been replaced by
adjunct, equivalents have to be ca lClLlated be-
cause the volmnes then change and an insuffi-
Ciently filled filter causes yield losses as the
sparging water then runs through the filter lU1-
used.
z 5
 314
3.64a 3.64b First co mpression (c):
When the first wort has run off the spent grains
are compressed. For this the membranes of the
mem brane modules are pressed against the
3 spent grains, by means of compressed air at 0.5
to 0. 6 bar overpressure, and thereby force the
residual first wort out. The thickness of the lay-
er of spent grains is thereby reduced from 4 to
3 cm. This process lasts about 5 min, and imme-
diately afterwards sparging occurs.
Spllrgillg (d):
The sparging consists of two steps: in the first
3.64c 3.64d step the sparge water (green) is pum.ped in from
below and tal<es up the space which has become
free due to the membranes being forced back af-
ter the compressed air was forced back. As soon
as the filter is filled with water, the second worts
are drained from top and bottom lmder a conti-
nuouS inflow of sparge water. The 78°C sparge
water extracts the spent grains when it flows
tJu-ough them and the sparged wort nms off be-
hind the filter cloths on the grid plates. This pro-
cess takes 50 to 55 min and is inevitably the lon-
gest. Th e pressme in the filter thereby increases
to 0.6 (to 0.8) bar overpressme. In this time the
3.64e 3.64f concenh·ation finally sinks to that of the last nm-
nings at 0.8% to 1% extract content.
Filial compressioll (e):
Finally the spent grains aTe compressed again and
for this the pressme is finally increased to 0.8 bar
overpressme. The residual exh·act is thereby re-
moved and the spent grains dried to a solid mat-
ter content of about 25 to 30%. With this consi-
stency the spent grains can still be h·ansported
easily. ll1e water content can be reduced even mo-
re by even greater compression (up to more than
1.2 bar overpressme), but the spent grains are
then so dry that no slugs are formed in the pipe
Fig. 3.64 n-f
and brid ge formation occms in the spent grains
Operatillg sel/Ilellce of IIlnsil filter !Vfeura 2001
(n) fil/illg tile filtel; (h) 1"/II1llillg off tile first wort, Ic) first cOlllpressioll, (d) spn rgillg, (e) fillnl collipressioll, (f) spell t graill discil- silo. ntis mal<es it more difficult to transport the
nrge spent grains. llw process tal<es about 10 min.
315
Spellt grail I di scharge (j):
On opening the filter the spent grains fall into
the trough and are removed. Examination is ne-
cessary to ensure there are no residual spent
grains. The process takes about 10 min. After- 3
wards the filter is closed again and is ready for .
the next brew. The filter cloths are not removed
for cleaning. Opening and closing of the filter is
performed automatically but can easily be in-
terrupted by an operator if necessary.
The total occupancy time of the filter is thus
100 to 110 min and it is possible to have two
hour brew sequences = 12 brews a day.
Clea1lillg at the elld of the brewillg weele
At the end of the brewing week the cloths are
cleaned by spraying without being taken out.
Filling and force circulating a 2.5 to 3% sodimTI
hydro xide solution at 75 to 80°C for several
hours to dissolve particles is advisable. The still
remaining residue (spent grains and sludge
material) is removed and the filter thoroughly
rinsed with water.
C0111111ellcelllellt of mash separation at the start
of II Ilew brewillg weele
At the start of a new brevving week the filter
must be heated up and should be neutralised
with a sligh tly acidic solution. It should b e no-
ted that, at the end of a brewing week, the out-
side of the filter is scarcely hot to touch and it
does not radiate any heat.
The working life of the filter cloth is given at
2,000 to 3,500 brews (in the case of pale lager
beer).
3.3.4.2.2 Thin-layer Chamber Mash Filter
(Ziemann, Ludwigsburg)
The thin-layer chamber mash filter consists of
polypropylene plates with a chamber depth of
45 - 50 mm, alternating with polypropylene fil-
ter cloths firmly fixed to plates. The plates, with
a plate size of 1.5m x 2.0 m or 2.1m x 2.1 m, are
 316
3 (2), and the lower mash channel is closed. Tbis
3 4
Fig.3.63c
TiTill-/nyeJ' ciTnllluer IIInsiT fillel; operntillg seqllell ce (Z ielllnllil GrOllp),
e.rp/nllntiolls ill text
suspended and are cleaned by an automatic
high pressure cleaning plant in a maintenance-
friendly way.
Since the filter works with very finely pulve-
rised grist fronl the Dispax mill or hanuner mill,
the thin spent grain layer of 40 - 45 mm means
there is no need for membranes to press the
spent grains togetber.
fed into the collecting vessel, whilst the air is
displaced upwards out of the chambers. As
2
soon as the filter is filled, the mash continues to
flo w in only through the upper mash chalUlel
ensures a homogeneous mash storage. The flow
rate of the infeed is regulated according to the
pressure flow.
Spnrgi/lg
For sparging, the sparge water is fed into every
second plate in such a way that the second
worts can nm off the intervening plates (3), af-
ter running all the way through the spent
grains.
The sparging direction can be changed from
brew to brew by feeding the sparge water to the
otber plates in the next brew (4). This has the
advantage that the filter cloths are at least par-
tially backflushed and therefore cannot get
blocked so quickly.
Opemtiolln / procedllre
Filter fillillg twd rllllllillg off of tile first wort
(Fig, 3,63c, 1)
Because of a low-oxygen mash storage, the fil-
ter is filled within about 3 - 4 min via the lower
mash channel. The first wort flows downwards Fig. 3.65
behind the filter clotbs along the plates and is Model'll IIInshfi/ter T!II'e Lnillurln-Fi/ter (Lnllrlnillce COII/pnlllf' Torreln vegn, Spnill)
317
C1enl1il1g
After the second worts bave nm off, the filter is
opened in cycles, the spent grains are removed
and the filter cloths are cleaned of all spent grain
residue by means of an automatic cleaning plant. 3
The occupancy time of the filter is specified as
90 minutes in total, which corresponds to a pos-
sible brew cycle of 16 brews per day. The filter is
advantageous because of its lower investment
costs and the lower nmning costs of operation,
since there are no membranes to wear out.
3.3.4.2.3 Lambda-Mash Filter
(Landaluce, Torrelavega, Spain)
In the case of the Lambda-Filter made by the
Landaluce company, Torrlavega, Spain (Fig .
3.65), there is not the usual alternation between
frames and plates, but only homogeneous pla-
tes made from polypropylene of types 1 and 2,
which are arranged on alternating sides, one
behind the other (Fig. 3.65b) .
 318 319

For the introduction of the mash (Fig. 3.65a; A B

a a) these filters each have a channel above and 3
1 3 3 3
below the plates which has access to each plate,
thus filling the hollow spaces between the pla- t
tes with mash (Fig. 3.65b; 3). On both sides of 3
3
the plates - moulded onto both sides - there are
synthetic filter cloths (4) through which the
wort is filtered whilst the spent grains remain
WORT I in the hollow spaces (3).
These filter systems do without synthetic
I
membranes and hence the possible additional
I
WORT pressing out of the spent grains.
'J 3 3 1 3 1 4 4 4

Opemtiollai seqllellce with the Lambda-Filter c o

(Fig. 3.65c)
WATER Fillil1g a11d /'/Il1l1il1g off of the first wort (a)
The mash is introduced through the channel be-
low the filter into each plate; air leaves the filter
through the channels above the filter. As Soon
as the mash has filled the chamber, mash is also
pumped in from above (1). The first wort flows
WATER
through the adjacent filter cloth and is drained
off from the bottom or top through the side
channel (3) . With this filter also, care has to be
taken that all chambers are filled to the top with 4 4 4
WORT
spent grains because otherwise, during the en- Fig. 3.65c
Fig. 3.650 Operntiollol seqllellce witil tile Lmllbdo-Filter (Lm ldo/ll ce, Torre/o uego)
Operntiollol seqllellce of tile LOll/bdo-Filter suing sparging, the water can flow off tillused.
a) Fillillg olld I'llllllillg of the first wort, b) sporgillg, c) evoCllo fioll IIIlder press ure, d) rell/ouillg tile spellt grnills
(0) PUll/pillg ill of tile ll/osil olld I'llllllillg off of tile firs t wort
(b) Spmgillg olld I'lllillillg off of tile secolld wort Spargil1g (b)
For sparging, the sparge water is introduced on maining second worts out of the spent grains In the case of modern filters, the following ti-
I every second plate to the side channels arranged (4), more or less drying them. mes can be calculated:

I I
H
,t7 I V .v
one on top of the other on one side (4) . TIle water
nillS through the spent grains and increasingly Relllovil1g the spel1t grail1s (d)
filling the filter
recirculation
8 min
3 min
extracts them; the second worts drain off from Finally the chambers are opened and the spent running off of first wort 15 min
the top and bottom on the plates in between (3). grains can drop out of the filter (5). sparging 65 min
TIlen the direction is changed and the water in- pressing out 6 min
I.
h'oduced to the in-between plates, and the se- 3.3.4.2.4 A dvantages of modern opening the filter 1 min

7 Fig. 3.65b
(1) filter plate type 1
cond worts drained to the other plates, This ensu-
res a good extraction of the spent grains.
mash filter systems
The ad vantages of modern filters are quoted as
moving the plates
closing the filter
13 min
1 min
(2) f ilter plate type 2 being: total 111 min
(3) 1I01l0w space for tile illtoke The lautering time of two hours is reliable, The filter delivers a clear wort quality and
Evacllatiol1 IIl1der presslI re (c)
of spw t grnills
Subsequently, air is blown in tlU'ough the chan- making it possible to have 12 brews a day, very low turbidity values. This is due to the
(4) close fittillg Sljllt/letic filter
clotil nel above the plates (2), which presses the re- and in some cases even more. tightly meshed filter cloths and the fine grist.
 320
The brew house yield is the sam e as, and part-
ly even higher than labora tory y ields; this is
mainly because of the very fine milling and
the intensive ex traction of the spent g rains.
The malt quality has a considerable effect on
3 3
the yield and lautering times.
Oxygen uptake is minim al due to introdu cti -
on of the mash from below.
Hammer mills are used for milling because it
is possible to do w ithout the husks as filter
material. Here, too, the composition of the
grist remains the key to success regarding a
high yield . Some breweries mill the m alt in a
traditional malt mill to gris t with an approx.
50 % proportion of flour, remo ve the husks
and mill them with a hammer mill.
For good filtration the following (hamm er
mill) grist composition is suggested:
sieve 1 < 1%
sieves 2 + 3 < 9%
sieves 4 + 5 > 55%
bottom > 35%
The filter is easy to handle and Ettie work is in-
volved. This, depends on the quality
and hence the working life of the filter cloths.
TIle operating costs of mod ern mash filters
are considerably influenced by the durability
of the filter cloths and the mechanics for the
plate transp ort as well as the hydraulics.
TIle energy costs for extremely fine conuninurr-
on are greater than those for traditional milEng.
In more recent times, wet mills (Meura) and
the di sp ersing mash process "Dispax" (Zie-
maml), as well as hammer mills, are used for
the ex tremely fine comminution of malt. With
increasing comminution, however, the particles
also compact, thus making the pressing out of
the compacted sp ent grains more difficult.
Moreover, it should not be forgo tten that mo-
dern lauter tlUlS also make 12 brews a d ay pos-
sible the expenditure of energy is likewise very
low as well as the amolLnt of work. As a result
the advantages of the mash filter versus the lau-
tel' tlm dwindle consid erably. In general, the
advantages of mash filters are more ev ident in
large breweries.
3.3.5 Spent grains
On spent grain discha rge, about 100 to 130 kg of
sp ent gra ins containing 70 to 80% water are ob-
tained from 100 kg of malt; this is 21 to 22 kg
sp ent grains / hi beer.
Dried spent grains ha ve approximately the
followin g composition:
protein 28. 0%
fat 8.2%
nitrogen-free extrac t 41.0%
cellulose 17.5%
inorganic material 5.3%
The spent grains are sold as cattle food if pos-
sible. The nutritional value of sp ent grain is ap-
proximately one-fifth of that of the same
amolmt of barley. This is Lmderstandable if one
remembers that as much extract as possible is
removed during mashing. The advantage of
spent grain is its better digestibility compared
with the original material.
Spent grain s do not contain any vitamins and
so they Calmot be used on their own as arUmal
feed . The spent grains s till contain su ga r and a
lot of protein. Consequently in warm weather
they can easily become sour.
There is however not always, or everywhere,
a demand for spent grains by neighbol1l'ing far-
mers. In that case, their rapid and satisfactory
disposa l must be arranged before they turn
sour alld start to smell.
It is however becoming increasingly difficult
for breweries to dispose of spent grains. More
alld more breweries are therefore starting to dry
the spent gra ins alld burn them (see Sect. 9.3.1).
As a result of this, a considerable part of the
energy used in the brewhouse can be recover-
ed. Another way is in fermentin g the spent
grains and producing biogas, the burning of
which can also result in the recovery of energy.
321
Fig. 3.66: Spen t grnil/ s trnl/sfer
(1) SPell t grn il/ il/tnke, (2) Spe/lt grnil/ screw COI/Ve l/ol; (3) stoppel; (4) pipe to spel/t grnil/ silo
3.3.5.1 Transfer of spent grains
The wet spent grains fall out of the discharge
shaft of the lauter ttm into the spent grains con-
veyor (Fig. 3.66) sittIated benea th the lauter ttm.
A screw conveyor then transports the spen t
o
grains to the outlet. TIle spent grains are slightly
thickened by this. At the end of the screw the
spent grain is transferred by compressed air, in
separate portions, in pipes to the spent grain si lo
(Fig. 3.67). The spent grains are separated from
the h'allSpor ting air by a blow off valve alld fall
down into the silo. They are then transp orted by
a conveyor screw to the already present removal
lorry, the amoLUlt of spent grains delivered being
measlU'ed electronically. The removal device is
protected from freezing. 4
3.3.5.2 Spent grain analysis
Analysi s of the spent grain provides an exact
Fig. 3.67
inform ation of how much ex tract materi al is Spell t g raill silo
still present in the spent grains. The total extract (1) spellt graill ill let , (2) il/ dicator , (3) paddle screw to nvoid
in the spent grains consists of extract w hi ch can tile jorlll atioll of bridgillg , (4) SPellt grnill screw cOll veyor
(5) spellt grnill disc/lflIge
be washed out and extractable extract. The ex-
tract which can be washed out, or soluble ex-
tract, is usually measured using liquid pressed 3.3.5.2.1 Washable extract
out of spent grains, the total ex tract is obtained The ex tract which Call be washed out, i.e. the so-
by boiling the spent grains and then using an luble extrac t, is measured by a rapid method in-
enzyme treahnent. The difference between the volving pressing the spent grains in a h and
total extract and the extract which can be was- press, filtration of the ex tract throu gh a fluted
hed out represents the ex trac table extrac t. filter, and use of a hydrometer.
From the results conclusions Call be drawn The soluble extract is reported as a percenta-
about the brewhouse operations. ge and is usually 0.8 m ass 'Y o.
 323
322

Callses of high sol1lble extract vailles

Cause Effect Remedy Cause Effect Remedy

diffusion of the extract retained in spent use well modified malt Poorly modified diffi cult for enzy mes to reach interior of use well modified m alt
3 Poorly modified 3
malt grain particles is slower and less com- malt particles
plete than with well modified malt
Grind too coa rse du e to wrong mill setting, worn rollers, change the se tting, reshar-
Grist too fine the grist becomes doughy and extraction use a coarser grist milling too fas t, or malt too wet p en th e rollers, mill more
of the s pent grain cake is more difficult slowly

Lautering time too the ex tract held in the spent grains can-
short not diffuse into the sparge water suffi-
ciently in the time available
Unequal mash variable spent grain depths in the lauter
deposition tlm result in differences in efficiency of
extraction of the particles
Compaction of the compacted portions of the spent grains
spent grains are no longer extracted (extract islands)
Unsatisfactory initi- the space below the false bottom can so-
al drawing off metim es be blocked by the bottom
dough resulting in Lmequal wort l'lm-off
First wort concen- not enough sparge water is available for
tration too low sparging
RlIlU1ing-off too cooling of the lauter tun or use of too
cold cold sparge water reduces spent grain
extraction since it becomes compacted
Unequal and too slow or too rapid filling causes une-
lU1satisfactory fil- qual filling of the chambers of the filter
ling of the filter
chambers
sparge for a long enough time;
more smaller sparges extract
better than a continuous sparge
obtain uniform depth by better
distribution with the rake unit
turn back the lauter taps to re-
duce suction; use a lauter tun
manometer
open the lauter taps fully du-
ring drawLng off
use a higher first wort concen-
tration (18 to 20%);
require a first wort sparged
wort ratio of 1:1 to 1:1.2
keep the temperature as near to
78 °C as possible throu ghout
lautering; the tun must be insll-
lated to prevent cooling
the grist charge must be appro-
priate for the number and size
of th e fram es; filling mu st be
performed uniformly; the pres-
sure should only increase
slowly
Mash process too inadequate extraction of the malt and/or
short or lmsuitable adjunct
3.3.5.2.2 Extractable extract
(laboratory analysis)
In addition to the soluble ex tract, the spent
grains contain substances which can be broken
down but were not brou ght into solution du-
ring mashing. This material is ca lled extractable
extract. To measure the amount present, 25 g of
milled dry spent grains are boiled for 15 min
with the addition of specific enzyme prepara ti-
ons and then mashed with added enzymes
llsing the Congress mash procedure.
With this process a total ex tract of 1.3 to 1.8%
is obtained.
The extractable extract is obtained from the
difference: total extract - soluble extract
The ex tractable extract is usually about 0.8%.
It allows important conclusions to be drawn
about the brewhouse operations before laute-
ring.
3.3.5.2.3 Relation of the extract content of the
spent grains to the malt llsed
The soluble and extractable extract remaining
in the spent grains is lost from the wort and de-
creases the brewhollse yield. To obtain a more
lise a longer and more inten-
sive mash process, boil the
cooked mash lon ger, boil
more thi ck mash, mill more
finely
exact figure for the loss, the extract in the spent
grains is related to the amount of malt used to
give the loss in kg p er 100 kg malt. Usually 1.1
to 2.5 kg extract per 100 kg malt is lost.
3.4 Wort boiling
The wort obtained is boiled for 50 to 60 mum-
tes. During this time the hops are added.
During wort boiling bitter and aromatic hop
components are transferred into the wort and
simultaneously proteu1s are precipitated .
Wort boiling is performed in the wort kettle
which is equipped with everything n eeded for
boiling. When the entire brew in the wort kettle
is combined, one speaks of "Pfaru1evollwi.irze"
(copper wort). The end product of wort boilu1g
is the finished wort.
3.4.1 Wort boiling operations
During wort boiling a number of important
processes occur:
extraction and transformation of hop compo-
nents,
formation and precipitation of protein-poly-
phenolcompounds,

1.
 324
evaporation of water, 1. The nature of the isohLLmulone: different a.-
wort sterilisation, acid components al'e isomerised to different
destruction of all enzymes, extents. Cohumulone gives the best isohu-
thermal exposure of the wort, mulone yield. By using hop varieties with a
lowering of the pH of the wort, higher proportion of cohumulone (e.g. Nort-
3 3
formation of reducing substances and hern Brewer) a more bitter beer is obtained.
evaporation of lmdesirable aroma substances. 2. Duration of boiling: with increasing boiling
time the isohumulone yield increases. Most
3.4.1.1 Extraction and transformation of hop of the a.-acid is isomerised at the beginning of
components boiling and the isomerisation rate progressi-
The important components of hops for beer vely decreases as boiling continues. After boi-
production are: ling for 1 h, most of the bittering substances
hop resins or hop bitter substances, are isomerised.
hop oil, 3. The pH: a higher pH always gives better iso-
hop polyphenols. merisation, but the bitterness obtained at a lo-
The hop resills or bitter sllbstallces are the wer pH is always considered to be more ba-
most important component of hops for beer pro- lanced and finer.
duction because they give the beer its bitter taste. 4. The humulone concentration: the isohumulo-
The a.-acids are completely insoluble in cold ne yield decreases as the amount of hops ad-
wort. In boiling wort, changes in the structures ded increases. The decrease is, however, only
of a.-acid occur which are referred to as isome- over a narrow range (up to 10%).
risation. The iso-compounds produced are 5. Precipitation of the isohumulone with the
much more soluble than the a.-acids from break: a considerable amount of the isohu-
which they are formed. mulone is absorbed on the break.
Isomerisation of a.-acids during boiling is far 6. Increasing isolTlerisation: for example, vvith
from complete. On average only about one- the aid of higher temperatures.
third of the a.-acid added is recovered in the 7. Size of the hop fragments extracted: milling
boiled wort in the form of iso-compolmds. Mo- of the hops increases the rate of extraction
reover, in the subsequent course of beer pro- and thus the bitter substance yield (see pellet
duction substantial amounts of bitter substan- and extract production).
ces are removed. It can be calculated that, of the Hop oil is volatile dming wort boiling, the mo-
amount dissolved during boiling, the following re so the longer the boil. It has been mentioned
amounts remain: (Sect. 1.4.4.2) that there is a greater variation in
Bitter with a rela- the aroma strength and pleasanhless of different
substance tive bitter- hop oils. It is therefore desirable to retain at least
amOlUlt ness value of part of the best hop oil in the wort and conse-
in spent hops 20% 7% quently in the beer. As a result, in most breweries
in trub 50% 18% the hops with the best aromas - the aroma hops -
at the top and in yeast 10% 25% are added only 15 to 20 min before casting, to re-
in beer 20% 50% tain at least part of the best hop oil, provided va-
The isohUl11ulone yield on boiling and conse- lue is placed on this. It is also possible to add the
quently the bitterness of the beer essentially de- final hops in the whirlpool, which may however
pends on lead to h'ub problems.
tr
Hop polyphenols are water soluble and dis-
solve immediately. The hop polyphenols inclu-
de the anthocyanogens, tannins and catechins.
They play an essential role in break formation
(see next Sect.).
The polyphenols have an anti-oxidising ef-
fect and thus have a positive influence on the
flavour stability of the beer [368]. The protecti-
on agai nst oxidation provided by the polyphe-
nols thereby supplements the protection provi-
ded by sulphite . An increased polyphenol
content should thus be aimed for during mas-
lung, w hils t at all costs avoiding the access of
oxygen.
3.4.1.2 Precipitation of protein
As a result of their molecule size, the high mo-
lecular weight proteins - insofar as they are so-
luble - tend to coagulate on boiling. In doing so,
they bond with the polyphenols in the hops and
malt, which accelerates the coagulation.
The polyphenols of the malt are thereby mo-
re sluggish in reaction than those of the hops.
Since the polyphenols exist in partly oxidised
form and the proteins have varying molecule si-
zes, very different compOlUlds with varying be-
haviour are formed:
Compounds of proteins and polyphenol s
and compounds of nitrogen containing sub-
stances and oxidised polyphenols are insoluble
when heated and precipitate during wort boi-
ling as break. By break is meant the visible
break flakes which form when boiling the wort.
A coarse flaked break was always a sign of good
protein precipitation and thus good stability
against haze formation. In the past it was al-
ways seen as advantageous to precipitate these
compounds completely. This required a long
boiling duration, wluch until only a few deca-
des ago, was always 2 hours.
In the meantime, energy prices have continu-
ally increased and methods have been develo-
ped to remove haze forming substances from
325
the beer. Protein precipitation is therefore vie-
wed from a different perspective today in that
not all coagulable protein has to be precipita-
ted, rather a part should be retained for better
foam retention.
To achieve this, modern wort boiling me-
thod s avoid long and intensive boiling. Thus
high molecular weight proteins, which during
long and intensive boiling would otherwise
precipitate, remain dissolved in the wort, pro-
viding the expectation of a better foam retenti-
on. Furthermore, energy costs are reduced by a
shorter and less intensive boiling process.
The (clear) finished wort contains approx.
1,000 mg total nitrogen/I. Of this, approx. 200
mg/l (150-350 mg/I) is nitrogen precipitable
with magnesium sulphate (MgSO,-N). With
this method high molecular weight protein
components are detected. There is a close link
between the MgSO,-N and the foam of the beer.
A higher MgSO,-N value means one can expect
a better foam retention.
In addition, the free amino nitrogen (FAN) in
the fuushed wort is determuled by which the
amino acids and the final amino groups of pep-
tides and proteuls are detected . For a satisfacto-
ry fermentation 220 to 250 mg free amino nitro-
gen/I is required in the pitching wort. SUlce the
yeast CaImot use all the amino acids, 100 to 120
mg/l FAN still remaU1U1 the beer.
By reducing the length of boilu1g, boiling mo-
re gently at a lower temperature and forming
fewer shear forces, more coagulable nitrogen
remains Ul the wort giVUlg rise to the expectati-
on of better foam retention. 20 to 40 mg coagu-
lable nitrogen/litre cold wort is desirable. At the
sa me time, the formation of ageing relevant
substances is reduced.
Attention has to be paid however to adequa-
te evaporation of free DMS «100 mg/l). Fur-
thermore, biological acidification of the wort
lead s to better foam values as a result of better
fermentation.
 326 327

3.4.1.3 Evaporation of water
The evaporation of water is the result of an in-
tensive boiling process. A great deal of value
has always been placed on this because through
3
the vigorous movement of the kettle contents, a
good protein precipitation (break formation)
was reckoned with .
Only a few decades ago a high rate of evapo-
ration was therefore a criterion for the quality
of a wort kettle, and a kettle with a rate of eva-
poration of 10 to 15% of the wort content was
considered to be a high performance kettle. In
th e meantime this has changed, as will be
shown. Today a rate of evaporation of 4% is ai-
med for with good evaporation efficiency.
The measure of evaporation is the amount of
evaporated water during the boiling time (total
evaporation). The total evaporation shows
what percentage of the amount of unboiled
wort has been evaporated.
Evaporation of water uses energy and energy
is expensive. It is therefore preferable
to boil no longer than necessary,
not to evaporate unnecessarily large amolmts
of water, and
to recover at least part of the energy used .
19
18
Evaporation of wa ter has another very im-
portant asp ect:
The greater the evaporation the more sparge
water can be used previously. Thus extensive
evaporation simultaneously improves the yield.
However it would not pay to boil intensively and
for a long time because of the improved yield,
since the cost of the en ergy needed is much
greater than the profit from the extract (threshold
for use of last runnings, see Sect. 3.3.2).
Because only water is evaporated, the extract
content of the wort must increase . Correspon-
ding to the different ex tents of evaporation in
different kettles, the value depends on the pro-
cess plant used. It increases with the percentage
evaporation and the increase in extract from the
1mboiled to the final wort can be more than 2%.
During lautering (Fig. 3.45) it was seen that the
extract content of the first wort has to be 5 to 6%
higher than the unboiled wort because conside-
rable dilution occurs during sparging. Now the
extract content increases through evaporation.
The final wort (Fig. 3.67b, 3) therefore again has
a higher concentration. The concentration of the
pitching wort (4), like that of the original
gravity (5), is determined by the brewery speci-
fications for the particular beer type.
Allowance must also be made for the
change in concentration which occurs
during cooling. This change depends
beer by first or last rlllUlings during filtration
lead to the original wort gravity fa lling below the
desired concentration. Attempts are therefore
made not to fall below the desired original wort
gravity content, leaving scope for 0.1 to 0.3% dif-
ference depending on brewery specifications.
Control of the extrac t content is a very impor-
tant flU1c tion of the brewhou se manager. It is la-
ter ex tremely difficult to correct.
3.4.1.4 Wort sterilisation
Many bacteria and moulds which, if they are not
desh'oyed, can quickl y make the beer go sour or
change its flavour pass into the mash with the
malt d ust. On boiling the wort all micro-organ-
isms contained in the wort are ki lied and the wort
is sterilised. This is the last time that we are
dealing with a sterilised product. From now on,
exh'eme biological caution is necessary.
3.4.1.5 Destruction of all enzymes
Dming wort boiling the few enzymes still pre-
sent are completely destroyed. Consequently a
subsequent uncontrolled alteration of the wort
composition can no longer occur. When subse-
quent changes are necessa ry, for example when
the cast wort still contains starch haze or diet
60
bee r is made for diabetics (Sect. 7.3.2), malt ex-
tract or first wort must be added later to degra-
de the s tarch completely to the iodine normal
s tate or to fermentable sugars.
3
3.4.1.6 Thermal exposure of the wort
During boiling, further Maillard products and
Strecker aldehydes are formed, tamlins oxidi-
sed and thus the thermal exposure of the wort is
further increased; the wort becomes increasingly
darker. The thermal loading, expressed in TBI, ri-
ses with increasing boiling duration and also du-
ring the whirlpool rest (Fig. 3.67c). Since the TBI
at the sam e time represents a standard for the fla-
vour stability of the it is desirable not to boil
too long or too vigorously.
Modern wort boiling procedures therefore mi-
nimise the thermal exposlU'e. The TBI of the wort
before boiling begins (lU1boiled wort) is about 20
to 22 and is considerably increased as a result of
boiling. The TBI of the cast wort should be below
45 and the TBI of the cold wort after the wort coo-
ler should be below 60. The TBI falls again during
fermentation and maturation to about 30; howe-
ver, thjs value depends the prev iolls highest va-
lue which should be kept as low as possible. As a
result one speaks of a temporary TBI.

*'
.S; 16
17
'---I
-
-+- I
- f-- - -
I
- r----
I
on the brewing plant. Formerly, a lar-
50
1

ge amolU1t of water evaporated with

c:
.l!:! 15
I - --
c::
t open cooling. As a result of evaporati-
Q
14 - - I- - - I--- - - r---- 40 - --
'"
<:3 on the ex tract content increases; as a
- --
;}3 13
12 .- -+- I- - r---- - !-- result of the addition of sparge water,
30 - -- -

rtf'
for example on the spent hops etc., it
Fig.3.67c :- - -- -

)P
10
, ,,--,-- f
decreases. Today there is no further
eva poration and the concentration
only decreases minimally.
C/mllges ill tile tiliobnrbi-
Illric ncid illdex (TBI) f/'OII/
mnlt to beer
20

_
I
I r-
:-
:-
H -

f--

FI
2 3 4 5 (1) limit (Collgress wort), 10 r--
At the end of wort boiling, therefore,
Fig. 3.67b
Chnllges ill tile extract COli tell t fr011l tile first wort to tile origillnl gravity
the extract content has to be so adjusted
(2) IIlIboiled wort, (3) cns t
wort, (4) cold wort fo llo-
J- --- :---

tllat neither the changes through coo- willg tile wort coolel; 0
(1) firs I wort, (2) IIllboiled wort, (3) fillnl wort, (4) origillnl wort, (5) origi- 2 3 4 5
ling the wort nor later dilution of the (5) beer
IInl gravity estnblished fl'OllI the fillished beer (Sect. 7.4.3 .1)

l
 329
328

sult of which more hops are needed. include fat degradation products su ch as hexa- portant for good beer foam and good flavour sta-
The main starting valu e is however represen-
It is therefore also preferable to aCidify the nal, hexanol, p entanol,'seve ral Strecker aldehy- bi li ty. In an y case attention must be paid to ensu-
ted by the TBI of the malt (expressed in the Con-
wort biologica ll y shortly before the end of boi- des such as 2 methy l-butanal, the latter bein g re good evaporation efficiency to prevent faults
gress wort); it is therefore desirable to keep the
ling to a pH of 5.1 to 5.2. an indicator of poor flavo ur s tability, and Mail- in the flavour of both fresh and aged beer.
TBI of the malt as low as possible « 14).
How this can be d one is described in Sect. lard products such as furfural. Thi s ca n be achieved by the use of pre-coolers 3
The TBI is not suitable, however, as a direct
3 3.2.1.8. The main control is ho wever direc ted to- or by stripping. When using a pre-cooler bet-
benchmark for the flavour stability of the beer.
wards the thermal splitting of the DMS precur- ween the cast wor t and whirlpool, the wor t first
For thi s the aniline index (AI) is measured,
3.4.1.8 Formation of reducing substances sor and the removal of the free DMS which can has to be cooled to 85 °C, because otherwise
w hi ch records the ageing of the beer, particular-
(reductones) otherw ise leave a vegetable-like aroma and ta- above this tempera ture free DMS can be later
ly w hen stored in. warm conditions, or - even
Durin g wor t boilin g subs tan ces are form ed ste in the beer. As has already been mentioned formed by thermal splitting.
better - s tability is d etermined u sing an ESR
w hich can react w i th the oxygen in the wort and in kilning, a thorough splitting of the precursor In the case of pre-cooling before the wlurl-
spectrometer (see Sect. 4.6.4.4).
thereby exert a reducing effect. These substan- and remova l of the free DMS is demanded of poo l, plate- type h ea t exch angers are mainly
ces are ca lled reductones. Th ese include, for ex- the malts tel's, beca use it is not possible to make used, an d for s trippin g a fter the whirlpool,
3.4.1.7 Lowering the pH of the wort
ample, melanoid ins, the formation of which up for inadequate remo va l of DMS during malt mainl y fi lm evaporators, internal boilers as well
The wort becomes slightl y more acidi c since the
during kihling has already been described. prod uction by boiling in the wort kettl e. It is as stea m and air strippers are employed (Sect.
melanoidins formed on boiling are acidic and
During wort boiling the colour increases and therefore expected th at the DMS precursor con- 3.4.2.6). In stripping, the free DMS formed later
the hops also con tribute som e acid .
only becomes pale again during fermentation tent in the malt does not exceed 5 mg/kg malt (= during the whirlpool res t is removed. Tlus can
The pH of unboiled wort without mash acidi-
(Fig. 3.67d) . 5 ppm). An at tempt must then be made to re- also occur w hen using the "Ca lypso" wlurlpool
fication is about 5.5 to 5.6.
move the s till remaining free DMS. system.
The pH of cast wort is about 5.4 to 5.5.
3.4.1.9 Evaporation of undesirable aroma sub- The longer the wor t is boiled the greater the
Many important processes proceed better or
stances thermal splitting of the DMS precursor SMM, During fermentation, too, s till remaining free
more quickly at a lower pH. These include in
The wor t contains a range of more or less vola- and the more the free DMS is removed. The DMS is eliminated with the fermentation gases,
the case of wor t boiling
tile aroma substances w hich partly have a nega- main amOlmt of free DMS h as already been re- and the lugher the fermenta ti on temperatures,
less increase in wort colour at a lower pH,
tive effect on the beer arom a. In the interest of moved after 30 min boiling [246] (Fig. 3.68). The the grea ter the waslung ou t effect, which is, ho-
a better, clean tas ting hop bitterness at a lower
establishing an optimal aroma profile, it is ne- guide value for free DMS at the mid-cooling wever, inhibited by the cOlUlter-pressure. Es-
pH,
cessary to remove these undesirable aroma sub- point is < 100 If the boiling time is reduced, senti ally, the DMS content of the original wort
micro-organisms less resistant at a lower pH.
stances from the wort. As well as dimethyl sul- a re-forma tion of free DMS occurs at the end of is rep eated in the finished beer.
A disadvantage of using a lower pH is the
plude (DMS), these lmdesirable substances also boiling if the thermal splitting of the DMS pre- During tests at the VLB Central Laboratory in
worse hop bitter subs tance utilisa tion, as a re-
cursor was insufficient during boiling. 2006, the following values pertaining to free
It is therefore necessa ry to pay attention to the DMS and DMS-P (precursor) we re d etermined
removal of the late r formed free DMS. Tlus is im- [372]:

"" " OMS P Balance: reformation laler evaporalion

,,,, formation and evaporation
'"
.... ..................
"" Time point No. of Mean values Limiting values
"X, samples DMS DMS-P DMS DMS-P
,f))

" Fig. 3.68 Unboiled wor t 12 293 167 76 - 637 64 - 332

)(0 -+------ --\
Millilllni nlld IIInxilllnl vnl lles of Start of boiling 8 91 168 20 - 469 108 - 265
free OMS dllrillg worl boilillg Cast wor t 25 57 < 10- 79 < 10 - 137
104
nlld lip 10 lIIiddle of coolillg pro-
Pitched wor t 28 49 23 15 - 77 < 10- 52
IS'T'I'I J.'m n -ISmn cess
'IIh:rlpao!
Brokell lille: DivIS preCl/rsor Beer 90 40 16 < 10 - 365 < 10- 32
 330
During later evaporation not only the later-for-
med free DMS evaporates, but also considerable
proportions of the Strecker aldehydes and the
phenylethan als, w hilst the non-volatile aroma
substances mainly remain in the wort. These in-
3 3
clude Maillard products, which are also conside-
red to be indicators of thermal ex posure (thiobar-
bituric acid index). FmfuraJ, as a typica l agent,
increases with time and is hardly evaporated at
all. A low furfural content (300 - 350 indica-
tes good f1 avom stability [307]. Furfural values
over 450 on the other hand are less desirable.
Short boiling times and low thermal exposu-
re of the wort lead to improved fl avo ur stabili-
ty. This also applies to the durati on of the whirl-
pool res t [326].
3.4.1.10 Zinc content of the wort
The most important trace element in wort is
zinc, and at least 0.10 to 0.15 mg/l should be
331
presen t. Z inc assis ts protein synthesis in yeast Substances mean value (lim iting value) 3.4.2.2.1 Steam temperature and pressure
cells and controls their nucleic acid and carbo- analysed Water boils at 100 °C and the steam produced h as
h ydrate metabolism . Z inc is also a necessary the SCUlle temperature. Every child kn ows that
contact building block in alcoholic fe rmentati- Total nitroge n 1242 mg/I (1183 - 1282) but it only applies lmder stculdard atmospheric
on (see Fig. 4.2, conversion No. 12 only occurs Coagul. nitrogen 59 mg/l (36 - 72) conditions. If the pressure in the vessel is increa-
in the presence of Zn). Zinc deficien cy in the MgSO,-nitrogen 368 mg/l (350 - 391) sed - e.g. if the vessel is closed, like a pressure
wort also there fore ca uses fermentation pro- Free amino nitrogen 224 mg/l (213 - 237) cooker - the wa ter boils at a higher temperatme.
blems. It ca n be ass umed, however, that enough Dimethyl sulphide 464 pg/l (300 - 524) Every boiling temperature = steam temperatme
zinc is present in most worts. If fermentation DMS precursor 351 (223 - 552) is, under vapour saturated cond itions, associated
problems occu r, the zinc content sh ould there- TBI 44 (19 - 58) with a defin ed pressure as the fo llowin g exh'act
fore be cont rolled (see Sect. 3.2.1.7). fro m the Steam Table (sa turated conditions)
3.4.2 Design and heating of the w ort shows (see Sect. 10.2.2.1 ):
3.4.1.11 Unboiled wort - cast wort kettle
The begum of wort boiling is characterised by In the wort ke ttle the wor t is vigoro usly boiled Temperature in °C Stea m pressure Ul bar
the fa ct that the enti re brew is in the kettle. This for 50 to 60 min. The wort kettle mu st therefore 98 0.9430
POUlt Ul time is known as "Pfcume vo\l" (kettle be equipp ed with a powerful hea ting arrange- 105 1.2080
full) culd the wort at this POUlt in time as "Pfan- ment. With changes in the kettle h eatulg sy- 99 0.9776
nevollw Li rze" (copper wo rt) . Unboiled worts stems, in the course of time the sh ape of the 106 1.2504
tested at the VLB had the followulg m ean and kettle has also chan ged. 100 1.0133
limitiIlg values [308]: The types of ke ttle hea ting can be divided in- 107 1.2941
to 101 1.0500
ke ttles with direct hea ting by coal, gas or hea- 108 1.3390
ting oil, 102 1.0878
kettles w ith steam hea ting, 109 1.3852
kettles w ith hot water heating. 103 1.1267
110 1.4327
3.4.2.1 Directly heated wort kettles 104 1.1668
The oldes t form of kettle hea tul g is coal firin g . This means that the boilulg tem pera ture is hig-
This form of direct burning of fuel benea th the her the higher the pressure - and as will be
kettle bottom (Fig. 3.69) is now only encOlmte- shown later, much higher pressures cul d tempe-
red very ra rely in old brewhouses. As a result of ra tures are employed Ul kettles.
the curvature of the ke ttle bottom the boilulg On the o ther hand at very low pressures (un-
wort boils briskly from the middle to the outsi- del' pressu re, vacuum) water boils at even very
Fig. 3.69 de. The ke ttles frequently had a copper drag low temperatures. Thus boiling occurs
Directly ilented kettle (fired copper) chain which was ca rried alon g by the agitator to at a pressure of 0.06 bar at 36 °C, and
(1) cilillllley prevent scorching of the wort on the very hot at a pressure of 0.02 bar at 17 0c.
(2) top cover
kettle bottom. Later such kettles were often con- In the wor t kettle boilulg temperatures above
(3) stirrer witil cJInills
(4) stirrer drive (frall l nuove) verted to d irec t hea ting w ith gas or heatulg oil. 100 °C occur because of the height of the wor t.
(5) fI,et'lIlOllleter With a 2.5 m high wort level, the wor t a t the bot-
(6) flon tillg lIIensll rillg stick 3.4.2.2 Steam heated wort kettles tom of the kettle is at an overpressure of 0.25
(7) ilentillg cJInllluer
The most common form of kettle heating n owa- bar, which is equivalent to a stea m pressure of
(8) nccess
(9) enstillg alit pipe days is steam hea ting. To understand the use of 1.25 bar, and the Table sh ows that this corre-
(10) gns fl lles steam a little explan ation is first necessary. sponds to a boilulg temperature of 106 °C.
 332
If the wort kettle is heated from the bottom,
this results in the formation of steam bubbles
over all the bottom of the kettle which rise up-
wards and cause the movement of the wort and
the driving out of Lmdesirable components. Ste-
3
am is fed at an overpressure of 2 to 3 bar (= 133
to 143 DC) into the steam jacket arolmd the bot-
tom of the kettle. The steam transfers its evapo-
ration heat to the wort and condenses whilst the
wort is brought to boiling poillt (see Fig. 3.72a).
The heating of the wort from 72 to 100 DC requi-
res approx. 4.1 kWh/hI of sales beer.
A higher pressure, and with it a higher tem-
perature, cause problems because of the higher
interface temperature then produced at the
kettle bottom. There is a risk of wort particles
burning on the surface and affecting the taste of
the beer.
9
I 2 3 bottom of the pan to collapse. Nowadays this
Fig. 3.70
DOllule Uollom sfeam Ileaferiworf kellie
(1) sfeam sllpply, (2) sfeam illief valve, (3) rerillcfioll va lve,
(4) a/llll/lar c!lmll/el, (5) pipe fa !leafillg jackef, (6) !leafil/g
jackef, (7) safefy valve, (8) air release valve, (9) IllallOmefel;
(10) cOl/riel/safe rirnill, (11) cOl/riel/safe pof, (12) cOl/riel/seri
wafer rirnill
3.4.2.2.2 Equipping a steam heated kettle with
a double bottom
For the heating to operate well a few basic con-
siderations are necessary (Fig. 3.70). Steam is
suppli ed to the kettle ill a well insulated s team
pipe (1) to avoid heat loss. Beyond the s team in-
let valve (2) there is a pressure reduction valve
(3) which reduces the steam pressure to the per-
mitted pressure. In the case of kettles common-
ly used this is an overpressure of 2 to 3 bar. This
pressure reduction is essential because the kett-
le bottom would rupture if live steam at about
15 bar was introduced. The steam is fed into an
insulated circular cha!Ulel (4) and distributed
uniformly to the steam jacke t through several
supply pipes (5).
The steam jacket is ills ulated on the outside so
that there is the least possible heat loss. As a pres-
sure vessel the steam jacket has to be provided
with a safety valve (7) and a manometer (9). At
the start of boiling the air in the jacket must first
be driven out by steam. For this purpose 1 to 4
thin air release pipes are welded onto the upper
part of the steam jacket and each of these opens
through its own valve into the upper part of the
brewhouse. These air release valves (8) remaill
open at the start of boillilg and also dming boi-
ling until steam flows freely from them. It is then
certain that the air is completely displaced from
the steam jacket. At the end of boiling the valves
are opened to prevent a vactltun being formed as
a result of steam condensation and causing the
operation is performed automatically.
There is a temperature difference between the
wort and the steam which is evened out by the
heat conducting bottom of the kettle. The wort
becomes heated lmtil it boils whilst the steam de-
livers its heat and in doing so condenses.
The resulting condensate water is hea vier
than the steam and collects in the lower part of
the steam jacket. The condensate water must be
drained off through the condensate draillpipe
(10) into the condensate pot (11). The condensa-
te pot is located beneath the steam jacket and al-
lows only water, but no s team through. Most
condensate pots operate on the float principle.
TIle condensa te water is led off through the
condensate water drain pipe (12). The conden-
sate water is pure water and is returned to the
kettle as kettle supply water via a collection
vessel.
When discussi ng the mash conversion vessel
it was pointed out that the previously customa-
ry double steam bottom has largely disappea-
red nowadays and heating occurs through se-
micircu lar pipes welded onto the vessel bottom
or side. The sa me applies equally to wort kett-
les. Wort kettles which are equipped with an in-
ternal or ex ternal boiler operatillg at low pres-
sure are no longer provided with a kettle
heating system since the low pressure boiler by
itself provides the energy needed.
3.4.2.2.3 Ke ttle shape and material
The shape of the wort kettl e has lmdergone m a-
ny changes in the course of time.
Until the middle of 19th century, all brewing
vessels were constructed to in an open form.
The first s tea m heated
kettles were built with
a spherical shape in
1850. Later a change
was made so that the
middle of the kettle
bottom was raised hig-
her in order to achieve
a better boiling of the
wort from the middle
to the periphery.
Fig. 3.71
Worf movemel/f riepel/riel/f Ol/
fhe keffle riesigl/
333
The same effect was obtained with in-built
auxiliary heaters and with kettles having inter-
nal zone boiling. In these the wort was additio-
nally hea ted by s team at a higher pressure (up
to 5 bar = 158 DC) and evaporation accelerated. 3
The necessary heating surfaces could not be in-
creased in proportion to the grist load.
ArOLmd 1950 a range of brewhouses were con-
structed in block form ill whid1 the brewing ves-
sels were situated above one another. The wort
kettle, loca ted at the bottom, had a rectangular
ground surface but the bottom half was made se-
micircular so that the steam heating of the side
would provide good circulation of the wort.
The compact design kettles which appeared
in the sixties were made by welding together
parts cut from smooth metal sheets. This did
away with the expensive beating out of the
beautiful copper hoods which still adorn many
brewhouses. As a result of the different slope
angles of the walls and the heating pipes, here
too good circulation was obtained (Fig. 3.71)
b)
 r
334 335
Fig.3.71b
Tllerlllo-sypllOlI boilillg
(Zielllnllll, Lllrlwigsbllrg)

3 3

t (OC) found in some breweries. In the case of this

150 143.6°C kettle the steam jacket is divided (two zone boi-
ling) in order to provide the i1U1er zone with
140
steam at a higher pressure, and thus at a higher
130
temperature, and to intensify the boiling.

120 3.4.2.2.4 Hot water heating (hydroboiling)

It is also possible to heat water under pressure
110
to a high temperature below boiling point and
101 °C
100 to use this hot water at 160 to 170 °C to heat the
wort kettle. In this way there are no losses con-
90
nected with condensation of the steam. On the
other hand a substantially larger pipe diameter
Fig.3.72a
is needed and also more energy than with ste- Fig. 3.72
Heattmllsfer throllghtlle pipe walls
am, since steam is much easier to move than the Stealllheateri copper (two zOl le boilillglolrltype)
(I) fresh steal/I, (2) wort, (3) vessel walls
(1) vapollr chillllley, (2) stenlll valve, (3) cOllriellsa te rimill, (4) top covel; (5) access opellillg, (6) IniIlP, (7) wort sllpply pipe,
liquid water. The heat transfer of the hot steam
(8) thalllollletel; (9) fioatillg lIIeasllrillg rori, (10) stirrel; (11) stiner ririve, (12) wort olillet valve, (13) wort to hop stmillel;
is of course better than that of the hot water. (14) stealll slIpply pipe, (15) stealll valve for aliter ZOlle, (16) rerillctioll valve for aliter ZOlle, (17) IlInilOllleler with pipe to ali ter ZOlle,
but it did not reach the corners completely. It Consequently hot water boiling is found less of- (18) IIIslllateri cirCIIlar chnllllel for stealll sllpply (aliter zOlle), (19) aliter stealll jacket, (20) illslliatioll, (21) ail' release frOIll aliter

was thereby possible to increase the heating
surfaces in proportion to the grist load.
Fig. 3.72 shows, with its operational details, a
conventional wort kettle such as can still be
ten today than the usual. steam boiling. Heat is
transferred to the wort through welded-on
semicircular pipes as already described for the
mash kettle.
ZOlle, (22) ail' re/ease tap for ali ter ZOlle, (23) 1Ilnll0llleter (a liter zOlle), (24) collriellsate rimill pipe (aliter Wile), (25) cOllriellsate pot
for aliter ZOlle, (26) stealll valve for illller ZOlle, (27) rerillctioll valve for illller ZOlle, (28) lIIallOllleter with pipe to illller ZOlle,
(29) stealll slIpply to ililler ZOlle, (30) illller stealll jacket, (31) ail' re/ease frOIll illller ZOlle, (32) ail' re/ease tap (illller zOlle), (33) IlIa-
1IDIlleter (illller zOlle), (34) collriellsate rim ill pipe (illll er zOlle), (35) collriellsate pot (illll er zOlle), (36) cOllriellseri water pipe to col-
lectIIIg vesse/
 336
3.4.2.3 Wort kettle with low pressure boiling
The basic idea of low pressure boiling is that a se-
ries of conversion processes proceed more quick-
ly if the pressure and hence the boiling tempera-
ture is higher than 100 DC (see Sect. 3.4.2.2.1). The
3 3
way in which heat transfer occurs tlu'ough the pi-
pe walls is illustrated in Fig. 3.72a.
Wort kettles with low pressu re boiling are de-
signed as sealable pressure kettles for a m axi-
m al overpressure of 0.5 bar and are equipped
with the necessary safety fittings for over- or
lU1derpressure. Boiling of the wort occurs by
mea ns of an internal or external boiler. The kett-
le s team condenser is located in the pressure
area of the kettle so that the higher vapour tem-
perature can be utilised.
In the case of low pressure boiling, the wort is
boiled for 50 to 60 min at 102 to 104 DC.
Total evaporation using low pressure boiling
is in the region of 5 - 6%.
Boiling occurs either
in an external boiler situated outside the kett-
le through which the wort is pumped, or
l00'C
3 @5
@
4
@ 0 1-
Fig. 3.73 Wort kettle wit" extemal boiler
(1) exlemal boilel; (2) wort kettle, (3) fro lll tile lallter tllll, (4) cns tillg PIlIllP, (5) circlliatioll PIlIllP, (6) stealll, (7) collriCllsnle
in an internal boiler w here the wort is heated
in the wort kettle.
3.4.2.3.1 Low pressure boiling with an
external boiler
In the case of kettles with external boilers the
wort is circulated 7 to 8 times an hour through
an external boiler situated outside the kettle.
For this, wort is con tinuously withdrawn from
the bottom part of the ke ttle and pumped
through the ex te rnal boiler by a pump (Fig.
3.73, 1).
Shell-and-tube hea t exchangers (tube evapo-
rator) are the most commonl y used form of ex-
ternal boiler, with the plate heat exchan ger
being used for this purpose less frequently. The
wort is fed through the tubes which in turn are
surrounded by steam from outside. Whilst the
wort is b eing hea ted, the steam cools down and
condenses. Ex te rnal boilers are built either in a
standing or lying position, in the case of the lat-
ter, slightly sloping for better drainage of the
condensate. Both forms are common.
6 E.\·terllal boiler
2 (1) wort illflow, (2) wort OlltflOW, (3) wort pipes, (4) stealll ill-
7
- - <1111- - + - - --
104'C
p .!
337
The size of th e ex ternal boiler (heat ex-
changer) is determined by the necessary surfa-
ce to be h eated. The hea ting surface is deter-
mined by the number of hea ting pipes and their
diameter and leng th.
If the wort is allowed to flow through the pi-
pes at a low flowthrough velocity there is the
risk of the wort burning or at least caramel ising
and hence increasing in colour. Furthermore,
there is the danger tha t as a result of too hi gh
temp eratures, coagula ted protein w ill collect in
the pipes. To prevent this, a higher flowthrough
velocity of 2.6 to 3.0 m/s is usually required
today. To achieve the sam e exchange of heat,
each wor t particle has to flow a longer way. Sin-
ce the length of the boiler is, however, limited
for reasons of space, the end s of the hea t ex-
changer are frequently formed as baffles, so
tl1at each wort particle passes tlu-ough the hea t
exchanger severa l times (Fig. 3.74). The baffle
areas, however, cause shear forces for the wort
particles. So as to have few baffle areas, the ex-
ternal boiler may be of a con siderable length.
There are two varieties for boiling:
the entire kettle has a slight overpressure, the
vapours are drawn off by meaJ1S of an over-
flow valve. The advantage of this is the high
vapour tempe rature.
the kettle boils without the u se of pressure, Fig. 3.74
the drawing off of va pours also occurs with-
out pressure, only in the external boiler cir-
flow, (5) collriellsnte olltflow
cuit is the wort boiled under overpressure at
boiling temperatures of 102 to 104 DC.
The necessary overpressure (80 to 200 mbar)
required for the increased boiling temperatures
is achieved by
a pressure holding valve (expansion valve) in With a sufficiently high flow through velocity
front of the kettle inlet and and a low temperature difference between ste-
increasing the pump revolutions. am and wort, a service life of 30 to 40 brews can
The difference between the vapour tempera- be obtained. After this the kettle mu s t be
tUre and the wort tempera ture should not be cleaned. If the parameters are not well co-ordi-
greater than 10 DC. The necessary heating surfa- nated, cleaning may be necessary aiter 6 to 8
ce is 10 to 11 m 2 per 100 hI cast wort. brews.
 338
The wort expands on returning to the kettle
resulting in the desired vigorous evaporation.
The wort is returned to the surface by means of
a connecting cone or a distributing device.
The dimensions of the circulating pump en-
3 3
able the kettle contents to be circulated about
eight times an hour. Nevertheless, there is no
guarantee that every wort particle passes
through the boiler eight times because the kett-
le contents are not uniformly mixed . External
boiling, which was originally seen as a tempo-
rary measure for wort kettles which did not boil
well, has in the meantime become standard
and, despite there also being continued deve-
lopment to internal boiling, offers a number of
advantages:
the amount circulated can be exactly set and
the kettle contents can be well mixed,
the wort outflow temperature from the exter-
nal boiler can be precisely controlled,
it is possible to have exactly defined high tem-
perature holding phases by means of additio-
nal high temperature holding tubes,
extremely low saturated vapour pressure is
possible (0.3 bar),
any desired size of heating surface can be in-
stalled.
There are, however, a number of disadvanta-
ges to external boiling:
the external boiler requires high expenditure
on technical equipment (pipes, heat ex-
changer, circulating pump) and additional
heat insulation,
forced circulation requires additional energy
costs for re-circulating,
shear forces are produced by the high flowth-
rough velocity and changes in direction,
the space requirement is considerably greater
as are the costs for the equipment.
Despite the disadvantages, external boiling
has been successfully implemented in many
breweries.
!4
Fig. 3.75
Stmctllre of nil illtemnl boiler
(1) blllldle of tllbes, (2) lUort illflow, (3) jncket, (4) lUort distri-
blltillg shield, (5) stellllllillg calle (6) stenlll illflow, (7) COIl-
dellsnte olltlet, (8) CIP c1enllillg
3.4.2.3.2 Low pressure boiling with internal
boiling
Modern wort kettles are very frequently built
with an internal boiler (Fig. 3.75). The internal
boiler is a tubular heat exchanger in the wort
kettle, through the vertically arranged tubes (1)
of which the wort ascends, whilst being heated
from the outside by steam. The steam (6) which
4
3 the bottom, thereby increasingly inhibiting the
2 tent turns into steam whid1 has a far greater volu-
1 The greater volLUne hereby produced is raised in
Fig. 3.75n
Sten/ll fOl'llln tioll ill tlIe IIentillg pipes of tlIe illtemnl boiler
(1) IIot wort, (2) bllbble filII I, (3) sllbcoolerl core boilillg, (4)
CO/llplete ebll llitioll
is introduced from the top thereby cools, con-
denses (7) and is drained off.
In a stemming cone (5) the boiling wort is ac-
cLUnulated above the wort level of the kettle
and is centrifuged against a distributing shield
(4), which spreads the wort out widely and en-
SlU'es evaporation, whilst returning the wort to
the wort level.
Whilst the temperature of the wort during
boiling increases to 102 to 104 DC, the tempera-
ture (and therefore the pressure) of the hot ste-
am of course has to be considerably higher. It is
on heating about 140 to 145 DC (= 3.8 to 4.3 bar,
see Sect. 10.2.2.1) and
on boiling about 130 DC (= 2.8 bar, see also Fig.
3.72a).
339
The w ort streams into the heating tubes of the
boiler from the bottom at a temperature below
100 DC and is heated as it ascends (Fig. 3.75a).
This very soon results in the formation [1 74] on
the inner walls of
bubble film (2), which as it rises higher turns
into
subcooled core boiling (3) and finally in the
largest zone becomes
complete ebullition (4),
whilst outside the steam releases its evapora-
tion heat (enthalpy) and condenses. The con-
densate flows in an increasingly thick layer to
heat exchange .
In the case of ebullition, the water to a large ex-
me than the water from which it has been formed.
a stenuning cone above the heating tubes higher
than the level of the wort in the kettle, and then
with the aid of a distributing shield returned to
the wort surface. The dish'ibuting shield, which
can have different forms, is regulated so that a
complete circulation of the wort in the kettle oc-
curs witl10ut the occurrence of dead zones.
The very great temperature differences have
a positive effect on boiling but also cause pro-
blems: whilst in the case of external boiling a
continuous circulation of the entire contents of
the kettle is more or less guaranteed, in the case
of internal boiling, particularly during the hea-
ting up phase, irregularities occur:
On heating the bottom layers of the kettle
wort are subjected to suction and after hea-
ting in the boiler distributed onto the wort
surface. As a result of this, temperature levels
in the kettle may vary by as much as 20 DC,
and are only balanced out after 15 to 20 min
[190] (Fig. 3.75b). This results in non-lmiform
treatment of the wort including unequal iso-
merisation of the bitter substances and DMS
removal.
 340
100
3 90
V Temp 5
.!:
a.
E Fig. 3.7Sc1 (left!
70 o+-.-,-.-.-" ,,-.-,-,-'-'-'-'-'-'' ' 60
' 8 -10 times through the btmdle of tubes. A sma ll
10 20 30 40 50
time in min
Fig.3.7Sb
lrregllinrities ill telllpemtll re whell hentillg with nil illtemn/ boiler
1 to 9 telllpemtllre lIIensllrillg poillts (lII ensllrillg poillts 4 nlld6 nre llOt SIIOWII)
On hea ting, the temperature difference bet-
ween the steam and the wort flowin g out is
still very great. This initially results in cara-
m elisa tion in this area and in coa ting formati-
on.
Cold wort continues to flow into the boiler
from below, and only escapes upwards when
it begins to boil. With the transition of water
to steam, the volume increases con siderably.
This results in the flow throu gh being tempo-
rarily impeded which causes a s trong pulsa-
ting of the boiling for the duration of the hea-
ting, which can be heard as a clear crashing.
From 1 kg (= 11) of water about 1700 I of ste-
am at the same temperature is produced on
evaporation (normal pressure and 100°C) (see
table in Sect. 10.2.2.1). The amount of steam
produced inevitably causes a temporary blok-
kage in the boiler tube and hen ce audible pulsa-
ting, because the boiling wort and the steam
produced cannot be discharged upwards so
quickly. This blockage is grea ter the narrower
the boiler tubes are. The blockage causes the
- Temp 1
- Temp 2
emp-{l-
- Temp 7
- Temp 8
mP-9-
76°C
wort to scorch on the pipe walls. As a result of
the increasing coating formation in the tubes,
fouling occurs over a period of time (Fig. 3.75 el)
which n ecessitates cleaning of the pipes, which
can be required at very short intervals.
With the "Stromboli" method (Anton Stein-
ecker, Freising) (Fig. 3.75a1), an attempt is ma-
de to prevent this blockage and thus the lmde-
sirable thermal exp osure of the wort cOlm ected
with it, particul arly during the heating up stage
[267]. For this purpose, a two-piece vertical pi-
pe is passed through the centre of the bundle of
tubes (6), at the top end of which a two-piece
wort distributing shield is located. With the aid
of a frequency controlled pump (7), wort drawn
from different p arts of the kettle bottom (4)
flows through this pipe. Above the btmdle of
tubes, the pipe originating from the frequency
controlled pump (7) is tapered off. As a result
the speed of the wort increases, which now pro-
pels the hot wor t out of the bundle of tubes (6)
in the form of a jet. At a speed of 4 mIs, the con-
tents of the kettle are pumped 8 times through
FOIl/illg ill the boiler
Fig. 3.7Sc2 (right!
Boiler withollt FOlllillg
the pipe, carrying with them the kettle contents
baffle s hield (5) evenl y distributes the wort
from the digester pipes. The contents of the
kettle are pumped directly below the upper
flow optimised shield (1), which distributes the
wort optimally and permits circulation at any
desired temperature.
Directly above the btmdle of tubes (6), a jet
pump (3) is loca ted which draws the wort ou t of
the btmdle of tubes and feeds it to the jet pump
(3) via a baffle shield (5). The jet pump then dis-
tributes the wor t over the optimised flow baffle
shield (1) . This jet pump (3) is the heart of the
Stromboli . The flow-rate of the jet pump (3) cor-
Fig.3.7Snl
"Strolllboli lllet/Iod " - opemtillg prillciple
(J) flow- optilllised bnffle sll ields
(2) COlltml flnp
(3) jet plllllp (llozzle)
(4) wort illflow
(S) bnffle shield
(6) blllldle of tllbes
(7) jreqllel/cy col/trolled plllllp
341
3
responds to the flow-rate of the frequency con-
trolled pump (7), so that a large circulation of
the entire contents of the kettle is achieved (Fig.
3.75a2). Fig. 3.75a3 illustrates the arrangement
above the digester pipes.
As a result, it is possibl e to adapt boiling to
the requirements of the brewer:
• Boi/illg stage 1: intensive evaporation with
removal of undesirable aro ma compounds,
precipitation of the coagulable protein, ap-
prox . 15 min with high s team throughput.
• Boilillg res t: splitting of the DMS-P, low ener-
gy supply, intensive movement and hea t re-
tention, at 40 min the longest phase with low
steam throughput.
fl---- - -I- 6
 342 343

• Boilillg stllge 2: repeated extensive expelling As a result of this arrangement, overheating

of DMS, approx. 15 min. of the "vort and sco rching in the digester pipes
The following results are achieved: (fouling) is prevented, particularly during the
a b
low DMS values (below 20 critical heating up stage. Thus the digester pi-
low thermal exposure (TBI below 15), pes show no sign of fouling, even after 50 brews
3 3
improvement of the foam stability, and (Fig. 3.75c2). Due to the application of heat to
positive effect on the flavour stability. the internal boiler, the protein composition can
be precisely controlled . This is aided by the mo-
vement of the wort at boiling temperature. As a
result, there is considerably less evaporation (3
to 4%) and thus a substantial saving of energy
and water, whilst having less environmental
impact.
A distributing shield is situated above the in-
ternal boiler which is known to brewers as a Phase 7 Phase 2
"chinese" hat because of its shape. The wort 750
flow is returned downwards to the kettle on V I' v/ '\;/ \
\
this distributing shield. The shape and position
Fig. 3.75a2: Stl'OIIIiJoli lIIethod
of the distributing shield are not without signi- o o
Opemtillg prillciple of the jet pllllip (jet lIozzle) ficance . As measurements on normal kettles
show (Fig. 3.75b), the areas near to where boi- o 15 30 45 60
ling occurs are heated up much later than the
2 peripheral parts. This leads to non-uniform
Fig.3.75c3a
treatment of the substances contained in the let Star boilillg (HIlPPlltnllll, Kitzillgell)
1 wort, which is not a good thing. As will be a (phase 1) gelltle cirCll latioll, b (phase 2) dYllalllic low press llre boilillg
shown, today ever better attempts are made to
I eliminate these disadvantages by means of ap-
I propriate training and positioning of the distri- phase, the wort is homogenously circulated for between 20 and 30 minutes, is conducive to the
i buting shield (see Sect. 3.4.2.6). 20 to 30 min at static low pressure with very low
evaporation. During this time, the isomerisation
evaporation of the free DMS, which was formed
during the thermal conversion from the DMS-P'
"Jet-Stll!," Method (HlIPPIIlIl1111, Kitzillgell) of the hop resins, coagulation of the proteins and As a result of the gentle two phase boiling,
In more recent times, there have been studies breakdown of the aroma precursors (DMS-P) are the free DMS content in the middle of cooling is
[262,341] investigating the possibility of distri- promoted . The vapour bubbles formed in the lowered and the thermal exposure of the wort
3 buting the wort below the wort level in order to boiler pipes thereby condense again in the wort, greatly reduced, which also leads to a higher
achieve a better, more homogeneous and ther- resulting in very low evaporation. content of coagulable nitrogen.
4
mal treatment of the wort and prevent by-pas- During the subsequent stripping stage (Pha- Another advantage of Jet Star boiling is that
sing. This is the case when using Jet Star boiling se 2), the sub jet opening is closed, whereby the flow is improved within the kettle due to an
5
(Fig. 3.75c3a). With this method [340], the upper propulsion through a boiler pipe on the kettle increased exchange between the jet and sur-
Sect. of the boiler is raised in the heating up sta- to the sub jet hat occurs by means of a shaft and rounding liquid, and by-passing is prevented .
ge (Phase 1) so that the hot wort can leave the servo motor. As a result of closing the sub jet
Fig. 3.75a3
boiler below the wort level (sub jet). As a result, opening, boiling and stripping can occur via the Boilillg dllratioll
Stl'OlIIboli IIlet/lOd - evapomtioll area alld shields
(1) f1ow-optilllised shields, (2) cOlltl'01 flap, (3) jet plllllp an even downward flow is achieved and pulsa- distribution shield . The stripping phase with Today, as a rule, boiling lasts 50 to 70 min with
(1IOzzle), (4) baffle shield, (5) blllldle of tllbes tion completely prevented. During this first dynamic low pressure boiling, which can take a clear tendency towards shortening the boiling
,---- - - -- - - - -- -----

344 345

time. In the case of classical lo w pressure boi- durin g hea ting to boiling, an un steady phase ble to remove the boiler from the wo rt kettle Today, there is a m ove away from wh irlpool
ling - whether using an internal or exte rnal boi- occu rs w hich ha s a n egative effect on the an d to install it as an external boiler w ith na tu- ke ttles because the usage of the wor t ke ttle can
ler - the process proceed s as follows (Fig. 3.76): composition of the wort. This considerable ral circula tion n ext to the ke ttle (Fig. 3.71b; ther- be redu ced to such an ex tent by a wor t collec-
hea ting up to 100 °e in about 15min disad vantage can only be prevented by the ulosyphon, Ziem ann, Ludw igsburg ). ting vessel that it is possible to m anage w ith a
3 initial boiling at 100 °e for about 10 min support of a pump (see above), w ort kettle even if a two hour rhy thm is u sed. 3
heating up to 102 to 104 °e in 10 to 15 min because of the high tempera tures during hea- Furthermore, a separate whirlpool is considera-
boiling at 102 to 104 °e for 15 to 30 min ting and the low flo w velocity, the boiler pi- bly cheaper than a wort ke ttle.
pressure reduction at 100 °e in about 15 min pes clog more quickly,
and the ins tallable heating surface is limited . 3.4.2.4 H igh temperature w ort boiling
final boiling at 100 °e for about 10 min. The above m entioned disad vantages of boi- The reason for increasing the temperature con-
There are different view s concerning the eva- ling with an internal boiler are considerably re- siderably more during wort boiling is that ma-
luation of the advantages and disadva ntages of du ced w ith th e ins talla tion of a Jet Star or n y reactions take place fas ter at higher tempera-
internal and external boilers: Stromboli. tures and so a t higher pressures. Thus the
Advantages of internal boilers are: The decision regarding internal or external complete isomerisation of (Y.-acids of hops (ac-
simple and robust construction with a long boilers is m ainly a qu estion of the company cording to Sommer) requires
workiJlg life, philosophy as no major differences between the 100 °e 90 min boiling time
no addition al electrical energy required, pro- two systems exis t. 120 0 e 5 - 8 min hea t holdillg time
viding there is no forced circulation, There is however the possibility of hea ting 130 °e 3 - 5 min heat holdillg time
unproblematic elr cleaning, the wort without an uns teady phase u sing a tu- 140 e
0
2 - 3 min heat holding time
no additional insulation required, bular heating unit with agita tors (Fig. 3.76a). 150 °e 1 - 1.5 min heat holdillg time
no additional space requirement. This form of h ea ting is sometimes u sed to heat In high tempe ra ture wort boilillg the wort
However, the disadvantages should also be ma sh vessels durin g gentle mash conveying from the lauter vessel is collected in a collectillg
considered: with high heating p erformance. It is also possi- vessel (Fig. 3.77, 1) and hops are added. The
w ort is then brought by means of a pump (2) to
a pressure of 6 bar and
in the fi rs t heat exchanger (3) hea ted to 95 °e
GESAMTVERDAMPFUNG 4 · 6 % I TOTAL EVAPORATION 4 · 6 % i ill the second heat exchanger (4) the tempera-
Fig. 3.76n ture is increased to 115 °e
Illtemni tllvl/lnr Ilen tillg 11 11 it witii propeller and in the third h eat exchallger (5) brought to
I 102·104 · C I (BrE Brewenl tec/lll olog l/, Essell)

----
140 T .

/ 0-
::>

'z"
'"
0
Z
::;
0-
::>
'::;z"
0
"'
w
'"
::>
U)
U)
w
w
U)
«
w
'z"
::;
0
Wllirlp ool1cettles
In the followillg hot holdillg Sect. (6), ill the
form of a coiled pipe, the temperature is held for
5 mill at 6 bar overpressure. The wort is then led
into the pressure release vessel (7) ill which its
'z" ..J

"' z-'" "' pressure is reduced to 1 b ar overpress ure (=

W
W 0- W As long as the kettle bottom is flat, wort kettles
'"
0-
...... '"
......
'"
......
'"
W
:I:
z- w
z :I:
......
z
W
:I:
u
Z
::>
Z
w
:I:
can basically be u sed as whirlpools (w hirlpool 120 0q. In a second pressure release stage (8) the
0 Z
W :I: W
z u
t:!
w
u
0
t:!
w '"'"u::> 1t 0 kettles). Ke ttles with external boilers are far mo- wort pressure is reduced to normal pressure and
i!:::> '"'"0 i!:::> U)
....
zw
'"
:I:
u re suitable as whirlpool kettles because they do it can then be delivered to the w hirlpool at 100 °C.
«
« > « '"
0 z
not have b affles. In the case of kettles w ith inter- Advanta ges are : less oxidation and paler
! 15 ' 10 ' ,10 -is ' 15 ' 10' ] nal boilers, it must be taken into account that wort colour. A disad vantage is the insufficient
- - - Fig. 3.76
the boiler is a considerable obstacle to circulati- evaporation of volatile substances . High tempe-
Boilillg dll ratioll, tell/peratllre
I DAMPF I STEAM I nlld press llre dllrillg low presslI- on (see Sect 3.8.3), which can impair the extrac- rature wort boilillg is not very widely u sed and
re voilillg tion of h ot sludge. is also no longer ins talled .
 1
346 347

3 3
Fig . 3.77
High tell/pem tllre wor t boil i llg
(1) wo r t col/ectillg vessel, (2) P" II/P, (3-5) hea t exclln llgel; (6) high tell/pemtllre IIDlriillg tllbe, (7) first press llre rerillct ioll vessel
(evapom tioll vessel), (8) seco ll ri press ll re reri ll ctio ll vessel
3.4.2.5 Energy saving wort boiling systems
Steam is produced on boiling. This steam is re-
fe rred to as water vapour. If the vapour is allo-
wed to esca pe unhind ered fro m the chimney,
people in the neighbourhood can smell that the
brewery h as been boiling again . This can be
considered to be odour p ollution and acco rding
to Federal Law on Emissions Protection is also
not permitted .
Moreover, the evaporated water m ass con-
tains a great d eal of energy which in this case
escapes through the chinmey. To convert 1 kg of
water at 100 °C into 1 kg of steam at 100 °C,
about 540 kcal = 2260 kJ are required . If the ste-
am cond enses again in the surrolmdings, this
h ea t energy is released again and is completely
lost to the brewery.
3.4.2.5.1 Vapour condensation
It is therefore useful to recover at least part of
the hea t of evaporation . This is done by buil-
ding a kettle vapour condenser into the ke ttle
chinmey. If the vapour is condensed here, the
heat of evaporation is recovered .
In the kettle vap our condenser (Fig. 3.78) the
va p our is passed aga ins t pipes or pockets,
Fig. 3.79
Kettle vapo ll r cO llriell ser
(1) heat exchallge vessel (bll llrile of Illbes)
(2) vapOllr chillllley
(3) waleI' vapoll r
(4) hoi waleI' olltlet
(5) warll/ w aler ill let
(6) collriel/sale rim ill
through w hich wa ter is pumped, and the wa ter exchanger. The vapour flows in at the top of
is thereby wa rmed whils t the vapour gives up every second plate, and the condensed wa ter
its heat of evaporation and conden ses . Depen- runs out at the bottom, whils t the cooling wa ter
ding on the subsequent purposes for which the flow s in a counterflow from below upwa rds in
heat is used, the vapour is cooled in one or two the plates between them and is thereby hea ted
stages and h ot wa ter thereby p roduced . Nowa- (Fig. 3.79a). On h ea t utilisation grounds the
days most kettle vapour condensers are built cooling water used is as hot as possible and is
with one s tage cooling (Fig . 3.79). brought as close as possible to boilin g p oint
Each hi of evaporated wor t produ ces 0.8 hi of through the condensa tion of the vap our.
hot water a t 80 °C.
The volume of vapour is d ecreased conside- 3.4.2.5.2 Vapour compression
rably on cond ensing to form water and the wa- The vapo ur produced on boiling is at about 100
ter can easily be removed. °C and th us cam10t be used an y furth er for h ea-
ting purposes. If, h owever, the vap our is com-
pressed to a few tenths of a bar overpressu re,
1 4

T!T!T!T!T!T!T!r
the temperature of the va pour is raised to 102 to
108 °C and it can be used again fo r hea ting. In
this way the heat conslUned for evaporation in
the wort boiling p rocess can be directly recover-
: i ; ed . A prerequisite for this vapour uti lisa tion is,
.. .
" .
h owever, vapour free of air which is only pro-
.3 . - 2
( duced if the kettle is free from foam and boiled
without d rag air.
Fig. 3.78 Fig. 3.79a
Keltle vapollr co ll riellser Plate heal excllnllger as keltle vapo ll r co llriell ser
Va p our compression is achieved either
(1) wort keltle (1) vapoll/; (2) cOllriel/Sate, (3) cool illg watel; (4) hot w ater by means of a m ech an ica l comp ressor, in
(2) vapo ll r cllilllll ey which case one sp eaks of mechanical va p our
(3) arij ll stable val ve
compression, or
(4) heat excha llge chall/bers
(5 ) extmc tor
No wad ays the kettle vapo ur conden ser is of- by means of a steam jet compresso r whi ch re-
(6) blow -off pipe ten buil t in the fo rm of a single-layer plate hea t qui res s team from a boiler to dri ve it, in
 348
w hi ch case on e speaks of thermocompressi- fro m a boiler into the wor t ke ttle. The wort is
on. forced by the circul ating p ump (4) throu gh the
Mechanical vap our compression is regarded external boiler (3), hea ted up, and returned to
3
as the state of the art and thermocomp ression is
mu ch less frequently found in brewe ries.
the wo rt kettle (1). Wh en the desired boiling
temperature of 102 to 106 °C is reached at the
heater outlet, the compressor (2) is started and
MeclInllicnl vnpour c0111pressiou the vapour produ ced (9) is compressed to an
The vapour produced is mechanica lly compres- overpressure of 0.09 - 0.25 bar = 102 to 106 0c.
sed to an overpressure of 0.2 - 0.5 bar by a tu rbo, The boiling process is thereby m aintained in
screw or rotating piston (Roots) compressor. As a op eration.
result of this compression the temperature of the Vap our com pression can also be installed in
steam is increased and it can be used again di rect- existing pl ants and is also of interest to brewe-
ly for hea ting pmp oses. However a condensate is ries w hich d o not want to use low pressure boi-
sp rayed in previously to reduce the superhea- ling for qu ality reasons. There is 3.11 increased
ting. With vapom compression steam and energy pressure in the ex tern al boiler but not in the
can therefore be saved since on ly the energy ne- kettle . H owever, the sys tem only opera tes
cessary to drive the compressor is needed (about when absolutely free of air. Consequently, fully
5% of the primcuy energy requi remen t). autom atic air removal val ves are always instal-
Hea ting up of the wort necessarily begins led at the lowest point of the system because the
with the suppl y of fresh s tea m (Fig. 3.80, 10) h eavier air sinks to the bottom.
Safety
Valve 8 useful (60 to 80 m 2/100 hI wort),
9 Flash Vapour
Vapour Hot Water
Compressor
2 12
COO,",,,, 6 All in all it is p ossible to say that vapour com-
External 3 Pump
Baller 13
Water Condensate
4 X
• Condensate
Wort Pump Vessel
Fig. 3.80
Mechnllical vnpollr compressioll plnllt
(1) wort kettle, (2) comprssO/; (3) extemnl voilel; (4) wort cirCIIlntioll pllmp, (5) colldellsnte vessel, (6) cOlldeusate PIllIlP, (7)
kettle vnpollr colldellsel; (8) snfety vnlve, (9) vnpolll; (10) fresh steam, (11) cold wntel; (1 2) llOt wntel; (13) colldellsate
6
Fig. 3.81
Stealll jet cOlllpressor
(1) jet cllnmvel; (2) jet, (3) hend, (4) illflow
diffllsel; (5) olltflow diffll sel; (6) drivillg
stemll (jresll stenm), (7) vnpollr stenm, (8)
lIIixed stenm (drivillg nlld vnpollr stenm)
The saving of fresh s team is substcu1tial w ith
vapour comp ression. Beca use the heat of eva-
poration is used again to heat up the w ort there
is almos t no excess hot water. A vacuum pre-
vention system is needed for the kettle to pre-
vent air being d rawn in [13].
There are h owever d isad vantages to se t
against the ad vantages:
the plant engineering is complicated cu1d ex-
pensive,
a large hea t exchcu1ge surface is required sin-
ce only s mall tempe rature differen ces are
main tenance work is n ecessary,
if 3.11 E-motor is used, the power consumption
of the compressor may result in peak electri-
city dem cu1ds . If a combus tion engine (gas or
diesel) is used, the hea t of the engine can be
used (power-hea t-coupling plant) . In this ca-
se there are n o additional electricity d e-
111CU1ds.
pression onl y m akes sense if used for more than
5 brews p er d ay. Th e ad vantages of vapour
compression increase with the daily nLU11ber of
brews an d the size of the gris t load .
Tllen tlOCO tllpress ioll
In the thermocompression process the vap ou r
is sucked in by a steam jet pump (Fig . 3.81) and
compressed . The pump consis ts of a head (1)
349
2 3 4 5
----8 =:> 3
7
with a jet (2) through w hich live s team from a
boiler with 3.11 overpressure of at least 8 cu1d up
to 18 bar is passed. Because of the high velocity
of th e live stecul1 the vapour is entrained cu1d in
the following mixing Sect. (3) the kinetic energy
produced as a result of the increased velocity is
transfor med into a pressure energy of 0.1 to 0.4
overpressure .
In a thermocompression plant (Fig. 3.82)
[133] the wort is first h eated by a sup ply of li ve
steam (10). Th e wort is forced by the ci rcul ating
pump (4) through the external hea ter (3), h ea-
ted up, and returned to the wo rt ke ttle (1).
When the boiling temperature of 106 °C is rea-
ched at the heater outlet, the steam jet pump (2)
is s ta rted.
Mos t of the va pour (9) is sucked in by th e
compressor jet, compressed and brou ght to a
higher temperature level. The compressed va-
pour is led into the external boiler (3) cu1d again
hea ts the wort to boiling.
The condensate, at 106 °C and 0.3 bar over-
pressure, formed in the ex ternal boiler is collec-
ted in a collecting vessel (5) and fed back to the
kettle vap our condenser (7) by a cond ensa te
p ump (6).
If all the vapour were compressed, the additi-
on of live stea m necessary as d riving agent
wo uld result in in creasing amounts of heat
energy being supplied an d the process would
be considered to be out of contro l. Consequent-
 350 351

Safety
Valve 8
9 Flash Vapour

3 Hot
3
Water
12

Steam Jet
Compressor Condensate
2 Cooler
Wort KetUe Steam
10
6
External Pump
Boiler 11 13
Cold Condensate
water
4 I
•
Wort
Pump
Condensate
Vessel

7S0C
Fig. 3.82 98°C
Tllerlllni vnpollr colllpressioll plnl/I 8
(1) worl keille, (2) slealll jel (3) exlemnl (4) worl cirwlnlio ll P"I"P, (5) cOl/rlel/snle vessel, (6) cOllrlel/snle
P"IllP, (7) col/rlel/snle (8) snfely vnlve, (9) (10) fresll slenlll, (11 ) colrl (12) 1101 (13) col/rlel/snle

-
9

Iy about 30% of the vapour is condensed in the
vapour condenser and hot process water (1 2) is
produced from it in the kettle vapour conden-
ser (7).
Advantages with thermocompression are:
trouble-free operation w ith little maintenan-
ce required,
no peaks in the electricity conslUnption.
Disa dvantages are:
evaporation) using va pour compression inste-
ad of conventional boiling show substantial dif-
ferences [132]. The space required for the neces-
sary h ea t exch ange surfaces of the internal
10
-
boiler, h oweve r, usually causes considerable
problems. Moreover, introduction of thermo-
Fig. 3.84
compression only makes sense if the hot water EI/ergy stomge syslelll (GEA Brewery Sys lellls, Kilzil/gell)
produced can also be used. (1) from Ille Inllter lillI, (2) wort pre-rllll Inl/ k, (3) wort (4) wort kettle, (5) kettle vnpollr (6) ellelgy slomge
tnllk, (7) worl (8) wllirlpool, (9) trllu tnllk, (10) 10 tile Inllier lillI, (11) nemtiol/ of wort, (12) 10 tile ferlllelltalioll ee/lnr

the large hea t exchange surfaces required be-
cause of the low h ea ting s team temperature,
increased production of hot water, and
the high steam pressure required (possibly 18
bar; own kettle plant required).
Nevertheless thermocompression represents
a less expensive alternative to mechanical va-
p our compression not only for small breweries
but also for large breweries with an additional
requirement for hot water. Comparison s of
energy cost savings per brew (100 hi and 10%
3.4.2.5.3 Low pressure boiling with an energy
storage tank
The h ea t exchange occurring at various places
in general produces warm water and most of
this CaIU10t be used . However, very hot water is
required vvhich, if made a little hotter, can be
used for hea ting purposes. For this purpose it is
necessa ry to make use of small temperature dif-
ferences and to s tore the hot water without coo-
ling lmtil needed . This ca n be achieved with he-
at insulated energy s torage systems (Fig. 3.84).
The water evaporated in the wort kettle is, as
vapour, cond ensed in the kettle vapour conden-
ser (5) whilst the cOlmter flow of cooling water
is heated to 97 °C. The water heated to 97 °C is
fed back into the upper part of the energy s tora-
ge vessel. The wort from the wort collection un-
derback or the mash in the mash kettle CaI1 be
heated up by this hot water from the upper part
of the energy storage reservoir. Other hot wa ter
energy sources CaI1 also be stored - care must be
taken, however, that the temperature of the sto-
red hot water is not thereby greatly redu ced .
The hot wa ter is stored in a well insulated ener-
gy storage vessel. In it the bOlmdary between
very hot water aI1d hot water is displaced dep en-
ding on requirements. The mixing zone depends
on the design of the storage vessel aI1d is only 10
to 20 cm in the case of narrow reservoirs.
 352
With such a s torage system waste hea t can be
stored for lon g tin,es and ca n be ca lled upon at
any time. It is important that by intelligent use
of ve ry small temperature differences the tem-
perature in the reservoir is not lowered.
3 3
The saving of primary energy relative to con-
ventional boiling without hea t recove ry is
in the case of low pressure boiling about 40 to
50%,
in the case of low pressure boiling with an
energy saver about 60 to 70%.
3.4.2.6 Other modern wort boiling systems
The brewhouse - and in particular wort boiling-
is the grea test energy user in the brewery.
Very careful consideration must therefore be
given to considerably lowering the energy con-
sumption in the brewhouse. As well as redu-
cing costs, a contribution is also made to preser-
ving the envirorunent by means of lower CO2
emissions.
In the past few yea rs a number of boiling sy-
stems have been d eveloped which, as well as
sav ing energy, are targeted at obtaining a quali-
tative improvement in wort and beer.
If only a few decades ago there was great pride
in a high performance kettle with 15% percenta-
DMS
< 100 I-lg/I
TBI increase
boilingl'>15
ge evaporation with a two hour boiling time,
today w ith modern boil ing systems, a better wort
quality than before w ith 4 to 5% percentage eva-
poration in 35 to 40 min boiling time is aimed for.
In the foreground of modern wort boiling sy-
stems is high eva poration efficiency. This me-
ans that the anal y tica l benchmark values fo r
boiling must be aligned with each other. This
entails the following:
thermal exposure on the wort should be as
low as p ossible. This requires short boiling ti-
mes or gentle boiling . The TBI increase du-
ring boiling should not exceed 15 points and
at the end should be n o more than 30 to 40
points. A good fl avour stability can then be
expected.
the precipitation of free DMS should be as
complete as possible and in the middle of
cooling have values of below 100 Less
volatile components such as 2-phenylethanal
or the hydroxy fatty acids first have to be bro-
ken down by a certain thermal exposure, or,
like the Strecker aldehydes, first have to be
formed before they can be precipitated. Boi-
ling times which are too short can therefore
lead to a changed aroma profile.
Free DMS and other volatile aroma substances,
Coagulable protein
2-3 119/100 ml
Fig. 3.85al
Basic vallies fo r tile evaillatioll
of lVort boilillg
such as 2- and 3-methyl butanal, hexanal and so-
me Sh·ecker aldehydes can only volatise if they
bind to a gaseous surface in which they can vola-
tise. TILis occurs, for example, if the pressure of
the hot wort is reduced: the water boils and then
evaporates, and the steam bubbles or boiling ste-
am form a welcome possibility for the volatile
aroma substances to become gaseous and to vo-
latise (evaporation, stripping). All modern wort
boiling systems therefore attempt to enable vola-
tile aroma substances to precipitate
by means of an inert gas or steam stream,
by means of pressure reduction or
by boiling,
so that at the end of the boiling process, at le-
ast 2 to 3 m g of coagulable protein/IOO ml
wort is present to gu arantee good foam stabi-
lity. This in turn requires that boiling should
not be too long or too intensive.
All three above-mentioned benclunark valu-
es aTe dependent upon each other and if pro-
perly aligned, result in high quality. To this end,
two terms should be looked at more closely:
Evaporation mui heat retelltioll
Evaporation takes place in order to expel Lmde-
sirable aroma substances (OMS, carbonyles,
a.o.); heat retention aids the isomerisation of
the hop resins, protein coagulation, aroma for-
mation, colour formation, a.o. In the case of
classical wort boiling, evaporation and heat re-
tention occur in the wort kettle, whilst only he-
at retention and no evaporation occurs in the
boi ling/heat retention
Fig.3.85n3
Wort kettle
Modem wort boilillg procedllre start of boiling
(prillciple)
353
w hirlpoo l. As a result, evap oration of Lmdesira-
bl e aroma substances can no longer occur with
classica l wort boiling.
Modern "vort boiling methods are therefore
charac terised in particular by pre-cooling or se-
condary evaporation which effect the evaporati-
on of undesirable aroma substances and their la-
ter formation . This represents a substantial step
towa rds better fla vour stabili ty (Fig. 3.85a3).
In the case of mos t mod ern wort boiling sy-
s tems, the combination of an internal boiler +
whirlpool represents the basic system, into or
between which additional apparatus is integra-
ted. The general aim is to suppl ement already
exis ting brewhouse equipment.
In the following, the main modern wort boiling
systems are described. They have in conunon a
minimised percentage evaporation, minimised
boiling temperatures and times, as well as maxi-
mal removal of the tmdesirable aroma substan-
ces, in particular the removal of OMS and the
preven tion of its reformation from OMS-Po
A benclU11ark for evaporation is the evaporati-
on efficiency; tlLis is a non-dimensional figme
which results from the quotient of the decrease in
concenh·ation against the total evaporation. TIle
evaporation efficiency must however be separa-
tely determined for each evaporation indicator.
3.4.2.6.1 Dynamic low pressure boiling
(Gea Brewery Systems, Kitzingen)
In the case of low pressure boiling, there is no
pressure retaiLLing phase over a long p eriod of
pre-coo ling stripping
pl ate type hea t eXChanger vaku um evaporation
vakuum eva poration atrnosperic evapora tion
steam stri pping
hot break separation
Whirlpoo l
middle of cooling
end of boiling

354
of the frequent release of pressure and the re-
sulting expansion, the volatile components,
JI\ / 1\ / 1\ / 1\ /1\ such as free DMS, should be given the possibi-
lity to escape.
j The process usually begins with a pre-boiling
3 / phase at normal pressure at 100 DC (1), which is
1 2 3 4 5 4 545 4 5 4 5 6 7
,,- especially beneficial for protein coagulation and
I
"".IV- the isomerisation of the hop resins. This is follo-
wed by pressure bldld-up (2). For this the steam
Fig.3 .85n
cover is closed and the presslUe in the kettle in-
Oyllnillic low presS lIre voilillg
(1) lIenlillg lip, (2) dYllnlllic jrnciiollnlllen lillg lip, (3) pre-voi- creased to 150 mbar. The temperature is increa-
/illg, (4) press lIre vllild-lIp, (5) release, (6) jillnl voilillg, (7) sed to 103 C and maintained for 3 to 5 min.
0
enslillg In the stripping phase (3), the pressure is re-
duced to 50 mbar, whereby the temperature is
time when boiling the wort, instead a continu- lowered to 101 DC. To accelerate this release of
ous change between the building up and re- pressure, the steam inlet is closed and the water
lease of pressure occurs (Fig. 3.85a). As a result circulation control of the energy storage lUlit
Fig.3 .85v
Singes oj dYllnlllic low pressllre voilillg
(A) pre-voilillg singe, (B) press lIre Vllild-IIP, (e) slrippillg singe, (0) nill/Osplleric voilillg
Fig. 3.85c
Two-singe sllield (Type HlIpplllnllll, Kil zillgell)
Oescriplioll ill text
(see Sec t. 3.4.2.5.3) increased to full capacity.
Following a redu ction in pressure of 3 to 5 mill,
the steam inlet is reopened and the process be-
gins again . There can be up to six such pressure
build-up and release intervals following each
other. The frequent release phases cause a vigo-
rous boi ling move ment as steam bubbles form
in the wor t and rise at speed. This guarantees a
considerably more intensive and extensive eva-
poration of volatile substances contained in the
wort [151) .
At the end of the process, pressure release (4)
to 25 mbar at 100.5 DC occurs and finally an at-
mospheric boiling (5) at normal pressure and
100 DC with the s team valve opened.
Nowadays, using this procedure, a percenta-
ge evaporation of 4.5 % (related to the cast wort)
with a boiling tim e of 40 to 50 min is possible.
The Jet Still' method (Fig. 3.75c3a) is the flUther
development of dynamic low pressure boiling.
The procedure is supplemented using a par-
ticular two-stage distribution shield.
The two-stage shield (Fig. 3.85c) is segmented
in two levels. The boiling wort is segmented by
means of a baffl e beneficial to the flow and
sprayed into the two levels one above the other,
whereby a very good evaporation effect is ob-
355
tained . At the same time the wort is spun slight-
ly by the appropriate design of the shield seg-
ments. The thread visible at the top in the dia-
gra m illu strates that the shield can be adjusted
in height, w hich applies to all shields where an 3
optimum height has to be established.
3.4.2.6.2 Stage optimised aroma boiling
"Ecotherm"
(Krones-Steinecker)
The main components of thi s internal boiler sy-
stem are a circulating plunp, designed as a fre-
quency controlled gently conveying pump, and
a specially designed distribution shield.
Through the use of a control, it is possible to
ensure that at any given time during heating
and boiling an individual h ea ting temperature
and the amolmt circulated by the pump can be
pre-selected and hence the desired values for
the cast wort can be very precisely set. It is the-
reby possible, by means of quick or delayed
hea ting- up and differentia tion of the boiling
stages, to affect both the character of indi vidual
beer types by influencing the splitting of the
DMS precursor and the formation of aroma
subs tances during boiling by the h ea ting tem-
perature.
The 70-minute boiling stage is therefore divi-
d ed into three parts [193):
20 min: using strong heat, easily precipitable
nitrogen is quickly precipitated,
30 min: using low heat, the DMS-P breal<-
down is promoted at a constant kettle tempe-
rature (99 DC) and heating energy saved,
20 min: higher heating capacity with the aim
of s tandardising the nitrogen content by me-
ans of effective forcing of precipitation.
The main purpose of the wort distribution
shield is the stripping of steam-volatile aroma
components, particularly the breakdown of the
DMS precursor and the ex traction of free DMS.
The design of the wort distribution shield is
therefore of considerable significance.
 357
356

3 WOrzepfanne
Wort kettle
•
I Garkeller
3
fermenting

ca 98 'C
Whirlpool
89 ' C
celiar
8 'C t
[
1= Platten·WarmeObertrager J
Platlen- WiirmeObertrager
Plate and frame heat exchanger
Fig. 3.85!
VaClIlll1I evaporatioll
(1) lVort illflow, (2) fla sh evaporatol; 1 <>00
.n•
r- ;

t
- BO
·c ! Braumsser
Brewing
t 5 'C (3) vaCllllm p"mp, (4) vapollr CO II-
dellscl; (5) to the wort kettle or
whirlpool

!
Brauwasser
80 ' C
Fig. 3.85e
Wort pre-coolillg (GEA Brewery Systems)
DO/lble shield (type Steillec/cer)
In the case of the new double shield (Fig. 3.85d),
at low temperatures (about 130 °C) (a, right si-
de), the wort is pressed mainly against the lo-
wer shield (4) and by means of a flow-aiding
baffle, fed into the outer third of the kettle, the-
Fig. 3.85d
DOllble shield (type Steilleckel; Freisillg)
(I) boilillg at low lleatillg temperatllres, (2) maxi/l1l1l1lllea-
tillg capacity
Brewing t3 ' C
water
reby guaranteeing good evaporation. At the sa-
me time only a little wort flows out of the upper
shield (5) at low velocity. This stage is partiCll-
lady intended for the evaporation of non-no-
ble/base aroma substances.
Using maximum heating capacity (heating
temperature about 145 °C) (b, left side) dming
boiling, the boiling wort is pressed against both
shields by the inner (3) as well as the outer (2)
'. '. Pitot tube and diverted. The flatter lower shield
'. '.
".
'. cone thereby prevents the upper one from flin-
ging the wort against the kettle walls, which
would lead to tuU1ecessary shear stress.
3.4.2.6.3 Wort pre-cooling
If the wort is cooled to below 90 °C before it is
fed into the whirlpool, a considerably lower in-
crease in the TBI is obtained during the whirl-
pool rest. Whilst the TBI increases on average
by 9 units without pre-cooling, the increase can
be reduced to only two tu1itS by pre-cooling. Li-
kewise the formation of free DMS is reduced by
30 to 45% by pre-cooling [306], since no further
DMS can be form ed below 90 °C. By means of
wort cooling, which takes place between the wort
kettle and whirlpool (Fig. 3.85e), brewing water at
80 °C can also be obtained .
3.4.2.6.4 Vacuum evaporation
(ZiemcuUl Group, Ludwigsburg)
The final evaporator is located behind the
whirlpool (Fig. 3.85f) . The wort is pumped tCU1-
gentially from the whirlpool into the fla sh eva-
porator (2). The volume increase causes a re-
duction in pressure to about 600 mbar. The
more volatile aroma substances, such as free
DMS, volatise cu1d are precipitated in the va-
pour condenser (4) . A vacuum pump (3) starts
the process and serves to maintain the vacuum,
which is self-controlled in that the volume in-
crease occurring as a result of evaporation is
compensa ted for by condensation.
From 1 litre of water about 1,700 litres of ste-
am are p roduced on evaporation (see steam ta-
ble Sect. 10.2.2.1). During condensation in the
vapour condenser, 1 litre of water is again pro-
duced from 1,700 litres of steam. As long as ste-
am is condensed there, more steam is continu-
ally generated. And one further thing: for eva-
poration (water/steam) 2,258 kJ/kg are required
under normal pressure (specific evaporation
heat). This is released again on condensation in
the vapour condenser and heats the cooling wa-
ter. The wort cools during this process by ap-
prox. 5 to 10 °C. At the end of boiling, the wort
is circulated by means of pumping through the
flash evaporator lU1til 80 to 82 °C is reached.
The wort is then plunped into the whirlpool.
Boiling lasts about 40 min with a percentage
evaporation of about 4 %; in the flash evapora-
tor about 2 % is then evaporated again. In the ca-
se of vacuum evaporation the free DMS content,
which increases during the whirlpool rest, can
be considerably reduced [255] (Fig. 3.68a). In a
comparison between classical boiling and final
evaporation, analytically proven as well as sen-
sory differences occur [263] , which speak for
vacuum evaporation: a shortening of the boi ling
time with reduced thermal exposure and at the
same time, protection of the coagulable nitro-
gen, reduction of the percentage evaporation of
 359

2 3
3 3

Bild 3.85fl
\lnCIIIIIII evnporn lioll
(1) Worl kellie
t L -_ _ _ __ _ _--.I

L - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ 4
(2) £.r lemnl boiler
(3) E.rpnllsioll evnpornlor

Fig.3.85fl
IInC/lllI1I evnpornlioll plnlll
(Z ielllnlill GroIlP, Llldwigs-
bllrg)
part. By means of absolute pressure of about
300 mbar, a further 3 to 6% of the wort - d e-
pendent on the set pressure - is evaporated.
To achieve this the wort is tangentially intro-
duced into the voluminous upper part of the
expansion evaporator. Th is results in a rota-
ting movement of the wort and a thin wort
film, w hich in the high vessel flows down-
wards thus creatin g a large surface for the
evaporation of the aroma substances.
As a result the free DMS is to a large extent eli-
minated, the thermal exposLU'e of the wort redu-
ced to a minimum and a not too extensive protein
precipitation obtained. Very individual settings
according to the task at hand are possible. The
procedLU'e saves up to 70% primary energy in
comparison to traditional boiling procedures.

up to 40 % and a considerable decrease in energy considerably lower thermal exposure of the

consumption, high evaporation efficiency and wort has a positive effect on the foam and fla-
vour stability. Furthermore, a substantial ener- 5
grea t flexibilHy. This method produces compara- 2
q ,; - - - 4 t

..
bly good beers, which tend to be have mo- gy saving is observed.
re character and are more stable against ageing.

-
3.4.2.6.5 Gentle boiling procedure "Schoko"
7
-----..
Flas" evapol'{ltioll
Flash evaporation is also possible below ah110-
(Kaspar Schulz, Bamberg)
In the case of the gentle boiling procedure (Fig. rr
y

-
spheric boiling [302]. 3.85g), the boiling process is divided into two

-
stages: "-
This entails the wort being kept in the wort

kettle at 90 °C (Fig. 3.85£1) and h eated up to 95°C
in the ex ternal boiler (2). In the fla sh evaporator
(3), the wort cools back down to 90 °C and is
then pLrmped back to the wort kettle w here it is
circulated for about 40 min . Following this, the
ex ternal boiler is by-passed and the wort, which
is still being circulated, slowly cools down to 80
to 82 °C and is pumped into the whirlpool. The
-
1. A heat retention stage in the wort kettle for =- -"
hop isomerisation, precipitation of protein 3 ' :.
8
components and formation of flavour and
aroma substances; the wort is thereby main-
tained at a temperature of 97 to 99 °C for 50 to
Fig. 3.85g
70 min; eva poration is about 1%. Gelllle boilillg procedllre "ScilOko "
2. An expansion evaporation in a specially con- (I) wort ketlle, (2) whirlpool, (3) Wal'l PIlIllP, (4) e.rpnllsioll evnporn lol; (5) vnpo/II; (6) colldellser (7) VnCl/lI111 PIllIlP, (8) worl
s tructed evapora tor with a ball-like upper cooler

b

a stripping column (3) w ith evaporation vessel
(condenser) (4) and a plate-type heat exchanger
(5). On reaching the boiling temperature the
wort remains standing for 30 to 50 min with
gentle stirring and is then pumped into a sett-
3 ling tank or whirlpool.
After the whirlpool rest the stripping begins
in the stripping column (Fig. 3.85i). The wort
coming out of the whirlpool (1) is optionally
heated in a pre-warmer (2) by means of steam
and led into the stripping column via a distri-
butor. There it flows throu gh packing consi-
sting of many specially form ed metal shaped
rings (4), which ha ve already been heated by
stripping steam (5). The stripping steam now
heats the wort in a counter flow and at the same
Fig. 3.85g1 time creates a huge surface in the stripping co-
"Scl/Oko" uoilillg pmcerlllrc plmlt lumn, which promotes the evaporation of free
(Knspn r SChlllz, Bmlluerg) DMS and other volatile substances. In the up-
per part of the stripping vessel the steam is fed
3.4.2.6.6 Wort stripping into an evaporation vessel or condenser (6) and
(Meura, Peruwel z / Belgium) there it is precipitated by means of cold water
This system (Fig. 3.85h) consists of a wort kett- (7), whilst the wort, which is more or less free of
le (1), a hot sludge settling tank or whirlpool (2), free DMS, is pumped off (10) .
2 =====i[>
1,-
c:=r
3
II 11
I, 14
Fig. 3.85h
Wort strippillg
(1) wort kettle, (2) wh irlpool, (3) strippillg COIIlIlIIl , (4) evnporntioll vessel, (5) plnte-type Ilent exchnl lger
,-------- 9
8 3.85k). The Merlin itself has no capacity beca u-
3
6
2 ast in the case of la rger plants - divided into
1+-+--+-4
11
7 In the Merlin procedure, the Merlin is used in
11
1
Fig.3.85i
Strippillg C011l11I1 1
(1) wort fr0 111 the wh irlpool, (2) pre-wn nl1el; (3) sten111 illlet,
(4) strippillg COlll11111 pnckillg, (5) strippillg stenl1l, (6) COII-
dellscl; (7) coolillg wnter illlct, (8) coolillg wntel' olltlet, (9)
COlldellsnte olltlet, (10) wort /'II II-OJ! to the plnte-type Ilent ex-
chnllger
3.4.2.6.7 Flash evaporation "Varioboil"
(Nerb GmbH, Attaching)
With this system the wort is boiled conventio-
nally and the volatile aroma substances then
precipita ted in a flash evaporator. The vapours
produced are precipitated by a kettle vapour
condenser. In a second stage the flash evapora-
tor is put under a vacuum. As a result further
volatile aroma substances evaporate and the
wort cools to 90 to 85°C. The wort is then freed
from trub in a whirlpool rest and then treated
further as usual.
3.4.2.6.8 Thin film evaporator "Merlin"
(Krones-Steinecker)
The boiling system Merlin consists of a vessel
with a slightly conical heating floor, the actual
361
Merlin, and a w hirlpool, which at the same time
is a collection vessel for the entire brew as well
as the vessel for hot sludge separation (Fig.
se the wor t continually flo ws off as it flows in. 3
The conical hea ting floor of the Merlin is - at le-
two so as to enable work to be differen tiated.
Wor/dllg procedllre (Fig. 3.85l)
Position A: Filling
place of the wort kettle. In the case of a small
brew, the wort flows directly from the lauter
tlm into the whirlpool; in other cases, a wort
buffer vessel has to be located in between them.
The entire brew is collected in the whirlpool.
Position B: Heating and heat retention
The wort is pumped out of the whirlpool over
the conical h ea ting floor of the Merlin . The wort
flows in increasingly thin layers over this hea-
ting floor and is thereby heated to 99 °C. During
this stage, both heating zones are heated with a
steam pressure of 1.3 to 1.7 bar and the wort is
vigorously moved with 5 to 6 circulations/hour.
It is important that the thin wort film should al-
so cover the peripheral parts of the entire hea-
ting floor. The wort which nms back into the
whirlpool is layered at the top of the whirlpool
so as to obtain as lmiform as possible heating of
the entire brew up to boiling temperatlue. This
process lasts 15 to 20 min. In this time the hops
are also lmiformly added by means of a dosing
mechanism.
After this the entire brew is circulated tlU'ee
or four times over the Merlin at 99°C for about
35 min. By means of reduced steam pressure
(0.8 to 1.1 bar), a heating zo ne is now generated.
As a result of low thermal exposure and diffe-
rentiated precipitation of protein, volatile aro-
ma substances, su ch as free DMS, can be well
evaporated.
 362
3 3
Fig.3.85k
Systelli Merlill - eIItire plnllt
(1) buffer vessel, (2) wort hen tel; (3) hoppillg vessel, (4) stemll cOll trol vnlve, (5) eIIelgy storage tnllk
Position C: Whirlpool rest
From the boiling stage onwards the wort is on-
ly fed tangentially back to the whirlpool so as to
ob tain a separation of the trub cone in the
middle by means of a rotating movement. In
the diagra m the remainder of the wort is flo-
wing over the Merlin. This is fo llowed by a 20 to
25 min whirlpool rest. During this time free
DMS form s from the precu rsor which should be
precipitated in the following s tage.
Position 0: Stripping
The wort is now therefore slowly passed over
the Merlin in 30 to 45 min whereby only the lo-
wer heating zone is heated with 0.85 to 1.5 bar.
363
A B
5
Merl in
Wh irlpool ' 6 6
1
c o
As a result the free DMS formed later is precipi-
tated and the wort is then immediately cooled
by the wort cooler and pumped into the fer-
menting cellar.
The whole process las ts 120 to 145 min de-
pending on the d esired brew cycle time. The
thermal exposure of the wort (expressed in the 6 6
TBI) is considerably lower using this procedure
than with normal wort boiling, the colouring is
lower and the remaining coagulable nitrogen in
the wort considerably higher. The free DMS al-
so has lower values. Regarding the foam, ten
j
Fig. 3.851(A-D)
plus points have been determined according to Thill fil lli cOlldellser "Merlill" - workillg procedure
R&C. The energy consumption is considerably (A) fill illg, ( 8) hentillg nlld Ilent retelltioll, (e) wllirlpool rest, (0) wort strippillg
lower in comparison to con ven tional procedu- (1) wort feed pipe, (2) wort PIllIlP, (3) hentillg ZOll e I, (4) hentillg zOlle II, (6) to wort coolillg
 364 365

res (results can amount to 70% sav ings). As a re- brew ke ttle was mostl y square, open at the top 1975 ex ternal boiler 3.4.2.7 Energy usage du ring wort boiling
sult of the Stromboli procedure, which h as been and riveted toge ther from iron or copper sheets 1978 internal boiler The wort ke ttle is the greatest energy use r in the
developed in the meantime, the Merlin h as had (Fig. 3.85s). It was not until the middle of the low pressure boiling entire wo rt produ ction process. Very careful
to take something of a back sea t. Exp erts cha- 19'h centu ry that an attempt was made to intro- 1980 mechan ica l vap our compression considera tion must therefore be given to how to
3 rac terise the beer produced using Merlin as duce a cover and vap our chimney and the mo- 1982 w hirlpool ke ttle keep the energy usage as low as p ossible since 3
being somewhat milder. re valu abl e, mostl y circ ular copper ke ttle in- hi gh tempera ture boiling energy is very expensive.
More information on "expansion" and "eva- creasing ly became the main attraction of the 1990 low pressure boiling with Energy usage is quoted in kWh or kJ w here-
pora tion" can be found in Sect. 3.8.3.3: Wh irl- brewe ry. Steam kettles we re only introduced at energy sto rage by
pool w ith subsequent evap oration - Caly pso the begimting of the las t century and the argu- 1996 d ynami c low pressure boiling 1 kWh =3.6 MJ = 860 kcal.
System. ment between brewm as ters regarding the ad- 1997 therma l va pour compression It is also know n that comll1on fuels h ave the
vantages and disadvantages of fire boiling as wo rt stripping (Meura) follo w ing thermal values (see also Sect. 10.2.1):
S11111111 ary opposed to s team b oiling continued well past 1998 thin film evaporator Merlin N atural gas 11.20 kWh/m 3
It has been shown that all modern wort boiling the middle of the century. 2001 vac uum evaporation Fu el oil 10.14 kWh/1
systems with varying focuses attempt to gentle boiling Schoko Heavy oil 11 .16 kWh/kg
minimise the en ergy consumption and hen ce The kettle sh ape of the s team kettle changed 2003 wort boiling procedure Stromboli H ard coal 8.95 kWh/kg
lower the costs, with the development of additional evaporati- wor t pre-cooling In the brew house an 80 % effi cien cy can be
reduce the boiling time and intensity of b oi- on surfaces to the so-called high p erformance 2006 Jets tar boiling exp ected, i.e. about 80 % of the energy is utili-
ling so as to kettles wi th very high eva poration . This deve- whirlpool w ith evaporation Caly pso sed in the brew house.
reduce the thermal exposu re of the wort and lopment ended abruptl y during the firs t oil cri- At the same time, it is noticeable that there The starting point of our considerations is the
increase the amolUlt of coagulable fo am-pro- sis in 1973. From then on, a change of thinking has been a continuou s lowering of the duration energy u sage obtain ed with a con vention al
ducing nitrogenous substan ces, and occurred regarding th e d evelopment of the of boiling and o f the total evap oration during kettle.
reduce the content of free DMS and other vo- kettle shape and boiling procedure, which was tltis time, a p rocess which h as not ye t reached
latile substan ces. able to achieve the same or even better effect its conclusion! El1ergy II sed il1 helltil1g the wort to boilil1g
In this context, let us take a look at the deve- w ith consid erably less evap oration. The fo llo- The lUlboiled wort is about 75°C. To hea t it to
lopment of the brew kettle. For a long time the wing thus resulted : System Temperature Boil ing Tota l boiling, about 3 k/Wh/hl = 10.5 MJ are required .
(on lea ving boiler) dura tion evap o ra ti on
in °C in min in % El1ergy IIsed ill col1vel1 tiol1l1l boilil1g
high If the wort is b oiled for 90 min at 100 °C leading
performa nce to a p ercentage eva porati on of about 12 % in the
kettle 100 120 - 150 12 -16 kettle, then we require
internal/ex t. about 14 kWh (= 12,000 kcal) per 1 hi cas t
boiler 102 - 103 60 - 80 8 w ort.
low pressu re
boiling Ellergy sllvil1g liS 11 resllit of cOl1versiol1 to low pres-
classical 103 - 104 55 - 65 -7 sll re boilil1g
low pressure With low pressure boiling the total boiling time
boiling is redu ced considerably because of the higher
Fig. 3.85s dynamic 103 - 104 45 - 50 5 temperatu re and the consequently accelerated
First brewillg kettle of tile Pi/s- high tem p. dissolving and conversion p rocesses. If, instea d
lier Urq l/el/ Brewery (1842). bailing 130 - 140 2.5 - 3 6-8 of the previou s 12% (10 to 15%) only 5 to 7% is
Tile 1I 1/ I/Ierol/S riveted slleets ill-
thin film now eva porated, 6 kWh/hI cast wort is saved in
dicn te tile problellls wll icll were
ellcoll ll tered ill tryillg to keep evaporator 100 35 - 40 4 comparison w ith con ve ntional boiling so that
tile kettle lenkproof fl ash evapor. < 100 40 - 50 4-5 in low pressure boiling fo r each 1 hI of cas t
 366 367

wort about 9 kWh (= 7740 kcal) are required.
111at is a large saving which arises simply from
the reduction of the percentage evaporation.
In converting to a modern wort boiling sy-
stem energy usage is further reduced not least
3
by a shorteniJlg of the boilin g time of 40 to 50
min and a reduction in the percentage evapora-
tion of 4 to 5%.
Usually the heat rate in the brewhouse is quo-
ted as being about 50% of the tota l heat rate in
the brewery. The range is between 48,000 and
rage . Particular attention should be paid to the
fact that the energy level of the water is kept
very high in all position s and the formation of
warm water whjch CaJU10t successfully be reu-
Cold water _______
sed is avoided. It CaJl be said that with low pres- 3
sure boiling up to a total evaporation of 4 - 4.5%,
Vapour
no surp lu s warm water is produced [374]. The - condensate
values ob tained of course vary from brewhouse
to brewhouse; however the production of a si-
milar h eat flow diagram is recommended for ·.'t:I". Fresh steam
uldividu al breweries in order to obtain more 3.2 kWh/hi cast Vlort

83,000 kj/hl. precise information on advantages aJld deficits. Condensate

However, even during mashing, increasing
the mashing- in temperature and the transition
to shorter mashing periods result in a conside-
rable energy saving potential:
A - very desirable - red uction in the total eva-
poration to 2 - 2.5% is possible, as long as a reli-
able evaporation of aroma SubstaJlces by meaJ1S
of s uitabl e procedure and equipment (e .g.
Hot waler
...
0,94 kWh/hi AW

Condensate

Two mash m ethod 25,500 kj/hl Stromboli, Calypso) can s till be g uaranteed
·"IfI". Fresh steam
Single decoction mashing 20,900 kj/hl [375]. Cold waler ____ 11 ___ 1
2,3 kWh/hi cast wort

Infusion mashing 15,900 kj/hI

With the heating of the wort it is possible
with a total evaporation of four to five percent
to produce enough hot water at a temperature
of 95 to 97 °C to heat up the lauter wort of the
following brew from 72 - 74 °C to above 93 0c.
This results in a lower amount of energy being
required for further heating. The target is not to
use more than 20,000 kj/hl energy in the
brewhouse, or less than O.5litres of oil / hi beer
[282] .
In general, it is calculated that energy con-
sumption in the brewhoL1se is as follows [374]:
up to 19% for mashing (infusion procedure),
up to 30% for heating up the wort (72 - 100 0q,
up to 46% for boiling the wort (with 8 % eva-
poration),
up to 2.5% for CIP, and
up to 2.5% for other uses.
For further details regarding energy con-
sumption, see Sect. 10.1.
Fig. 3.85z (GEA Brewery Systems, Kitzingen)
provides an overview of the heat flow in a bre-
wery with low pressure boiling and energy sto-
3.4.2.8 Vapour condensate
During wort boiling a considerable amount of
water condenses which is known as vapolU'. If
nothing is done, the vapour escapes through
the chimney. The nasty smell associated with
this (controlled in Germany by the Federal
Emissions Protection Law) forces breweries to
condense the vapour. Not only is a considerable
part of the energy contained in the vapour re-
gained (see Sect. 3.4.2.5.1), but at the same time
reusable water is also obtauled which can be
used for different purposes. SUlce the vapour
condensate, however, contains a number of
evaporated base substances (DMS, ageing car-
bonyls, a. 0.), reusing it as brewulg water is not
recomm ended [193]. The trea ted (if possible by
meaJ1S of reverse osmosis) vapour condensate
CaJl, on the other hand, be used in other areas:
pre-rulsulg water for CIP cleaJung,
cooling water in evaporatulg condensers,
boiler feed water,
cleaning of beer crates,
cleaning of spent grains silo,
rUlsing of lauter tun floor and whirlpool,
Fig.3.85z
Hent flo w dingrnlll with dYllnlllic low pressllre boilillg nlld ellergy stornge
lubrication of synthetic belts Ul the fillulg Sec-
tion.
3.4.2.9 Underback (wort buffer vessel)
The m ash vessel (MV) and lauter tun (LT) are
occupied only as long as the mashing or laute-
ring lasts. The wort kettle (WK), however,
must be ava ilable from the running in of the
first wort to the casting out and is therefore the
vessel occupied for the longest time. If only a
few brews are made per day this is not very
important, but when consecutive brews are
boiled aJld 8 or more brews are cast p er day,
there are problems because another first wort
is produced whilst the kettle is still in use (Fig.
3.85a).
Consequently breweries now use a heated or
at least well-ulsulated underback or wort col-
Condensate
lection vessel (UB) as a buifer vessel, cOlU1ected
between the lauter tun and wort kettle, in order
to be able to maintain the casting out cycle
rhythm (Fig. 3.85b).
It is possible to warm the wort when recircu-
latulg it to the wort kettle by means of a heat ex-
changer. An appropriate heating medium is hot
water which has been prepared, for example,
with the kettle vapour condenser (see Sect.
3.4.2.5.3) or a direct injection of cleaJled fresh
steam (see Sect. 3.2.2).
3.4.3 Performing wort boiling
In the performance of wort boiling two
aspects are of particular importance and they
are ulter-related:
the boilulg of the wort aJld
the conversion of hop bittering compOlU1ds.

l
 368 369

tel' a boiling time of two hours, isomerisa tion is Exnlllple:

MI not fully complete. The so lubility increases as 360 hi of Pilsner beer are cas t and a bitterness
LI the pH value rises. of 32 BU is desired.
a WK
WP C\ C\ C\
Q uestion: How man y kg of a.-acid must
MV 3.4.3.2.1 Calculation of the hop addition be added ?
3 3
-.................................
----
LI Fig.3 .S5 A bitterness is sought which correspond s to the
b UB IJlterrlepeJlrleJl ce of occllpntiOJl beer type. Bitterness is ex pressed in AmOlmt of cast wort (hot) = 360 hi
WK of vwuiJlg vessels (ocC//pnt ioJl
WP a
Bitterness units (BU) = mg of bitter AmOlmt of cast wort (cold) =
C\ C\ C\ C\ rlingrnlll nccorrliJlg to GmItt)
(n) witllo llt IIJ1rlervnck, (v) witll substances/l of beer. 360 x 0.96 = 345.6 hi
Time in hours
II//rlervnck Average bitterness unit va lues and bitter sub- cold cast wor t
stance additions for German beers are, for ex-
ample: Desired bitterness in fini shed beer:
3.4.3.1 Boiling the wort 32 BU = 32 mg/I beer = 3.2 g/hl beer
In general boiling is commenced as soon as the saccharifica tion must be performed before hea- Beer type g a.-acid/ Bitterness for 1.6 hl = 3.2 g
wort is in the kettle. Boiling is performed today ting in the wort kettle or in the fermenting cel- hi beer units for 345.6 hi = 1105.9 g
for 50 to 60 min (sometimes even longer). lar by the addition of first wort or malt ex tract- Wheat beer 5.0 - 7.0 14 - 20 BU 1.106 kg of bitter substan ce is desired in the
It is preferable not to boil for too long a time it CaIU10t be corrected later. Bock beer 6.0 - 8.0 19-23BU beer.
or too vigorously b ecause: Marzen beer 7.0 - 8.5 20 - 25 BU
the coagulable protein should not be comple- 3.4.3.2 Hop addition Alcohol free 7.0 - 9.0 20 - 28 BU Necessa ry amount of bitter substance:
tely precipitated, The hops are added duritlg wort boilitlg aIld Export beer 7.5 - 11.0 22 - 30 BU Bitterness yield = 31%
the DMS can nevertheless be driven out, boiled with the wor t. Duritlg boilitlg the itls01u- Pilsner beer 10.0 - 16.0 28 - 40 BU 31 % bitterness yield = 1.106 kg a.-acid
since the energy costs increase with each mi- ble a.-acids are isomerised to soluble iso-a.-acids
nute of boiling and it is therefore not performed which give a bitterness to the beer. It is thereby 100 % _ 1.106 kg x 100 % .
bitterness - 31 = 3.57 kg a.-aCId
any longer than necessary. Consideration has to important to know: TIms to produce a Pilsner beer with 32 BU,
given to the dissolving and isomerisation of the what quantity of hops must be added, the target is 32 m g bitter substance per 1 of beer. 3.57 kg of a.-acid must be added .
hop bittering substances which only dissolve when the hops should be added, aIld The hops are added to the hot wort. This wort
more thoroughly with increasin g length of time. how the hops can be added to the wort. contracts on cooling by 4% (see Sect. 3.5.1.3). In reality about 10% more a.-acid needs to be
It is however important that the wor t at the It should be taken into account that the bitte- TIle qUaIl tity of hops to be add ed now has to be added since from 360 hi casting wor t (with a
end of the boiling process, in other words at ring substances added and their bitterness va- calculated based on the amount of cold beer to 10% loss), only 324 hI of beer is p roduced, to
casting, has reached the d esired extrac t content lues do not completely pass into the beer but be cast. w hich the amount of a.-acid has to be added,
(Sect. 3.4.1.3) since only in this way can the de- that a considerable p art is lost on the way. The There is also another important facto r. On- thus, 3.57 + 10 % = 3.93 kg.
sired original wort gravity be achieved . This balaI1Ce (in %) is: ly part of the bitter subs tance introduced go-
must be borne in mind before beginning the Bitteritlg Bitterness es into the beer. This bitter substance yield The next step is that the a.-acid must be divided
boiling process. subs taI1Ce value depends on the p ar ticul ar operating conditi- amongst the individual hop additions aIld pro-
It is also important to check again that sac- Spent hops 20 7 ons (boiling time, pressure, pH, etc) and va- ducts. This requires a decision by the brewery.
charification is complete (late sacch arification) Trub 50 18 ries in general between 25 and 35%, calcula-
before begituling the boil. It is possible that du- Foam aIld yeast 10 25 ted on the finished beer. Inspection of th e Remaitung with the above example, the re-
rin g mashing-off and lautering m ore s tarch Beer 20 50 table shows that th e am ount in grams of 0'.- quired 3.57 kg a.-acid can be supplied, for ex-
components have gone into solution and have Hops 100 100 acid to be added to the wort is always about a ample, by combining
not been saccharified because the amylases we- third of th e bitterness units wanted in the 75 % provided by Type 45 pellets
re already inactivated by the high (perhaps The isomerisa tion of a.-acid itltO iso-a.-acid in- beer. For an exact addition, however, this bit- containing 9 % a.-acid, with
even too high!) final mashing temperature. To creases with boilitlg time, but slows down mo- terness yield mus t be d etermined by trials in 25 % provided by w h ole leaf hops
avoid a starch haze in beer a supplementary re and more as boilitlg time progresses. Even af- the brewery. containing 7 % a.-acid.

s

370
3.4.3.2.2 Composition of the hop addition and
time of addition
Three different types of product are available
fo r the hop addition:
wh ole leaf hops,
3 se their high Ct.-acid potential as much as possi-
hop pellets, and
hop extracts.
Th ere are hardly any quality differences bet-
ween these products now adays because all the
production processes very ca refull y pro tect the
desired h op contents. There are however quali-
ty di ffe rences between individual hop va rieties
as already mentioned (Sect. 1.2.6).
Nowadays it is the size and equipment of the
brewhouse w hich mainly determines what pro-
ducts are used. Considered overall, an il"\crea-
sing turning awa y from the u se of w hole leaf
h ops can be seen, silLCe their use results in the
occurrence of spent hops which must be remo-
ved.
With regard to hop add ition, points to consi-
de r are:
in how many parts the additi ons should be
m ade,
Wort boiling
End of boiling
Start of boiling
50
w hen the pa rti al add itions should be made,
and
w hich va rieties fi rst, whi ch las t.
When seve ral varieties are u sed, the bittering
hops are always added first in ord er to isomeri-
ble. Moreover, undesirable volatile components
(e.g. m yrcene, etc.) are d riven out. The first ad-
dition is responsible for the bittering. 75% of the
<x-acid should be added first, particularly the
bitter h ops or hi gh alpha hops (Fig. 3.S5b). If
p ossible, it ce rtainly makes sense to add the
hops even b efore the start of boiling for the be-
nefit of the isomerisa tion .
The hops w ith the best aroma - the aroma
hops - are added las t, at the end of boilillg or
even in the whirlpool, wh ereb y the whirlpool
temperature should be lowered to arOlmd SO0c.
Thereby the volatile aroma substances are retai-
ned in the beer, if this is desired for the beer ill
question. However the maximum utilisation of
the Ct.-acids must be foregone in this case.
There are a number of ad va ntages from pro-
ceeding in this way [214]:
Evaporation
Dilution,
/somerisation
Fig.3 .85b
Effect of hop aririitioll all tile
character of tile beer
better beer foam (up to 10 points accordillg to
R&C),
lu gher yield of iso-Ct.-acids,
lugher charge of aroma com ponen ts and
lugher charge of lLl1isomerised Ct.-acids (about
2.7 mg <x-acid/I); this results in higher micro-
biologica l s tability.
The decision w hen w hich h op additions are
made affects the qu ality of the beer p roduced .
The follow illg is recommended [296]:
SO% of the h ops (40% each of aroma and bit-
terillg) at the start of boilillg and 20% arom a
hops before the end of boilillg (because of the
linaJool content), or
50% of the hops (25% each of arom a and bit-
tering) at the start of boiling and 30 - 40% aro-
ma hops during the middle of boiling (better
yield and flavour subs tan ces) and 10 - 20%
before the end of boilillg.
The variety and timing of the hop addition al-
so have an effect on the foa m stability: tamlin
free hop extrac t, e.g. CO, ex trac t, is more advan-
tageous, w hereas the polyphenols from the co-
nes or pell ets lead to increased pro tein p recip i-
tation [236].
3.4.3.2.3 Hop addition - dosing systems
Additioll of IIn t llml flop s ill calle fa 1'111
Despite a decreasillg trend, there are still many
breweries worldwide whi ch add natural hops.
If the h ops are added in cone form a hop strai-
ner or the lauter tun must be used when castillg
the wort to rem ove the spent hops. In the end
this onl y cau ses ex tra wo rk and wort losses .
Consequently man y breweri es mill the hops
very fillely immedi ately before adding them,
and then p recipitate the finely milled particles
in a whirlpool. The spen t hops can be added be-
fore lau tering the next brew and sold with the
spent grains. Composting of the spent hops is
scarcely possible.
371
Hop ndditioll ill the foml of flop powder or pel-
lets
These processed for ms of hops were therefore
developed to sim plify h andling and provide a
standard ised fo rm of b itterill g mate ri al which 3
redu ces the amount of s torage space requi red .
Hop powders and p ellets are sold ill cans, fo il
packets with an inert gas filling, hard packs or
fo il-lined ca rtons containing up to 150 kg.
Pell ets are usually supplied ill standardised,
inert gas fill ed packages with a lamil1ated foil
preventing gas exch ange . Us ually their con-
tents are quoted ill kg <x-acids to make theil' use
eas ier.
In smaller breweries the can s or fo il p ackages
are opened by hand and the con tents added to
the kettle. The empty can s are retain ed ill a ca-
ge suspended ill the ke ttle. Th e large r the bre-
wery, if a 2-hour brew cycle is used, the greater
the pressure for autom ated addition, since in a
10 t brewhouse produ cing S brews a d ay 250 to
300 kg of pellets must be added .
With one of the dosil1g systems, on ce a day
severa l conta iners are each filled w ith the
amount n eed ed per brew and the contents
m ixed . At specified times the indi vidu al contai-
ners are automatically rinsed em p ty with wort
(F ig.3.S6).
Llsillg flop extm ct
The high viscosity of the hop extract mus t firs t
be red uced substantially an d the ex tract made
more fluid by heatil1g to 45 to 50 °C. In some
processes, to d o this, the can is autom atica lly
sprayed w ith a hot liquid (wa ter or last run-
nings) and the contents kept h omogeneous by
continuous turning before addition to the wor t
a t the predetermined time.
In the case of large containers the entire con-
tents of the contailler must be hea ted up to the
desired temperatlU'e - never above 50 °C - with-
in 36 to 4S h so that it can be em ptied into a mix-
ing vessel and added after mixing. Also used is
 372 373

The composition of the casting wor t natural- the following - interdependent - factors:
ly has a grea t affect on the quality of the beer the content of evaporation indica tors should
produced from it. The casting worts examined be kept as low as possible and not exceed 40
by the Cen tral Laboratory of the VLB produced to 60 pg/l free DMS, and lmder no circum-
3 the following mean and limit values [308]: s tances be above 100 pg/l. The hexanal con-
3
ten t should not exceed 10 - 20 pg/l, hexa nol
Mean value Limit values 1 - 3 pg/l and pentanol not exceed 2 - 4 pg/l.
Fig. 3.86
Wort kettle with hop riosiug cou-
for the thermal exposure, a TBI value of 30 to
tniuers pH value 5.33 4.78 - 5.76 40 s hould be seen as the maximum, the furfu-
(1) wort kettle Extract ral content should not be more than 450 - 700
(2) iutemnl voileI' (vollbier wort) 12.26% 10.38 - 13.74 pg/ l and glutamine should not amOlmt to
(3) kettle vnpour couriel/ser
Extract fermented more than 11 - 115 mg/l.
Whirlpool (4) hop riosiug coutniuers
(5) wort enstiug plllllp to completion 2.24% 1.70 - 3.20 for foam retention, a value of 20 to 40 mg/l of
(6) stefl/II Jeeri pipe Final atte nuation 81.5% 75 .2 - 85.6 coagulable nitrogen - however at leas t 14
6 7 (7) courieusnte outflow Colour (pale worts) 8.2 EBC 6.6 - 10.6 mg/l - should be strived for, and the MgSO,
(8) colri wn terJeeri pipe
Bittering units 41.0 BU 22.3 - 54.2 precipitable nitrogen should be 130 - 180
(9) wnrlll wnter rirniunge
Total nih'ogen 1098 mg/l 879 -1346 mg/l.
Coagulable for yeast nutrition, 200 to 250 mg/l of a-ami-
direct dosing based on mass by means of a po- pass into solution during hot sparging and to nitrogen 20 mg/l 2 - 37 no-N and 0.15 - 0.30 mg/l zinc is necessary.
sitive displacement pump. The conveyed produce haze in beer if not noticed in time. In mg precipitable
lengths therefore have to be heated. addition to the visual iodine sample, a photo- nitrogen 208 gil 169 - 367 3.5 Brewhouse yield
In smaller breweries the cans are often pierced metric iodine sa mple can be carried out, where- Free amino N The brewhouse yield indicates what p ercentage
without preheating and emptied directly into the by high molecular weight dextrins and remai- (FAN) 208 mg/l 140 - 286 of the gris t charge is available as extract content
kettle during boiling. The cans can be held in a re- ning starch residues are precipitated by the Photometr. iodine in the cast wort. The brewhouse yield is there-
taining cage and easily removed again. addition of ethanol. sample 0.74/:" E 0.19 - 1.86 fore an important internal brewery measure of
Downstream hop products are only added amount of castiJ1g wort Viscosity 1.73 mPa.s 1.65 - 1.83 the effiCiency of the brewhouse operations.
after first filtration (see Sect. 4.6.2.4). in the case of old plants this is measured either Dimethyl sulphide In many countries the taxation authorities are
with an inserted measuring rod or with a floa- (OMS) 66 10 - 677 also interes ted in the brewhouse yield because
3.4.4 Monitoring the cast wort ting measuring rod. The amount of casting wort Dimethyl sulphide it is only here that the total amount of extract
Wort boiling ends at casting when the wort is is important for determining the yield and as precursor 71 p g/l 10 - 212 formed can be determined . The main part of
pumped by means of a powerful casting pump evidence of the production output required by TBI pale worts 43 34 - 56 this ex trac t later disappears because of conver-
into the whirlpool. Until then the person in the taxation officials. If a calibrated cold wort Zinc content 0.16 mg/l 0.03 - 0.66 sion to alcohol and CO2 during fermentation, so
charge of brewing monitors the wort indepen- measuring device is available, it is possible to fatty acids [200]: that only a small part is present in beer. It will
dently of the installed instruments. This invol- omit determining the amount of cast wort. lower fatty acids 0.8 mg/l 0.3 - 3.8 be shown, however, that it is possible to deter-
ves the following tests: extract content of the casting wort higher saturated mine the ex tract content of the so-called "origi-
wort clarity the person in charge of brewing has a small fatty acids 0.4 mg/l 0.0-1.9 nal gravity" from the finished beer; the total ex-
using a sight glass in front of a light source the work station at which he measures the extract higher lllsaturated tract produced can only be identified, however,
wort is examined to see if - as desired - it is bril- content (Sect. 3.5.1.1). In the case of modern fatty acids 0.4 mg/l 0.0-1.1 by means of the brewhouse yield .
liantly clear with large flocs floating in it. plants the extract content is automatically mea- 6E difference in the colo uring of a sample precipitated
late saccharification by means of the iodine sured and displayed (see Sect. 7.5). with ethanol compared to a blank solution. 3.5.1 Calculating the brewhouse yield
test The wort is now called casting wort. Its In modern breweries the brew house yield is au-
it has been mentioned previously that it is pos- amount and extract content form the basis for For the quality of the beer, its foam retention tomatically calculated on the basis of the deter-
sible for still undissolved starch residues to determining the brew house yield . and flavour stability, it is important to control mined values. The following Sect. provides in-

374
for mation on the thought processes and opera- 3.5.1.1 Determination of the mass percent
ting ste ps to determine the brewhouse yield TIle m ass percen t is measured w ith a specific
w hich, in older and sm aller breweries, also s till gravity hydrometer (Fig. 3.87). The hyd rometer
is a floa table body w hich operates like a densi-
have to be carried out.
The brewhouse yield determines what percen- meter. The lower the sp ecific gravity of the li-
3 quid, the deep er the hyd rometer sin1<s. A scale
tage of the grist charge mass used is present as
ex trac t mass in the wort kettle. This percentage is housed in the thill neck of the h ydrometer
(brewhouse yield) is usu ally between 75 to 80 %. w hich shows the mass percent. Because the hy-
To ca lculate the brewhouse yield the follo- drometer was firs t cali brated using a sucrose (=
saccharose) solution, the hydrometer is also ca l-
wing are required :
led a saccha rometer.
the grist charge u sed,
the mass p ercent d etermined w ith a hydro- Measurement is made at abou t 20 °C. A small
amount of the hot finished wort is pu t illto a
meter and
the amolmt of cast wort m easu red . metal cylind er - often suspended on gilnbals-
The am ount of gris t used is regis tered exact- with a cooling jacke t fo r cooling to abo u t 20 °C.
ly by the automatic weighing dev ice and recor- Obviously the wor t must not be diluted to cool
d ed in a computer or the b rewh ouse records. it. Simil arly evapora tion of water, causillg con-
The amOlUlt of grist is the starting point for cal- cent ra tion of the wo rt, mus t be p revented . The
rea ding taken fro m the hy drometer is that
culating the yield.
shown at the position w here the h yd rometer
projects from the wort.
Reading a hyd rometer takes practice since it is
impossible to read fro m below the surface
through the metal cylinder and the liquid is
drawn up slightl y on the hydrometer neck. Con-
sequently the upper lines appear somewhat
drawn together. The hydrometer reading is the
uppermost, still clearly read able value.
H y drom e ters a re rea d from above in the
brewh ouse. In the laborato ry h ydrometers are
also used which are read from below because
glass cylinders are used there. It is always mar-
ked on the hyd ro meter w hether it is calibrated
for reading fro m above or below.
Fig. 3.87 To get as accurate a measurement as possible,
Wort i1 ydl'OlII eter ill n the concentration of the wort mu st not change.
Ilydl'Ol ll eter cylill der Consequently the hydrometer must not be rin-
(1) i1ydl'OlIIeter cylillder
sed before use with wa ter or any liquid other
(2) coolillg jncket
(3) verticnl sllspell sio ll de- than the w ort to be measu red . Before the mea-
v ice surement, the contents of the cylinder must be
(4) coolillg wn ter ill let thoroughly mixed to avoid temperature va riati-
I, (5) coolillg wn ter olltlet
ons by a mixing rod which is clean, dry, or rin-
(6) cns tillg wort
(7) Ilydrollleter sed w ith the wort. Ca re must be taken not to in-
sert the h ydro mete r too deeply becau se the
wort ad heres to the hydrometer n eck and pulls
it down, thereby prod UCillg a false reading . Pre-
ferably the dry hyd rom eter is h eld at its top end
and slowly imm ersed until the expected value
is almos t reached . Any foam formed on the
wort surface should be bl own down.
TIle hydrometer is calibra ted at 20 °C. If the
temperature is not 20 °C a correction must be ma-
de to the readillg. This correction depends on the
wort temperature. If the wort is warmer than
20 °C then it h as a lower specific gravity than at
20 °C and the correction value must be added and
conversely at lower temperatures it must be sub-
tracted.
25 - "" '3
.2
1=
.1
0
·1
·2
U)
:J
U)
eLI -3
<l.l
U ·4
F -5
F
5 -0
Fig. 3.88
Hydl'OlIIeter tiler/Hollleterjor n 10-15%
sncchnrollleter wi th n correctioH scnle
The hydrom eter therefore contains a thermo-
meter in its lower part. The correction value is
obtained by pulling the hydrometer out until
only the tip is still immersed. On the other side
of the thermometer scale there are lines and red
mlllbers. In Fig. 3.88 the lines on the right hand
side corresp ond to these red numbers. The va-
lues shown represent the temperature correcti-
ons, in tenths of a percent, which must be ap-
plied to the h ydrometer reading .
375
Exn lllple:
hyd ro meter reading 11.6%
correction -0.2%
weight percent 11.4%
3
The corrected value shows how man y kg of
ex tract are present in 100 kg of wort at 20 °C.
In the example there are 11.4 kg of extrac t in
100 kg = 1 dt of wort (20 °C).
3.5.1.2 Determination of the mass of extract
p er hI wort
(extract content of 1 hI wort)
In prac tice one ne ver wants the mass of ex tract
in 1 dt of wort but the m ass in hi of wort, since
the amount of wort is always m easured in hec-
tolitres .
The con version is performed using the speci-
fic gravity of the wort:
ex trac t content in kg / dt . specific gravity
= extract content in
hI
TIle specific gravity of a substance is tempera-
ture and pressme dependent. With every specific
gravity value, therefore, the meaSLU·ement tem-
perature must be shown, whereas the figure for
the pressure can be ignored in the case of liquids.
In the case of the present example, to convert
to kg of extract in 100 I wort, the specific gravity
at 20 °C related to water at 4 °C (abbreviated to
SG 20/4) is used. In the corrected s ugar extract
table of the Standards Calibration Commission
according to Plato, the corresp onding g extract
per 100 ml at 20 °C (= kg ex trac t p er hI) are
shown to the hLUldredth part of mass percent
(see table extract in Fig. 3.89).
If n o table is available, the sp ecific gra v ity
ca n b e es timated by the fo ll owing rul e of
thumb:
 376 377

Mass % g Converted % g Yield Mass % g Converted % g Yie ld

weight ratio mass % spec. gravity converted weight ratio mass % spec. gravih converted
in 100 g in 100 ml factor in 100 g in 100 ml factor
SI 20/20 "C gin 100 g 0 20/4 "C g in 100 illl SI 20120 "C oin 100 g P 20 / 4"C gin 100 rnl orig. ex tract at 20 DC orig. extract at 20 DC
at 20 "C at 20 "C
2.4 2.42 2.32 6.4 6.55 6.29
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2.5 2.52 2.42 6.5 6.66 6.39
3 1.04419 11.00 1.04229 11.47 1.04628 11.509 1.04437 12.01 3
2.6 2.62 2.52 6.6 6.76 6.49
423 01 233 48 632 51 441 02 2.7 2.72 2.61 6.7 6.87 6.59
427 02 237 49 636 52 445 03 2.8 2.83 2.71 6.8 6.97 6.69
431 03 241 11 .50 640 53 450 04 2.9 2.93 2.81 6.9 7. 08 6.80
436 04 245 51 645 54 454 05 3.0 3.03 2.91 7.0 7.18 6.90
440 05 250 52 649 55 458 06 3.1 3.13 3.01 7.1 7.29 7.00
444 06 254 53 653 56 462 08
3.2 3.23 3.10 7.2 7.39 7.10
3.3 3.34 3.20 7.3 7.50 7.20
3.4 3.44 3.30 7.4 7.60 7.30
A solution ,""ith a has a specific gravity Table for converting Original Gravity and 3.5 3.54 3.40 7.5 7.71 7.40
mass percent of mass % to the converted % and yield factor 3.6 3.64 3.50 7.6 7.82 7.51
o(water) 1.000 g/ml 3.7 3.75 3.60 7.7 7.92 7.61
1 1.004 g/ml Mass % g Converted % g Yield 3.8 3.85 3.70 7.8 8.03 7.71
2 1.008 g/ml in 100 g in 100 IllI factor 3.9 3.95 3.79 7.9 8.13 7.81
and so on. orig. extract at 20 DC 4.0 4.06 3.90 8.0 8.24 7.91
0.1 0.10 0.10 4.1 4.16 3.99 8.1 8.35 8.02
Accordingly an approximate value for the 0.2 0.20 0.19 4.2 4.26 4.09 8.2 8.45 8.12
specific gravity is obtained from the equation 0.3 0.30 0.29 4.3 4.36 4.19 8.3 8.56 8.22
Specific gravity = (Mass percent · 0.004) + 1 0.4 0.40 0.38 4.4 4.47 4.29 8.4 8.67 8.32
0.5 0.50 0.48 4.5 4.57 4.39 8.5 8.77 8.42
In the example: (11.4 ' 0.004) + 1 = 1.0456 0.6 0.60 0.58 4.6 4.67 4.49 8.6 8.88 8.53
The Plato Table shows 1.04395. 0.7 0.70 0.67 4.7 4.78 4.59 8.7 8.99 8.63
The difference is small but too large for accu- 0.8 0.80 0.77 4.8 4.88 4.69 8.8 9.09 8.73
rate conversions. 0.9 0.90 0.86 4.9 4.99 4.79 8.9 9.20 8.83
1.0 1.00 0.96 5.0 5.09 4.89 9.0 9.31 8.94
In the simplified table shown for everyday 1.1 1.10 1.06 5.1 5.19 4.99 9.1 9.41 9.04
rough estimates, the values for the specific 1.2 1.20 1.15 5.2 5.30 5.09 9.2 9.52 9.14
gravity are omitted and 1.3 1.30 1.25 5.3 5.40 5.18 9.3 9.63 9.25
for each tenth of mass percent 1.4 1.41 1.35 5.4 5.51 5.29 9.4 9.74 9.35
the corresponding values for g extract/lOO 1111 1.5 1.51 1.45 5.5 5.61 5.39 9.5 9.84 9.45
wort (converted %) are given. 1.6 1.61 1.55 5.6 5.71 5.48 9.6 9.95 9.55
Staying w ith the present example, it can be 1.7 1.71 1.64 5.7 5.82 5.58 9.7 10.06 9.66
seen that with 11.4 mass percent, in the column 1.8 1.81 1.74 5.8 5.92 5.68 9.8 10.1 7 9.76
"Converted % g in 100ml at 20 DC", the value is 1.9 1.91 1.83 5.9 6.03 5.79 9.9 10.27 9.86
11.90. 2.0 2.01 1.93 6.0 6.13 5.89 10.0 10.38 9.97
This means that in 100 ml of this wort at 20 DC 2.1 2.11 2.03 6.1 6.24 5.99 10.1 10.49 10.07
there are 11.90 g of extract, which corresponds 2.2 2.21 2.13 6.2 6.34 6.09 10.2 10.60 10.18
to 11.90 kg of extract in 1 hI of wort (at 20 DC). 2.3 2.32 2.23 6.3 6.45 6.19 10.3 10.71 10.28
 378 379

Mass % g Converted % g Yield Mass % g Converted % g Yield Mass % g Con verted % g Yield When 264 hI cools to 20 °C (without any eva-
in 100 g in 100 ml factor in 100 g in 100 ml factor in 100 g in 100 m l factor poration !) onl y 96% of the original volu me is
orig. extract at 20 °C orig. extract at 20 °C orig. ex tract at 20 °C still present. The wort has contracted by 4% . If
10.4 10.81 10.38 14.4 15.22 14.61 - 18.4 19.76 18.97 the cooled wor t is h ea ted to 100 °C again, there
3 10.5 10.92 10.49 14.5 15.33 14.72 18.5 19.88 19.08 are aga in 264 hI.
3
10.6 11.03 10.59 14.6 15.44 14.82 18.6 19.99 19.19 It mu st also be remembered that in the 4%,
10.7 11.14 10.70 14.7 15.55 14.93 18.7 20.11 19.31 the amount of spent hops and protein break is
10.8 11.25 10.80 14.8 15.66 15.03 18.8 20. 22 19.42 a lso includ ed with the amount of wort, alt-
10.9 11.36 10.91 14.9 15.78 15.14 18.9 20.34 19.53 h ough these do not really form part of the ex-
11.0 11.47 11.01 15.0 15.89 15.25 19.0 20.45 19.64 tract.
11.1 11.57 11.11 15.1 16.00 15.36 19.1 20.57 19.75 The conversion of the volume of the hot cast-
11.2 11.68 11.22 15.2 16.11 15.47 19.2 20.69 19.86 ing wort to that of the cold wort (at 20 °C since
11.3 11 .79 11.32 15.3 16.22 15.57 19.3 20.80 19.97 that is the temperature at which the hydrome-
11.4 11.90 11.42 15.4 16.34 15.69 19.4 20.92 20.08 ter reading was made) is performed by multi-
11.5 12.01 11.53 15.5 16.45 15.79 19.5 21.04 20.20 pl ying by 0.96.
11 .6 12.12 11.63 15.6 16.56 15.90 19.6 21.15 20.31 The factor 0.96 is called the contraction or cor-
11.7 12.23 11.74 15.7 16.68 16.00 19.7 21.27 20.42 rection factor.
11 .8 12.34 11.85 15.8 16.79 16.11 19.8 21.39 20.53 In the example then, from the 264 hI hot cast-
11 .9 12.45 11.95 15.9 16.90 16.22 19.9 21.50 20.64 in g wort:
12.0 12.56 12.06 16.0 17.02 16.34 20.0 21.62 20.76
12.1 12.67 12.17 16.1 17.13 16.45 264 h i ' 0.96
12.2 12.78 12.27 16.2 17.24 16.56 In the older literature the mass % values are = 253.44 hi cold cast wor t at 20 °C are obtained.
12.3 12.89 12.38 16.3 17.36 16.67 still shown as weight %.
12.4 13.00 12.48 16.4 17.47 16.77 Of course, the quoted 4% is not quite exact sin-
12.5 13.11 12.59 16.5 17.58 16.88 3.5.1.3 Conversion of the volume of the hot ce the amount of hot casting wort is lmder-mea-
12.6 13.22 12.69 16.6 17.70 16.99 casting wort to that of the cold wort sured by about 0.2% as a result of the expansion
12.7 13.33 12.80 16.7 17.81 17.10 At the end of wort boiling the al1l0lmt of finis- of the kettle. On the other hand, the form in
12.8 13.44 12.90 16.8 17.92 17.21 hed wort is measured accurately with the mea- which the hops are added plays a role. With hop
12.9 13.55 13.01 16.9 18.04 17.32 suring stick. For this the wort surface mu st be cones it can be assumed that the spent hops in-
13.0 13.66 13.11 17.0 18.15 17.43 totall y calm. The measuring stick is calibrated crease the figtu'e by about 0.2%, but with powder,
13.1 13.77 13.22 17.1 18.27 17.54 for the ke ttle contents and must be used at the pellets or ex tract it is quite different.
13.2 13.88 13.32 17.2 18.38 17.65 place provided for it. The calibration of the kett-
13.3 13.99 13.43 17.3 18.50 17.76 le, which is essential for the correct determina- Because the brewhouse yield is primarily an
13.4 14.10 13.54 17.4 18.61 17.87 tion of the brewhouse yield, is performed by di- internal brewery control figure, the difference
13.5 14.21 13.64 17.5 18.72 17.97 rect measurement. is not important if the same hop composition is
13.6 14.32 13.75 17.6 18.84 18.08 The taxa tion authorities also allow measure- always used.
13.7 14.43 13.85 17.7 18.95 18.19 ment of wort removal by inducti ve flow measu-
13.8 14.55 13.97 17.8 19.07 18.31 rement (in German abbreviated to IDM) on 3.5.1.4 Calculation of the amount of extract ob-
13.9 14.66 14.07 17.9 19.18 18.42 cold wort. tained in the brewhouse
14.0 14.77 14.18 18.0 19.30 18.53 EXllmple: In the example, 1 hI of wort at 20 °C contains
14.1 14.88 14.28 18.1 19.41 18.64 In this example 264 hl were drawn off. But 11.90 kg of ex tract, in the total 253.44 hi of wort
14.2 14.99 14.39 18.2 19.53 18.75 this measurement was made at 100 °C whereas there are 3015.94 kg of ex tract at 20 °C. Thus
14.3 15.10 14.50 18.3 19.64 18.86 the hydro meter reading was taken at 20 °C. 3015.94 kg of extract were obtained.

380
The formula for the amount of extract obtai-
ned in the brew house is:
Extract all/Ollllt [legl =
extmct cOlltellt [leg/dtl . Q . 0.96 . castillg wort
3 Y
all/Ollllt [hI] wliere Q is tlie specific gmvity
(20/4°C) .
Because the correction factor 0.96 is fixed it
has been incorporated in the Plato table and the
value
extmct colttellt [leg/dtJ . Q . 0.96 is collectively
tlie yield factor.
Thus for the example one only has to look up
the extract content [kg/dt] in the table and one
finds in the last column the "yield factor" 11.42.
Therefore in the example
Amount of casting wort· yield factor
= extract amount [kg]
264' 11.42 = 3014.88 kg of extract is obtained.
Determining the amOlmt of extract produced
is important as a starting value for calculating
the extract loss in the further processing.
3.5.1.5 Determination of the brew house yield
(Y bh )
To measure the brewhouse yield, the amount of
extract produced is related to the amount of
grist used. For this it is assumed:
Grist mass [kg] = 100%
Amount of extract [kg] = X% of this = yield [%]
The brew house yield (Y bh ) is therefore calcu-
lated from
Y = extract mass [kg]·100 %
bh grist mass [kg]
For simplification the grist is multiplied by
100 and expressed in dt (100 kg). Calculation of
the extract mass has been described and so the
following formula is obtained for the brewhou-
se yield:
extract cont. [kgldt]· Q' 0.96 . cast wort amollnt [hI]
Ybh
grist [dt]
or, more briefly
yield factor [kg/dt] x cast wort amount [hI]
bh grist [dt]
In the exampl e 40 dt of grist were needed for
3015 kg of extract. In this case Ybh is given by
Y = 3015 kg x 100 % = 75.37 % = 75.4 %
bh 4000 kg
3.5.2 Factors affecting the brewhouse
yield
The brewhouse yield depends on
the raw materials,
the brewhouse equipment,
the mash process,
the lautering operations,
the overall operating methods.
The yield is between 74 and 79%. It should be
as high as possible and at most 1% less than the
air-dry laboratory yield from the fine ground
malt.
Raw materials
Malts give variable yields and an extract rich
malt is highly prized. Poorly modified malts gi-
ve smaller extracts than well modified malts.
Since the grist is always recorded on an air-dry
basis, the water content of the malt affects the
yield. With an increasing water content the
yield decreases. Carbonate-rich water reduces
the yield. Sulphate-rich water and very soft wa-
ter, as a result of their pH-lowering nature, im-
prove enzyme activity and thus the yield.
BrewllOlIse eqlliplllellt
Modern brew houses are designed to provide a
high yield with good wort quality and use in or-
der to do this a number of additional devices, in
particular to obtain the most complete extracti-
t J,
Ir
381
on of the spent gra ins. They therefore produce portlmity to take over control at any time if it is
higher y ields than conventional brew houses. necessary. In this way operator errors are exclu-
The quality of a brewhouse is also judged ded and the process can be performed optimal-
from the difference between the actual yield ob- ly (Sect. 3. 10).
tain ed and the laboratory yield. In modern
3
brew houses this difference is very small. 3.5.3 Calculation of a brewhouse yield
4600 kg grist was used for a Pilsner brew and at
Ma sli process the end 331 hi of 10.7% wort was obtained.
A long, intensive mash process gives a higher What is the brewhouse yield?
yield. Longer boiling of the thick mash forms
extract content . Q . 0.96 . cast wort amount
more extract. Premashing and boiling the mash = (kg/at( _ _-:--_ _ _ _ _Ihl( _ __
Y bh
lmder pressure increase the yield but at the ex- grist (at(
pense of quality. The ratio of mashing liquor to
sparge liquor is important since if too much
mashing liquor is used the extract Calmot be ful- Y = 11.14· 0.96 . 331
t,h %
ly washed out and consequently the yield is 46
less.
Ybh
_ --
-
3540 _ °
- - - - 76.95 10
Lallterillg process 46
Uneven sparging and lmequal flow through the The brewhouse yield is 76.95%
lautering taps result in a lower yield.
More small sparges give a higher yield than If the yield factor is used, the calculation is
continuous sparging. Lautering efficiency is re- performed as follows:
flected in the amount of soluble extract left in
10.70' 331
the spent grains (Sect. 3.3.6.2). Use of the last Ybh = = 3541.7 = 76.99 %
46
numings as mashing-in liquor for the next
mash improves the yield slightly but not the The result is therefore 0.04% different. This
quality. difference is small and for rough calculations is
not important. On the other hand, comparison
Oveml1 operatillg II/etliod with the laboratory yield (fine grind, air-dry,
The entire brew house operation is based on see Sect. 2.8.3.2) is importal1t. This comparison
supporting the enzyme activities. Optimal en- only makes sense, of course, when it is perfor-
zyme activity is, however, only possible when med with the same malt. Consequently, over a
the pre-specified temperatures and times are period for comparison, it is necessary to take re-
adhered to exactly. This requires the person in presentative samples from the malt and per-
charge of brewing to be accurate and reliable at form laboratory analyses on them.
all times and no superficiality or failure is ac-
ceptable. Otherwise the damage done can be 3.6 Brewhouse equipment
substal1tial. 3.6.1 Number and arrangement of the
To avoid this, in modern brewhouses the pro- vessels
grammes are stored in computer memories and All the vessels required for wort production are
operate completely automatically. The supervi- installed in the brewhouse. In brewing langua-
Sor controls the process visually and has the op- ge brewing receptacles are referred to as ves-
 382
sels. Small brewhouses conta in only two ves-
sels:
a tlm which is both a mash tun and a lauter
tLUl, and
a kettle which acts both as mash cooker and
3 3
wort kettle.
With such a simple or two vessel brew house,
1 or 2 brews a day can be produced. Such two
vessel brewhou ses are often found in microbre-
weries and pub breweries. Depending on the
number of brewing days up to 600 brews a ye-
ar can be mad e.
The conventional doubl ed or four vessel
brew house consists of
a mash conversion t1m or heated mash con-
version tlUl
a mash cooker to boil a par t mash
a lauter tlm or mash filter for mash separati-
on and
a wort kettle for boiling the total wort.
(Fig . 3.89a)
Nowadays, on acco1mt of the increased num-
ber of brews per day, the brewhouse also con-
tains in addition to the brewing vessels
a (heated) wort buffer tank to hold the first
wort or the entire brew until the kettle is no
longer occupied, and largest, over 12 m . On the other hand many lar-
a whirlpool, provided no whirlpool kettle is ge brewery brewhouses also prefer to use seve-
present. ral vessels or have several lines which are lin-
Brewer ies which work with infus ion fre- ked together.
quently only have one Illash vessel.
The vessels are loca ted in small and older 3.6.3 Vessel material
breweries in such a way that at least the lauter The conventional material for brewhouse ves-
tun is above and close to the wort kettle so that sels is copper. For hundreds of years the copper
the wort flows through the wort grant and falls brewhouse has been the brewers' pride. If pos-
by gravity into the kettle. Nowadays the vessels sible located on the main street, the brew house
are situated on the same level. was exhibited through a large show window to
Modern breweries also have a mill. the passing citizens and thereby made a very
impressive advertisement for the brewery.
3.6.2 Vessel size However, copper in time becomes black and
Vessel sizes are different since they must per- eventllally becomes green with verdigris, which
form different ftmction s. It is calculated that for is regarded as impressive only on roofs. In order
every 1 dt (0.1 metric ton) of grist the following to keep the reddish copper shine of the vessels
vessel volumes are needed: they must be constantly polished. Even a lacquer
mash tun (kettle) 6 hi does not last for long because it becomes porous
mash cooker 4-5 hI and corrosion proceeds Lmderneath it. The con-
lau ter tlm 6 hi stant polishing requires a lot of work and with
wort kettle 8-9 hi the majority of vessels it CaIUlOt be done without
wort buffer vessel 7 hI putting scaffolding on the vapour chimneys.
The size of the brewhouse vessels is designed The first kettles made of chrome-nickel steel
according to the amount of finished wort. The were produced from about 1965. Because they
smallest lauter t1ms have a diameter of 2 m; the were made by cutting ou t from flat metal sheets
and mechanically shaping and welding into the
desired shape, their manufactllre is considera-
bly cheaper than the manufacture of beaten
copper vessels. For this financial reason, nowa-
days almost all brewhouse vessels are made of
clu-ome-nickel steel, aIld these also have the ad-
vantage that they can be easily and thoroughly
cleaned externally and internally by CIP proce-
Fig.3.89n dures aIld retain their silvery appearaIlce.
FOil r vessel urew/lOlIse Problems only arise when one of the copper
(collvenliolln/ type)
(1) lIenled IIInsll 11111 I, (2)
vessels h as to be replaced due to wear aIld tear.
lI enlcd IIIns/, 11111 II, (3) Inllter In this case an attempt is often made to cover
11111, (4) wort kettle, (5+6) the new stainless steel vessel with the still intact
IIInll grist 1I0pper (lIIounu/e), copper hood so as to retain the overall Lmiform
(7) 1I0p slrniller (Mollt ejll s),
(8) slirrer drive, (9) IIInsll
impression of the brewhouse.
PIlIllP, (10) worl ens tillg Withou t doubt modern brewhouses made of
plll1lp chrome-nickel steel make the same impression
383
on the beholder as the copper brewhou se when,
as a result of the alTaIlgement aIld colour deco-
ration of the 1'00111, and through skilful ligh ting,
the full effect of the vessels is achieved.
3.6.4 Brewhouse capacity
The brewhouse is the heart of the brewery. The
output of the departments which follow it are
almos t entirely depend ent on its output capaci-
ty. To fully utilise working time aIld energy, and
thereby to operate economically, every brewery
wishes to use its brew house to the greatest pos-
sible extent.
It has been pointed out that with a modern
lauter tlm brew house up to 12 brews CaIl be pro-
duced per day. This number is generally multi-
plied by the 5 working days in the week and the
52 weeks in the year except for public holidays.
If one is compelled to interrupt brewing to un-
dertake essential repairs, this natlu'ally causes a
noticeable reduction in the output capacity. The
amowlt of finished, cast wort produced in the
year is, of course, not the same as the aI1101mt of
beer produced for sale because there is a loss (see
Sect. 5.5) which is different in every brewery aIld
is about 8 to 10%. The capacity of a brewhouse is
quoted in the al110Lmt of grist in tons of malt per
brew. How CaIl one calculate the amo1mt of finis-
hed wort from the amOLmt of grist?
Rille of tllll 111 b:
For l1z1 of beer 171cg ofll1alt are /IserT.
If 17 kg of malt are needed for 1 hi of beer,
then from 1000 kg of malt
1000: 17 = 58.8 hI of beer are produced.
If a loss of 9% is assumed, these 58.8 hi of beer
are produced from 58.8 / 0.91 = 64.6 hi of wort.
In other words:
with a 1 t brewhouse about 64.6 hi of wort is
cast,
with a 10 t brewhoLise about 646 hI of wort is
cast, and so on .
 l
384 385

Problem: Pub breweries can operate much more econ o- Since there is also no expensive bottle fi lling and
How many hi of beer can be produced per year mically th an large breweries since they do not ha- operations to prolong the shelfljfe, th ey are al-
with a 10 t brewhouse? ve to provide an y expensive ad ve rtising and are most unbea table with regard to cost (see Sect. 8).
Assuming a cast wort amount of 640 hI, 8 independent of wholesalers - a grea t advantage
3 brews a day, 4.5 brewing days per week and 52 which they share with many small breweries. 3.6.5.2 Integral brewhouse
production weeks, minus holidays, per year:
3
A p articularly novel form of two-vessel brewhou-
se, which is especially suitable for pub brewery
Wort production use, is the integral brew house [76] (Fig. 3.89c).
per brew 640 hi In this brew house the mash and lauter hm (2) is
per day 8· 640 5,120 hi built in a circle arOLmd the mash and wort kettle
per week 4.5 . 5,120 23,040 hi (1).111e hm is sealed by an ingenious mecl1anism
per year 52' 23,040 1,198,080 hi to prevent cOlUlection w ith the kettle, and the four
minus 10 arms of the ral<e mechanism (3) with their adjus-
holidays 10' 5,120 - 51,200 hI table knives can be raised and lowered as desired .
wort production in a year 1,146,880 hI Integral brewhoLises are no longer bujlt.
91 % of this (9 % loss) 1,043,660 hI
3.6.5.3 Research and training brewhouses
Consequently 1.04 million hI of beer can be The training of brew ers and m alts ters in brewe-
made per year with a 10 t brewhouse; however ries of very different sizes and with different
this calculation shows the extreme limit. equipment results in the fact that many trai-
As a rough guide, however, it can be assumed nees, during practical training, cannot be made
that if 8 brews are made per day 5 days a week Fig . 3 .89b sufficiently aware of the details of brew house
Each 1 ton of grist = 100,000 hI of beer. BrewllOli se of a pllb brewery
processes. It is therefore necessary to p erform
(Gasthall s Bmllerei)
(Ph olo Bemplnll, Haerler GlIlbH, Chielllillg )
Fig. 3.89c: Illtegml brewllOlI se these processes in h'aining brews during inte rn-
3.6.5 Special types of brewhouse (1) lllash all d w al'l ke ltle, (2) Illash alld 1011 tel' 11111, (3) Ileighl-
ships in a professional training instihlte. All vo-
adjllslable mkillg devi ce, (4) spnrg illg nlld wo rt g m vity lIl ea-
Among the smaller brewhouses, for several ye- cational schools providing brewing training no-
sllrelll elli sta lioll , (5) sigllt g lass, (6) spell I g mills discfwge
ars two groups have been of special importan- 400 such pub breweries in Germany and their
ce. These are: number is constantly increasing.
restaurant or pub brewery brew houses, and As a rule pub breweries make about 10 to 15
research and training brewhouses of the re- hi casting wort and produce 3 to 4 brews a week
search institutes, and 1000 to 2000 hi of beer a year, which is sold
the research brew houses of the large brewe- only on their own premises in the pub or re-
ries to test new types of beer or procedures, staurant.
as well as 111e heart of a pub brewery is the two-vessel
the training brew houses of professional trai- brewhouse which is positioned attractively in the
ning institutes. drinking and dining area (Fig. 3.89b). 111is area
provides a special attraction when, on certain
3.6.5.1 Pub brewery brewhouses days, it is possible to watch how the brewmaster
Since the beginning of the eighties, but accen- brews the beer. If the beer is fresh and very plea- Fig. 3.89d

tuated first since about 1986, everywhere in
Germany, but especially in cities and large
towns, "pub breweries" have been built and
operated successfully. At present there are over
sant, and if food which goes well with the beer is n'aill illg brewllO ll se ill th e N ll -
tl'itioll al Tmillillg School, Ol'es-
also provided by the host, the business is perfect. dell
111en only a beer garden is lacking and these are (Pholo BAM Appamle- 1lIid
becoming ever more popular. Maschillwbn ll, Freisillg)
 386
wadays in Germany have a teaching brewhouse
including fermentation / maturation, filtration
and filling plants, with a capacity of 50 to 100 I
(Fig. 3.89d), comparable to those also common-
ly available in research institutes and universi-
3 through the cooling pipe or cooling jacke t. The
ties w hich provide training in brewing techno-
logy.
In creasingly, brewing comp anies operate
small research brewh ouses with up to 5 I cast-
ing wor t in order to test new sorts or varieties
by means of a series of experiments. This is ne-
cessary because in this way, a number of analy-
ses and tasting values can be obtained before
daring to tryout a large batch.
3.7 Casting the wort
During casting the wort is pLU11ped by the wort
casting pump into the whirlpool. Thi s process
should proceed as quickly as possible so that
the kettle is free for the next brew, but it mu st al-
so be done ca refully so that no (avoidable) she-
ar forces occur which d am age substances in the
wort (see Sect. 3.2.1.4).
The various struchlral alterations to
cans which occu r
on slow cooling on the one h and, and
on rapid cooling and with the occurrence of
sh ear forces, on the other,
must be taken care of or otherwise filtration
problems m ay occur.
If unmilled whole leaf hops are used, the
spent hops h ave to be removed before the
whirlpool becau se they are of n o value to fur-
ther processing. At the end of casting the spent
hops contain about 4.9 I of wort per kg of hops
used . This loss is decreased
by simple drainage, to 4.4 I,
by good spraying to 4.3 I,
by p ressing, to 4.0 I, and
by spraying and pressing, to 2.0 I of wort.
The spent hops were form erly removed by a
hop strainer. A hop strainer is a vessel with a
sieve bottom which retains the spent hops
whil st the wor t flows through (a special type of
construction of hop strainer is known as the
Hopfen (hop)-Montejus).
After the wor t has run off, the hops are ex-
trac ted with water and the extraction improved
by stirrin g the spent hops / water mixhlre. Be-
cau se even with the best extrac tion method, re-
sidual ex tract always remains in the spent hops
and there is n o economic use for the spent hops,
they a re added back to the next brew in the lau-
tel' hm wh ere they are held back by the spent
grains.
Since the spent hops only ca use work, whole
lea f hops are h ardly ever used nowadays or
they are milled and are also eliminated in the
whirlpool.
3.8 Removal of the coarse break
(coarse trub)
The break from the cast wort is now called co-
arse break, as well as boiled or hot break. It con-
sists of large particles, 30 to 80 in size,
which are slightly heavier than the wort and in
general se ttle down well to form a compact
mass if they are given sufficient time.
The coarse break mus t be removed since it is
not only of n o value in further beer production,
but also actually detrimental to quality. It
hinders wort clarification,
increases the amOlmt of break-rich sediment
and thereby increases the loss,
makes beer filtration more difficu lt if it is not
removed at the right time.
The amOlmt of coarse break is about 6000 to
8000 m g/I following casting-out and should, af-
ter its removal, h ave been decreased to under
100 m g/l.
The coarse break, contains impor-
tant physiological componen ts:
long chained fatty acids w hich are urgentl y
needed for the building up of the yeast mem-
brane, and of which approx. 1 mg/I is re-
leased,
387
zinc, which is absolutely necessary to carry cooling (Fi g. 3.90). A top cover reduces the risk
out fe rmentation, and which can be released of contamination.
in amounts of 0.10 - 0.15 mg/I, as we ll as The wort is cast into the settling tank to a
larger particles and hop components up to d e pth of 1 to 2 m. Production water is fed
200 pa rti cle size.
3
Tes ts have shown [382J that extre mely clear wort is cooled whilst the cooling water is hea-
worts (particl e free) are di sadva ntageous for ted and can be reused as hot wa ter, e.g. for cask
fermentation; the coarse break or other particles cleaning.
increase the fermentation p erformance with re-
gard to a higher cell concentration of the yeast
in susp ension, lower pH val ues and a faster
breakdown of the extrac t. In additi on, lon g
chain ed fatty acids and zinc are released. If, ho-
wever, the yeast is in a bad cond ition, its capa-
city to bind haze forming subs tances is insuffi-
cient and the flavour s tability deteriorates.
Coarse break used to be removed in a cool-
ship or settling tank, but nowada ys a whirlpool
is mainly em ployed, sometim es even a centrifu-
ge or fiJ tra tion.
3.8.1 Coolship
A coolship is a traditional vessel for break re-
moval. It is a perfectly flat, open vessel in which
the wort is cast to a depth of 15 to 25 cm. During
the 0.5 to 2 hours that the wort remains in the
coolship the trub settles to the bottom and d oes
so better the shallower the coolship is. In fonner
times the brew was left standing overnight. The
las t part of the wort flowing off is called cloudy Fig. 3.90
Selllillg tnllk
wort. Th e cloudy wort is heav ily soiled and
(1) enst wort illiet pipe, (2) distrivlltO/; (3) pivotnvle flont pi-
even infected by the break. It is trea ted in a spe- pe, (4) wort olltlet pipe, (5) c10lldy wort draill, (6) dirty wnter
cial plant. draill, (7) cold wnter ill let, (8) liot wnte/' olltlet, (9) ndjllstnvle
Because microbial infections almost always flnp, (10) vnpollr cliill/lley
get into the wort in the coolship and because
the labour cost associated with the coolship is Because of the grea ter wort depth the break
very lugh, they are rarely used nowadays. settles less well in the settling tan k. But since
the upper layers of the wor t are less contamina-
3.8.2 Settling tank ted by trub particles than the lower layers, th e
In place of the large area occupied by a cool- wor t is drawn off tlU'ough an articulated pipe
ship, a less space consuming settling tank m ay with a float device wluch ca uses it to remove
be used. A settling tank is a vessel with a flat onl y the layer at the top at an y time. Th e cloudy
bottom which is equipped with coil or jacket wort is not removed and must be trea ted in a

388
cloudy wort plant as in the case of a coolship. In-
stead of a settling tank a hot wort receiver may
be used . 111is is a buffer tank without cooling in
which the cast wort is first collected. Settling
3
tanks and hot wort receivers are classi fied as old-
fashioned and are no longer produced.
3.8.3 Whirlpool
Whirlpools have been installed for break remo-
val in increasin g numbers since about 1960. It is
the most elegant method for h ot break removal
and is the least costly alternative of all trub re-
moval methods.
A whirlpool is a vertical cylindrical vessel, w ith
no internal fittings, into which wort is plU11ped
tangentially. This produces a rotational flow in
2 friction with the wall alld bottom, is so large
4 5
3
- ---!- --
T whirlpool, as the speed of rotation d ecreases,
the vessel which causes the hot break to settle in
the shape of a cone in the middle of the vessel.
Wort can be drawn off at the side. Why this is so
will be explained with the help of an experiment.
3.8.3.1 Operating principle of the whirlpool
Experil/lellt:
Half fill with water a large glass beaker or large
pan with a flat bottom and at least 40 cm in dia-
meter. Then put a tablespoonful of sand and a
tablespoon ful of lighte r granular m aterial,
which mus t howeve r be hea vier than wa ter
(e.g. small pieces of chalk or grains of sand), in-
to the beaker or pan. The particles fall to the
bottom and lie where they fall .
Figs. 3.91 10 3.95
Cllrrellis nllli Jorees il l n w ll irlpool
(1) ee/llrijllgnl Joree drives olllwnrds
(2) jrielioll all Ille wn ll nlld bo tt olll drives
Ille pm'lic/es lownrds Ille cell Ire
(3) eddy JOl'lllnl ioll prevel/ls good se illillg
ill Ille ewl re
(4) CIIttillg 10 prevelll eddy ell rrell I Jorllln-
lioll
(5) Dellk 's rillgs ell nble good sell/illg.
/
/
Now s tir the liquid with yo ur h and to rotate
it as fas t as possible. It Call then be seen that the
sand grains a nd small pieces of chalk are forced
outward s by the centrifu ga l forces produ ced
and collect on the outside wa ll w hilst the surfa-
ce of the wa ter h as the sh ap e of a parabol oid of
revolution (Fig. 3.91). This will not be really
new or surprising to you.
Now remove yo ur h and from the beaker or
pan alld observe what h appens. The sand and
chalk particles rapidly m ove in a spiral shape to
the middle and collect there in a loose heap
which at firs t s till rotates with the water. From
above the formation of eddy currents can be
seen w hich cause the outer particles in the heap
to continuou sly change position . It can be seen
that the velocity of the liquid at the outer wall is
strongly braked. This braking effect, caused by
that the ro tation in the beaker or pall has ended
within about a minute. This results in the for-
mation of a vigorous prim ary current which ra-
pidly draws the salld alld ch alk particles to the
middle of the vessel (2). The ca use of this is that
in the so-called bottom b oundary layer, the
equilibrium between the pressure forces and
centrifugal forces has been dis turbed. In this
bottom boundary layer the speed of the liquid
is greatly reduced by the fri ction at the bottom,
whilst air presents practica lly no friction to the
sm-face of the water. As a result, this circulation
within the beaker occurs and because of the
friction with the wall, ceases within a very short
time. This remarkable effect had alread y been
called the " teacup effect" by Albert Einstein sin-
ce it can easily be observed in a teacup provid ed
it contains tea leaves in the tea.
But in addi ti on to this main circulation in the
interferin g secondary currents occur in th e
form of rotating systems which can grea tly im-
pede the w hirlpool effect and therefore the
break sedimentation (3 and 4). Th e torus eddy
389
(T) located at the bottom is particularly harmful
since it produces other temporary eddies and
preven ts rapid se ttling.
A basic prerequisite for a fLmctioning whirl-
pool is firstly a wort which is suitable for a
whirlpool [1 71]. A p roposed fonn of control is
3 I
to fill an (insulated) Iml10ff glass con e cl assifier
with wor t to a depth of 380 mm, alld by means
of a light source to follow the sedimentation of
the hot break (Fig. 3.96). A wort well suited for
a whirlpool has completely settled after 5 or 6
min and the wort above the sediment is clear.
Unsuitable wort still has no satisfactory result
even after 10 min.
Possible ca uses of poor hot break separation
in the whirlpool are [1 71 ]:
poor lautering,
too much shea r stress of the wort in the pi-
ping and bends,
d efective in s talla tion of the centrifugal
pumps,
inflow into the whirlpool is too fast,
secondary currents in the whirlpool are too
strong,
disch arge velocity is too high,
an unfavourable relationship b etween the
h eight of the wort and the diameter of the
whirlpool.
It is particularly importallt that
the inflow velocity is not greater th an 3.5 mis,
as high a mass flo w of wor t as possible is in-
trodu ced,
thereby no hot break is broken up and
n o internal fittings hinder the rotation.
It h as therefore proved particularly favoura-
ble to carry out hot break sedi mentation in the
same vessel (whirlpool kettle), since in this case
only a part of the wort need s to be set in motion
b y the rotation of the pump alld therefore onl y
a part of the break flocs are homogenised . Mo-
reover, cas ting time is saved and oxygen upta-
ke prevented .

390
effect in that it represents a considerable invasi-
In the case of some w hirlpools lllldesirable
on of the bottom boundary layer. In addition,
second ary or eddy currents occur to a greater
the trub cup prevents the trub cone fronl run -
ex tent.
ning dry.
In the research by Denk [20] attempts we re
mad e to prevent the interfering effects of the
3 throu gh two inlets:
eddy currents without disturbing the w hirlpool
effect. It was possible to d o this by installing
gratings or rings at a specific hei ght above the
whirlpool bottom (Fig. 3.94) .
The installation of the grating or rings resul-
ted in "cutting" of the torus edd y, thereby de-
stroying its effect. With the removal of the torus
eddy the main driving force for eddy formation
anywhere in the whirlpool is elimin ated and
consequently an undisturbed flo w along the
bottom towards the centre is created (Fig. 3.95).
The rings or gra tings are arra nged concentrica l-
ly in the whirlpool.
Fig . 3.96
IlII hojj CO li C to cOlltrol tile brcnk sc-
riilll ellfnfioll
3.8.3.2 Whirlpool design
A whirlpool is a closed cylindrical vessel with a
flat bottom and a 1% slope towards the outlet
(Fig. 3.97). The diameter : height ratio of the
wort contained can be 1:1 to 5:1, but nowadays
a ra tio of 3:1 is preferred. The w hirlpool is insu-
lated to prevent cooling from outside. Whirl-
pool bottoms with a so-called trub cup - this is
a recess in the centre of the hm in which the
trub can be coll ected - ha ve no advantages. Fur-
thermore, the trub cup reduces the whirlpool
391
for b reak removal and withou t internal fittings Remo val of the wort is usually begllll from
axe suitable. Externa l boiling of the wort can be the upper portion even whilst sedimentation is
Llsed for these . Existing kettles with concave still taking p lace in the lower part. Wort is later
bottom s ca n also be used as whirlpools provi- drawn off from the side at the bottom after se-
Wort is introdu ced tangentia ll y, often ded the flow behaviour allows good break sedi- dimentation has finished. 3
menta tion . When the trub con e emerges from the wort it
one inlet at the bottom to prevent oxygen up- The break disch arge from the w hirlpool oc- often begins to disintegrate. The reason s for this
take, and curs by means of [20] are that when the wor t level falls, the wort
an inlet in the lower third to produce the rota- central rota ting spraying d evices or in the break cone either (Fig. 3.99)
tion. The outlet is always at the side at the lo- permanently insta lled jets. fa lls at the sa me rate as the wort outside the
wes t point of the whirlpool. cone (1), in which case the cone remains in-
3.8.3.3 Performing wort clarification in a tac t, or
whirlpool flows out more slowly (2), in which case the
The way in which the wort is plunped into the projecting part of the trub cone is filled wi th
whirlpool is particularly important. wort like a spon ge and presses the wort out of
First, care must be taken that the wort pump the cone, as a result of which the trub con e
does not run too qui ckly and ope rates without falls a p art to a grea ter or lesser extent,
cavitation, so that the break is not acted upon or as soon as the trub cone emerges, it loses
by the resultant sh ear forces. the buoya ncy which stabilises the cone.
The wo rt inflow velocity should not exceed A reduced velocity at the end of wort draina-
3.5 m/s. Often mu ch smaller velocities are suffi- ge can be of some assistance here.
cient to ca use the wor t to ro tate and prod uce
the whirlpool effect. It is important thereby to
11 have as great a volume flow as possible.
10
The res t period in the whirlpool is 20 to 30
min. The installation of gratings or rings redu-
ces the residence time by 30 to 60 % with clear
worts, but it should not be less than 20 min . The
whirlpool, too, cannot fundamentally improve
cloudy wor ts.
One should attempt to keep the therma l ex-
posm e of the wort after boiling as low as possi-
Fig. 3.97
Whirlpool ble and therefore the rest in th e whirlpool
(1) v npollr rClllovnl cllilll lley, (2) top covel; (3) co llriell sed wn- should be kept as short as possible. A shorter
fer relllovnl, (4) c/P clcnllillg, (5) l igiitillg, (6) sigiit willdow
rest prod uces
nllri llInlll/Ole covel ; (7) side wnll, (8) illSlIlntioll, (9) whirlpool
bnsc with 1 % slope, (10) c/P bottolll jet, (11) tnllgeIlfinl ill- less colou ring,
let, (1 2) olltiet better flavo ur s tability in the beer [115].
It was shown in Sect. 3.4.2.6 - Modern Wort
BOiling System s - th at care is taken to prevent
A special type of whirlpool is the whirlpool the formation of free DMS from the DMS pre-
kettle. In this case the wort remains in the kett- cursor by mea ns of lowering the tempera ture to
Fig . 3.99
le w hich also ac ts as the whirlpool. For this pur- below 85 °C before the w hirlpool rest, thus kee- Wort flow jrolll tile tmb calle
pose, of course, only kettles with a fl at bottom ping the free DMS content low. (exnggernferl)
e

392
W7lirlpool with slIbseqllellt eva pol'atioll -
Ca lypso Sy stem (Steillee/eel', Fl'eisiILg)
In the case of the Calypso whirlpool sys tem, the
open w hirlpool is loca ted in a closed and insu-
3 nozzles, which are precisely adjusted, into a
Fig. 3.9%
Cnlypso - cOllslmclio ll
3 (2) 1mb COile
lated vessel with a small vapo ur ch imney (Figs.
3.99a and 3.99b).
The crucial difference as opposed to a normal
w hirlpool is that after the trub removal, the
wort is dra w n off and dispersed over stripping
closed circu lar pipeline between the two vessels
in such a way that the wor t can ILUl down the
edges of the whirlpool as well as those of the in-
sulated external tank in a thin stream. The an-
nular space heats up durin g the whirlpool rest
to sa turated steam temperature so that the free
DMS and other volatile compOlUlds can evapo-
ra te and escape as a result of the large surface
area. The Calypso has therefore been compared
to a ver tically positioned coolship . The tempe-
rahll'e of the wort drainin g off is almost the sa-
me as the whirlpool wort. In this way, the con-
tent of free DMS and undesirable aroma
Fig.3.99n
Cnlypso -
opemlillg prillciple
(1) illfeeri of cnsl lUorl
(3) rimillnge ofworl
(4) slrippillg 1I0zzies
6 (5) rimillnge of posl
evnpomleri lUorl
(6) 10 II,e IVorl cooler
393
substances can be reduced by up to 45% wit- where
hou t a vac uum or thermal hea t requirement F, is the cent rifu gal force
[378] . Additional oxygen uptake and a change m is the mass of the bod y
in the bitter substance composition could not be v is the path velOCity of the body
determ ined during pos t evapora tion. When r is the radiu s of the circula r p ath 3
using Caly pso, the whirlpool rest can be shorte- (j) is the angular velocity of the body
ned by a possible 10 to 15 min. a, is the centri fugal acceleration
By mean s of a by-pass, the wort can be nUl di-
v2
rectly from trub removal to wort cooling, and a\' =r=w 2 . r
the evaporation of aroma substances can be in-
flu enced by any chosen combination of strip- The pa th velocity is calculated u sing the for-
ped or uns tripped wort. Since the syste m is mula :
operated without an additional energy suppl y
and without a vacuum, there are considerable
cost savings in the plant and business when
compared with other procedures. in which n = rotations per second. If rpm is
u sed then
3.8.4 Separators
3.8.4.1 The principle used in centrifugation v = 2 . 71: . r . n/60
It has already been pointed out that the break is
heavier than wort and so sediments nahlrally if Consequently the centrifugal force is greater
given enough time. The long settling time, the the faster the bod y rotates, the heavier it is and
consequent need for many sedimentation ves- the further it is from the axis of rotation.
sels, such as settling tanks, and the increasing An example of the achlal magnihlde of such
risk of infection if the temperature decreases, a centrifugal force produced by a centrifuge
make it d esirable to have alternative solutions will now be calculated.
to the p roblem. A centrifuge has a dnU11 diameter of 0.6 m
A solution is provided by using, in stead of and a rotation speed of 6000 rpm. How large is
gravitational acceleration, centrifugal accelera- the centrifugal forc e produced?
tion, which is many times greater, thus spee-
ding up break separation considerably. Answers sOllght:
The centrifugal force, which is directed ra- 1. Peripheral velocity
dially outwards, is calculated using the follo- 2. Centrifugal acceleration
wing formula: 1. v=2'71:'r'n
v = 2' 3.14 . 0.30 m . 6000 rpm
m'v 2
F, = m . ac = -r - = m . (j)2 . l' v = 11,304 m . x per minute
v = 188.4 m . s·]
F 111 V (j) l' az 2. 188.4 m . 188.4 m
ac = 1 S . 0.30 In . 1 s
a, = 118,315.2 m . s·,
-
111 -
I -
111
N kg m
s s s'
The centrifugal acceleration is 118,315 ms ' .
 394
If this va lue is compared w ith th e accelera ti-
on du e to grav ity (9 .81 m . S·2) it can be seen th a t
accele ra ti on in th e centrifu ge is m o re than
10,000 times as much as that due to grav ity.
We CaJU10t imagine the effect on ourselves o f a
3 ons (2) as soon as the centrifugal force exceed s
force as large as that which occurs in su ch a cen-
trifu ge. But we h ave all come into contact, in a
more gentle form, with this law in childhood -
in amusem ent p arks. The fairground a ttracti-
ons w ith their refined round ab outs d ep end on
this force and, a t little exp en se, we ca n test h o w
our organ s reac t w hen the n a tura l pull of
grav ity is outmatch ed b y a mu ch larger centri-
fu gal force.
I (centrifuges)
I Chamber b owl sep ara tors are d evices w hich
Fig. 3.100
Oellloll stmtioll of celltl'ijIl-
gal fO l'ce
(1) sta tiollal'!! positioll
(2) ill rota tioll
This can be seen very impressively w ith a
simple r o und disc on which one can s tand
whilst the owner slowly b egins to rotate it. Tho-
se standing on the outside jump off first, b ecau-
se they cannot stay on any longer. Then those
towards the middle follow and on ly on e, who
h as escaped to the middle, remains - but only
as long as they can stay exactly in the centre.
This sep aration p rocess can also be clea rly
seen from the follow ing example. Two, three or
m o re g lass tubes are fi xed a t an an gle to a verti-
cal ax is of rotation and fill ed with water (Fig.
3.100). A few h eavy balls, for example m ade of
plas tic, and a few li ghter, for example table ten-
nis balls, are put into each tube and the tube is
sealed (1) . If this sm a ll centrifuge is slowly set
into motion, the balls m ove in opposite directi-
the for ce of grav ity. The h eavier plastic ball s are
dri ven outwards w h ereas the light table temtis
balls are n ow fo rced to be near the axis.
Centrifuges op era te on the sam e principle as
the examples fro m everyd ay life .
In centrifu ges th e ve ry slow break sep ara ti on
occurring as a result of n a tural settling is repla-
ced by a sep a ra tion occurring w ithin seconds as
a result of the much grea ter outwa rdly directed
centrifug al force.
3.8.4.2 Types of centrifugal separators
A dis tinction is m ad e be tween
chamber bowl sep ara tors and
disc plate b owl sep ara tors .
u se the centrifuga l field in ro tating drums to ef-
fect separation. In them the w ort is forced to
pass throu gh several concentric drums whilst
the hea vier trub is h eld b ack on the dnU11 wall
and thus separa ted.
Because the drums have to be taken apart and
cleaned after each brew, they are h ardly ever
u sed now for wort clarification.
By disc plate b owl sep arators are m eant ma-
chines w ith a drum which use inserts (plate
discs) to shorten the separa tion path. They are
equipped with a rr an gem ents for automatic
discharge of the trub and they are the d evices
normally u sed nowad ays.
They are built for drum rotation sp eed s of
2,500 to 10,000 rpm and have a drum diam eter
of up to 800 mm . There is alw ays an inte rplay
betw een drum diam eter and the p ermissible ro-
tation sp eed and their size cannot be increased
indefinitely, because the increasing centri fu gal
Fig. 3.101
Sepamtol' (schellwtic)
(1) vowl covel'
(2) dI'ive illataI'
(3) \I-velt dl'ive
(4 ) vase pla te
(5) sepamtol'vowl shaft
(6) disc plate vowl
(7) solids dischal'ge
(8) cClltl'ijIlgate oll tlet
(9) lIeck venl'illg
(10) spilldle vase veal'illg
('11 ) oscil/atioll dalllpel'
force puts very high d em ands on the rupture
resistance of the s teel, an d this is limited .
3.8.4.3 Design an d operation of self-cleanin g
sep arators
Sep arators (Fig. 3.101) con sist of a stable b ase
plate (4) w hich COlU1ects the high p erform an ce
dri ve motor (2) to th e separator itself b y a V-belt
drive (3). Th e drive is tran smitted throu gh a se-
parator drum sh a ft (5), a lso known as a spind-
le. Th e main p a rt is th e di sc bowl (6) w hich con-
tains the discs.
Th e ro ta ting p arts of the sep ara tor (shaft and
disc bowl) are d yn amica lly b al an ced and must
always b e asse mbled in the predetermined
manner. Neverthe less, in practice, p a rti cularly
on startin g u p, unb alan ced p eriod s occur (ma-
l1ufactlu ing tol eran ces, bea rin g clearan ce, un-
balanced centr ifu ged m a terial, effects of th e
dri ve) w hich affec t the bowl and cau se vibra ti-
ons. These p eriod s of v ibra tion must be passed
throu gh quickly w hen sta rting up and s top -
395 l
Infeed
3
p ing . Th eir occurren ce is also decreased b y use
of an elastic n eck b earin g (9) for th e bowl sh aft.
Ba lan ced running of th e separa tor is essential
for tro ubl e-fr ee operation because su ch large
fo rces can be produced w h en the bowl is not
ba lan ced th a t it can disintegra te . Th e d am age is
LUlim ag inably great because th e rota ting bowl
h as very grea t k ine tic en ergy.
3.8.4.3.1 Operating princip le of the disc bowls
The disc bowls contain up to 200 conica l d isc in-
serts w hich h ave an an gle of i.nclina tion of 50 to
60°. This an gle d ep ends on the ro u ghness of th e
disc su rface and the fri ction coefficient of the
solid p articles (Fi g . 3.102). Th e discs are 0.4 to
0.6 mm thick and th eir spacin g 0.3 to 0.4 mm.
Tllis distan ce is established by weld ed -on rive-
ted s p aci n g strips. In th e mi d dle of the discs
there a re openings, the so-ca lled ascendin g h o-
les, w hich together for m ascending chalU1els
w hi ch serve to distribute the m ate ri al to be se-
para ted .
 396
3 3
Fig,3,102
Disc plnte bowl
The rotating bowl unit separates the wort
particles as follows (Fig, 3.103). The unclarified
wort is supplied to the ascending chalUlels from
below and rises upwards, During this the hea-
vier break particles are pressed against the disc
walls and slide down the inner sides to the out-
side, The lighter wort, on the other hand, flows
inwards on the upper side of the d iscs and, cla-
rified, can be removed there. As a result of the
short settling path (exaggerated in the Figure)
this process occurs very quickly (Fig, 3.104),
5 tnl pllmp, (4) presC/lce of solids de-
Fig,3,103
Sepnrntioll process betweell fi,e disc plnte bowls
(1) IIlIclnrified wort, (2) clnrified wort, (3) Irllb pOl'ticles, (4)
sepnrntillg plnte, (5) directioll of cell trifllgnl nccelernlioll
The trub collects at the periphery of the rota-
ting bowl and mu st be removed. There are two
methods for removing these solids,
/ from the hot break by a sep ara tor atld the loss,
Fig , 3,104
Operntioll of n sepnrntor
3.8.4.3.2 Discontinuous (intermittent) solids
discharge disc separators
The bowls of these are built as double cones
(Fig. 3,105) comprising several discharge ope-
nings (slots) at the periphery which can be clo-
sed by an alU1Ular piston. When the atU1ular pi-
ston is moved vertically the slots are opened
and the trub discharged,
The alU1Ular piston is held in the closed posi-
tion (a) by springs or the hydrostatic pressure
of a circulating fluid, usually water. Opening is
performed by water pressure applied to the
bottom of the alU1Ular piston (b). The opening
times Catl be reduced by this to such atl extent
that partial slurry discharge is also possible so
that the separation process Catl proceed with-
out loss of liquid,
397
The clarifying separator SC 120 (Fig, 3,106)
operates on this principle. By use of a photoe-
lectric device the solids discharge outlet (8) can
be opened when the turbidity value increases.
3.8.4.3.3 Continuous solids discharge
--
disc separators
The bowls of these contain discharge openings,
known as jet nozzles, at the periphery of the
double cone. The amount of solid phase disch-
arged depends on the number and internal dia-
meter of the nozzles, which varies between 0.5
a b
and 2.5 mm, These nozzles are made of hard
Fig,3,105 metal or synthetic precious stones, such as aga-
DiscOlltillllOllS disclwrge sepnrntor te, since heavy demands are made of them, In
(n) slll rr!! discilnrge slots closed, (b) Slllrr!! discilnrge slols
newer separators the nozzles are so arranged
opell
that all the solids can be discharged by them.
(1) pressllrised wn terfor closillg tile slols, (2) pressllrised wn-
lerfor opellillg lile slots
3.8.4.4 Evaluation of hot wort separation
Hot wort Catl be rapidly and easily separated
15
17
Fig,3,106
"Self-lilillkillg" disc bowl sepnrntor
witil liqllid sellsor nlltomntic cOlltrol
(SC 120-36-777)
(1) illfeed, (2) discilnrge, (3) celltripe-
tectillg discs, (5) mnill set of discs,
(6) sepnrntioll disc for sellsillg liqllid,
(7) solids iloldillg spnce, (8) solids
discilnrge ports, (9) nlllllllnr pistoll 9
vnlve, (10) discilOlge IlOzzl e, (11) re-
servoil; (12) jet, (13) slidillg pistoll, 10
(14) e/osillg e/wmbel; (15) regllintillg
vnlve, (16) SC/lsillg liqllid PlllllP, (17)
flow swite/I, (18) timillg IlIlit, (19)
C/osillg wnter vnlve, (20) opernt illg
wnler vnlve for pre-selectioll of
nll/Ollllt of solids to be ejected, (21)
opwillg wnter vnlve
 398
being on average less th an 0.3 %, is also relati -
vely small. The d isadvantages are the high in-
vestment and operating costs, in p articular the
high energy costs for the d isc d ri ve, 0. 65-0.8
kW/m 3, and the complexity of the equipment.
3 3
On the wh ole the w hirlpool is preferred no-
wad ays to the sep arator. However, as before,
the sep ara tor has its place for cl arify ing the
cloud y wort, obtaining beer from sur plus yeast
(Sect. 4.4.6) and fo r beer filtration (Sect. 3.9.4.3).
3.8.5 Recovery of wort from cloudy w ort
A t the end of hot brea k separation the trub is
present in the fo rm of cloudy wor t. By this is
mea nt a slurry mixture consisting of about 75 %
wort and 25 % break. The break mus t be re mo-
ved and the wor t recovered .
To separate the b reak and wort, filters or cen-
trifuges are used. In this way most of the wor t
can be recovered . There is however the probabi-
lity that in the meantime the wort h as become
infected and so must be freed fro m micro-or-
ga nisms. This can be d one by pump ing it back
into the next brew if one wishes to avoid a la-
bour and equipment intensive, and therefore
cos tly s terilisa ti on process.
More and more breweries are beguming to
add untreated cloudy wort directl y back to the
nex t brew. If p ossible thi s should be done at the
comm encement of sp arging U, the lauter hm to
obtain an extensive, but not excessive, washulg
out.
In order n ot to count this amount of wort twi-
ce, to calculate the brewh ouse yield 75 % of the
amoLU, t of cloudy wort added back must be
subtracted from the am ount of the next casting
wo rt.
Recovery of cloudy wo rt is n ecessary for se-
ve ral reasons:
if it is added to the waste water the en viron-
ment is more p olluted and so our basic costs
are increased,
if the cloudy wort is added back to the next
brew there is no longer any trub beca use it is
mi xed with the much g rea ter amoun t of
spent grauls,
every litre of recovered wo rt is val uable. If on-
ly one exh'a hectolih'e is recovered per brew,
with 1500 brews a yea r that amOlmts to 1500 hI.
If a whirlpool is used, there is n o cloudy wort.
3.9 Cooling and clarifying the wort
Beca use yeas t ca n onl y li ve and ferment at low
tem peratures, the hot wo rt mus t be cooled as
qui ck ly as p ossible to 5 to 6 0c, or often to 7 to
10 °C. During this process the initially clear
wort becomes tu rbid because of the form ation
of cold break. Ra pid fermentation and m ahlra-
tion requires op ti mal removal of this cold break
on cooling . For ra pid fermentation the yeas t
must be supplied wi th the optimal amOlm t of
air. At the sam e time changes in concentra tion
during cooling by evapo ration or ad dition of
wa ter must be controlled .
3.9.1 Procedures during cooling
Durin g cooling a number of processes are per-
formed which markedly affect the ra te of subse-
quent fermentation and matu ration. These in-
clude
wort cooling,
the formation and optimal rem oval of cold
b rea k, and
intensive aeration of the wort.
In addition the extract content and amOlmt of
wort are altered . Moreover chemical changes
occur in the wo rt w hich can be detected by an
increase in colour and by an alyses.
3.9.1.1 Wort cooling
The wor t is quickly brought to the pitching
tempera hue of 5 to 7 °C by means of a plate
cooler. This is important since a lon g p eriod at
u,tennediate temperatures increases the risk of
grow th of beer spoilage micro-organisms. Wort
is free from micro-organisms on cas titlg. If beer
s
spoilage micro-organisms get into beer duru1g
the prod uction process and m ulti ply, they can,
as a result of form ation of meta bolic products,
make the beer unsa leabl e even before filtra tion.
3.9.1.2 Formation and optimal removal of cold
b reak
Below about 60 °C the previously clear wo rt s tarts
to become tmbid. This turbidi ty is due to small
particles about 0.5 pm in diameter. TIlis is therefo-
re called fine, cool or cold brea k (cold h·ub).
Beca use of its small size, cold brea k settles
onl y wi th great difficulty. It h as the prop erty of
adhering to other p articles, e.g. yeast cells or air
bubbles. Wh en it adheres to yeas t cells it d e-
creases the yeast con tac t surface and thereby re-
duces th e fe rmentation rate. This is referred to
as "coatulg" the yeast.
Cold break consis ts of protein-p olyphenol
compounds which precipitate to a grea ter ex-
tent in relatively cold m edia and partiall y dis-
solve again on wa nnu1g. This means that wort
on cooling to 5 °C s till contains 14 % of the total
cold break in dissolved form.
A residual am ount of cold break at discharge
of 120 to 160 mg/I dry matter is d esirable [1 99].
A red uction of the cold break content to ap-
proxima tely this value can result in
a more rounded beer flavour, particul arly in
the bi tterness,
an itnprovem ent of the beer foam (as a result
of the precipitation of fatty acids),
an imp rovement of the flavour stability and
a more intensive fermentation .
To remove the cold break the followi ng m e-
thods can be used (see Sect. 3.9.4):
filtration (using Perlite),
flotation,
sedi mentation or
separa tion.
It is no t possible with one piece of equipment
to remove the coarse break and cold break at
the same time because the devices which sa tis-
399
fac torily remove the cold break, CillUl0t sim ulta-
neously remove the coarse break . Moreove r, the
cold break is only fo rmed later after the coarse
break h as alrea dy been rem oved . Separa te
equipment is therefore required for the removal
of coarse and cold break.
Nowadays the cold break is not usu ally remo-
ved . A prerequisite for this, h owever, is an opti-
mal hot break removal ill1d fermentative yeast
(assimilation yeas t) . With a p owerful course of
fe rmentation, a distinctive good fl avour
sta bility and good foam stability Cilll be expected .
3.9.1.3 Wo rt aeration
Aera tion of the wor t is the onl y process Sect. U,
the production of beer where a supply of oxy-
gen is n ecessary to guarillltee good yeas t p ropa-
ga tion .
Th e yeast requires oxygen for the formation
of new cell substances (propaga tion) preferably
fo r the synthesis of sterols and fatty acid s,
w hich are the main componen ts of the cell
membran es (phospholipids) and without which
new cell substillLCe CaImot be for med . It is im-
pOlt ant thereby to supply the yeast with oxy-
gen rather thaIl the wort. The oxygen supplied
is p rocessed by the yeas t Ul a very sh ort p eriod
of time.
Aeration of the wort always entails a de terio-
ration in fl avour. It is therefore always attem p-
ted to optimise the aeration of the yeast and to
limit the ae ration of the w ort or even better to
forego it altogether.
Aeration occurs by meilllS of
drawing the pitchulg yeast up with p art of the
wort and aera ting it, or preferably
COUplUlg the aeration of the pitchulg wort
with the d osage of the pitchin g yeast.
3.9.1.4 Changes in wort concentration
When usulg op en cooling d evices some wa ter
evaporates. The am ount evaporated can be con-
siderable when wort is held Ul a coolship for a
 400 401

long time. This results in an increase in the wor t

concentration. If closed cooli.ng lines are used
then of course no evaporation can occur; on the
other hand, as a result of displacement w ith wa-
3.9.2.1 Structure of plate heat exchangers
A plate h eat exchanger consists of a large num-
ber of thin metal plates, arranged behind one
another, between w hich wo rt and cold water
, ,
(- (-
Block

/---/.
(- 1- 1- [..... / 0/.-./. /.
f- f-
j

ter to reduce exh'act loss, a slight reduction of ex- flow alternately. Because, in the case of each 3
3
tract content occurs. Possible changes in the con-
cenh'ation of wort on cooling must be taken into
plate, wort flows tlu-ough chaIUwls on one side
and cold wa ter through channels on the other, a
Fig.3.109n
Operatillg prillciple of n plnte Ilent / 1/ 7'
, , - . ,. . 1;" " - ..-

l7 V 1/ V
accOlmt on casting so that the predetermined ex- basic element (flow path) always consists of exclznllger
1 z
tract content is obtained in the pitching wort. two plates (Fig. 3.108). r+ r+i 5 r-
To obtain good heat exchange in every case The p lates are suspended in a frame on support beams
3.9.2 Equipment for wort cooling very thin ITleta l plates are used, and pressed together. The inflow and outflow cOlm ections
Rapid wort cooling is nowadays performed ex- the plates have a profile which will produce are made in con.necting plates at the ends. The plates are as-
clusively with plate heat exchangers, someti- tu rbulence, sembled in so-called blocks in which the fl ow directions are i5
mes more briefly called plate coolers. In these, the gap between the plates is very smail, constant (Fig. 3.109a). The chan ge in direction in the n ext .,.., L- 6 .,..,
-rJ. 1.2
the wort is cooled by cold I,vater. The hea t ex- countercurrent flow of wort and cold water is block is produced by use of a reversi ng p late. 11
change occurs through thin chrome-nickel stee l used, and In order to install the required cooling surface, several a
plates. the direction of the flow is changed frequent- blocks are arranged in a row.
To reliably excl ude a mixing of the media, the chcumel ey-
ly (Fig. 3.109).
es and the flow path of the COlmter medium are separated
" r+- /
9 40

)
by double sea ls. The interstice is cOlm ected to its surroun-
dings by leak agenutes. Ill'
A plate hea t exchanger con sists of
a frame with compressing equipment, D
connecting plates, cu1d TIf.l
L-
-\f2
heat exchange p lates. b
It is particu larly important that the plates are pressed
tightly together so that the exchcu1ger is absolutely water-
tight. Pressing together is accomplished by the compressing r+ " r' 5

/ equipmen t. A distinction is made between

/ oj.
central compression,
'.
clcunping bea ms, and
• clamping bolts.
.,..., '- ,(1.
In the case of central compression the pressure is applied to f(
b
11ft
, I the pressure plate by a threaded spindle. To decrease the
spindle movement a spacing bar is inserted between the pres- c
- - Wort Fig . 3.110
sure plate and the spindle when screwing the equipment to-
- - - - Cooling water COlllpressillg devices llsed jar plnte !tent ex-
gether (Fig. 3.110, a). To open the heat exchanger the spacing
cllnllgers
bar is removed so tl1at there is sufficient clear space. (n) celltml cOlllpressioll, (b) benlll clnlllpillg,
When clamping beams are used the plates are pressed to- (c) bolt clnlllpillg
gether by slotted clamping hlbes with adjusting nuts (Fig. (1) sllpport block, (2) pressllre pln te, (3) spilld-
Fig. 3.108 3,110, b) . Ie plnte, (4) benlll sllpport, (5) cnrrier benlll,
Plnte !tent exc!tnllge plntes (bns ic elelllellt) (6) gll ide bennl, (7) celltml spill die, (8) inter-
In the case of high operating pressures clamping bolts are lIIedinte elelllellt, (9) clnlllpillg sleeve, (10)
(1) wort illflow, (2) wort olltflow, (3) coolillg wnter Fig. 3.109
illflow, (4) coolillg wn ter olltflow, (5) mbber senl Hent excllnllge ill n plnte cooler preferably used. The set of plates are clamped by several clnlllpillg Il lI t, (11) clnlllpillg bolts, (12) jeet
 403
402

It has alread y been men tioned that, for exam- the pressure differences w hich occur necessita- 1 to 2 °e is heated in the p late heat exchanger to
p airs of bolts which, of course, mus t be tigh te-
ple, black steel conducts heat better than does te stability of the plates relative to one 90 to 95 °e whilst the hot wort at 95 to 98 °e is
ned unifor mly (Fig . 3.110, c).
chrome-nickel s teel. resistance to corrosion is necessary, and cooled to the pitching temperature. The ice wa-
In all cases the correct pressure must not be
In the surface regions between the liquids 1 + they are easy to clea n by eIP procedures. ter w hi ch is used for this must be replaced by
exceeded since if the p ackage is pressed toget-
2 and the wall, interph ases (1 w and 2w) are for- The following mu st, however, also be taken fres h wa ter. 3
her too tightly, the heat exchanger can be d ama-
3 med in which the temperature decreases or in- into accoLmt:
ged .
creases to the temperature of the other liquid. The heat transfer has a consid erably grea ter 55'-88 'C
Attention sh ould b e p aid to the expansion of · 4 ..
The thickness of these interface laye rs is greater effect than the h ea t condu cti on, w hich depends
the material on warming, e.g . on e IP cleaning.
with s tation ary liquids than w ith rapidly mo- on the ma terial. H igh flow speeds and large tur-
ving liquids (Fig. 3.72a). bulences reduce th e hea t transfer; h owever,
3.9.2.2 Method of operation of the plate heat
Su ch an interface region can easily be detec- they also require
exchanger
ted if on e s tays motionless for a sh ort time in significantly hi gher pum p performan ce and
In the plate heat exchanger the hot wor t is coo-
led by cold water from about 98 to 95 °e to the still water in a swimming bath; when one mo- with it
ves again one n otices that meanw hile the water higher and avoid able operating cos ts.
6 to 8 °e pitchin g temperature. The cooling wa-
n ext to the skin h as become somewhat warmer. Two problems arise in hea t exchan ge operati- Fig. 3.111
ter is thereby h ea ted to a temperature whi ch Plnte Itent exclwllger witlt two stnge coolillg
can be controlled by the velocity of the water For the heat transfer throu gh the wall impor- ons:
(1) ice storage, (2) ice wn ter P"Il IP, (3) deep coolillg Sect., (4)
tant factors are 1. The pitching tempera ture ca nnot be obtained prc-coolillg sectioll
throughflow.
the heat tran sfer coefficient (a·l ) from the li- by cooling with spring wa ter at 10 to 15 °C.
In this way heat is transferred from the hotter
quid (1) to the wall, Ice water is n eeded for this which mus t pre-
wort to the cooler water. The hea t tran sfer de-
the thermal conductivity of the wall, and viously be cooled to 3 °e below the pitching
pends on several factors (Fig . 3.ll0-a):

d Fig.3.110n
the hea t transfer coefficient (a,) from the waU
to the liquid (2).
These can be related to the heat tran sition co-
temperatu re.
2. During cooling the cooling wa ter is warmed .
If the wa ter is hea ted only to temperatures of
30 to 60 °e it is generall y of no use. Efforts are
85 - 88 'C
- "
J
.... .....
..... ....
6-0'C

Hen t exclwllge ncross nil
excilnllger plnte
_ 1_ (1) telll perntll re of tile
IlOtter liq llid, (2) telllpe-
11V ra tll re of tile colder li-
qllid, (3) plnte, (1w +
2
210 2w) telllpera tllres of tile
ill telfnce regiolls, (d)
plnte tilicklless (col nlld
0<.,
.3 0(2,
co2 Ilent trallsfer coeffi-
ciellts), Z tllerll/nl COII-
fJ dll ctivity.
The energy of the hotter fluid (1) is ex -
chan ged by means of the plate (3) with the tem-
perature of the colder fluid (2) . Important fac-
tors in the heat exchange are
the thickness of the wall (3), and
the material from which the wall is mad e and
its thermal conductivity (Z).
efficient k in the equ ation
1 1 +
k a'l A a,
From this equation it can be seen that the
smallest of the denominators (ai' a'2' A) largely
determines the num eri cal value of the heat
tran sition coefficient. To improve the k value,
therefore, the smallest of these values should al-
ways be improved first.
This means that
the heat exchanging liquids should flo w in
opposite directions,
the liquids should be moved quickly,
the surfaces of the m aterial should be kept
clean, and
exch an ger plates with a high thermal conduc-
tivity sh ould be used .
Use of relatively poorly heat conducting chro-
me-nickel steel is nevertheless required because
made to obtain as high an outflow tempera-
ture as possible in order to h ave a high tem-
perature p otential so that the wa ter can be
used in an energy storage system or as h ot
water.
Cooling m ay be performed in one or two sta-
ges. Two stage cooling was previously customa-
ry (Fig. 3.111). In the larger pre-cooling Sect. the
wort transfe rs heat to cold p rocess water. Whilst
the wort is cooled to abou t 3 to 4 °e above the
water temperature, the cooling water is heated
to 90 to 95 °C. In the sm aller low temperature
cooling Sect. the wort is cooled by ice water at 1
to 2 °e to the desired pitching temperature. The
ice water is thereby wa rmed but remains below
the tempera ture of the process wa ter and is so
fed back into the ice wa ter cooler again.
One stage cooling is increasingly being used
(Fig. 3.112). In this p rocess cooled ice wa ter at
9S - 98 'C ..... 1-2 'C
1N6'C
f
Fig. 3. 112
Plnte ilent excltnllger witlt sillgle stnge coolillg
(1) ice wnter coolel; (2) ice wnter P"II/P, (3) plnte IIl1it
The energy requirement is less w ith two sta-
ge cooling than w ith on e s tage cooling (Sect.
10.3.4.3), although m ore water is required. Ne-
ve rtheless m an y breweries prefer one stage
cooling because
its cons truction and opera tion are sim p ler,
it costs less to buy, and
it is incorrectly asslUned that the energy requi-
rement is the sam e as with two stage cooling .
 404
The permitted operating pressure of a plate
cooler is in general 10 bar overpressure. Between
the water side and the wort side of the plates the-
re is a pressure difference which is normally
3 about 2 bar and at most 4 bar. This pressure dif-
ference must not be increased since it can lead to
deformation of the plates and gaps in the seals.
The heat exchange plates have to be arranged to
accommodate the maximum pressure difference
whidl can occur (possible up to 20 bar).
3.9.2.3 Advantages of the plate heat exchanger
There is no alternative to the plate heat ex-
changer because other possible cooling me-
thods are not used for various reasons. Never-
theless the following advantages should be
mentioned:
a plate heat exchanger requires very little
floor space,
it provides very good heat transfer with little
pressure loss,
it is easy to dean and can be connected to a
CIP system,
wort remains only a very short time in the
cooler, and
it introduces no risk of contamination if regu-
lar hot cleaning takes place.
The plate heat exchanger can be adapted to
changed operating conditions.
3.9.3 Basic principles and
performance of wort aeration
Yeast needs oxygen for the production of new
cell substances, in particular fatty acids and er-
gosterin. The fatty acids form the main compo-
nent of the cell membrane in the yeast. The fat-
ty acids supplied to the yeast by the wort are
not sufficient to produce enough new cell sub-
stances. If aeration is neglected or not done ef-
fectively, this directly affects the rate of yeast
multiplication adversely.
The aeration of cold wort for yeast nourish-
ment is the only time during tlle entire beer pro-
405
duction process where oxygen is deliberately "technical solubility coefficient" (Z), which is 3.9.3.1 Methods of wort aeration
added. The oxygen is taken up by the yeast wit- determined by the temperature. This is given in Devices used in wort aeration are:
hin a few hours but does damage the wort qua- the following table in 1111 gas / (1 kg water x 1 cera mic or sintered metal candles,
lity. bar) and is for: aeration plCUlts employing venturi pipes
Aeration has to be targeted. If one proceeds (mixing jets),
3
according to the basic principle of "A lot helps a O°C S oC 10 °C 15 °C 20 °C aeration plCUltS employing two component jets,
lot", damage or losses occur [311] . In the case of Oxygen 47.4 41.5 36.8 33.0 30.0 aeration plants employing static mixe rs, and
excessive aeration: Air 28.0 25.0 22.0 20.0 18.0 centrifugal mixers.
more energy is used, Nih'og en 22.5 20.0 18.1 16.0 15.2
more foam is produced, CO, 1658 1378 1159 987 851 Ceramic or silltereri metnl emlriles
the use of vessels is poor, With these candles the air is injected as very
there is an excessive loss of ingredients which To ensure a definite oxygen content in the small bubbles through fine pores in the candles
have a positive effect on the foam, wort, it is important to keep the pressure con- into the wort flowing past and thereby dissol-
the wort ingredients are oxidised excessively, stant while the gas is dissolving. ved. This is a very simple culd effective method
and but cleaning of the cculdles, which contain very
there is the risk of oxidative stress on the ye- many fine pores, is very troublesome if the risk
ast cell, which can lead to damage to the of contamination is to be excluded.
ftmctions of the membrane .
To dissolve the air in cold wort the air must be Plnllts employillg velltllri pipes (Fig. 3.113)
injected as very small bubbles and turbulently In venturi pipes there is a substantial increase
mixed with the cold wort. An oxygen content of in flow velocity where the pipe is narrowed . Air
8 to 9 mg/I is aimed for. To introduce such an is introduced there through a jet nozzle culd is
amount a much larger amotmt of air must be Fig. 3.113 thoroughly mi xed by eddy cmrents in the wort
used. Theoretically only about 31 of air per hi of \lellfllri pipe (II/etllor! of operatioll) in the turbulent flow occurring in the widened
wort are required to produce such a concentra-
tion of oxygen in solution, but in practice a Air
much larger amount of air is required, because
some of the air bubbles do not dissolve in the
wort, and
the air CaImot be distributed absolutely Lmi-
formly.
The problem lies in the fine atomisation of the
air, which has to disperse very finely and dis-
>
Vlort
solve in the wort. The air bubbles, which rise to
Bee,
the surface of the wort, form an cuul0ying foam.
Yeast
This amount of foam can be considerable and
thus hinder the aeration process .
The air forced in must be sterile. Consequent-
ly it is first passed through a sterile air filter
(Sect. 10.5.3.7). If the air is not sterilised it will
certainly introduce contamination of the yeast. CIP
The dissolving of gases depends on tempera- Fig. 3.114
ture and pressure. Every gas has a specific Two cOlI/pollellt jet (Essalj & Hlleber COII/palllj, Scllrobellilallsell)
 406
region of the pipe immediatel y afte r the con-
s triction . A not inconsiderable loss of pressure
thereby occu rs.
Plal/ts employil/g two compol/ellt jets
3 3
The two component jet (Fig. 3.114) has a struc-
ture similar to a venturi pipe. In it air is introdu-
ced through fine nozzles in the wa ll w hi ch pro-
duce very small bubbles w ith a ve ry narrow
size range.
After being mixed w ith air, the mixture is fed
through a narrow jet. As a result of the ex pansi-
on of the space after the jet, the wort-yeast-air
mixture is intim a tely mixed together. By nu-
xing the CO, with the beer in the same way car-
bonisation can occur (see Sect. 4.7).
Plal/ts emp/oyiHg static mixers
In static mixers (Fig. 3.115 and 3.115a) the intima-
te mixing of wort and air is achieved in a reaction
section with built-in mixin g elements. The many
angles force the wort to constantl y change direc-
tion and thus produce a turbulent flow and ensu-
re air dissolves efficiently in the wor t.
Figs. 3.115 nllri 3.115n
Mixillg elelllellt witll stntic mixer
1111 ixers
In centrifugal m ixe rs air is forced into the wort
by means of a dispersion rotor and thereby fi-
nel y distributed . This results in very good and
extensive di ssolving of the air.
3.9.3.2 Time of yeast aeration
The yeast should be aerated intensively jus t af-
ter pitching. If the yeas t is aerated after harve-
sting, it is activa ted again but because the yeast
has no fermentabl e food suppl y available it be-
gins to draw on its own reserve carbohydrates.
As a result the yeast is weakened and has insuf-
ficient reserves at the begim1ing of fe rmentati-
on . This is shown by a hig her proportion of de-
ad cell s and the sur viving yeas t is less h ealthy.
It is importan t, however, to remove the CO,
from the harvested yeast.
Depending o n temperature and vitali ty, the
yeast requires va rying times for the adjushl1ent
of its m etabolism. By means of targeted aera ti-
on of the yeast during propagation, it is possi-
ble to be m ore effecti ve in controlling the phy-
siology of the yeast. Constan t and permanent
aeration of the yeas t su ch as is used in some pu-
re culture methods always lead s to an excess of
oxygen a nd thus to a loss of quality.
Aeration and yeas t addition can be perfor-
m ed togeth er by a single device (Fig. 4.17). Ye-
ast addition is thus spread over the entire time
of wort add itio n in order to distribute the yeast
lUuformly in the ferm enta tion vessel. Yeast do-
sage is perform ed by a frequency controlled
pump. The tota l amOlmt of yeas t is m easured
by a weighing ce ll on the yeast storage tank. It
is possible to set exactly
the d esired yeast cell pitch con centration and
the amount of air.
3.9.4 Equipment for cold break removal
It has been shown (Sect. 3.9.1.2) that there are ad-
vantages in extensively removing cold break. The
following me thods are used for the removal:
fil tra ti on throu g h per lite,
wort flota tion or
separa tion of cold wort.
3.9.4.1 Kieselguhr filter
Filtration of wort th ro ugh p erlite is the most re-
liable method for optim al (about 90 %) remo val
of cold break.
The design and opera tion of kieselguhr fi l-
ters, and of filter aids (perlite and kieselguhr)
are discussed in Sect. 4.5 and so w ill not be des-
cribed here.
For w ort filtration the lighter and cheaper
perlite is u sed ins tead of kieselguhr.
3.9.4.2 Flotation
The cold break tries to a ttach itself to small par-
ticles (yeast cell s, air bubbles) ("interfacial ef-
fect"). This effect is used in flotation. The wor t
is nUxed wi th an excess of finely divided air. In
the flotation tank air bubbles are formed in the
course of a few ho urs and rise to the surface of
the wort w ith a ttached cold break particles. A
compact covering is formed which can be remo-
ved after emptyin g the flotation tank.
Important param e ters when performing flo-
tation are:
the introduction of the air,
the flotation vessel, and
the maIm er of opera ting.
The inh'oduction of the "h'ill1sporting air" is
the main problem in efficient perfonnilllce of flo-
tation. To operate economically it is necessill'y to
produce a large trill1sportin g surface with the le-
ast possible illnolU1t of finely divided by jet
nozzles. TIus results in a sm aller requirement of
space for the foam formed ill1d consequently a
smaller container is needed (Fig. 3.116).
It has already been mentioned that there are
a number of methods available for introducing
finely divided trill1sp orta tion air into wort. The
relevant s uppliers have suitable equipmen t
available.
407
I 2 J If !i
Fig. 3.116
Flolnlioll plnll!
(1) whirlpool, (2) PIIlIlP, (3) plnle Ilent excllnllgel; (4) press llre
illcrensillg PIllIlP, (5) lIIixillg lIolzle, (6) nir f iltel; (7) Ijenst ill-
IrorillCliol1 tnllk, (8) .f1otn!ioll Inllk
Flota tion can be performed either with or
without yeas t. Nowada ys it is usually done - if
a t all - with yeas t because:
a holding time without yeast provides a risk
of contamination,
the oxygen can at the sam e time be u sed op ti-
mally by the yeas t,
the fl otation time Cilll be employed as the in-
itial fermentation phase.
The air-enriched wort is fed into a flota tion
vessel. Open hms, closed till1ks, or even cylin-
drocOlucal fermenters Cill1 be u sed as flotation
vessels. The wort remains there for 4 to 8 h. In
this time a very thick, solid foam cover is first
formed which, after about 8 hours stand time,
collapses to about 5 to 10 cm thick and remains
in the flotation vessel after the wort has been
pumped to the fermentation vessel. TI1e resul-
tant loss is about 0.2 to 0.4%; about 60 to 65% of
the cold break is removed .
If closed flotation vessels are e mployed,
counter pressure can be used to prevent exces-
sive foaming of the wort and thus save valuab-
le vessel capacity. Vertical flotation till1ks have a
flat bottom sloping gently towards the cen tre.
Horizontal (lagering) tilllks re tain the foa m co-
ver to a large extent on the vessel wall and on
the bo ttom . All closed tanks can be easily
clean ed by CIP.
 408
The adva ntages of flotation over filtration
are:
less wear,
lower labour requirement,
no filter aids used (perlite, kieselguhr) .
3 3
On the other hand, the turbid mixture has to
be trea ted and the flotation tank cleaned. Pollu-
ted water is produ ced. Wort flotation lead s to a
considerable excess of oxygen and thu s to a de-
terioration of the flavour s tability, particularly
in the case of flotation w ithout yeas t.
New flotation plants are no longer built.
3.9.4.3 Separation of the cold wort
Cold wort separators of course work according
to the same prin ciple as d escribed in Sect. 3.8.4.
With modern high performance clarifica tion se-
parators [199] with an hourl y throughflow of
700 hi, more than 50% of the cold brea k is remo-
ved and therefo re values of 120 to 160 mg of
trub/l of wort are achieved.
The loss with these plants is 0.15 to 0.20% of
the amount of casting wort. It is thereby also
possible to standardise the cold wort before the
begimling of fermentation and thus achieve a
completely lmiform quality.
3.9.5 Wort cooling lines
Corresponding to the different tasks to be p er-
form ed, after the removal of hot break the foll o-
wing are needed:
a device for cooling the wort (plate cooler),
a d evice for aerating the wort and possibly
a device for removing the cold break (filter,
flotation).
Thi s equipment used to be installed in the
cold room which, in the classical arrangement,
is located above the fermentation cellar.
The equipment for wort aeration is as small
as possible and is attached to the wall at a suit-
able place. Consequently only the plate cooler
remains for the "cold room" which therefore
hardly exists any more. The wort cooler there-
fore has to be preferably p laced in the brewhou-
se or nearby.
There are many possible ways of arranging
the equipment. If a filter is used, the intensive
wort ae ration must occur after filtration, other-
wise there are problems in the filter.
3.10 Control and monitoring of wort
production processes
A beer brewer in a small brewery w ith only one
brew a day has all the opera tions firmly under his
control. He knows his temperatures and times
and continuously uses his five senses to observe
how the process is going. This brewing supervi-
sor has an en viable association with his product
which his counterpart in a large brewhouse can
never achieve. He sees, hea rs and smells how
things are going and can take appropri ate steps
without being subject to narrow time consh·aints.
The larger the brewery, however, and the mo-
re brews are made per day, the less any indivi-
dual s uper vises any processes. When eight
brews are made and cast per da y, man y proces-
ses overlap in time. Consequently there is an in-
creased risk that something will be overlooked
or a temperature not observed exactly. And wit-
hout a means of control, it is impossible to pro-
ve, say, that the brewin g supervisor became
very tired at 3 am during the night shift.
The necessity of observing a strict time sche-
dule, of meeting all the pre-specified parame-
ters (temperatures, times, pressures etc.) exact-
ly, and of cons tantly achieving the highest
possible yield s of highest quality increasingly
forces every larger brewery to implement auto-
matic process control for wort production.
When control is mentioned, many people lln-
mediately tlllilk of large control rooms or auto-
matic controlwuts. But control begins at a much
more intimate level - for instance, by USlllg a light
switch to turn a lamp on or off. As a result of the
two possible positions of the switch -on/off- one
already has a two point controller.
Of course, control in the brewhouse is not
tha t simple. Nowadays, it is broken down into
different levels. These include, firstly, mechani-
cal protection devices such as switches wh ich
are opera ted by magnetic coils. In addition, ti-
me delay relays and electromagnetic values are
used. With these, small vo ltage differences are
used to swi tch on large drive units or to lock
them in their operating state. A distinction is
made between opening and closing dev ices. If
the protection occurs wh en there is no current
flowlllg, then the contact is either open or clo-
sed. The distinction between opening and clo-
sing dev ices is made in this way because w hen
current is supplied, the switch position is rever-
sed and the va lve is ei ther opened or closed .
This type of locking has been ava ilable for a
long time. For example, durlllg lauter tlm ope-
ration the spent grain discharge motor may on-
ly be switch ed on w hen the klufe motor is swit-
ched off - and vice versa.
Of course, very man y processes in the
brewhouse run simultaneously or merge into
one another so that in large brewhouses a slllgie
person cannot manage the relay conh·ol, lllclu-
ding time delay relays, properly. Consequently
stored program control (SPC) is used nowadays.
For this the program is filed in an object-related
langu age and protected agai.Jlst current failure.
This program is nm thl·ough cyclically and pro-
cessed with the possibility of selecting branches
in the program or making jumps witlllil it. With
very complicated progra ms any program altera-
tions, or recipe alterations, must onl y be carried
out by persons speCially qualified to do this in or-
der to avoid breakdowns. Consequently there is
usually a third level III the program wluch is on-
ly accessible to specified persons.
Computers, or rather work stations with lar-
ge hard drives and colour di splay screens enab-
le comprehensive data captllre fo r the compa-
ny. Databases enable exchange with other
programs witlun the brewery.
409
If several partial automatic controllers are lin-
ked to one another, a complete automation unit
is obtained, provided that the technological se-
quence can operate without manual interventi -
on.
New plants me alm ost always equipped with
complete automa tion un its and more and more
ex is ting plants are being converted to full y au-
tomatic operation. The advantages are:
uniformity of the product resulting from
prevention of incorrect operations,
d ecreased load on the operators,
reduced number of operators,
better co-ord ination of the process,
better lUlderstanding of the process,
low failure ra te,
easy altera tion of the procedural operations,
plant components can be extend ed .
There are basically two different types of COll-
trol of the brewhouse equipment:
mosaic di splay control and
graphic display control.
Mosnic dispTny COl/troT
(iUl/lllil/nted cirCllit dingrn1l1)
In a mosaic di splay control room a ll the p roces-
ses are graphica lly represented on "process mi-
mic" panels. Keys are provided for all drive
units and all returning messages are indicated
by light indica tors.
Indicators, controllers and counters for mea-
surements are built into the mosaic pictlues so
that the brewing supervisor has inform ati on
about every thing at all times and can react ap-
propriately. These wuts are still widely used.
They are mostl y very easy to monitor and easy
to operate. They are no longer built beca use
they are too expensive and complicated.
Grnpllic dispTny cOIztroT
(di spTny screell teclllliqlle)
In the case of graphic display con trol the gra-
phical representation of the plant equipment
 410
Manual level
3 Parallel 10 aulomisalion level.
Automatic mode
instrumentatiofl and hardware controls
Input/output level
'--,...,---'
SUD'-OI:'lrllJU(()f. measurement converter, resistance f/lprmrlmr>/p(
Fig. 3. 117
Process nillolllniioll ill tile breW/lOuse
and processes occurs only on display screens.
Drive milts, retmning messages, indicators and
con trois are shown on the screen and operated by
a keyboard. Parameters are likewise changed via
the screen and keyboard and records are made
by a printer. A g radual change from a mosaic dis-
play to graphic display is possible. Advantages of
the graphic display control are that it is easier to
extend the control and simple to expand the g ra-
phic representation possibilities. For these rea-
sons more and more breweries me now conver-
ting to graphic display control.
As a result of the installed computer program,
the processes automatically follow one another.
The brewing supervisor follows the processes on
the screen and can intervene if necessary. The au-
tomatic mode automatically conh'ols the process
sequence. It captures and processes signals from
the eqtilpment. It is important that any interrup-
tions or irregularities are immediately indica ted
optically or acoustically so tha t the brewing su-
pervisor can take any necessary measures.
Operation and observation
Logging
The computer captures all enormous amOLmt
of data which it Call print out and also store.
Unless e rased the data can s till be recalled aIld
evaluated months later. However, one still fre-
quently find s in brewhou ses a process automa-
tion where, in addition to automatic control via
the screen, a mosaic dis play still exists to provi-
de a mallua l mode of operation (Fig. 3.117). The
upkeep of an ac tive manual level of operation
by means of the monitor control screen, parallel
to computer programmable control, is very ex-
pensive since most of the inputs alld outputs
must be duplicated, above all w h en it is wished
that the sea ling conditions should also be ac tive
on the mosaic screen version.
Because other production departments aI'e,
for obvious reasons, becoming automated, the-
re is a tendency to use an overall plan for the
brewery automation (Sect. 11). Exclusion of a
computer screen from the brewhouse is no lon-
ger imag inable (Fig. 3.118).
Fig. 3.118
COlllpuler workslnlioll ill Iil e IIInsler brew/IOI/se of Iile scil/ofl-
brnuerei Au, Hnllerlnll (Pilolo: HUpPll lnllll, Kilzillgell)
3.11 Safety at work during
wort production
3,11.1 Accident prevention in the milling
area
All movable parts which are accessible are po-
tential sources of accidents. As soon as clothing,
hail', or a p art of the hand or arm is caught, the
person concerned is inexorably drawn in b y the
much more powerful machine. The damage is
often appalling.
Therefore the basic rule applies: working clo-
thes must fit closely; long hair mus t be protec-
ted by a cap or cloth over the head .
This applies in particular when working with
a roller mill (ASI 2.91/78):
According to the accident prevention reg ula-
tions the rollers of a roller mill must be protec-
ted so that the roller infeed position Calmot be
reached . If it is not already protected by the
maimer of con struction of the roller frame, so
that even a slender halld CatUlot reach the roller
infeed, a special protective device, consisting of
one or more rods, is required . These rods mu st
be fi xed inside the frame or arrallged so that
inevitab ly th ey are in a protecting position
when the frame flap (window) is open.
A sttfficiently s tron g permanent or electrical-
411
Iy actuated m agnet mu st be ins talled before the
intake to the grist mill to prevent d am age to the
machine and spa rk formation by iron objects.
Spark formation can cause a dust explosion
in the mill . The risk is very hig h becau se dust in
3
certain mi xtures w ith a ir is ex plosive. Because
du st produces an electri c charge in the mill, the
mill must be well earthed and the housing seal-
ed so that du st cannot escap e.
The ex plOSion protection fl aps mus t not be
blocked . Th e teclmical sa fe ty equipm ent (Q pi-
pes, rupture discs) must all be in working order.
This also requires a dus t-free grist milling
room w hich must be regularly cleaIled. Becau-
se of the increased fire risk at the mill bottom,
the person in charge of milling must always be
sure tha t hand operated fire extinguishers and
h ydrants are a lways available alld read y for u se
in his area of operations. Conveyors mus t be
equipped with an automatic stop function for
allomalous operating conditions.
3.11.2 Accident prevention when working in
brewing vessels
Older brewing vessels must be ente red for
clealung. In modern vessels CIP m ethod s are
u sed but n evertheless from time to time these
vessels must be entered, for insp ection or to
p erform repairs.
It is ve ry dallgerous to enter such vessels. It
must be remembered that as a result of all Lmin-
tentional action the stirrer or raking d evice Call
be put into operation whilst a colleagu e is busy
in the vessel. He can never call for h elp because
nobody can hear his shouts .
In order to avoid such terrible accidents the
Guidelines for working in containers and re-
stricted spaces (ZH 1/77, A pril 1991 issue) were
published by the main indus trial co-operation
association .
It has proved a useful safety measu re against
tUlintended engagement of the stirring mecha-
nism or other movable parts, for the p erson
 412
who is working to screw out the electric fuse
cartridge and to keep it with him whi lst the
work is being done. In this case unintentional
movement of the part is impossible even with
electronically controlled switches.
3 stroyed.
In au tomated plants the control key mu st be
removed and guarded by the persons p erfor-
ming the work.
3.11.3 Accident prevention when working
with separators
Separators must nm perfectly balanced. Sepa-
rators are exa mined at the testing station to en-
sure that no imbalances can occur since these
can lead to beating and eventually to disinte-
gration of the centrifuge. In this case everything
within a wid e radiu s of the centrifuge is de-
To prevent this, on balancing the centrifuge
the correct location of the parts which are inser-
ted in one another and screwed together is mar-
ked. It is the refore essential to reassemble the
separator parts with the markings in exactly the
correct marked positions.
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II

4 I Beer Production
(Fermentation, maturation and filtration)
To transform wort into beer, the s ugars in the
wort mus t be fermented by enzy mes in the ye-
ast to ethanol and ca rbon d ioxide.
This also results in the formation of fermenta-
tion by-products w hich have a considerable ef-
fect on the taste, aroma and other characteristic
properties of the beer. The formation and par ti al
degradation of these by-products is closely rela-
ted to the metabolism of the yeast and can only
be considered in COJlJlection with the latter.
Fermen tation and matu ra tion of the beer is
performed in many breweries by what is refer-
red to as the conventional or classical process in
a ferm entation cellar and a s torage cellar (Fig.
4.1, 1 + 2). Breweries w ith modern equipment
perform the fermentation and maturation in cy-
lindrocOlucal vessels (CCVs) (3). Because there
are substantial differences beh,yeen the two ty-
pes of plant they must be considered separately.
5
-[]-
VLB Berlin
Fig. 4.1
Fcrll/elliniioll, IIInlllmlioll nlld jillmlioll
Research Institute for (l)ferll/elliniioll vessel, (2) slomge Inllk, (3) cylilldl'Ocollicnl
Engineering and Packaging Inllk, (4) f illel; (5) f1nsh pnslel/riser
(FMV)
After fermentation, maturation and storage,
www.vlb-berlin.org/fmv the beer is filtered and thus made stable both
G:l pahl@vlb-berlin.org biologically and colloid ally to retain the bright-
415
ness. Th is trea tment is performed in a fi lter (4)
and frequently in a plant with fl ash pasteuri- 4
sing of the beer (5). After this, the beer is ready
for filling.
4.1 Changes during fermentation
and maturation
The most important process is fermentation of
the sugars in the wort to ethanol and ca rbon di-
oxide by the yeast. The reactions occurrillg du -
rin g fermentation can be differenti a ted into
those which occur in the m ain fermentati on and
those occurring in maturation, but the proces-
ses overlap. It is therefore n ecessary to consider
the chan ges wluch occur during fermentation
and maturation as a continuous process.
It is particularly important that by-products
are formed by yeast metabolism during fer-
men tation, and that many of them are also par-
tially broken down again . These fermentation
by-products, together with the hop compo-
nents, have a decisive influence on the taste and
aroma of the beer. Consequently it is important
to kno w how they are formed and broken
down.
4.1.1 Yeast: the brewer's most important
partner
It has been shown (Sect. 1.4.1) that the pale brown
yeas t pulp consists of many millions of single ye-
ast cells whkh, totally independent of each
lead their own complicated life that they have ac-
quired in a development over billions of genera-
tions and is determinated in their genes.
It is not us who determine w hat the yeast has
to d o but we have to m as ter the factors which
regulate the work of the yeast. It should not be
forgotten in doing so that the interests of the ye-
 416
ast cell s are totally different from that of the
brewer: whilst the brewer is particularly inter-
ested in the end products of alcohol and CO"
these are cell toxins for the yeas t whidl they ha-
ve to get rid of again and therefore excrete. For
the yeast cell only the energy recovery is of im-
4 portance to be able to live and on taking up nu-
tritional substances to form new cell substclllces.
Seen from thi s point of view, optimal values
for the production of beer can only exist if opti-
mal conditions are also crea ted for the yeas t
cell s. In addition is the fact that the quality of
the beer is d ecisively affected by the yeas t and
its metabolic products.
3 ferentiated metabolism of the yeast.
2 The log phase slowly comes to an end when
--.4--1
1 1,um I
Fig.4.1a
Cross -sectioll tilrollgil tile yeas t cell
(1) cytoplaslII, (2) cell wa ll, (3) celllllclllbrallc, (4) blld scm;
(5) lIIitOc/lOlIdria, (6) vacll ole, (7) polYlllctapllOspilate gra llll -
les, (8) lipid g rm III les, (9) clldoplaslllic retiCII IIIIII, (10) ccll
IIlIclells, (11) IlIl clear IIlelllbrmle, (12) IIlIcleolll s, (13) Colg i
apparatlls
Before occupying ourselves with the details,
a short overview should therefore firstly be gi-
ven on the processes in the yeast during fer-
mentation and maturation.
After casting out, the yeas t cell firstly has to
get used to its new envirOlUl1ent which initially
exercise a shock effect on it: a different tempe-
rature, pH, a high concentration of su gar etc.
For severa l hours it excretes amino acids and
nucleotides but soon reabsorbs some of these.
The higher the temperature the more is excre-
ted; however, the adjustment process only takes
a very sh ort time in total (lag phase). Before it
comes into closer contact with the new medi-
um, however, the yeast cell firstly draws on sto-
red reserve substances which immediately pro-
vid e it with its initial energy: the glycogen
content fall s.
Owing to the surplus of fermentable sugars
in the wor t, the yeas t cell then quickly begins to
break down the sugar by mea ns of respiration
and fermentation. The su gar content, however,
slows down respiration and accelerates fer-
mentation which is imm ediately intensified
(Crabtree effect). At the same time, the yeast be-
gins to form new cell substances while it increa-
singly propagates by means of buds. The yeast
cell obtains the substances necessary for the for-
mation of new cell subs tances from the wort.
The brewer only has to ensure that the necessa-
ry structural elements are present in the wort,
e.g.
amino acids for the production of nev" cell
substances (yeast can, however, also easily
synthesise its own amino acids from other ni-
trogen sources),
phosphate for the bond in ATP (see Sect.
4.1.2.2.2) and in the phospholipid double lay-
er of the cell membranes and the membranes
of the interior of the cell,
sugar for the formation of carbohydrate re-
serves,
salt and trace elements (e.g. zinc),
sufficient oxygen for the synthesis of fatty
acids and s terols, which are essential for the
production of new cell membranes.
Most of these substances are almost always
available in sufficient amounts, or they can be
syntheSised by the yeast itself. If there is a lack
of a certain substance, fermentation problems
may occur. The brewer mus t bea r this in mind
if he changes his raw materials or replaces part
of his gris t load with (Luull alted) raw grain or
sugar, which, for exa mple, does not introduce
any aatino acids and salt.
In this ex tremely active phase for the yeast
cell, in which many nutrients are present in the
wort in the form of fermentabl e sugars, the ye-
ast builds up a depot of carbohydrates (glyco-
gen and trehalose), so that it has reserves for the
permanently n ecessary energy recovery in the
case of nutrient deficiency.
In this phase, the yeast should be added by
pitching or topping up. It is then in the phase
where it propa gates fastest and facilitates sp ee-
dy fermentation and propagation.
This logarithmic (log) phase is the most im-
portant stage in fermentation, where the wort
flavour disappea rs and is replaced by a green
beer flavour. Considerable quality parameters
of the future beer are determined by a very dif-
the supply of fermentable s ugars has been
greatly reduced and finally almost nothing fer-
mentable remains; fermentation is completed.
The yeast begins to flocculate, multiplication no
longer occurs, alcohol and CO, in the form of
cell toxins increasingly inhibit the yeast cell.
Since the turbulence in the tank present during
the intensive main fermentation has slowed or
completely stopped, the yeast cells slowly sink
to the bottom where they can be harvested .
The yeast cell now tries to find nutrient sour-
ces which are still present, in particular maltose
and maltotriose. To do this, it has to move . Sin-
ce it has no organs enabling it to move, it uses
the transportation incorporated into its own
metabolism as a substitute for active organs of
movement to ensure its own survival [363] . If it
is prevented from moving, as in a cone, its con-
dition rapidly deteriorates.
417
The bad time for the yeast no w begins, becau -
se the energy supply begins to dry up and it has
to draw on its own reserves. It now slow ly be-
gins to excrete metabolic products cllld enzy-
mes, in particular yeast proteinase A, wh.ich has
a detrimental effect on the foam, and has to be
harvested. 4
Despite the low tempera tures during cold sto-
rage, the yeast requires energy, albeit at very
low levels, to be able to maintain its life proces-
ses. It begins with the breakdown of carboh y-
drate rese rves and other substances and excre-
tes more and more metabolic products. Finally
the yeast cell can die, and then the digestive en-
zymes which are released can begin to break
down the cell interior, the cell wall is damaged
and the cell contents of the dissolving (autoly-
sing) cell pass into the beer. This has a conside-
rable effect on the foam and flavour, the pH of
the beer increases, cmd the dissolving substan-
ces are a welcome form of nutrition for contami-
mmts. The brewer therefore has to ensure that
the yeast is harvested rep eatedly and on time.
Yet even if the yeast is harvested on time, the
brewer s till has to be concerned about the yeast.
It has to be stored cold and in such a way that,
if it is reintroduced and if possible this being
the case many times, it can take up its activities
fully and quickly.
This foreword seems to be necessary to make
it clear to every brewer that the yeast is his mos t
important parhler in the production of beer.
Only when he creates optimal conditions for
this parhler ccm he hope to achieve optimal re-
sults in the quality of his beer. This will be loo-
ked at more closely in the following.
In contrast to beer ferm entation, in the case of
yeast used for baking and animal feed, a sugar-
free nutrient substrate (e.g. molasses) is used
and a large amount of air blown in. To avoid the
Crabtree effect, only enough sugar solution is
added so that the sugar concentration in the fer-
menter is always below 100 mg/l (feed m ethod).
 418 419

The intensive respiration results in a huge pro- dria by means of intracellular respiration and
pagation of the yeast cells; however, the alcohol broken down to CO, and water with the aid of Glucose G lu cas e-6- phos pha t F ructos e-6-phos pha t F ructose -J,6-biphosphat
formation is suppressed (Pasteur effect). citrus and respiratory chains, resulting in a Con- HO -CH , ® -O-CH , ® -O-CH , CH ,OH ® -O-CH , OH
siderable recovery of energy. CO, and H,O are
4.1.2 Metabolism of the yeast at the bottom rung of the energy conductors;
H OH I ; H OH OH H I OH H
Knowledge of the metabolism of the yeast is of they can only be broken down into their ele-
4 fundamental importance for the brewer, since ments by the addition of energy.
ATP
...
ADP

'---...------ 2 2 -A-D-P- - - - - '

--
..
ATP ADP
b< \..

C =0
- OH
4
this has a decisive effect on the quality of the In the case of alcoholic fermentation, glycoly- I
o O· o ®-O-C - H,
beer. Of particular interest here are sis proceeds to the pyruvate s tage according to coo· "C / "C O- ®
H 0
'\.//
C
fermentation of the sugar and the carbohy- the same pattern as in respiration; however, the I I I I Glyceron-
H - C- O - ® 8 - C - OH H - C - OH 3-phosphat
2 x 2· Phospho- I
drate metabolism, pyruvate is not transported into the mitochon- I I I
H, C - OH H, C - O - ® H C - O- ® H, C - O-®
protein metabolism, dria but broken down into ethanal, CO, and fi-
9 2 x 3-P hosphoglyce rat 2 x 1,3-8iPh'OSPhOgIYCera l \ Glyceral-3- phosphat
fat metabolism and nally, ethanol in the cytoplasm with considera- 2 H, O
mineral metabolism. bly lower energy recovery. In detail, this OCcurs \ D ( ADH' H
as follows (4.2). coo· coo·
I I /
4.1.2.1 Fermentation of the sugar The glucose is initially bonded with phosphor C -O- ® C 0 12 _ H - C - OH
I I I
Yeast is the only living organism that is in the (phosphorylised). This occurs by means of the C H, C H, C H,
position to, and tmder the exclusion of air, pre- takeover of a phosphor atom from ATP and its 2 x PhosPhoenOlpyrava J 2 x Pyravat 2x CO, 2x E thanal 2x Ethanol
2 ADP 2 ATP
pared to make use of fermentation in place of conversion to ADP (1) (see following Sect.). Glu-
energy-intensive respiration . The particular fea- cose-6-phosphate is produced which, with the
Fig. 4.2
J
tures of alcoholic fermentation and the energetic help of glucose phosphate-isomerase, is conver- Dingrnlll of nlco/lOlic ferlllelliniioll nccorriillg to Elllbriell-lvleyerilOf-Pnmns
relationships therein will now be explained. ted to fructose-6-phosphate (2) . Afterwards
phosphorylation reoccurs twice by means of the

J
4.1.2.1.1 Alcoholic fermentation as anaerobic transfer of a further P-atom from the ATP by the phoenolpyruvate by the phosphopyruvate hy-

glycolysis
Like all other living organisms - animals and
plants - the yeast cell requires energy for all
processes which are energy dependent, e.g. for
the formation of new cell substances,
the uptake and assimilation of substances
from its enviromnent,
the breakdown and excretion of lUu1ecessary
6-phosphofructokinase. Fructose-1.6-biphos-
phate is formed (3), whilst the energy-rich ATP is
converted to less energy-rich ADP.
During these enzymatic breakdown proces-
ses, the energy profile is of course constantly
changing (Fig. 4.2 a1).
At this stage a splitting into two isomer tri-
osephosphates by the fructobiphosphate-aldo-
\Ie::
dratase (9). The pyruvate kinase then converts
the two molecules of phosphoenolpyruvate to
two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid) (10).
(..'J
During the conversion which thereby occurs of
<l '0 2 molecules of ADP to ATp, the only amount of
I energy available to the organism during glyco-
lysis (2 x 30.5 kJ) is released.
I

or harmful compotLl1ds,
the transportation of substances within the
cell.
The energy required is obtained by most Ji-
ving organisms (plants, animals, humans)
through intracellular respiration. The process
begins with the breakdown of glucose in the cy-
toplasm (cytosol) in a process known as glyco-
lysis. The end product of glycolysis is a com-
pOtLl1d known as pyruvate (Fig. 4.2 - pos. 10).
This pyruvate is transported to the mitochon-
lase occurs (4). The glycerol and glyceron-3-
phosphate (5) which is formed is now reduced
to 2 molecules of 1.3-biphosphoglycerate (6) by
the glycerinal-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase,
and at the same time an ion of hydrogen is bon-
ded by NAD. This is followed by a double de-
phosphorylation by the phosphoglycerate kina-
se to 2 molecules of phosphoglycerate (7). This
means that two molecules of phosphor are bon-
ded again by the conversion of ADP to ATP (in
1 and 3) and are thereby returned to the cycle.
lI
Elltlwlpy chmtge
Whilst the pyruvate is broken down again du-
ring respiration, in alcoholic fermentation
(anaerobic glycolysis) the pyruvate is separa ted
into CO, and ethanal (acetaldehyde) by pyruva-
Fig.4.2nl
te decarboxylase (11) . After this, the ethanal is
Chnllge of the euergy profile rillrillg glycolysis (pnrtinl view)
converted (here, the presence of zinc is necessa-
ry!) into ethanol (ethylalcohol, alcohol) by the
By means of the phosphoglycerate mutase alcohol dehydrogenase (12), whereby the
(8), the 3-phosphoglycerate is converted to 2- NADH2 releases its stored hydrogen ion and
phosphoglycerate, and is transferred into phos- again becomes NAD.
 420
For the conversions a m olecul e of hydrogen
has to be transferred (see conversions 6 + 12).
For such reduction processes, the transfer by
means of the bond nicotinamide-adenine dinu-
cleotide (NAD), which prevents the release of
dangerous hydrogen gas, has become domi-
4 nant in nature. The curve with the notation
NAD -) NADH, indicates this. If the ATP / ADP
gain ratio is closely examined, the ATP / ADP
conversion of the reaction stages 1 + 3 and stage 7
al'e reconverted again. As a result an munter-
rupted cycle is formed. The actual energy reco-
very takes place in stage 10 with a twice occur-
ring dephosphorylation and twice occurring
conversion of ADP -) ATP.
The conversion of glucose to 2 pyruvate via
10 intermediate stages is known as glycolysis. It
also occurs in all cells of plants, animals and hu-
mans. After this, the pyruvate is transported to
the mitochondria (see Sect. 1.4.1) illld complete-
ly broken down (respired) via many interme-
diate stages into CO, and H,Q whilst achieving
high energy recovery (36 ATP/mol) via the citric
acid cycle and respiration chain. Yeast is the on-
ly living organism which, under certain cir-
ClUllstill1Ces such as absence of air, Cilll convert
from pyruvate to alcoholic fermentation:
Cellular respiration 36 ATP
Glucose -) Pyruvate
Alcoholic fermentation 2 ATP I This calculation is of fundamental significan-
Whether the yeast ferments or respires de-
pends mainly on two effects: energy recovery is
Thus, whether the yeast respires (baking ye-
ast) or ferments (brewing yeast) depends in the
first ins tance on whether the yeast is provided
with oxygen or sugar. In the case of beer fer-
mentation, the Crabtree effect flashes into ac-
tion as a result of the sugar content of the wort.
To summarise, alcoholic fermentation is ex-
pressed according to the formula of Gay-Lus-
sac:
C6H I2 0 6 2 C,H,OH + 2 CO,
L'"G = -260 kJ
If the products which are formed are calcula-
ted quantatively according to their atomic
mass, the following relations result:
2 C,H,GH + 2 CO2
C6H'20 6
C(12): 72 48 24
H(16): 12 12
O( 1) : 96 32 64
180 92 88
From 1 molecule of glucose = 180 g, during al-
coholic fermentation, 92 g alcohol and 88 g CO2
are formed; this means that the sugar is separa-
ted into almost the same parts by weight of al-
cohol and CO, (see Sect. 7.4.3.1). The proportion
of carbon dioxide by vohUlle is thereby dissimi-
larly much larger thilll that of the alcohol, since
gases have a much lower density.
ce for us as it enables us to calculate the original
wort content from the finished beer: of the su-
gar from the wort, only the alcohol illld unfer-
421
4.1.2.2.2 Energy recovery during fermentation
Th e bond between the third and middle
The reco very of energy during fermentation is a
phosphor atoms is particularly rich in energy; if
result of the breakdown of sugar to ethanol and
this bond is broken, adenosine diphosphate
CO2, In contrast to respiration, only a partial
(ADP) and phosphate are formed, but also 30.5
breakdown occurs during fermentation, resul - kJ per mol ATP:
ting in a correspondingly lower energy reco-
very (Fig. 4.2).
ATP ADP + P + 30.5 kJ/mol, 4
which is available to the organism in the form
"G -2880 kJ
of energy.
--- 2 C2Hs OH + 2 CO 2 " G -260 kJ
92 9 88g
Th e lower energy ADP continually bonds
again with the free phosphor (phosphate) (i.e. is
Fig. 4.2 phosphorylated) as a result of the addition of
Ellelg'l recovery rillrillgjerll/elliniioll nllri respirnlioll
energy from catabolic m etabolic processes _
those where energy is released - to reform the
energy-rich ATP (Fig. 4.2a). The ATP molecule
It has been shown that the breakdown during
thus behaves like a coiled spring, which on the
glycolys is occurs in many sub-steps by m ean s
breakdown of the bond to the third phosphate,
of a rilllge of enzymes, which benefit from the
can immediately use the released energy of the
difference in energy potential.
uncoiling spring. Thus the bas is for a further
At some points, it is necessary to cycle is provid ed.
skip an energy hurdl e in order to reactivate the
work of the cell. In nature one single bond has
developed which constantly provides the trans-
ATP
fer of energy. This is the bond adenosine tri-
phosphate (ATP) . ATP, which is present in allli-
Energy from
ving organisms, consists of a purine base (here catabo lic Energy
adenine), a sugar residue with five C-atoms processes for cellul ar
work
(here ribose) and three phosphate residues.
ADP + P
Fig. 4.2n
ATP - ADP Circle

disproportionately higher for the yeast in the mentable extract are present in the beer, the CO,
0- o o
case of respiration than in fermentation. In the has volatilised or is soluted in the beer. From I I I
presence of oxygen, the yeast therefore swit- the alcohol content and non-fermented extract, O-- P - O-P-O-P-O-CH
ches directly over to cell respiration (Pasteur ef- it is possible to calculate the amount of extract II II II I 2 0 The ATP thus becomes a form of "energy cur-
o 0 0 C/ "'-..,.CH rency", which all illli111 a I illld plant cells ha ve
fect). If, on the other hand, sugar is present (glu- content before fermentation in the finished
cose concentrations of above 0.1 gil suffice), the beer. This is importilllt for tax purposes (see been able to use for millions of years . This pro-
H C-C
respiration enzyme complex is itself inhibited Sect. 7.4.3.1 - Balling formula - calculation of I I cess occurs constillltly and has a remarkable
ATP
and fermentation occms (Crabtree effect). HO HO speed: a normally ftmctioning human muscle
extract content).
cell, for example, converts its entire ATP supply
 422
approx imately on ce a minute. This means that
for every second and cell, about 10 million ATP
molecul es have to be used up and regenerated.
The yeast cell does not ha ve to perform such a
gigantic task of course. In 100 g of dry yeas t
matter, approx 0.1 75 g ATP is present.
4 During respiration the glucose is completely
broken down (oxidised) to CO, and H,G. The
energy recovery aIllolUlting to 38 ATP which re-
sults from this is disproportion a tely higher
than the recovery of 2 ATP which occurs during
alcoholic fermentation, in which sugar is onl y
broken down into ethanol and CO,.
The energy con tained in eth anol can, lUlder
favourable living conditions of acetic acid bac-
teria, be broken down further, resulting in ener-
gy recovery (the beer becomes sour), in extreme
cases to water and CO,. The basis of life for
most micro-organisms lies in the fact that they
are able to use such gaps in the balance of ener-
gy for their energy recovery, thereby securing
their survival.
The energy content of all organic bond can be
precisely d etermined by targeted burning in a
calorie bomb . Thus
glucose h as an energy content of 2880 kJ/mol
alcohol h as an energy content of 2620 kJ/mol
This means the energy content in fermentati-
on is reduced by 260 kJlmol glucose.
This value is known as free enthalpy (6G), to
which a minus sign is added, because it is the
amount of energy released during this reaction .
Of this amolUlt of energy, however, only a
small proportion is available to the organism -
in this case the yeast cell,
the part w hich is bonded with ATP as chemi-
cal en ergy (here 2 ATP).
The rest is irretrievably lost in the form of re-
action h ea t.
This means that of the
6G = 260 kJ/mol glucose
only
2 x 30.5 = 61 kJ/mol glucose
is avai lable as energy to the yeast cell,
the remainder of = 199 kJ/mol glucose
is (lUlder standard conditions) rel eased as heat
and h as to be eliminated in the form of reaction
heat. In practice, one ca n calcul ate an evolution
of h ea t of 4500 to 4700 kJ/hl full beer (see Sect.
4.4.2.2.1).
During fermentation, the yeas t ce ll h as to
constantly abso rb and release substances. This
exchange of substances d oes not however take
place on its own, but is subject to strict rules. As
a result of the closely align ed molecules of the
phospholipid membrane - also characterised as
"liquid m osa ic" beca use they s hift lightly
aga inst each other - only pure water and dissol-
ved gas can force their way thro ugh, but not
water salts. N umerous transport proteins of the
most va ried types aIld with specific selective
task assignments stored in the membrane are
responsible for the eXChaIlge of substaIlCes (Fig.
4.2b). A difference is hereby made between pas-
sive transport which is only suitable for small
molecules or ions, and active traIlsport which
represents the main engine of the eXChaIl ge.
There is a voltage in all the cells between the
outside aIld inside of the plasma membrane.
Voltage is the potential electric en ergy with
whi ch work can be performed . Since the ce ll in-
teri or is nega ti vely charged in contrast to its
sluTolmdings, the membrane potential promo-
tes the passive transport of cations into the cell
aIld anjons out of it. To counteract this, proton
pumps (1) povvered by ATP have developed,
which establish a voltage on the membraIle as a
result of charge separation, and so store energy.
With ATP as a source of energy, the proton
pump thus shifts positive charges into the ex-
tracellular liquid.
The elui ched positive charge can now serve,
passively by mean s of specific transport pro-
teins, to remig ra te aIld thereby move other sub-
stances, such as amino acids aIld maltose mole-
cules, into the cell interi or. This is known as
e.g.
Amino acid
Maltose
ATP ® ADP
Fig. 4.2b
Secfioll of a celll/lel/lbrnlle
(1) prololl plll/lp, (2) co-Irnllsporl, (3) ailliparl
co-traI1Sport (2) aIld is the main method of sub-
stance exchange in the yeas t cell. The sam e
source of energy can also be used to discharge
other su bstances, such as alcohol or other meta-
boli c products (aIltiport) (3). The tran sport pro-
teins specifically and ve ry exactly sort out what
they can let past.
4.1.2.2 Pro tein metabolism
The yeast cell consists of 35 to 60 % (dry matter)
protein. The protein content changes during
fermenta tion aIld storage and is in inverse rela-
tion to the glycogen content of the yeast (see
Fig. 4.2e). To produce new cell subs tances it the-
refore requires m any SOllrces of nitrogen,
which are present in the wort mainly in the
form of amino acids. These amino acid s are ab-
sorbed by the yeas t in a set order over which,
however, the brewer has no influen ce. Only low
molecular weight amino acids with up to four
C-atoms are abso rbed,
423
! e.g
Ethanol
++ + 4
ATP ® ADP
predominantly g lutamic acid, asparagine,
aspa rtic acid, glutaInine, serine, lysine aIld
a rginine,
others, sllch as valine, metionine, lecine, his ti-
dine and isoleucine in the second instance,
and
absolutely no proline.
For the yeas t the free NH,-group, the amin o
group, is of importance, which it ex trac ts aIld
uses to form its own cell proteins (free amino
nitrogen = FAN, see also Sect. 1.1.4.2.2). Thus a
higher alcohol, which is again excreted as a fer-
mentation by-p roduct (Ehrli ch m echanism)
(see Sect. 4.1.3), is formed from the am ino acids
by means of dea mination (removal and rear-
raIlgement of the amino group), decarboxy lati-
on (removal of CO,) and reduction (removal of
oxygen). Fig. 4.2c sh ows the con version of ami-
no acids to a higher alcohol, whereby R (Radi-
ca l) represents a (CH,)n + H-chain of varying
length.
)1
 424 425

A yards tick for a good provision of amino

Amino NH 2 0 60
acids is a content of 200 to 230 mg/l free (X-ami-

--
acids I //
no nitrogen (FAN) (related to 12 % wort). This R - ( H -( + 1/2 (0 2
' OH 50
value is always obtained from well m odified

j
malt. Worts where raw grain or s ugar have a lso
been used should be monitored here (longer 40

\
.S:
4 Desaminalion V)
protein rest recommended durin g m ashing ). c:: 4
The absorption of amino acids from the wort :ea 30

r\
Q
occurs via the pore proteins of the cell wall (see
a-keto acid 0 e
Cl..:
Fig. 1.23). They are then collected in an external 20 f-
--
II //0 -

pool and enriched. Tlus is followed by the ami- R -(- (

no acids then being fed on dem and to an uU1er ' OH
Fig.4.2d
FCl'llIeIIlnlioll of wal'l slIgnr 10
r--.. 7
pool, which is constant Ul size. H ere the conver- (1) glucose 6
N ""-.
I
sion (transamulation) occurs as well as the in- (2) fruclose
Decarboxylation (3) sncciln rose
corporation Ulto its own cell proteins. 0 24 48 72 96
(4) I/In/tose 120 144
The proteul metabolism is therefore very im- (5) IIInllolriose Fermentation duration in h
portant for the beer produced, because many of (6) IIInllolelmose
the metabolic products which a re formed a re Aldehyde
R - ( Y' + ( O2
passed back Ulto the and this can have a
"H
considerable effect on the fla vom and stability, in
particular the foam retention and other factors .
Over 40 proteolytic en zym es are active in the
yeas t, which are classified into four families
correspondulg to their mechanism of action (se- higher alcohol
I Reduction
ill the case of constantly increased pitching,
with high gravity worts.

4.1.2.3 Fat metabolism

rUle proteases, cystule proteases, carboxyl pro-
teases, m etall o proteases). Of these proteases,
yeast proteinase A, which is localised in the va-
cuole, is of particular significance: LU1der condi-
tions of s tress e.g. a higher alcohol content, hig-
her pressure, a n inadequate supply of
nutrients, hig h osmotic pressme, yeas t protei-
nase A is excreted into the beer during fermen-
tation and maturation. The excre tion of dead
and autolyzulg yeast cells is particularly high.
It worsens the foam s tability of the beer, in
that durulg s torage it breaks down the lipid
transfer proteins (LTP1) origillating in the bar-
ley, and these are one of the main componen ts
of beer foam [261]. The effect of the yeast protei-
nase A can lead to a further deterioration of the
fo am s tability particula rly in the case of cold
aseptic filled beer (see Sect. 4.4.4.1), becau se it
also CiUU10t be removed during filtration .
Together with protems iUld fatty sub-
R- (H 2
- OH stances Ul the form of phospholipids makes up
the cell membriUles arOlU1d the yeast cell iUld the
Fig.4.2c
orgiUlelles Ul the illterior of the cell (see Sect.
COll ve rsioll of nil nlllillO ncid 10 higher nlcollOl
(Ellrlicll lII ecllnll;slII) 1.4.1). SUlce the yeast propagates dLU'Ulg fermen-
tation to four to six times its own mass, a corre-
spondulg amOlU1t of lipids ha ve to be built up.
This buildulg up of lipids reqLw'es oxygen.
The foam spoiling effect of Proteinase A is The yeas t absorbs fatty acids present Ul the
especially apparent [303, P. 128], wort. It is also, able to form fatty acids
if there is no pasteuri sation or HTST of the itself, for which it reqtures oxygen. Formation
beer, starts w ith the pyruvate (pyruvic acid) with ace-
if s torage occurs a t increased temperatures, tic acid fo rmed as iUl ultermediate product. The
if there is a long contact period be tween yeast yeast is also able to form LU1sa turated fatty acids
cells and green beer, for which oxygen is also necessary. Unsaturated
ill the case of poor or too la te removal of the fatty acids have a great effect on the suppleness
yeas t sediment (dregs), of the cell membrane. If too few unsa tmated fat-
Ul the case of slow or long storage, ty acids are present, the absorption capacity of
when mistakes in yeast management occur the cell membrane suffers or the absorption of
(stress factors), amino acids can come to a complete stop.
Protein metaboli sm takes priority over fa t
metabolism. Fat m e tabolism only really starts
when the nitrogen sources for the protein meta-
bolism h ave been exhausted . Since, on the other
h and, fat metabolism is linked with oxygen,
synthesis of the fatty acids by the provision of a
good and rich supply of oxygen at the begin-
ning of fermentation is of considerable unpor-
tiUlce .
The long chained fatty acids produced by the
yeas t should no t be negatively evaluated for the
fla vour stability of the beer (see Sect. 4.6.4), sin-
ce they are tightly cOlU1ected in the cell m em -
branes. With the commencement of autolysis,
however, there is great d an ger becau se released
wlsa turated fatty acids are very rea ctive.
4.1.2.4 Carbohydrate metabolism
Th e yeas t absorbs m onosaccharides dissolved
in the wort (glucose and fructose) and disacch a-
rides (maltose and saccharose) as well as the tri -
saccharid e maltotriose and ferments them in
the same ord er. Larger carbohydrates (maltote-
traose) are not fermented (Fig. 4.2d).
 427
426
stances as soon as the external food suppl y is the use of glycogen-rich active yeas t (see Sect.
exhausted. It is therefore able to cover its ener- 4.1.3.5) .
gy requirements and to maintain elementary It is thereby important that aceta ldehyde to-
metabolic functions. This applies in particular gether with the S0, is able to form a compound
to the situation at the end of the cold s torage w ith carbony l and h ence slow down the ageing
phase in the tank and the s torage of the yeast of the beer. The S0, formed during fennentati-
35... 40 LUltil the next casting. on therefore has a positive effect on flavour s ta- 4
4 The glycogen content of the yeast is in inverse bility of the beer.
45 ... 60
relation to the protein content: decreasing the It should also be pointed out that in man y
20... 35 glycogen content in the first 10 to 12 hoUl's of fer- countries, sulphite is added to the beer to stabi-
mentation is accompanied by an increase in the lise the fl avo ur (not permitted according to the
protein content of the yeast cell (Fig. 4.2e). Du- Reinheitsgebot).
10 ... 20 ring the course of fermentation, maturation and As well as the form ation of sulphite, the for-
30... 65
yeast storage, the ratio is repea tedly reversed mation of volatile sulphides and in p ar ticular
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 (glycogen-protein rule). dimethyl sulphide (DMS) (see following Sect.)
Process duration in days
playa more negative role in the metabolism of
Fig.4.2e 4.1.2.5 Mineral metabolism sulphur.
Cilnllge ill tile co1llpositioll of gl1fcogell nllri proteill rillrillgfer1llelltntioll Of the mineral substan ces, yeast requires above Potassium is required in particular for the m e-
(1) proteill colltell/, (2) gl1fcogell colltellt
all phosphor and sulphur as well as a number tabolism of carbohydrates and supports all
of metal ions in sm all amounts. enzymic reactions which proceed with ATP.
Phosphor comes in the form of phosphates The pH-regulating effect of potassiLUn in the
In s tress situations (e.g. high gravity brewing from the malt, and is always present in adequa- exchange of hydrogen ions which are formed
It can be assumed that 98 % of the sugar will
above 16 %, high fermentation temperatures te amolmts in well modified malt. Phosphor is against potassium ions (ion pump) is also im-
b e fermented and only 2 % respired (see Sect.
above 18 °C), the yeast can, depending on the required for portant.
4.1.2.1).
strain, pass glycogen out of the cell and thereby the fo rmation of ATP (see Sect. 4.1.2.2.2), SodiLUn activates enzymes; at the same time,
A very small proportion of the maltose (about
cause an ha ze, which cam10t be remo- the fo rmation of the phospholipid double sodiLun plays a considerable role in the trans-
0.25%) is used by the yeast to form carbohydra-
ved by filtering and produces turb'idity of up to membrane arOLmd the yeast cell, port of substances tlU'ough the cell membran e.
te reserves. The most important carbohydrate
1 EBC [318]. buffering against pH shifts. Magnesium is important for the reactions
reserve is glycogen, a polymer of glucose,
As well as glycogen, the yeast cell contains up A deficiency of phosphates causes with phosphor, above all in fermentation; in
which is formed and stored in the cytoplasm in
to 6% dry matter trehalose as a carbohydrate ferm entation problems and this fLmction it CatU10t be replaced by oth er
the form of glycogen rosettes. The glycogen
reserve. Trehalose is a disaccharide made of a reduction of cell growth. ions.
present in the yeast cells is used by the cells as a
glucose residue. The trehalose is found in the Sulphur is absorbed by the yeast cell as inor- Calcium slows down the d egeneration of the
primary source of energy before the onset of
cytoplasm of the yeast cell; part of it is COlmec- garlic sulphate but also as sulphur-containing yeast at1d supports break formation; if there
fermentation. As a result the glycogen content
ted to the cell wall and protects the cell from ex- amino acids (methionin, cystine) and the SO, is is a deficiency of calcium, mangan ese or ma-
falls considerably in the first ten to twelve
ternal influences. In the case of trehalose, too, incorporated into the amino acid metabolism gnesium Cat1 take its place.
hours, and then increases again. In the course of
breakdown initially occurs a few hours after the within the cell. Even after cell growth has come Iron and mat1ganese are important tra.ce ele-
fermentation, the content can rise to about 30%
start of fermentation only to be quickly follo- to a stop, the S0, produced is further excreted ments in respiration m e tabolism and the
of the yeast dry matter. During storage of the
wed by a buildup and storage of the trehalose, w1til fin ally at the end of metabolism, S0, for- budding of cells.
yeast, the glycogen content falls considerably
which proceeds more quickly and intensively mation also ceases [181]. Zinc affects the protein synthes is and, as a tra-
and the more so, the warmer and longer the sto-
with increasing temperatures [176]. SO, formation is reduced by all factors which ce element, is important for fermentation.
rage. If the yeast is stored cold, the glycogen
The carbohydrate reserves, in particular the support the multiplication of the yeast, e.g.: Zinc deficiency leads to sensitive fermentati-
content remains more or less stable [175] . This
glycogen, are of great importance for the yeast. intense aeration, on problems; the requirement is about 0.10 to
is of particular importance for maintaining the
The yeast cell can metabolise these reserve sub- repeated topping up with wort batches, 0.15 mg zinc/l wort. Zinc is the trace element
fermentation activity.
428
where deficiency symptoms occur most fre-
quently because most of the zinc supplied re-
mains in the spent grains. Most breweries
therefore have to take action to supply their
yeas t with the n ecessary zin c (see Sec t.
3.2.1.7) . In order to guarantee an adequate
supply of zinc, "yeast nutrients" are availa-
ble, which ensure a sufficient supply of zinc
and other trace elements [342]. This however
is not permitted under the Reinheitsgebot.
Nitrate is not used by the yeas t but reduced to
nitrite. Nitrite, h owever, is a yeast toxin and
causes poor multiplication and weak fermen-
tation. Nitrites originate mainly from the bre-
wing liquor; over-fertilisation in the ca tch-
ment area of the water recovery plant can be
responsible for an increased nitrate content.
For the yeast even 20 m g nitrate/I are dange-
rous.
Independently of the yeast metabolism, calci-
um oxalate is formed from the calcium salts
and oxalic acid originating from the malt,
whkh deposits in crystalline or amorphous
1
Q)
Q)
.Q
%,
E
.S
.g
l!'
c:
Q)
()
c:
8 COllceJllmtiolls of by-pro-
1 centrations of 70 to 90 m g/l. The formation of
Process duration in days-
form on the walls of the fer menting vessels or
which can lead to haze fo rmation . Mechani-
cal clean ing does not always suffice to remo-
ve the deposits so that over time, a grey
coating known as beer sca le forms in the ves-
sels wh ich, due to its porosity, provides con-
taminants with a good chance of developing.
Beer scale can be effectively removed using
nitric acid (see Chapter 6).
4.1.3 Formation and removal of fermen-
tation by-products
During fermentation a number of metaboli c by-
products from the yeast are passed into the
beer, som e of which either react with each other
or change their amowlt and composition. The-
se fermentation by-products have a decisive ef-
fect on the fla vour and quality of the beer being
produced. The metabolism of the yeast and the
formation and removal of the fermentation by-
products sh ould therefore be considered toget-
her. If the fermentation by-products are never-
theless d ea lt w ith separa tely, should in
Fig. 4.3
dllcts dllrillgferlllelliniioll
nlldlllntll mtioll [303, p. 190J
'-- 2 (1) ncetnldehyde, (2) dince lyl,
(3) eslel; (4) Iligher nlcollOls,
(5) yenst cell cOllcelllmlioll,
(6) extmct colltellt
particular be seen from the point of view that
the brewer must attempt to keep their con ten t
within optimal limits by means of suitable tech-
nological measures.
This applies in p ar ticular to the following fer-
mentation by-products:
diacetyl,
higher alcohols,
esters,
aldehydes,
sulph ur compounds.
A distinction (Fig. 4.3) is made between:
Green beer aroma subs tances (aldehydes,
sulphur com pOlUlds); these give the beer an
unclean, immature, unripe, unbalanced taste
and arom a and, in higher con centrations, im-
pair beer quality. During the course of fer-
mentation and mahu'ation they can be bio-
chemically removed again from the beer. This
is the purpose of beer maturation. The most
important factor of the green beer aroma sub-
stances is the acetaldehyde, whkh is broken
down to values under 8 mg/I in the course of
fermen tation and maturation.
The form ation and breakdown of the vicinal
diketones follows a similar course, the most im-
portan t factor of which - the diacetyl- on being
broken down to below the flavour threshold va-
lue of 0.1 mg/l, is used as a yardstick to check
the level of maturity of the beer.
Mature beer aroma substances essentially de-
termine the aroma of beer and their presence
in defined concentration ranges is a necessa-
ry requirement for a high quality beer. In con-
trast to the green beer aroma compounds,
these aroma substances camlOt be removed
again from the beer.
Amongst the mahlre beer aroma substances
are the esters, whkh are formed in concentrati-
ons of 12 to 20 mg/l, and higher alcohols in con-
mahlre beer aroma substances is significantl y
affected by the yeast strain and fermentation
429
conditions and is completed at the maturation
stage. A further formatio n of esters (alcohol and
fatty acids) is possible in sour beer (e.g. Berliner
Weisse) when stored for a long time.
The yeast concentration changes from the pit-
ching concentration (10 to 30 million cells/ml)
to the end of fe rmentation and mahlration to 50 4
to 90 million cells/ml. It h as to be assu med that
in Lmiiltered beer, too, there are still 1 million
yeast cells/ml.
4.1.3.1 Diacetyl (vicinal diketones)
Diacetyl is a flavour component which occurs
at the s tart of fermentation. Above the thres-
hold value it gives beer an unclean, sweetish to
revolting tas te, which in high concentration is
responSible for the aroma of butter.
The diacetyl is characterised by two adjacent
keto gro ups. These subs tances are thus referred
to as vicinal diketones:
o 0
II II
Diacetyl H)C - C - C - CH)
The breakdown of these vicinal diketones oc-
curs parallel to other mahlration reactions du-
ring the beer conditioning process and is there-
fore nowada ys rega rd ed as the essential
criterion (indicator substance) for the state of
mahlration of a beer. The formation and remo-
val of vicinal dike tones occurs in three s tages:
1" stage: forlllatioll of precllrsors
Yeast forms only the precursors of vicinal dike-
tones by its metabolism . These precursors are
without odour or tas te and camlot be detected
in beer. They arise during amino acid synthesis
by the yeast. A starting point for this syntheSiS
is the pyruv ic acid formed as an intermediate
product during respiration and fermentation
(see Sect. 4.1.1). The 2-acetolactate formed from
 430 431

pyruvic acid is excreted by the yeast cells into The conversion of precursors into the vicinal
20
durin g secondary ferm entation there is a pro-
the fermentation medium . Its formation de- diketones limits the rate of mahlration. a
15 gressive removal of 2-acetolactate and vicinal
E:
pends on the following factors [34]: diketones,
Yeast strain: the time of formation and the 3'" stage: reductioll Of the diJcetolles o os: ,fO with an increasing degree of attenuation, the
amount of 2-acetolactate is a specific charac-
teristic of the yeast strain.
The diacetyl and pentanedione formed can 011-
ly be removed aga in by the yeast cells. This of
- '"
0_
"l::l gj 5
2-acetolactate and vicinal diketone concen-
trations at first increase and then decrease
4 Yeast pitching rate: a higher pitching rate course decreases the detrimental effect on fla- during secondary fermentation as attenu ati- 4
leads to greate r formation of 2-acetolactate. vour. The removal occurs by the reductions 0 on continu es.
1 B 20
Addition of more yeas t, however, also leads Temperalure t e)
to a faster and more complete removal. Diacetyl ace toin 2,3-butanediol.
Oxygen: oxygen leads to ml increased forma- Fig. 4.4 mg/I I
Primary lermanlelion Secundary lermellialion

tion of 2-acetolactate by yeast. 2,3-Butanediol has a very high flavour thres-

Effeci of lelllpernillre all dincelyi relllovnl by yensl
0,5
17
i'\
The effect of these factors is however not so hold and the amolUl t formed is not perceived in 0.4 \
great that the production of the 2-acetolactate 1/ 2-A elol cIa!
beer. Green beef IT2nSIer putnpilg 0,3
can be effecti vely influenced by targeted mea- The removal of diacetyl is favoured by the Ob - ' -1 0.2 /
0, 1 II
05 ,
sures. following factors: p,
Viac '/vi
During fermentation the yeast h as a great ca- OJ
1
%
pacity to remove diacetyl. The yeast's ability Oi
mg/I
0/
pyruvate to remove it is about ten times as great as its , , , , ,
.. _--,-.::-:.::..::-..
• , , I I
-.,-...,...--., ! Primary fermal/(elioll SeCl/lldary fermelltation

2-acelo!aclale - - --
I
2-acelo!aclale
rate of formation during fermentation.
The ability to remove diacetyl remains con-
0,3 t-+--t7""'f;...-
0.2
'-t-t-+.........
-'4 L -l-
stant during the primary fermen tation mld 0,1 1/ / t\\
valine
I gradually decreases during second ary fer- -%
diacely! - - aceloin mentation. ···;-·-·.. ···-;··- 1---,··--,---·,----,-·--,---.,--..,..--i---'---·,----,---... .. -

L
Fig. 4.3n
FOl"lllnlioll nlld brenkdowII of dincely! (procedllre)
2"" stage: cOllversioll of the precursors
The 2-acetolactate gives rise to the vicinal dike-
tones diacetyl mld pentmledione by oxidative
decarboxylation outside, mld independent of,
the yeast cells (Fig. 4.3a). This conversion oc-
curs relatively easily. It is encouraged by:
pH d ecrease: at pH values between 4.2 to 4.4
there is a rapid con version which lessen s as
the pH increases,
temperahue increase: a more rapid conversi-
on occu rs on h ea ting,
oxygen introduction: oxygen uptake by beer
leads to a rapid conversion of precursors to
the vicinal dike tones.
There are only small differences between ye-
ast strains in the cap acity to remove diacetyl.
Diacetyl removal is very tempera ture depen-
dent and in creases greatly with increasing
temperahue (Fig. 4.4).
The rate of diacetyl removal is very depen-
dent on yeast concentration in the maturing
beer.
The rate is dependent on factors which pro-
m ote or impede extensive contact between
the yeast and the di ace tyl-containing beer.
Hindering the settling of yeast, e.g. by pum-
ping, pressure release, etc., favours diacetyl
removal.
Krausening encourages diacetyl removal be-
cause the reducing power of the yeast is at its
greatest during cell multiplication.
Diacetyl removal is dependent on the pH va-
lue and is accelerated by a low wort pH.
2 y , J 10 IZ
Fig. 4.5
Relnliollship of2-ncelolnclnle 10 vicelln! dikelolles verslls pro-
cess lillie [97J
The precursors of vicinal diketones are ace to-
hydroxy acids, in particular 2-acetolactate. The
amount of 2-acetolactate present is related to
the amoun ts of vicinal diketones formed [111] .
From the shape of the curves in Figs. 4.5 and
4.6 it cml be clearly seen that:
during the first days of the primary fermenta-
tion the amolUlt of 2-acetolactate increases
greatly,
as a result of oxygen uptake during transfer
pumping, the 2-acetolactate con centration is
increased again,
ff 16 18 lP l2. ../i 26 )8 JO ,iZ J ..
Fig. 4.6
Re!nliollship of2-ncelolnclnle 10 vicellni dikeiolles verSli s np.
pnrelll degree of nlleliliniioll of Ihe beer [97]
This also means, however, that:
each uptake of oxygen, e,g. during beer trans-
fer, leads to ml increase in the diacetyl content
of the green beer and this must then be redu ced
again by the fermenting yeast,
CO Il c/usiollS for cOlltrollil1g fermelltatioll
The diace tyl and pentanedione (total diace-
tyl) content can be regarded as the criterion
for judgin g the sta te of maturation of the
beer. As the fermentation and maturation ti-
me becomes progressively shorter the impor-
tance of controlling the diacetyl content in-
creases.
 432
There mu st be a ra pid conversion of 2-aceto-
lac tate to vicinal diketon es - thi s is helped by
rapid fermentation almost d own to the end
d egree of fermentation, a low pH and the
avoid ance of further oxygen ingress afte r pit-
ching, and also by use of fermentation and
4 maturation at high er temperatures (in the ca-
se of bottom fermentation beers up to 18 DC).
Active, vigorously metabolising yeas t cells are
essential for the maturation phase. The yeast
must be prevented from settling by suitable
measures. It is important to have a sufficient
concentra tion of very active yeast cells.
A low wort pH value (5.2) p rom otes the remo-
va l of diace tyl.
The guideline for the total diacetyl content
for a full y matured beer should be a m aximum
of 0.1 mg/l.
4.1.3.2 Aldehydes (carbonyl compounds)
The most important aldehyde is ace taldehyde
w hich occurs as a normal intermediate product
in alcoholic fermentation (see Fig. 4.2). Acetalde-
hyde is excreted into the green beer by yeast du-
ring the fi rst tlu'ee days of fennentation. It is re-
sponsible fo r the "green" yotmg beer fla vour
which is also referred to as cellar or musty aroma.
In the fu rther course of fermentation the con-
centration of ace taldehyd e decreases because it
is removed agai n. Consequently the immature
beer flavour constantly decreases.
In the young beer phase the aldehyd e content
is about 20 to 40 m g/l and it decreases to a value
of less than 8 to 10 m g/l in fin.i shed beer.
The ace taldehyde concentrati on is increased
by:
rapid fe rmentation,
temperature increase during fermentation,
increased yeast dosage,
pressure application during th e primary fe r-
mentation,
too little wort aeration, and
infected worts.
Removal of the ald ehyde for med is fa vou red
by:
all measures to p romote vigorous secondary
fermentation and maturation,
a warmer maturation stage,
sufficient wort ae ration, and
increased yeas t concentration in the matura ti-
on stage.
4.1.3.3 High er alcohols
In contras t to the vicinal diketon es and aldehy-
des, w hi ch belong to the yOtlllg beer aroma sub-
s tances, the h igher alcoh ols or "fusel oils" are fi-
nished beer aro ma compound s.
There are several ways to fo rm higher alco-
hols:
Yeas t conve rts amino acids present in the
wort to hi gher alcohols by deamination, de-
carboxylation and reduction, as alread y des-
cribed in Sect. 4.1.2.2.
Higher alcohols can also be formed by way of
the hydroxy acids or ke to acids as interme-
diates.
Higher alcohols are also synthesised from su-
gar by way of ace tate.
About 80% of the higher alcohol is formed
during the primary ferm entation . In the lage-
ring stage there is only a slight increase. The
higher alcoh ols p roduced calmot be removed
again by normal technological measures. The
higher alcohol con centration must therefore be
adjusted by control during fermentation.
Factors w hich affect the fo rmation of higher
alcohols in beer:
The producti on of higher alcohols is increa-
sed by:
increasing the fermentation temperature,
movem ent of the green beer, e.g . by sti rring or
pumping,
reducing the amino acid concentration in
wort,
intensive aeration of the pitching wort,
rep eated topping up w ith wort batches,
pitchin g temperatures above 8 DC,
increasin g the wor t concentra tion above 13 %.
The formation of higher alcohols is decreased
by:
increasin g the yeast pitching rate,
colder p itchin g temperature,
colder fermentati on,
use of pressure as ea rly as the primary fe r-
menta tion stage,
avoida nce of oxygen entry after pitching, and
sufficient amino acid content in the pitching
wort.
Concentra ti ons of higher alcohols above 100
mg/l dam age the flavo ur and acceptability of
the beer. The content of h.igher alcohols in p ale
full beers is 70 to 90 m gil.
4.1.3.4 Esters
Esters are the m os t important aroma com -
pounds in beer and to a large extent determine
its aroma . Esters are fo rmed during fermentati-
on by esterification of fa tty acids with alcohols.
Active aro ma prod ucing esters in beer are:
etl1}rl acetate (solvent arom a)
isoamyla cetate (banan a-like arom a)
isobutylacetate (pineapple-like aroma)
(rose-like aro ma)
ethylcap roate (apple-like aro ma)
ethylcaprylate (a pple-like aroma)
Typical concentrations in beer are, in the case
of bottom fermenting full beer 10 - 30 mg/l
ethyl ace tate - 15 mg/l
isoamylace tate - 1.0 - 1.9 mg/l
and in top fermenting full beers 40 - 80 m g/l
ethyl ace tate - 20 - 50 mg/l
• isoamylace tate - 1.8 - 5.0 mg/l
All esters contribute subliminally to the aro-
ma of the beer, w hereby an increase of the ester
content does not necessa rily lead to an increase
in the es tery note. High con centrations of high
alcohols can reduce the estery impression.
433
The forma tion of esters is a hi ghl y complex
process whi ch is affected by almost all techno-
logical fac tors and can therefore be con trolled
by a multitu de of teclmologica l parameters:
Tell/ pemtll re
An in crease in temperature leads to increased 4
ester for mati on.
Aemtioll
An increase in ae ration leads to an increase in
ester for mation; in the case of low aera tion, the
ester for mation decreases. The supply of oxy-
gen to the yeast affects the syn thesis of fa tty
acids fo r the formation of new cell membran es:
as long as fatty acid s are fo rmed, synthesis of
the es ters is stopped .
Pitching alllOllnt
An increase in the pitching number increases
the es ter fo rmation.
Mash / wort acidification
In the case of mash I wor t acidifica tion, more
g rowth p romotin g subs tan ces are added,
w hich lead s to an increase in ester formation . In
white beers, m ash I wort acidifica tion someti-
mes leads to excessive es ter concentra tion s,
w hich can be perceived as tlllpleasant.
Original gmvity
High original gravity concentrations lead to in -
creased ester formation.
Sligar composition
The ratio of glucose to m altose is always similar
in the usu al m ashin g procedu res. An in crease
in the prop ortion of glucose always lead s to an
increase in ester formation (see Glu cose Proce-
dure - Sect. 3.2.4.3.1 and Fig. 3.40a).
Yenst strain
Yeast s trains possess very diffe rent ester for-
 434
ming abilities. A change of yeast s train can lead
to drastic changes in the character of the beer.
Fenllel1ter height
The fermenter geometry has a major effect on
ester formation. The ester content increases
4 with increasing fermenter height because the
hydrostatic pressure and carbon dioxide con-
tent thereby increase [33].
Proteolytic solutiol1
An increase in the proteolytic solution leads to
a decrease in ester formation . Excessive proteo-
lytic solution does indeed promote ester forma-
tion, however due to its harmful effect on foam
and flavour stability, this is not a suitable way
to increase ester formation.
Lnuteril1g
Hazy lautering introduces more fatty acids
which are important for the formation of new cell
substances; ester formation is thereby inhibited.
Ester formation is therefore a very complica-
ted process and it is not always easy to influen-
ce ester production.
Ester formation is affected by the following
factors:
Ester formation is increased by:
increasing the wort concentration,
increasing the attenuation limit,
increasing the aeration of the wort,
higher fermentation temperatures.
Ester formation is decreased by:
low wort concentrations,
low attenuation limit,
avoidance of wort aeration,
lower fermentation temperatures,
increased pressure during fermentation.
In the case of top fermenting beers, in parti-
cular in the use of yeast for the production of
wheat beer, increased amolmts of esters and ot-
her aroma substances are formed which give
the beer a characteristic aroma (see Sect.
7.3.1.2).
4.1.3.5 Sulphur compounds
Volatile sulphur COlllpOI/1U/S
Yeast metabolism resu.lts in the formation of vo-
latile sltlphm compOlU1ds, such as H,S, mercap-
tans and other compou.nds, which are important
for the flavour of the beer, but which can also ha-
ve a detrimental effect, since even in very small
amounts, they are very flavour and aroma inten-
sive. If their flavour tlu-eshold is exceeded tlley
give beer an wu-ipe, yOlmg beer taste.
Such spoiling of beer flavour by volatile Sltlp-
hur compounds can also occur as a result of in-
fection by thermobacteria which li,kewise pro-
duce such by-products.
Hydrogen sulphide is produced during fer-
mentation from sulphur-containing amino
acids. Deficiency or absence of growth factors
in the yeast can also lead to a higher H,S con-
centration in the fermenting wort. Hydrogen
sulphide is very volatile and is partially desor-
bed during fermentation and maturation by the
ascending carbon dioxide bubbles. The amOlU1t
desorbed increases with:
increasing temperature, and
increasing liquid height.
Chemical and biochemical removal of the 11,5
in beer is an important factor in the fermentati-
on and maturation of beer.
Mercaptans are thioalcohols, compolU1ds in
which the OH-group of the alcohol is replaced
by an SH-group. They are among the com-
pounds which can cause most damage to beer
aroma . They are also partially responsible for
the so-called light-struck flavour of beer. The
mercaptan content increases up to 60 to 70% at-
tenuation and then decreases again. As a resltlt
of oxygen entry they are oxidised to disulphi-
des which have a less damaging sensory effect.
Sulpllur dioxide (SO,)
sulphur dioxide is formed from the sulphate of
the wort. Sulphur dioxide uses up oxygen and
thuS has a beneficial effect on the flavour s tabi-
lity of the beer.
A distinction is m ade between three phases of
SO, formation during fermentation (Fig. 4.6a):
At the start of cell grow th there is a great re-
quire ment of sulphur-containing amino
acids, which are provided by means of its
own reserves and amino acids from the wort.
During cell growth, there continues to be a
large requirement of su I phur-containing
amino acids. Ll addition, sulphate is assimila-
ted from the wort and converted to sulphite,
which the yeast cell uses up itself; very little
sulphite excretion occurs .
As a result of the lack of nutrients, the yeast
growth is inhibited, however the sulphate as-
similation continues and the excess sulphite
is excreted from the cell
The formation of SO, depends on the yeast
strain and is only activated at the end of the
growth phase of the yeast, that is to say on the
2'· or 3'd day of fermentation. It then continues
until the end of fermentation [296, 335] .
By suitably controlling the growth of the ye-
ast, the formation of SO, can be increased.
Thus, SO, increases on reducing
aeration (10 I/hl or less) and by using
80% of the yeast crop as assimilation
yeast.
The entire yeast should be pitched
with the first brew and aeration
should be allocated to the individual
Fig.4.6n
Stnges of SO,Jonllntioll dllrillg primnry fenllell-
l
tntiOIl
(J) Stnrt of cell grow til, (2) rapid cell growtil, (3)
illilibit ioll of cell growtil, (4) yenst cellll llmbel;
(5) SO, COlltellt, (6) extract cOlltellt
435
brews (1s t brew 70 %, 2nd brew 30 %, 3'" and 4th
brews not aera ted) - or all brews on ly modera-
tely aera ted . The yeast only requires oxygen
during the growth phase for the formation of
new cell substances (formation of fatty acids for
the cell membrane formation).
L1 general, more DMS is washed out during 4
warm fermentation than cold fermentation. If
counterpressure exists, washing out is inhibited .
With increased lagering the DMS content ri-
ses aga in slightly. In general, the DMS content
of the pitching wort is the same as that fOlmd in
the finished beer. DMSO can be reduced to
DMS by contaminants; this can then no longer
be expelled and impairs the flavour of the beer.
4.1.3.6 Organic acids
The organic acids present in beer are formed
mainly by yeast from tlle amino acids present in
wort. Yeast removes from the arnino acid tile ami-
no group (-NH,) which it needs to syntllesise its
own cellular proteins, and it releases the organic
acids formed by tllis deamination into the beer.
Thus, in addition to the lligher alcohols which are
formed by a similar metabolism, a wide spectrlUn
of orga.tlic acids wllich Ca.tl affect taste is also pro-
duced in beer.
6
2 3
 u

436
437

4.1.3.7 Evaluation of the aroma compounds in beer (according to Miedaner) CompOLmd Average value Threshold 4.1.4.1 Changes in the composition of nitro-
analysed (mg/ I) values gen compounds
Aroma compound Concentration Flavour Aroma Ethyl ace tate 24.1 1.3 - 44 During fermentation and maturation, the yeast
range mg/l threshold mg/l impression n-propanol 12.3 1.3 -22.5 excretes some of the nitrogen compOlmds again
i-butanol 10.6 0.5 - 21 in the form of amino acids and lower pep tides.
Higher alcohols: i-amyl acetate 1.6 0.3 - 3.6 These excretion processes should be considered
4 2-methyl propanol 5 - 20 10 - (200) alcohol 2-methyl butanol 13.6 0.6 - 21 to occur in two separate steps: 4
2-methyl butanol 10 - 20 10 - (65) alcohol, solvent 3-methyl butanol 42.5 2.5 - 70
3-methyl butanol 35 -70 30 - (70) alcohol, banana acetate 0.6 0.2 - 1.7 1. Excretiol1 by the yeast cells which oCCllrs after the
2-phenylethanol 10 - 20 28 - (125) roses ethyl COlllpletiol1 of the primary fermentatiol1
30 - 50 (in wheat beer) alcohol 20.2 20.2 -130 The nutrient supply has in essence been used
L higher alip hatic
up. The yeast is alive but the life-related proces-
Esters: alcohols 78.9 4.9 - 130 ses have become weaker. The yeast now excre-
ethyl acetate 5 - 30 25 - 30 fruity, boiled sweets
tes substances which to a certa in extent contri-
isobutyl acetate 0.1 0.4 - (1.6) fruity, banana
bute to the rOlmding of the taste and an increase
isoamyl acetate 0.5 - 2.5 1 - 1.6 fruity, banana Factors which affect the development of fer- in palate fullness. These substances include
ethyl butyrate 0.3 0.4 papaya, apple mentation by-prod ucts: amino acids and pep tides, vitamins, phosphate,
ethyl hexanoate 0.1 - 0.3 0.12 - 0.23 apple, fruity The immature beer aroma compounds from glycoproteins and enzymes. These beer flavour
ethyl dodecanoate 0.02 3.5 soapy, estery the aldehyde and sulphur compOLmd groups ch anges occur in the presence of yeast and can
ethyl lactate 0.1 - 0.5 250 fruity, strawberry should generally be controlled using the sa- be considered to be an important contribution
0.4 - 0.8 (bioI. acid ifica tion) me teclmological measures as the vicinal di- to beer maturation . Too early collecting of the
ketones.
yeast can therefore produce empty, dry beers
Organic acids: The process control during fermentation and even when they are subsequently lagered for an
butyric acid 0.2 - 0.6 1.2 - 2.2 cheesy, rancid maturation must ensure a predetermined even longer time.
isovaleric acid 0.5 - 1.2 1.5 - 1.6 cheesy, old hops amOlmt of mature beer aroma compOlmds in
octanoic acid 3 -10 10 - 13 oily the beer.
2. Excretion processes which result from a 11011-re-
decanoic acid 0.8 10 rancid The ester content of beer is affected mainly by versible degradatiol1 of cell lllaterial by the yeasts'
dodecanoic acid 0.1 - 0.5 6 soapy the wor t quality; the higher alcohol content OWI1 intemal enzYllles.
by the process control. These processes lead to the self-digestion (auto-
Vicinal diketones: lysis) of the yeast cells (see Sect. 4.4.4). When
diacetyl 0.1 0.10 - 0.15 sweet, revolting 4.1.4 Other reactions and changes autolysis occurs the following adverse effects
acetoin 3 8 - 20 fruity Besides the formation of by-products a number of on quality are caused:
other reactions and changes occur dm'ing fermen- substantial worsening of taste with a tendency
Sulphur compolmds: tation whid1 me very important. These include: towards a creosote-like foreign taste,
dimethyl sulphide 0.03 - 0.12 0.10 - 0.12 vegetables, musty changes in the composition of the nitrogen an increase in beer pH as a result of the excre-
compolmds, tion of basic amino acids,
lowering of the pH val ue, change in beer colour,
alteration of the redox potential of the beer, decreased biological and colloida l stability,
lightening of the beer colour, head retention (foam stability) is decreased
At the VLB Berlin in 2006 the following ave- Compound Average valu e Tlu-eshold precipitation of bitter subs tances and poly- (see yeast proteinase A),
rage valu es for aliphatic alcohols, a ldehydes analysed (mg/I) values phenols,
the bitterness is broader and more persistent,
and esters were determined in 89 beer analyses Acetaldehyde 9.2 1.7 - 37 dissolving of CO, in the beer, and the diacetyl concentration increases because
[372] (bottom fermenting beers): Ethyl formate <0.1 <0.1 -1.1 clariiica tion of the beer. of inadequate removal,
 438
beer in fec tions occur more frequently,
flavour stability is decreased becau se of less
reducti on,
filtrati on problems.
Because about 70 % of the nit rogenous mate-
rial is present in the form of amino acids in beer,
4 the begimling of autolysis can be de tected by an
excessive increase in the amino acid content.
4.1.4.2 Lowering of the pH value
The pH decreases substantially during fe rmen-
tation, fro m
5.3 - 5.6 in the pitching wort, in the case of b io-
logical acidifi ca ti on from 5.0 - 5.3, to
4.2 - 4.6 in beer.
The pH decreases p articularly in the initial
and 10ga ritlU1lic grow th ph ases as a result of:
the formation of organ ic acids by deaminati-
on,
the use of prim ary ph osphate ions by the ye-
as t,
the uptake of ammon ium ions (- NH ,) by the
yeast, and
the uptake of potassium ions by the yeast and
release of hyd rogen ions into the b eer.
During the fermentation phase the pH value
slowly decreases and fin ally remains constant.
An increase in pH indicates the begimung of
yeast autolysis.
The pH has a considerable effect on the qua-
lity of the beer. A beer pH between 4.2 and 4.4 is
aimed for.
A pH of less than 4.4
accelerates precipitation of colloidallmstable
protein-poly phenol complexes,
produces fa ster maturation,
refines the beer taste, and
is an essential requirement for better biologi-
cal stability of the beer.
Lower pH values, especially below 4.1, cause
an acidic beer tas te and must be avoided . In
particular, acid ification by microbial infections
du ring fe rmenta tion and m atura tion m ust be
completely excl uded .
The foll ow ing fac tors favo ur a lower pH:
softening of the brew ing liquor (residual alka-
linHy below 5 °d H),
biological acidifi ca tion of the m as h and wort,
measures to increase the percentage attenua-
ti on,
littl e diffe rence between the fin al attenu ation
reached and the attenuation limi t,
avoidan ce of yeast autolysis,
use of a su itable wor t quality an d other mea-
sures for obtajning good yeast multiplication,
measures to en su re a vigorous fe rmentation
(hi gher tem peratu re, pitching ra te) .
4.1.4.3 Ch an ges in the redox p rop erties of b eer
By redox p roperties or redox potential is meant
the re lationshjp between reducing an d oxidi-
sing power in a solution . An impor tant change
durin g the fermentation of wor t is an increase
in the reducing power of the beer. The increase
in the reducing p ower is closely related to the
utili sa tion of the dissolved oxygen in the wort
by the yeas t.
The red ox state of beer can be measured by:
the rH value (nega tive logarithm of the hy-
drogen partial pressure),
the ITT value (Indicato r Time Test of Gray
and Stone), or
the oxygen concentration in the beer.
The rH and ITT va lues are greatly decreased
during ferm entation:
rH value ITT value
Wo rt 20-30 250-500
Green beer 8-12 70-200
Th e oxygen in the pitching wort is very ra-
pidly utilised by the yeast after pitching and in
b
the lager ta n k reaches va lues of 0.00 to 0.01 mg
0 ,/1 beer. It will be descri bed however,
hoW diffic ult it is to keep the oxygen conten t so
low durin g filling.
Beer with a low rH can be obtained in the fer-
mentation and ma turation p rocesses by:
use of processes employing closed vessels,
vigoro us, extensive ferm entation,
all meas u res whjch prevent oxygen u p take,
particularl y afte r pitching the yeas t into the
wort.
4.1.4.4 Chan ges in the b eer colour
In the firs t days of fermentation the colour of
the bee r becom es about 3 EBC units lighter.
This is attributable to
the decoloura tion of some substa nces caused
by the drop in p H, and
adsorption of highly coloured substan ces on
the yeast cells or precipitation in the foam
head or tank bo ttoms.
4.1.4.5 Precipitation of bitter subs tances and
polyphenols
As a result of the decrease in p H during fe r-
mentation, a number of colloid ally dissolved
bitter substan ces and p olyphenols are b ro ught
into their isoelectric point range and are preci-
pitated as surface ac tive compOlU1ds on the CO,
bubbles in the foam hea d or as a result of ad-
sorption on the yeas t cells.
TIle a.-acids n ot isom erised during the boi-
ling process precipitate because at a pH below
5.0 and temperatures below 10 °C they are only
slightly soluble.
Part of the isohumulone also precipita tes on
the top covering surfaces because isohumulo-
nes are very surface acti ve and they are captu-
red by the ascending CO2 bubbles and ca rried
upwards with them .
The foa m formed on the surface wh ich con-
tains tlle p recipitated subs tan ces is known as
foam head (hausen) . In open ferm entation, this
439
foa m head (as a yeast head) is removed at the
end of the m ain fermen ta tion. In the case of clo-
sed fe rmentati on, this yeast h ea d fin ally collap-
ses whereby some of the precipitated bitter su b-
stan ces go into solution again . As a result of the
form ati on of foam head, a foam h ead volume of
20% h as to be reckoned w ith in the CCT (cylin- 4
dro-conjcal tank).
In conven tional fermentation and m atura ti-
on, s tar ting with the amount of bittering sub-
s tances in the cold pitclung wort as 100 %,
25 to 30 % is lost, 70 to 80 % orthis by the end
of primary fermentation.
Up to 50% is lost in very hjgh tempera ture
fermen ta bons.
CO, cOlltellt of beer
The CO, content of beer is one of its mos t im-
portan t quality criteria.
Lively beers with a good amOlmt of foa m ha-
ve a CO, content of 0.45 to 0.50%.
Only about 15% of the CO, produced remains
dissolved in beer. TIle largest p art escapes during
fermentation and is available for CO, recovery.
TIle solubility of CO, in beer dep ends on
the temperature; the solubility decreases with
increasing tempera tme, an d on
the pressure on the liquid; the solubility in-
creases prop ortion a tely w ith the pressure
(see Sect. 4.3.5.1).
4.1.4.7 Clarification and colloidal s tability of
beer
The las t phase of the maturation p rocess serves
to clarify the beer an d improve its filterability
and also increase its colloidal stability (see Sect.
4.6.2.2).
A m easure of the clarifica tion of the beer p ro-
cess is that the yeas t cell con centration present
in suspen sion at the filter inlet sh ould be less
than 2 x 106 cells/ml.
Clarification of the beer is affected by
a vigorous pre-fermentation resulting in as
 440
high as possible pH va lue fall
the p-glu can content of the beer
the a mount and properties of the trub m a teri-
al in the beer
the temperature of the beer (co rrectl y timed
low temperature cooling)
4 how vigorous the second ary ferme nta tion is
(agita ti on of the beer)
the pH of the beer (pH 4.2 to 4.4 improves cl a-
ri fica tion)
the shape of the lager tank and the liquid
height (the smaller the depth o f liquid the
better the cla rification)
the clarification time (1 to 2 weeks a t 0 to -1 °C)
the viscosity of the beer.
Fig. 4.6al provides an overview of the most
important changes during fe rm enta ti on of voll-
bier wort (according to Annemueller).
4.1.5 Effects of different factors on the
yeast
During the cultivation, fermenta tion and m atu-
ration, as w ell as in yeast lagering, fac tors may
arise w hich h ave a nega ti ve effect on the yeast
cell, limit the m e tabolic ac tivities or lead to a to-
tal loss of viability. All of these fac tors represe nt
stress fac tors and lea d to malfunctions [1 77].
These in clude:
Increased ex trac t content
When brew ing w ith higher original grav ity, fe r-
mentation difficulties often occur because the su-
gar concentration is too high and amino acids are
not available in sufficient quantities. The hal ting
of fermenta tion can only be corrected by a rene-
wed pitching of yeast or by krausening.
Increased e than ol and CO, content
The alcoh ol content of "normal" lager beers of
4.7 to 5.0 % vol is ac hieved by the yeas t with no
problem s. It has to remembe red, however, that
both alcoh ol and CO, are poisons for the yeast
cells, which they fin d increasingly difficult to
get rid of as fe rmenta tion progresses, because
the content in the beer ri ses with increasing fe r-
m enta tion . This means stress for the yeas t.
Fig.4.6nl
CiTn llges rill rillgfen llell iniioll of
vollbicr worl [303}
(1) Toln l exlmct
(frolll 11 - 12 % 10 1.8 - 2.5%),
(2) SlIgnr collccll im iioll
(frolll 8 - 10 IIInSS % 10 0 -
0.5%),
(3) pH vnllle
(frolll 5.2 - 5 .6 10 4.1 - 4.5),
(4) Dissolveri oxygeJ1
(fro lll 8 - 9 IlIg 0 / 110 a IIIgll),
(5) OSlIIolic press llre
(frolll 0.8 MPn 10 2.3 MPn),
(6) Yensl coll cell imiioll
(frolll 15 - 30 lIIio celis/III I 10
50 - 90 lII io celis/III I),
(7) Elllnllol CO IICeJ1 lmlioll
(frolll a 10 4 - 5 IIInSS %),
(8) CO, collceJ1lmlioll
Time ------.
(fro lll a 10 3 - 6 gil)
The increasing alco hol has three d ifferent e f-
fects on the m e tabolism of the yeas t:
it hinders cell g row th,
it decreases the number of li ving cells, and
it inh ibits fe rmenta tion .
With increasing alcohol content, consid e rable
changes in the concentra tion of individual fatt y
acids in the phospholi pid m embrane of the ce ll
wall are d e tected, w hich also have a n ega tive ef-
fect on the qu ality. Proteinase A is excre ted in
ever larger a mounts, w hich h as a harmful effect
on the foa m.
H igh er alcoh ol contents are seldom observed
in the p roduction of beer. The highest alcoh ol
conten t of 15% vol is obtained by the Fren ch
brand "Belzebuth", howeve r, onl y throu gh the
use of sp ecial yeas t and w ith ex treme measures.
Lack of nutri ents
In some worts the zinc content is too low to be
able to p erfo rm quick ferm enta tion. The lower
threshold for problem free fe rmentation is a va-
lue of 0.12 mgll.
Since m ost of the zin c rem ains in the spent
grains, solutions have to be fOLU1d to raise the
zinc content in the wo rt to a minimum level (see
Sect. 3.2.1.7).
The u se of suga r or raw grain m ay lead to a
shortage of nutrients because the sugar conh'ibu-
tes absolutely no protein and the protein in the
raw grain has not ye t been solubilised. A lack of
growth substances then frequently occurs.
Keeping it under water for a long time w ea-
kens the yeas t.
Oxygen suppl y to the yeast
In order to multiply w ith out difficulty the yeas t
requi res oxygen . When oxygen is supplied, es-
sential lipids and also LU1sa turated fatty acids
are forme d which are required for cell forma ti-
on. If the yeast is not o r insufficiently aerated
the yeas t h as a d eficiency of these substan ces,
multip lication comes to a halt prematurely,
441
fe rmenta tion problems occu r and the d urati-
on of fer mentation is prolonged, and
the proportion of dead cells increases con si-
dera bly.
The contro lled suppl y of oxygen to the yeas t
a t the beginning of ferm entation is therefore an
ex tremely important fac tor. The lowe r t11Ies- 4
hold is considered to b e 8 to 10 m g 0 ,/1. It can be
ass umed that the supplied oxygen is u sed w it-
hin a few hours and it does not have a dam a-
g ing effect on the flavour s tability of the beer.
In the case of over-ae ration, oxidative
s tress occurs with the form ation of radicals due
to the i.nduction of radical fo rming enzymes.
Low temperatures
The tempera tures used for bo ttom fermenta ti-
on a re cons id erably lower than the optimum
tempera ture of the yeast en zym es. During yeast
culti va tion, tempera tures are alrea d y u sed
w hich are increasingly simila r to those of the
future fermentation .
If the yeas t is introduced into cold wort or is
grea tly cooled dow n, a sh ock secre tion imme-
diately occurs in the yeast, in which amino
acids and nucleotides are excreted . Multiplica-
tion slows down or stops comple tely, ferm enta-
tion is also slowed or com es to a complete h alt.
Yeast is ex trem ely sen siti ve to d own ward
tempe ra ture changes (cold shock) .
H igh te mperatures
A short-term heating of the yeast to temperatu-
res of 37 to 40 °C leads to a h ea t sh ock. This re-
sults in an increased protein synthesis of certain
proteins [1 77], which re turn to norm al m etabo-
lism after a few hours.
H ea t shock treahnent is n ot integrated into
usu al procedures.
H igh pressure
In the case of pressure fer m enta tio n an over-
pressure of 0.2 to 1.8 bar is built up w ith the
 442
help of a spigo t fitting. As a result, the con cen-
tration of CO, in the beer increases. The stress
param eter thereby affecting the yeast is not the
increased stati c pressure but the increased CO,
partial pressure in the beer.
As a result of the increased CO, content, the
4 reconstruction of the yeast's own cell substan-
ces is inhibited, whilst degradation is also inhi-
bited but not to the same ex tent as the recon-
stru ction. As a result ferm entation is possible at
comparably high temperatures without the in-
creased formation of typica l aroma compo-
nents, such as esters and higher alcohols, asso-
ciated with strong yeast multiplication.
Th is list shows that there is a whole range of
stress factors for the yeast, by which an other-
wise normal course of ferm entation can be mo-
re or less seriously affected. Of particular signi-
ficance in this context is that the ye:.'ls t produces
yeast proteinase A in stress situations, which
has a foam damaging effect (see Sect. 4.4.4.1
and 4.1.2.2) .
4.1.6 Flocculation of the yeast (break for-
mation)
Towards the end of the main fermentation the
yeast cells begin to aggregate, they flocculate,
form yeast break and increasingly se ttle on the
floor (sedimentation). This characteristic varies
considerably depending on the strain of yeas t.
As a result there are:
non-flocculent yeasts, which form almost no
break, and
flocculent yeasts with a grea ter or lesser break
formation ability.
The break form ation ability is a strain charac-
teristic which CaiUlOt be altered, but which can,
however, sometimes transform itself from floc-
culent yeast to n on-flocculent yeast (particular-
ly as a degeneration phenomenon) . The causes
of break formation ability are n ot exactly
known. It is known, however, that brea k form a-
tion ability:
is a genetic charac teristic, in w hich eleven ge-
nes [205] playa part, and that
certain factors in beer (temperature, cations,
pH va lue, pressure etc.) exert an influence.
Th ere is, however, no knowledge about
which factors and how they have to interact to
cause break formation. The cell wall of the yeast
cell, which has a complica ted structure (see
Sect. 1.4.1), plays a considerable role by enab-
ling flocculation du e to its tendency to bond.
The brewer, however, h as no influence on the
course of break formation. The only possibility
exists in the correct choice of yeast s train.
Break formation can either occur relatively
su ddenly or slowly. It h as an effect on a number
of processes, such as, for exa mple:
the attainable level of atten uation,
the collecting of the yeast,
the clarification of the beer, and
the filtration standing times.
4.1.7 Degeneration of the yeast
The yeast does not retain its properties lUllimi-
tedly over many generations, and it can dege-
nerate, i.e. it loses certain quality characteri-
stics.
Signs of degeneration are:
the yeast sediment becom es increasingly fla-
ky from generation to generation,
fermentation becomes slower and increasing-
ly incomplete,
ferm entation intensity becomes significan tly
worse,
the attenuation limit of the beer deteriorates,
the proportion of higher alcohols increases to
the disadvantage of the esters and results in
less aromatic beer,
the vitality of the yeast crop decreases and the
proportion of dead yeast cells increases,
the utilisa tion of FAN decreases and the pH
value of the beer increases,
the reduction abilities of the yeast decrease
and the flavour stability deteriorates.
a
Reasons for the degeneration of yeas t are:
keeping the yeast und er water too long or too
warm (see Sect. 4.4.4.3),
slow start of ferm entation, too long a lag phase,
damage to the yeas t in the pitching and pro-
paga tion phase,
shortage of nutrients and growth substa nces
(FAN, Zn),
toxic da m age (e.g. nitra te content).
4.1.8 Physiological condition of the yeast
TIle evaluation of the physiological condition of
the yeast is of great importance for the brewer,
who expects all of his yeas t cells to be healthy and
have sh'ong fermentative ability. This is not al-
ways the case, for each yeast crop al-
ways contains 1 to 3 % dead yeast cells, which can
rise to 10 to 20 % (and higher). The situation then
becomes serious because a range of further meta-
bolic processes start which can ha ve a very detri-
mental effect on the beer. The cells which are still
alive are more or less healthy and ha ve sh'ong fe r-
mentative ability. To an alyse thi s, h-vo methods
are used: viability and vitality.
By viability (abi lity to live) is meallt the deter-
mlllation of the percental proportion of living
or dead yeast cells in a yeas t sample. The sim-
plest and most common method of measure-
ment of the viability of the yeast is consists in
dying the yeast sample with methylene blue.
This dye only penetrates dead yeas t cell s, co-
loming them dark blue, so that und er a mi cros-
cope they can be easi ly cOlmted and the percen-
tage determined .
This check can and sh ould be carried out in
every brewery. It gives a good indication of the
viability of the yeast. Unaware of the situation,
some breweries pitch huge amounts of (weak
fermentative) yeast and wonder why they en-
COlmter difficulties with foam . In rea lity, the d e-
ad yeast has released large amounts of the foam
impairlllg proteinase A into the beer.
Yeast vitality is a measure for the yeas t activi-
443
ty or fermentative abi lity; it expresses the phy-
siological condition of the livillg yeast and its
ability to endure stress.
In the case of yeast vitality, the fermentation
speed of the yeast, for example, or its acid for-
ming ability or ATP content are measured in the
labora tory using the intra cellular pH value 4
(ICP) . The measurement of the yeas t vitality is
of great importance for the knowledge of the
physiologica l condition of the yeas t.
The higher the ICP is (in pH va lue lUutS), the
grea ter the vitality of the yeast. It can be assu-
med that an rcp above 6.2 is classified as very
good, an ICP of 6.2 - 5.8 is rated as good to mo-
derate and below tlus is classified as poor [339,
385]. Yeas ts with a low vitality (low rcp value)
h ave a significantly n ega tive effect on fermenta-
tion sp eed, diacetyl removal and SO, formation.
4.2 Pure yeast culture propagation
The quality of the yeas t is of d ecisive sigIufican-
ce for the bee r quality. The quantity of yeast re-
quired for fermentation can be obtained by pro-
pagation of a pure yeast culture . The quantity
of yeast recovered from fermentation can either
be reused in the cycle or used as su rplus or wa-
ste yeast (Fig . 4.6b).
The principle of cultivating pure yeast con -
sis ts of isolating vigorous yeas t cells and multi-
pl ying their number in contamin ation h"ee con-
ditions until there is sufficient yeast to pitch a
fermenter.
There are three distinct stages in pure yeast
propagation:
1. the recovery of suitable yeast cell s,
2. cultivation in the laboratory to the amOlmt of
5 to 10 I of green beer,
3. yeas t multiplication in the plant until an
amolmt sufficient for pitclung is obtained .
Firstly, however, a sta tement mu st be made
about the ftmdamental aspects of yeast propa-
ga tion.
 444
4 S/lpply of amilta achfs altn trace elellleltts
Yeast dosage and pitching
Pretreatment of the settled yeast
Fig.4.6b
Positioll of pure yenst propngntioll ill tile beer productioll process
4.2.1 Basics of yeast propagation
The aim of yeast propaga tion is to make pit-
ching yeast with the correct metabolism availa-
ble in the shortest possible time lmder s terile
conditions, which leads to normal fermentation
and good beer quality. The correct treatment of
the yeast and its cultivation is of considerable
importance here.
Above all, the following factors are necessary
for yeast propagation: an appropriate tempera-
ture, the supply of oxygen, free amino acids,
fatty acids and trace elements.
Supply of oxygelt
An important factor for yeast propagation is the
supply of oxygen. With the start of respiration,
the yeast is in a position to activate the metabo-
lism and fo rm new cell substan ces . The sugar
Krausen
Deposits
Beer recovery
Surplus yeast I Waste yeast I
content of the wort, however, hinders respirati-
on and promotes the start of fermentation
(Crabtree effect; see Sect. 4.2 .1.1). It is therefore
not possible to increase yeast propaga tion by
increasingly intensive aera tion.
With cell formation begins the form ation and
storage of phospholipid s, which form the main
component of the double layer of the cellmem-
brane. By means of the oxygen, a part of the fat-
ty acid s are converted to unsa turated fa tty
acids, which are ch aracterised by a lower mel-
ting point and enable a better exchange tluough
the membrane. Oxygen is also required for the
synthesis of sterols. Sterol syn thesis is thereby
very closely connected with yeast grow th; on
the other hand it is linked w ith the enrichment
of glycogen in the yeast cell.
The reverse app lies in the relationship bet-
ween the form ati on of lip ids and the for mation
of esters: as long as lipids (with the supply of
oxygen) are form ed, the fo rmation of esters is
stopped.
The amino acids and mineral subs tances contai-
ned in the wort suffice to carry out fermentati-
on. If the yeast is multiplied, h owever, the for-
ming yeas t cells need far more amino acids and
mineral substances which are not presen t, so
that even w ith ex trem ely vigorous aeration,
with cell grow th of about 80 million yeast
cells/ml, propagation comes to a halt. Limiting
elements are mainly the 200 to 240 mg/l of ami-
no acids con tained in the wort, of which n ot all
(such as proline) can be assimila ted by the yeas t
cell.
Experiments [327], on the other hand, have
shown that as a result of the addition of 50 g
malt germs/hI (grOlU1d and sterilised), the bio-
mass can be doubled during propaga ti on. The
reason is p rimarily the considera ble increase in
nutrients due to the radicles (15 mg zin c/IOO g,
33.8 g am ino acids/lOO g) as well as a rich sup-
ply of vitamins-riboflavin, pyridoxin, nicotina-
mide, pantothenic acid.
Reqllirellleltts of the wort altn pitchillg yeast
The fo llowing requiremen ts are made of the
pitching wor t:
The pitching wort should
be iodine normal,
correspond in colour and appearance to the
beer type,
contain at leas t 8 to 10 mg 0 / 1,
ha ve a FAN content of 200 to 230 mg/I,
have a zin c content of at least 0.15 m g/l,
have a viscosity of maximum l.7 mPa's (rela-
ted to 10% wort),
have a pH of 5.0 to 5.2, and
contain absolutely no contamination.
445
The pitching yeast must originate from the
pure cu lture for the beer to achieve the desired
sensory profile. Furthermore, the yeast sh ould
develop a good vita lity,
con tain no foreign yeast or contamin ants,
h ave a dead cell proportion of maxi mum 3 %,
and 4
have a thick, pulpy consistency.
4.2.2 Isolation of suitable yeast cells
For propagation pure culture cells of a yeast
which h as been proved to beh ave well in practice
are used. The yeast is isolated in the high krausen
stage. Using the method described by Lindner,
drops containing individual yeas t cells are isola-
ted under the microscope (Lindner drop culture) .
Severa l such single cell culhu'es are obtained and
allowed to grow at 8 to 10 0c, in other words at
the temperature at which it fe rments in the fer-
m entation cellar. Growth of the different yeast
cells can be followed lU1der the microscop e and
a selection can be made. The most vigorously
fermenting yeast colony is absorbed by a sterile
filter p aper strip and added to 5 ml of sterile
wa ter in a multiplied and continued
in steps until a ra tio of 1 : 10 is reached.
If the yeast is not to be used again inuned iately,
the yeast cells are grown on a solid medilU11, usu-
ally wort as a slope culhu'e stored at 0 to 5 °C
and protected from drying out, using for exam-
ple, paraffin oil. The samples can be kept like this
for 6 to 9 months (yeast bank). It is also possible to
freeze the cells and store them in liquid nih'ogen
at a low temperahu'e (cyropreservation),
4.2.3 Propagation in the laboratory
For propaga tion the vessel con taining yeast in 5
ml of wor t is used.
The increase in number of yeast cell s (propa-
gation) (Fig. 4.6c) is achieved by transferring
the vigorously fermenting contents from one
vessel into another vessel contain ing up to 10 ti-
mes as much wort, for exampl e:
 447
446

tion port comp rising a rubbe r m embrane (3) 4.2.4.1 Yeast propagation p lants
Laboratory culture at 20 to 25 °C tluough w hich the inocula tion can be m ad e un- Yeast propaga tion pl ants consist of d osed vessels
der sterile conditi ons b y us in g an inj ecti on of different sizes, m ade of dU'ome-nickel steel, in
needle. For this 100 to 200 ml a re used . which the yeas t is multiplied lmtil there is su ffi-
By cOlmecting steril e air to the sample cock cient to p itch a vessel or tank. There are several
(2), air is introduced into the wor t from below m ethods of yeast propaga tion. Yeast propaga tion
through the ve rtica l pipe and yeas t multipli ca- occurs in the most important p art of the plant, the 4
4
tion is thereby stimulated. propaga tor. The amOLUlt of sterile air important
50 ml 500 ml 1I 51
Single culture When the d esired cell number is reached, for propaga tion is either dish'ibuted by mean s of
compressed air is supplied throu gh the ai r filter direct aera ti on into the propaga tor (Fig. 4.7a, 1) or
(1) to the fl ask and the flask is emptied th ro ugh supplied by an external two-layer jet (2).
Fig.4.6c the ver tical tube and the sample cock (2). Many yeas t propagation plants consist of a
COllvell tioll nl yeast propagnti-
all:
Larger am o unts of w ort cannot be handled in wort steriliser as well as the propagator, in w hidl
Lauoratory w ltllre the labora tory because transporta tion is the n the wo rt to be fermented is sterilised and cooled
at 20 fa 25 DC too difficult. Further stages occur in the yeas t down aga in . Thus a difference is made between a
L
propaga ti on plant in the brewery cellar. one-tank process (propaga tor only) and a two-
tank process (propagator and steriliser). Multi-
1 2 3 4.2.4 Yeast propagation in the brewery plication of the yeast occurs in multiplying tan\(s
Vessel no.
Further multiplica tion of the yeas t occurs in the (propaga tors) of increasing sizes up to the size
10 ml 100 ml 1000 ml
r brewery which m akes it possible to pitch a cylindroconi-
Vessel size
in yeas t propaga tion platlts or cal fermenter. In addition, some smaller propaga-
AmOLmt of 1
5 nIl 50ml 500ml \ in open grow th vessels. tors turn the contents with an agitator and use the
sterile wort
jet system both for aeration and CIP (Fig. 4.7b).
Inoculating
5 ml 55 ml In yeas t p ropagation each yeas t cell sh ould Several points are important in yeas t propa-
liquid vol.
55 ml 555 ml multiply by several times its own body m ass. gation:
Total contents 5 ml
At the end, 100 million yeast cells are produ ced Opera tions must be performed lmder ste rile
Vessels larger than 10 1 are made of m etal in every millilitre of pure culture. This is an in- conditions lUltil the yeast propagation vessel
(chrome nkkel steel) and are called Carlsberg credible pe rforman ce by the yeas t, for w hk h, stage. Contaminating organisms CatUlot be re-
apart from the nutrients in the wort, it needs moved again subsequently because m ost of
fla sks. Normally one u ses
a small Carlsberg flask of 8 to 10 1 capacity above all oxygen: them grow lUlder the sam e conditions as yeast.
oxygen is required above all for the fOl'm a ti- Inten sive sterile aeration of the yeast is neces-
and
a large Carlsberg flask of 20 to 25 I capacity. on of n ew cell substances, par ticularly fa tty sary for rapid yeas t grow th and conseq uent-
The Carlsberg flask (Fig . 4.7) is sealed gas acids for the formation of new cell m embra- ly fo r a healthy, actively fermenting yeas t.
tight with a thread seal (4, 5). Mos t fla sks have nes, Yeas t multiplies much fas ter at tem pera tures
a carrier handle (6) for easier transport, a s terile but becau se the sugar content hinde rs respi- of 20 to 25°C thatl a t lower temperatures. H o-
air filter (1) and a sample cock (2) or a fillin g ra tion, the re is no sense in excessive aeration. we ver, it is essential to bring yeast to the bre-
and emptying hose w ith a flow inducer, to The oxygen has to be well distributed in o r- we ry op erating tempe ra ture conditions in the
which a vertical pipe reaching as far as the base der to reach all the cells. course of propagation fo r it to achieve its full
One has to work w ith a surplus of air; howe- fermenting power in the brewery.
of the fl ask is COlUlected.
The fl ask and wort inside it is sterilised by Fig. 4.7 ver, each air bubble w hich rises too quickly Cas ting wort is u sed fo r pure yeas t p ropaga-
Ca rlsuerg flask can only tratl sfer little oxygen by diffu sion tion beca use the hop bittering compounds it
hea ting, and after cooling to the pitching te m- (1) sterile'n ir Jiltel; (2) sample cock, (3) illoClllntioll cOllllecti-
perature it is inoculated with the yeast. For this all witll fII uuer Illemuralle, (4+5) tlll-enri seal, (6) cnrryillg and contributes to a troublesome foa m for- contains exert an inhibiting effect on grow th
purpose most Carlsberg flas ks have an inocula- IWllrile mation . of contaminations.
 +
449
448

[:=11><11><1, - - - -- , ','
CaJlsJJerg flask Yeast Sterue wort

\ r
CIP
I l I I P lbadcel
4
Fig. 4.7n
Possiuilities of nerntillg tile propngn tillg SJerUeai! _ _ _ _
\ Fig. 4.8
yenst
( 1) plnllt willi direct nerntioll ill tile 1'1'0-
COllti-Prop yenst propngntioll plnllt lW Sterle filter
(Esn l/ & HI/euer colllpnlly)
pngntor
--+- (2) plnllt willl two-Inyer jet ill ti,e circl/-
\ Intioll pipe sterile conditions. First of all the openings of measured by a pressure gauge box. After about
both tap s are flamed to exclude any possibility a day (24 to 36 hours) the contents are at the high
of infec tion. It is important for the wort to be in- krausen (logaritlUll growth) phase and the total
tensively aerated to accelerate multiplication of contents of the vessel are pumped under sterile
the yeas t. For this purpose the wort is pumped conditions into the next largest vessel and top-
out of the initial ste rilisation tank into the yeast ped Lip with sterile aerated wort. This process
2 multiplication tank, and after the required vo- continues until the required amolmt of yeast is
!tune is reached, it is circu lated out of and back obtained.
to the yeast propagation tank with simultane- When the ma ximum volum e is reached in the
ous aeration (Fig. 4.8). The starting volume is yeas t propagation vessel, the fermenting green

a 5 b c

\
6

\ Fig.4.7u
Yenst propngntor witil
n Internl ngitntor nlld
nerntioll (Scnlldi
\ Brew) 5 e f
(l) i\lli\'illg
• (2) Fe/'ll/clItillg 5

to 16 °C and pumped into the yeast multiplica-

Two-tnHk lIlethod
The process stages using the two-tank method
are as follows:
The wort steriliser is filled with wort and hea-
ted for at least 30 min to 100 °C to kill all micro-
organisms. The wort is then cooled to about 14
tion tank (propagation tank).
The yeast is pitched into the propagation
tank. If there are several propagation tanks of
different sizes, then the smallest is inoculated
first with yeast from the Carlsberg flask lmder
Fig. 4.8nl
Yenst propngntioll cycle ill n two- tnllk plnllt
(1) pl'Opngntioll tnllk, (2) III II It iplicntioll tnllk, (3) Cnrlsuels jlnsk, (4) nerntioll, (5) stenlll sterilisel; (6) coolillg
 451
450

wi th wo rt and sterilised. The wort which fo rma tion. By mean s of an intensive suppl y of new yeast from a plue culture is con stantly
beer in the hi gh krausen stage is pumped into
has then cooled down is supplied w ith ste- oxygen, the process can be furt her optim ised. It introduced. The procedure works with " total
the fermenter. At the same time there is another
rile air and filled with the wort from tank 1. should again be emphasised at this s tage that it emptying" (one vessel procedure).
intensive ae ration to ensure an optimal sta rt of
The cycle n ow star ts again from the begin- is the yeas t that req ui res oxygen and not the
ferrnentation.
ning. wort. Based on a propagation plant by the Meura 4.2.4.2 Assimilation procedure
A residue in the high krausen stage remains in
The possibility of obtaining brewery yeast in company (Fig. 4.8a), the yeast is removed from In th e assimilation process according to Back,
the propaga tion vessel to which sterile wort is
immediately added in order to start the propaga- optimal condition for every brew is highly desi- the propagating vessel (1) from below and direc- the wort is fermented in illl assimil ator with ye- 4
rable for every brewing plant. It has already ted thro ugh an exch ange device (2) . In this devi- as t under defined growth conditions (tempera-
tion programme again. For cleaning purposes the
been shown that yeast taken in the loga ritlunic ce there is a series of about 90 rods (1) of 2.5 cm ture, oxygen content, pH, ex tract con tent) . The
propagation tank is emptied completely.
phase offers many adva ntages for fermentation in each of w hidl19 channels (2), with a assimil ator is a stilllding tilllk w ith a cylindro-
By mean s of this topping up ("Drauflassen")
[99]: diameter of abo ut 2.5 mm, are loca ted . The dlilll- conica l or torispherical bottom, as well as the
teclulique it is possible to obtain pure cultures
rapid illitial fermentation, nels consist of a cera mic structlll'e of allillllililllll prescribed illld usual fittillgs (overpressure illld
continually propagated at short intervals lmder
shorter fermentation time, oxide (AlP3)' which has pores of 0.05 pm. The vacuum seals, CIP spra y heads etc.) (Fig. 4.9).
operating conditions and thus to obtain a con-
rapid drop in pH, yeast is pumped th rough the chillUlels, wllilst When a sufficiently large amount of fennen-
stant yeast quality (Fig. 4.9) [63, 107].
ITlOre rapid and more extensive diacetyl re- oxygen at a lligher pressure is plilllped tluough ting beer with yeas t ill the logarithmic phase (80
There are, of course, a series of single sta ges
moval, and the spaces between the rods and diffused to 100 million ceUs/ml) with an apparent ex tract
n ecessary for the precise operation of the cycle
a cleaner, more rOLmded beer taste. tlu'ough the pores in the yeas t. This results ill an content (AEJ of 6 to 7% is i.n the assim ilator,
(Fig.4.8al)
In m any yeast propagation plants aeration is optimal supply of oxygen to tile yeast. TIle pro- about 80 to 85% of the assimilator contents is
(a) The propagation tank (1) is filled with wort
not optimal and frequently brings about foam cess is controlled illld regulated in all significant pumped off and used for pitchillg a tillTh.
and sterilised using steam (6) and subse-
parillneters. Other ae ration modules use ceranlic About 15 to 20% of the contents remains as
quently cooled to pitching temperature. The
pipe membrillles or aeration jets. bottom or sediment ill the assimilator and is
contents of a Carlsberg flask (3, approx 10 1)
are added and the wort is supplied with ste- topped up with wor t at the same temperatLU'e
[203,204]. The yeas t which is still in its logarith-
rile air (4).
(b) The contents of the tank (1) start to ferment mic phase again ferments the wort in the newly
and aTe meanwhile supplied with sterile air. filled vessel up to illl apparent ex tract content
In the m eantime, the tank (2) is sterilised (AEJ of 6 to 7%, and the process continually re-
pea ts itself (Fig. 4.9a).
using steam .
(c) The yeast multiplication tank (2) is now filled Control parameters for this process are
with wort and sterilised by means of steam; the blend ratio of fermented and unfermen-
ted wor t,
subsequently the wort is cooled down to the
temperatme of the wort in the propaga tor (1) the extrac t content,
the temperature and
and the contents of the propagator (1) are
Fig.4.8b the aeration.
transferred to the multiplication tank (2).
Strllctl/re of nil exchnllge device Aera tion occurs in 1 to 2 mi.n rhythm follo-
(d) The contents of both tanks are now in tank 2
(1) exchnllge rod of nl 1/111 ill iI/III oxirie, (2) dln/lllel
and it is once again aerated with sterile air. wed by a rest phase of 8 to 9 min. Aeration oc-
The now empty again propagator (1) is curs via a simple T-piece with a subsequent air
There are two different possibilities regar- dissolvillg stretch of 2 to 3 m. The temperature
cl eaned and sterilised.
ding illoculation: is 4 to 5 DC above the fermentation temperature.
(e) The multiplication tank (2) is n ow emptied
a part of the pure culture in the logaritluni c The air is supplied in sma ll amOLUl ts ill ord er
and the contents (in the log phase) are used
phase is left behind after pumping off the ye- to keep the troublesome foam formation wi thin
fo r pitching a tank. Part of the wort is added
Fig. 4.8n ast sed iment in ord er to obtain n ew yeas t limits.
to the propagator (1) and the multiplication Yenst propngntioll systelll (M ellm COlllpnllY, TOllmni, B)
(1) yenst propngntol; (2) excllnllge device, (3) wort slIpply, (4) with new wort. One works with a "yeast sto- The assimilation produces a lot of yeast. Mo-
tan k (2) is s terilised.
to tile jerlllelltillg tnllk re" (assimilation procedure), or re yeas t also means more waste yeast and more
(f) The multiplication tank (2) is again filled
 453
452

14
80
(I
11 ! 9 70
:
' - - --,----, 2
60 "'='
1::
Fig. 4.9 "-
<l::l
Optilllised yenst propngntioll (nccordillg to 50 C>
1::::.
Bnck) 40 c::::0 4
(I) nssilllilntor 1 0
Fig. 4. 10 30
<J
(lI) nssilllilntor 2
Yenst propngntioll usillg sillgle "'"
(1) lUort sllpply 20
vessel procedure
7 (2) freqlle ll cy COli trolled 1'111111'
1 (1) pure w ltu re vessel 10
(3) Vel/tllri j et
(2) sterile nir supply
(4) sterile nir
(3) nemtioll Inll ce
(5) nir dissolvillg stretell o 10 20 30 40 50 60
(4) hen tillg/Coolillg II/alltle
(6) nemtioll ngitntor
(5) wort ill let Time [hJ
(7) coolillg
(6) pllre wltllre to CCII
(8) hentillg
(7) CI P pipes
(9) CIP eqlliplllellt
(10) zOll efor lII ens urillg 0 " pH nlld extmct
(11) CO,
(12) yenst
introduced under s terile conditions. The pure as of the air used in aera tion before inoculation
culture vessel consists of a cylindroconical tank to prevent any form of contamination .
a lowering of the pitching yeast concentration (Fig. 4.10, 1), which is equipped with a h ea ting To obtain the necessary amotmt of yeast, the
-- - -- --r lDO
u-
'-
20
I 3
- 0.;--/ -==
- I-

- -' 75 .g
- to 10 to 15 million yeast cells/ml,
more rapid pH reduction by 0.1 of a unit,
jacket (4) that can at the same time act as a coo-
ling jacket (ice water or g lycol). As well as the
inoculation ratio from the precultme is:

t IS

..., ... I . 50
an accelaration of the diacetyl reduction,
a redu ction in the fermentation and maturati-
usual overpressure and vacuum sea ls, the ves-
sel also has a CIP cleaning sphere and a s terile
into the Carlsberg flask
from the Carlsberg flask
1: 200

I
<3 5/
25 '" on time by one day,
a clear improvement in the biological stabili-
supply of air by means of an aeration lance (3). to the propagator 1: 250 to 300
to pitching with 500 hI wort 1: 20
0 ty in the unfiltered area, Procedllre It can be presu med that there will be perfect
01 30
0 10 20 The tank is half fill ed with wort which is s terili- pure culture yeast for a brew after 2.5 to 3 days.
lineillhaIIs
consistently good beer quality [334] (sensor
teclmology and stability), sed for 15 min and then cooled again to 20°C. The size of the pure culture vessel (hi) is cal-
Fig . 4.9n: Progressioll of celllllllllber cOllcelltmtioll dllrillg ye-
quality improvement due to recovery of high The yeast culture is then added . The yeast is ae- culated as follows
nst nssilllilntioll
(1) progressioll of extmct relllounl, (2) progressioll of cell quality yeast in large amotmts. rated under sterile conditions by means of the
IIl1/lIber collcel/tmtioll, (3) telllpemtllre progressioll Furthermore, there are savings in electrical aeration lance as follows : brew volume (hi) x 2
energy, kieselgulu-, water/waste water and wa- on the first day every 15 min for a minute, 20
ste yeast [203]. on the second day every 5 min for a minute. Continual aeration with s terile air leads toa
yeast beer which has to be recovered. This, ho-
This aera tion system presupposes that on the rapid multiplication of the yeast. Advantages of
wever, causes increased costs, which can be re-
4.2.4.3 Single vessel pure yeast culture proce- first day, the yeast does not require as much the procedure are stated as being [182, 202]:
duced if not all but only a part of assimi lation
dure oxygen as on the second day, when respiration as a result of the continuous aeration, suffi-
yeast is reused (40/60 or 50/50).
In the single vessel pure culture procedme ac- and fermentation have started. cient pure and active yeas t can be produced
Advantages of this process are mentioned as
cording to Wackerbauer [182, 202], a new pure At the same time a vigorous agitation of the in a very short time,
[99,203]:
yeast culture is multiplied until its quantity is tank conten ts is necessary to keep the yeast conti- because of the short distances in the system,
short reaction time and optimal security in
sufficient for a whole tank. Using this procedu- nually in suspension and hence in an active state. the risk of contamination while producing
the provision of new yeast,
re, therefore, no sediment remains for the next Parti cular importance during this procedure the pure cu lture is grea tly reduced,
a clear reduction of the dead cell proportion
pure culture, rather the next pure culture is re- is placed on the sterilisation of the wort as well since the pure culture vessel is newly inocula-
to tmder 3%,

t
 \

454 455

ted after each generation, degeneration of the

yeast is excluded,
the procedure is good value for money and
a ttrac ti ve b ecause of its simplicity.

4.2.4.4 Open yeast propagation

4 Very sm all brewe ries often do not have enou gh 4
money to buy a yeas t propagation plant. It may Fig. 4.11
be impossible to purchase yeast from a la rge Stockhnllsen -Cob/itz yenst
brewery if one wants to use a particular specific propngntioi/ vessel

yeas t which nobod y else h as. In this case the ye-

as t can be grown in the brewery itself - but it
must be realised that steri lity is not always g ua- Strictly speaking, open yeas t propaga tion is
ranteed. only tank ferm entation w hi ch is brought for-
Th ere are severa l possible ways of perfor- ward, since after the large Coblitz vessel at the
ming open yeas t propagation. Of these two will latest, brewery wort, i.e. uns terilised wort is
be described h ere: used.
the Stockhausen-Coblitz process, 311d Anothe r m e thod of open yeast propagation is
Fig. 4.12
the milk churn process. the milk churn process (Fig. 4.12). In this me- Cnrriere yenst pl'Opngntioi/ sys telll
The conventional open yeas t propagation thod the yeast multiplication is performed in (1) 40 III/ilk eni/ with 25 I greei/ beer to be
process is the Stockhau sen-Coblitz process in easily cleaned churns for tran sporting milk. II sed for ii/ocllintioi/
(2) pllre yenst Cl/ltllre tnllk
w hich two, only loosely covered, metal vessels With 5 churns, of w hich one is always kept as
are used (Fig. 4.11). The m e thod of operation is the source churn for the next yeas t propagation,
essentiall y the same as that of the yeas t propa- it is easily possible to produce enoug h yeas t for
ga tion in the labora tory. However, becau se the pitching. The contents of 3 churns (approx 0.8 hi) are tm'e to accus tom the yeast beforeh31ld to the
amOLUlts of wort fermented become increasing- poured into the thoroughly cleaned 31ld s terili- brewery opera ting conditions.
ly large, the further fermentation stages must Procedllre sed propagation tank whilst the contents of the There are two di ffe rent types of procedure
be carried out in sma ll fermentin g tanks. A churn is thoroughly cle311ed, heated with ste- fourth churn remain as the source materi al for for p e rforming fermentation and maturation
am or hot wa ter 311d filled with 20 I of hot, un- the next propagation. (conditioning):
Type of vessel hopped casting wort. This process can be repea ted a few times suc- many breweries ferment in open fermentati-
small large small larger The churn is closed and cooled in the fermen- cessively. on tanks and condition in lagering vessels.
Coblitz Coblitz ferm ent. ferment. tation cellar to 10 to 11 0c. This process takes In all yeas t propaga tion method s the follo- This procedure is known as "convention al
inl in I in I in hl about one day. wing points should be observed: ferm entation 31ld m a tura tion".
Boiled wort The contents of an 8 I Carlsberg fl ask, which When propagating in the brewery plant the in new plants the fermentation 311d matlll'ati-
amOLUlt 17 50 225 9 are in the high krausen s tate, are added to the ratio of wor t to be pitched to vigorously fer- on are carried out in cylindroconi ca l vessels
AmolUlt of 20 I of wort. In a short time the fermentation in menting yeas t used to inoculate it should not (CCVs).
YOlUlg beer the chmn proceeds as is sh own by good fo am be grea ter th311 1 :3 or 1 : 4. There are g rea t diffe rences i.n the equipm ent
used for formation. When to pping up ("Drauflassen"), the tem- and m e thods used in the two procedures.
inoculation 8 25 75 3 The contents of the churn a re then distributed perature should be the same as the yeas t tem-
Total contents 25 75 300 12 into fom churns which have been filled in a si- perature because yeas t is "shocked" by sud- 4.3 Conventional fermentation and
milar m31Uler with 20 I of cooled wort. After den cooling 311d no longer ferments . maturation
In this way up to 50 hi of wort C31l be fe rmen- 3110ther 2 to 4 days the contents of these ChLll'IlS The tempera tlll'e during propaga tion should Som e breweries are equipped with open fer-
ted with little labour or equipment cost. are aga in at the high krausen stage. be approp riate for the fermentation tempera- mentation t311ks and lager tanks and ca rry out

p

456
the fermentation and Inaturation in a traditio-
na l manner, i.e. in a classical or conventi ona l
way. Con sidera ti on must be given to
the equipment of the fermentation and lage-
ring cellars, and
the way in w hich ferm entation and' m aturati-
on are performed .
4.3.1 Fermentation tanks - equipment of
the fermentation cellar
Fermentation is performed in fermentation
tanks arranged in a fer m entation cellar.
4.3.1.1 Fermentation tanks
Fermentation tanks differ in the m aterial from
w hich they are m ade and the space they occu-
py. They are cooled to rem ove the h eat produ-
ced during fermentation.
Materials li sen to cOllstrll ct ann lill e t il e
ta1lks
Fermentation tanks mad e of wood, steel, alumi-
nium and con crete w ith various lining materi-
als or laminates (pitch, synthe ti c resins, enamel)
are used.
Fel'll1elltatioll vessel cooling
It can be calculated that during fermenta tion
lU1der production conditions
587 kJ/kg of ex tract are produced.
This extract is about two-thirds fermented
during the m ain fermentation. One hI of pit-
ching wort contains about 12 kg of extract. Of
this, 2/3, i.e. 8 kg, is fermented during the pri-
m ary ferm entation. Consequently during the
primary fermentation
587 x 8= 4696 kJ are produced per hi of wort
which must be removed during primary fer-
mentation by cooling. The hea t is u sually remo-
ved by cooling jacke ts, m ore rarely by cooling
coils, through which fresh water (iced wa ter)
cooled to 0 to 1 DC is passed. The supply of coo-
ling water must be controlled so that the d esi-
red tempera ture can be established.
It must be clearly understood that with open
fer m enters a ll contamin ations mus t be kept
well away from the beer in order to ensure long
storage li fe .
4.3.1.2 Layou t of the open fermentation cellar
The fermentation tanl<s are arranged in the fer-
mentation cellar so th at efficient operation is
possible. Th e fermentation cellar is cooled and
it is equip ped with a device for extracting the
carbon dioxide produced.
A rrnllge lll ellt of the ferll/ellters
Th e fermentation cellar is loca ted below the
cooling room so tha t the wort can flow in as a
result of gravity. The trad itional fermentation
cellar consis ts mainly of three sections:
1. the pitching cellar. The pitching cell ar is a
small, som ewh a t raised section con taining
only a few fermenta ti on tanks w ithou t tank
cooling.
2. the fe rll/entation cellar proper, in which the fer-
m enta ti on tanks are provided w ith internal
cooling,and
3. the yeast cellar, in which the yeas t is stored.
The fermentation cellar consists of two sto-
reys. The fermentation tanks are constructed so
that they can easily be serviced from above and
below. For efficient operation it is essential that
the tanks are loca ted lugh enough for easy wor-
king in the lower service passageway without
any grea t obstruction. Wooden fermentation
cellars are exceptional and consist of only one
storey. Ladders are used to climb into the woo-
den ferm enters .
Old conventional breweries were d esigned so
that the wort and beer could flow downwa rds
w1der the effect of gravity. At the top was the
coolslup and lU1d er it the trickle cooler - both of
wluch are no longer used - then followed the
pitclung ce llar and the fermentation cellar and
the lager cellar was always located at the bot-
tom, often in a cellar built into the protective
b
earth or rock. All of this was very sensible be-
cause no pum p, and therefore no energy, was
needed to move the liquid from one section to
another. But there was also another aspect to all
this. For centu ries before the inven tion of
pumps, beer was already bre wed by simpl e r,
bu t still very simi lar, method s a nd it also had to
be transferred fro m one secti on to another. So
this arrange ment was also very rational then.
Any liquid whi ch d id not flow off n aturall y had
to be moved onwards by mu scle power u sings
scoops or primitive hand pumps . The symbol
on the right in our brewers emblem, the scoo p
barrel or scoop tub, (Fig. 4.15) is a reminder of
these times.
Fig. 4.15
Scoop tllb ill the brewers' ell/blelll
Ferl1l elltatio ll cellar plaut (Fig . 4.16)
Beer comes into contac t with air in the fermen-
tation cellar and can thereby become contami-
nated with micro-organisms ha rmful to beer.
In the production of beer any micro-organ-
isms other than the brewing yeas t are referred
to as beer spoi lage micro-organisms or conta-
minations. As a result of grow th and excretion
of metabolic products into tbe beer they can
make the beer turbid and spoil its quality or
even make it quite lU1pleasan t. Large quantities
of water are used in the fermenta tion cellar du-
457
ring tank cleaning and these must be drained
away rapidly through a suitably large drainage
system.
The fermentation cellar is insulated by tluck
walls to limit the effect of the outside tempera-
ture as much as possible.
Room coo lillg: The heat produced during the 4
primary fermen tation is not completely remo-
ved by the fermentation tank cooling and so the
fermentation cellar needs a space cooling sy-
s tem which maintains the room temperature at
5.5 to 6 DC. The daily cooling requirement is
about 4 MJ per 1 m 2 floor sW'face.
This is particularly necessary for cooling the
air in the room, which has to be chan ged seve-
ral times daily in order to drain off the CO,.
The fermentation ce ll ar is cooled by circula-
ted air cooling. In circu lated air cooling systems
the cooling pipes are situated in an adjacent
room. Air is forced tlU'ou gh the cold room and
thereby cooled. Because of the cooling the wa-
ter con tained in the air is deposited on the coo-
ling pipes as ice and the air is thereby dried.
The cold, dry air is forced at a low velocity into
the fermentation cellar and su cked off down
again at the opposite side.
Velltilatioll
Carbon dioxide is produced during alcoholic
fermentation. Because it is heavier th an air it
collects in the bottom regions of the vessels and
spaces.
Carbon diox ide is a respiratory poison!
Because a ca rbon dioxide content of on ly 4 %
can have a fa tal effect, carbon dioxide must be
removed as it is formed (see Sect. 4.10.1).
A sma ll part of the carbon dioxide form ed re-
m ains dissolved in the green beer, the remain-
der esca pes.
The density of carbon dioxide is
1.96 kg/m3, i.e. :
1 m 3 of carbon dioxide weighs 2 kg.

458
4.3.2 Fermentation cellar yield
As soon as the brew h as arrived in the ferm en-
tation cellar its atnOcmt and ex trac t content is
measured. Thi s provides the figures for deter-
mining the ferm entation cellar yield. Sin ce the-
re is a close relationship between the brew hou-
se yield and fer m entation cellar yield, th e
4
fermentation cellar yield is of pa rticula r inte-
rest.
The ferme ntati on cellar yield sho ws how lar-
ge a percentage of the grist arri ves as wort ex-
tract in the fermentation cellar and is pitched.
In p rinciple the fermentation cellar yield is
ca lculated in the same way as the brewhouse
yield, but the multiplication fac tor 0.96 is omit-
ted beca use the vo lume of the pitching wort is
measured whilst it is cold alld consequentl y do-
es not get allY smaller.
How large the contraction is, w ithout allY
loss by eva poration or in any other way, is
shown by the following exa mple.
Exalllple:
A 543 hI boiled wort is cast. How man y hi are
there after the contraction?
543 x 0.96 = 521 hI,
i.e. 22 hi have disappeared simply by the con-
traction. This loss is, however, excluded from
consideration when calculating the fermentati-
on cellar yield .
Formula for calculating the fermentation cel-
lar yield YF (s tands for yield fermentation cel-
lar):
pitchin g wort volume (hi) x mass ( %) x d ensity 20/4
Y= - -- - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
[ r weight of g ri st (dt)
There is a slight loss of extract between cast-
ing and pitching
Fig. 4.16
Fel'lllelltatioll cella,. eqllipJllellt (co llvelltiollal plallt) . as a result of vessel and pipework losses
(1) fel'lllelltatioll tallk, (2) IIpper sto,.ey offel'lllentatioll (3) lowe,. sto,.ey of fenllelltatioll (4) cold roolll, (5) coolJllg with the sp ent hops and trub.
wate,. illlet, (6) coolillg water outiet, (7) coolillg (7a) coolillg coil, (7v) 0,.. Scllllud wall coollllg, (7c) packet coolJllg, Consequentl y the ferm entation cellar yield is
(8) veer olltiet cOlllleetioll, (9) valve rod, (10) veer tmllsfe,. pUlllp, (11) tmllsfe,. pipe, (12) CO, ,.ell/oval, (13) yeast fla sk, (14) ye-
always slightly less than the brewhouse yield.
ast tuv, (15) fntl , (16) eoolillg pipes to coal tile cold 1'0011/, (17) illt,.odllctioll of coaled ai,. illto tile fe,.l1/ellfatioll (18) glllly
b
459
Very many breweries do not use any intact
hops and the cloudy wort is returned to the
next brew. Since it can be assumed that the clou-
dy wo rt consists of 75% wort which is recover-
ed again in the nex t brew, alld only 25% trub,
this 75% mLis t be subtracted from the next wort
amOlmt (but the same amolmt from the previo- 4
us brew is included in the calculation). The dif-
ference stays almost constant.
The ferm entation cellar y ield by itself provi-
des no use ful information. What is of interest is
the difference between the brewhouse yield
and the fermentation cellar y ield.
This difference is ca used by
the equipment and the cooling process; this
factor is always constant, and
the operations between casting and pitching .
If there is a change from the usual differen ce
between brewhouse yield and fermentation cel-
lar yield, there has been some change in the
operating procedures.
An exalllple of the enlclIlation
Starting with a grist of 4960 kg of pilsner malt
331 hI of 11.4 % wort was cas t
('), 11.90 g! 100 ml
and
321 hi of 11 .2 % wort was pitched = 11.68 g/ 100 ml
How big is the differen ce between the
brewhouse yield (Y I.) and the fermentation cel-
IaI' yield (Y F)?
Y = 11.90 x 0.96 x 331 h1 76 .24 %
" 49 .6 dt
Y = 11.68 x 321 hI 75.59 %
I 49.6 dt
The difference Yu - YI' is 0.65%
This can of course also be expressed more
concisely by calculating the difference in ex-
tract obtained:
460
Eo = 11.90 x 0.96 x 331 on casting
= 3781.3 kg extract
EF = 11.68 x 321 on pitching
= 3749.3 kg extract
Extract loss = 32 .0 kg
4.3.3 Management of open primary fer-
mentation
Primary fermentation is started by pitching the
wort. Fermentation management depends on
control of the temperature and fermentation ti-
me used for the primary fermentation . The de-
gree of attenuation is determined before beer
transfer to the lager cellar.
For information on carrying out fermentation
and maturation in CCVs, see Sect. 4.4.3.
4.3.3.1 Pitching
By pitching is meant the addition of the yeast to
the wort and thus the starting of fermentation .
Immediately before the addition of yeast the
wort is called pitching wort.
The original wort concentration is expressed
in %Plato - previously, and in some cOlmtries
still, it is still expressed in °Plato.
The pitching wort immediately after the yeast
addition is then already referred to as beer, or
rather as "yolmg beer".
On pitching care has to be taken to provide
the yeast with sufficient access to oxygen in the
wort to initiate rapid multiplication and fer-
mentation and to distribute the yeast in the
wort. This process is referred to as rousing.
4.3.3.1.1 Rousing
Activation (rousing) of the yeast occurs not sim-
ply as a result of the introduction of oxygen but
also quite specifically because of the uniform
distribution of the yeast in the wort with as few
yeast clumps as possible. The individual yeast
cells must rapidly come into contact with the
nutrients in the wort. This is important for the
intensity of the initial fermentation . Conse-
quently in modern plants the yeast is dosed
uniformly into the flowing stream of wort.
In smaller breweries rousing is often perfor-
med by
pouring from one vessel to another,
use of a yeast rousing device, or
use of a yeast flask .
Modern breweries use special equipment for
introducing fine air bubbles as already mentio-
ned in Sect. 3.9.3.
Poor wort aeration can have very undesirable
consequences:
defective initial fermentation,
longer fermentation time (up to tlu'ee or mo-
re days),
cessation of extract removal,
defective secondary fermentation,
problems with beer quality.
There is no need to worry about over-intensi-
ve wort aeration. The oxygen introduced here is
avidly taken up by the yeast, because it is abso-
lutely essential for its growth. Consequently
oxygen disappea rs within a few hours from the
wort and has no adverse effect. On the other
hand, an inadequate aeration of the yeast is de-
trimental for the reasons mentioned above.
4.3.3.1.2 Addition of yeast
The yeast is now added uniformly to the ·wort.
Simultaneously the wort should be intensively
aerated so that fermentation can begin rapidly
and vigorously.
The yeast addition is 15 to 30 million yeast
cells / hI of wort
= 0.6 to 11 thick yeast slurry / hI of wort.
It can be assumed that a thick yeast slurry
contains ca. 3 x 109 cells/ml.
0.5 1 yeast/hI wort = ca. 15 x 10' cells/ml.
1 1 yeast/hI wort = ca. 30 x 106 cells/ml.
The pitching rate has a large effect on the fer-
menting time and yeast crop: the higher the pit-
ching rate, the shorter the fermentation time at
461
2
4
.3
I I
1 I 1
1
L __ _ __ J
1 1
L
Y
____________ I
I
Yeast dosage Wort aeration
Fig. 4.17
TlIrbo-Air Iype COllliilllOIlSyensl dosiilg nild wort nernlioll (Esnll & HlIeber colllpnilY, ScJlrobeilhnllseil )
(1) wh irlpoo l, (2 ) yeasllnil k, (3) jlolnlioil Inzl k, (4) plnle cooler
the same temperature and the more yeast can For this turbidity of the wort before and after ye-
be harvested [304]: ast dosage is measured and the yeast cell COW1t is
determined from the difference.
Pitching fermentation time yeast crop An alternative method involves measure-
1/hl days 1/hl ment of the yeast load [135]. This involves the
0.5 9 2.0 combination of amount of solids and flowrate
1.0 7 2.5 to give a measurement parameter (mass per
2.0 4-5 3.0 unit volume in gil). In this method the signals
are linked together by means of a process con-
Yeast is dosed from the yeast buffer tank by troller and can thereby express the solids con-
means of a pump or valve . The amount of yeast tent of a volume in kg dry weight. The yeast ad-
to be dosed can be controlled by a turbidity dition is thus independent of the consistency of
measuring system . the yeast suspension.
Of course nobody achlally counts the num- Increasing the yeast addition is the most im-
ber of yeast cells but an extrapolation is made portant way of accelerating fermentation wit-
and the cell dosage rate is controlled by measu- hout incurring negative consequences [39].
rement of the turbidity of the wort/yeast sus- An intensive initial fermentation has a positi-
pension. ve effect on the filterability of the beer and the
There are a number of methods for monitoring head retention (see Sect. 4.4.3).
the yeast addition. Indirect measurement of cell Fig. 4.17 shows a yeast dosing and wort aera-
count by turbidity measurement has become tion installation. Wort is fed from the whirlpool
very widely used. This can be performed in-line (1) through a plate heat exchanger (4) into a flo-
and enables automation of yeast pitching. Usual- tation tank (3). At an intermediate stage yeast is
ly a hu'bidity difference measurement is used. dosed in from a yeast storage tank (2) by means
 462
463

of a dosing pump. In a second section the wort 1.4.3). In this method "young beer" is pumped Fermentation s tage Appearance at the top Besides these nonnally occurring s tages, the
is intensively aerated in the previously descri- out from the bottom of a large fermenter, the fermentation often looks abnormal:
bed manner. A fermenter may be used instead contents of which are in the high krausen (deep Initial The yOLmg beer becomes
of the flotation tank shown here. foam) stage. The young beer ferments further in covered by a white Abnormal Appearance Consequence
Usually yeast is pitched into the fermenter. smaller fermenters whilst at the same time coo- layer of fine bubbl e foam fermentation
Wort still contains some insoluble material after led wort at the same temperature (8.5 0c) is in- (it "whitens over", i.e.
4 cooling which settles to the base of the fermen- troduced from above into the "krausen tank" so becomes white allover). Boiling The young beer 4
Beer quality
ter within a day. It consists of: that the amount of wort in it remains constant. Fermentation has begun . fermentation begins to is no worse.
trub particles which were not collected du- The llllfermented wort mixes with the fennen- form bubbles The foam
ring trub separation, and ting yOLlIlg beer in the "hausen tank" so that at one place mus t be
hop resins which have precipitated again af- the yeast multiplies continuously and remains YOlmg 01' The fine bubble foam be so that it gives removed in
ter cooling. permanently in the yeast multiplication phase. low kra usen comes deeper and has the impression good time.
In addition weak or dead yeast cells soon If the amollllt added is controlled so that the brown caps. The foam that the vessel
settle to the bottom. Consequently pitching ves- difference between the pitching extract and ex- cover should look as contents are
sels are often used. tract in the young beer pumped off is always 1.5 mtifonn as possible and s tarting to boil.
When a pitching tank is used, the wort is pit- to 2.5%, theoretically pitching can be continued be creamy.
ched in the tank and drained into the fermenta- until there is no more wort available. At the sa- Large bubble Towards the end Beer quality
tion cellar after 12 to 24 h. The yeast collected in me time the yeast consists almost exclusively of fermentation of fermentation, is not impai-
the pitching tank is cleaner and lighter in colour young cells which are clean and ferment very High krausen Fermentation has entered bubbles as large red.
than with direct pitching in the fermenter. actively. Intensive aeration of the cold wort is its most intensive stage. as a head occur
The conventional pitching temperature is 6 to essential for this procedure in order to produce The ridges 01' crests in in the foam.
7 °C but other temperatures can be, and often sufficient yeast multiplication. If the aeration is the foam become higher
are, used. inad equate there is no shortening of fermenta- and the bubbles coarser.
A special type of pitching technique is known tion time. 4.3.3.2.2 Fermentation temperature
as "Drauflassen" (topping up) . At the end of each week the "krausen tanks" With regard to temperature control during bot-
are pumped empty, cleaned, and then filled Krausen collapsing The fermentation has be- tom primary fermentation, the pitching tempe-
4.3.3.1.3 Topping up (Drauflassen) again with the first brews of the next week and come less vigorous and rature and the highest temperature are impor-
By topping up is meant the addition of wort to pitched. the high crests slowly col- tant. At the end of primal')' fermentation the
an already fermenting tank. As a result of the lapse since not as much young beer must be cooled again.
addition of fresh wort the yeast is immediately 4.3.3.2 Fermentation management in the fer- carbon dioxide is formed.
activated again and fermentation begins imme- mentation tank The foam looks browner. Pitchillg tell1pemtllre
diately. By means of topping up the time requi- As soon as the yeast is added the wort is refer- The pitching temperature is usually 5 to 6 0c. In
red for the initial fermentation stage is reduced. red to as young beer. During primary fennenta- shorter processes the pitching temperature is
However, when doing this it is very impor- tion the young beer passes through various fer- Collapsed foam Because the rate of fer- usually raised in order to start the fermentation
tant that the wort being added has the same mentation stages which can all be recognised mentation continues to more quickly.
temperature as the fermenting wort. If the yeast by their appearance . The fermentation tempe- decrease, the foam conti-
suffers a shock the fermentation may be retar- rature and fermentation time are very impor- nues to collapse and Maxim 11 111 tempemtllre
ded or stop completely. Even very small tempe- tant in fermentation management. finally forms only a loose, As a result of the hea t released during fennen-
rature differences can playa large role. dirty brown layer which is tation (see Sect. 4.4.2.2.1) the temperature of the
In this way it is possible to pitch in accordan- 4.3.3.2.1 Fermentation stages removed before transfer of wort increases. Although fermentation pro-
ce with the rhythm of the wort production se- During main fermentation the yOLlIlg beer goes the beer so that ceeds more quickly at higher temperatures,
quence and so eliminate the delaying effect of through the following normal fermentation sta- it does not sink down and great care is taken on quality grolmds not to ex-
the induction and acceleration phases (Sect. ges: impority the yeast. ceed a predetermined maximum temperature.
 ..
464
465
Depending on this m aximum temperatu re, a 4.3 .3.3 Degree of attenuation Appnrell t fl1ln ren l percelltnge nttellll ntioll replaced by wa ter. By
dis tincti on is made between : During fe rmenta tion the ex trac t is continually Appnrell t percell tnge nttellll atioll (Vs ) us ing thi s valu e in the
cold ferme nta tion with a maximum tem pera- being ferm ented . The ex tent of conversion to al- The extrac t content is m easured in the fermen- ca lcul a ti o n the rea l
ture of 8 to 9 °C and cohol is called the degree of a ttenua tion (V) (V tation cell a r by m ea ns of a h yd rom e ter (Fig . pe rcentage a ttenu a ti-
warm fermentati on with a m aximum tempe- s tands fo r Vergarun gsg rad - d egree of fennen- 4.19). The a ttenua tion measured with the h y- on (V,v! is obta in ed.
rature of 10 to 15°C. ta tion). drometer is, h owever, o nly apparently (schein- The rea l a ttenu ati on is
The degree of a ttenua tion shows w hat per- bar) correct (Vs) since the ex trac t value ind ica- a lways less than the 4
Coolillg nowl! agaill centage of the ex tract in the pitching wort has ted by the hyd rom ete r (E) is wrong becau se of ap pa rent a ttenu a tion .
The ma ximum tempera tu re is m a inta ined as been fermented. the alco hol produ ced. Nevertheless, becau se Approxima tely
cons tant as possible for on e to two d ays. The The difference be tween the ex trac t content of there is a p rop o rtiona l rela tionship be twee n th e V.,. = Vs x 0. 81
young beer is then slowly cooled. Becau se yeas t the pitching wort and tha t of the beer a t an y greater erro r and increased a ttenua tion and be-
is sensitive to large tempera ture drops, the de- particu lar time is called the fermented extract. cause Es can be m easured easil y, in prac ti ce the
crease in temperature should n ot be m ore than The p ercentage a ttenua tion (V) is ca lcul a ted apparen t attenu a ti on is always used .
1K per day and it should be lowered a t a con - from the equation :
stant rate. The temperature a t transfer is about Renl percelltage nttellllntiOI! (V,.)
fe rmented ex trac t x 100 %
4 to 5°C. To obta in the real percentage a ttenu a tion the al- Fig. 4.19
V = ex tract in the pitching wort
cohol m us t be dis til led off in the labora tory and Fcrlllcll ier hydrollleter
Fig. 4.18 shows the values of a number of im-
portant param e ters (temperature, ex tract con- Exnmple:
tent and pH) during the course of fermenta tion.
It is impor tant for the person in cha rge of the
On pitching the hydrome ter indicates
12% ex tract
70,8
70,9
0,'0 ex tract
Vs
0/0
/!Iv

%
f
% extract
6
77,0 50 'f0
fe rmenta tion to monitor and control the tempe- A t trans fer the hydrometer indica tes
JI,l
ra tu re during primary fermentation and abo ve 4 % extract
77,2 55 '15 5
all to m easu re the decrease in ex h'act durin g the Thus the amount fermented is 8% ex tract. 71.3
fin al d ays of prima ry fe rmenta tion . A conven- 12 % extract :; 100 % 71, If 60
50
tional primary fe rm enta tion lasts 6 to 8 days. 77,5
1\ 8 x 100 %
8% ex tract = 12 = 66.66 % 77,6
Other fermentation processes are discussed 77,7
in Sect. 4.4.3. The percentage attenua tion is 66.7% 71,8
17,9
72,0 60
3
72,7
11 72,2

p 8
10
9 '"1\ 1( \
/
/ i\
\
R\
72,3
72,'1-
80

2
\\ 72,5 85
.E
7 11\
/ / \ \ '\ 72,6
J!l
6 12,7 90
'" 5
\ 1 "",, 3 72,8
.E
1'£
4 / "< Fig. 4.18 72,9
\. "'=I" "
J!l
8 3 / "- IJ,O
u i'-.. Gallges dllrillg prili ln/"yfer-
S 2 ...... .......... 0,2
lIIelltntioll
13, 7
Fig. 4. 20
1 0,1 lJ,2 o
I'--. (1) Telllpera tilre progressioll
0 Chnrt (lIolllogrlllll) for deterlllillillg the
L . .
femlenlation time 10 days ° (2) Extract COli tell t progrcssioll
(3) To tn! dincety!
pitching wort in the fermented wort nppnrell t nlld rea! degree of nlleJIIllltiOIl of
J fil II beer
 467
466

Example: The fo llowing are important for further pro- calculated. The difference between the final at-
The factor 0.81, obtained from experiments,
3 g of dried yeast are added to 0.3 I of filtered cessing: tenuation and the attenuation limit is determin-
was published by BALLING (about 1870). The
wort and fermented in thermostats at 25 °C or the difference between V,'''"''''''' and V,';"''', ed by the fermentable extract sti ll present. If the
percentage attenuation can be obtained more ea-
in a mashing bath at 30 °C for :0; 8 h. Unfiltered and difference is s till large, micro-organisms (yeast
sily from a chart (Fig. 4.20). If one connects the ex-
wort entering the fermentation tank may also the difference between V, i;",1 and V, I;,"" or bacteria) find fermentable substffiKes in the
tract content of the pitching wort (= original
be used for this. A hydrometer reading is first The difference between attenuation at the packaged beer and so they can grow a nd pro-
gravity) with that of the fermented wort, the Vs
taken after 2 days ffild then once or twice a day end of primary fermentation and the attenuati- duce turbidity. 4
4 and Vw ffi'e obtained at the point of intersection.
until the ex tract content does not decrease any on limit The final attenuation should be as close as
more. When the extract content no longer de- When it is transferred, the yOlmg beer mu st possible to the attenuation limit.
Extent of atte/1uation
creases, the attenuation limit is determined. still contain enough fermentable ex tract for the In genera l nowadays one tries to ferment the
The percentage attenuation depends in the first
The attenuation limit is then known after 4 to beer to develop a high carbon dioxide concen- beer to the limit.
place on when it is measured.
5 days - i. e. before beer transfer. tration during the secon-
Measurement of the attenuation is important:
The attenuation limit is the highest apparent dary ferme ntation under Fig. 4.21
at the end of primary fermentation, i.e. on
transfer (V 5 fermc nt\!r or V 5 fermcll l.ltionc('lIM) and degree of attenuation which can be reached by pressure. From experi- Extract riecrense rillrillgjel'lllelltntioll nllrilllntllratioll
fermentation of all fermentable materials in the ence it is known that -,,
at the end of the production process,
extract. It is predetermined by the action of about 1 % of ex tract is re-
i.e. Vs fin,,1, -<
starch degrading enzymes in the brewhouse. quired for thi s. This cor- -i
To have a measure of the degree of attenuation -E

The magnitude of the attenuation limit to be responds to a difference

it is necessary first of all to know what percenta-
obtained is, for example, 80 to 84 % for pale of about 10 % be tween
ge of the exh'act is potentially fermentable. For
full beers and pilsner beers. the two a ttenuation figu-
this plUpose the attenuation limit (Vs 1;",,,) is mea-
The extract content does not decrease at a res.
slUed.
constant rate from pitching to the end of fer- Attenuation at the end
Because the attenuation limit (Vs 1;",") is not
mentation; rather, much more is fermented du- of primary fermentati-
obtained lmtillater in the brewery, it is measu-
ring the vigorous primary fermentation than on (V/,m"n',,) is 66 to 74 %
red in the laboratory.
during the calmer secondary fermentation . in the case of light co-
loured full beers, and
less thffi1 60% in the ca-
se of dark full beers
Example: On
The following extract contents and percentage attenuations were shown by a brew during fennen- and strong beers.
Pitching transfer end of fully fermented
The difference bet- fermentation
tation (Fig. 4.21):
Stage Measurement Extract Associated Description ween final attenuation %E
12
content percentage and the attenuation limit
sequence 11
in % attenuation The final attenuation
10 20 Fermented
(Vs final).IS d etermme
. d b e-
9 extract substances
30
12.5 0.0 fore the beer is filled into 8
before pitching 1 40
3.9 68.8 fermenter or fermentati- containers for sale.
on trffilsfer 3 50
on cellar attenuation For this purpose a sam- rermentable
V ferme nter ple is taken before packa-
60 extract substances
s
70
ging and the gravity
final attenuation Vs final measured in the labora- 80
end of fermentation 4 2.3 81.6
90 Non-fermentable
tory with a hydrometer. extract subs ta nces
attenuation limit Vs limit From this the final per- 100Y.
fully fermented 2 2.2 82.4
centage attenuation is
 468
4.3.3.4 Beer transfer from the tank
By h'cll1sfer is meant the movement of the yOlmg
beer from the fermentation cellar to the lager cel-
lar. It is important that the correct time for h'ans-
the ready-for-transfer stage, is recognised. On
transfer the yOlll1g beers from different brews are
4 mixed with one i.e. blended. Previously,
beer was transferred in lager barrels; today this
occurs in tanks (see Sect. 4.3.6).
Recognitioll of readilless for tmllsfer
Various features indicate when the beer is
ready for transfer:
Use of a hydrometer
In most breweries the extract content is recor-
ded at least in the last days of the primary fer-
mentation. The extract content of beer ready for
transfer is known from experience in any parti-
cular brewery and in the case of full beers is
about 3.4 to 4 %. This corresponds to a V, [""W"!" of
about 66 to 69 % (for full beers).
The extract content should decrease only
about 0.2 to 0.3% in the last 24 h.
Blowing tlIe foam cover
If one blows forcefully on the not yet removed fo-
am covering, the gap formed should not close
over again. The beer surface should look black.
If the fermentation has not yet proceeded far
enough, the foam-free gap closes again very
quickly because of the pressure of the SUlTOlID-
ding foam . The beer surface then looks muddy.
Yeast i1lspectioll glass
Before transfer a small glass is filled with the
young beer. If the beer in this inspection glass is
clear it can be assl\.l11ed that the yeast has settled
well in the fermenter. Of course the yeast strain
has an important effect.
The time when the beer is ripe for transfer
and the yeast content of the yowlg beer are clo-
sely related.
Depending on the yeas t content on tran sfer,
one speaks of
green turbid transfer, i.e. with a large amOLmt
of yeast for the secondary fermentati on, or of
clear transfer, when only a little yeast or little
extract is available.
The decision whether to make a hlrbid or a
clear transfer depends on the yeast strain and
the lagering conditions.
til rbid tr(11lsfer
- with low attenuating yeas ts with a difference
o f 10 t0 12 °// 0 b e tween V 5 limi t an d V 5 fermenter
- with a sh ort lagering time
- in a cold cellar, and
- in large fermenters
clear tra1lsfer
- with high attenuating yeasts with a
d I'fference 0 f 15°// 0 b e tween V5 limit - V5 fe rm enter
- with a long lagering time
- in a warm cellar, and
- in small fermenters
BleHdillg tlIe beer
The raw materials used for brewing are not al-
ways the same and each brew is different so that
in the end beers of varying quality might be pro-
duced. To avoid this the worts and beers are blen-
ded with similar brews. This first occurs in the fer-
mentation cellar where various brews are mixed
in the topping up process. During too,
the brew is divided into different lagering vessels.
Not only beers of the same type but also beers
with different original gravities can be blended.
Basically, when mixing the following has to
be considered: it is very difficult to completely
mix two liquids with each other. It is all the mo-
re difficult, the greater the differences are
in the amOLIDt of the components,
in the temperature of the parts or
in other components (colour, extract content,
alcohol content, etc).
469
A total mixing is only obtained with the expen- At the free ends the amo unts equ al to the dif-
ditme of a considerable aITIOlmt of energy (stir- ferences between the numbers linked by the op-
ring, repeated circul atory pumping, boiling, etc.). posite ar m of the cross are written:
In the follOWing mixing calculations, howe-
ver, this important circums tance h as not been /11.3
taken into considera tion.
o ././ 11.3 "-"- 0.9 parts 4
12.2 parts
Problell1:
As a result of a mistake, 643 hi of wort has tmned From these numbers the proportions to be
out to be too "thick" at 12.2 % and must be diluted mixed to g ive the desired result are obtained. In
with water (0 %) to the desired content of the present case this means:
11.3%. How many hi of water must be added?
There are several possible ways to calculate if 11.3 parts containing 12.2%
the aITIount. Of these the following will be illu- aIld 0.9 parts containing 0 % (water)
strated: are mixed
calculation using the mixing cross (Andreas 12.2 parts containing 11 .3% are obtained.
cross) and
calculation using the mixing equation. If the given volume is inserted this means
that
Mixillg cro ss 11.3 par ts = 643 hi
In this method obtains only the factor (the mi-
643 hi x 0.9 parts
xing ratio) by which the given amolmt of beer 0.9 parts = 11 3 = 51.2 hi
. par ts
to be blended must be multiplied .
The extract con tents of the beers to be mixed are 51.2 hi of water must be added to obtain the de-
written one above the other with a one line gap sired content of 11 .3%. The amolmt of wort is
between them (the percentage signs CaIl be omit- then increased to a total of (643 + 51.2) = 694.2 hi.
ted since they cancel out later). The desired extract
content of the mixed beer is written on the empty Mixillg eqllatioll
line offset slightly to the right. Then the tlu-ee Amount I x extract content I
numbers are connected as shown to form a cross. + amount II x extract content II
= amount I + II x extract content III
/
Using the figures for the current example:
o
643 hi x 12.2 % + amount II x 0 % = 643 hi x 11.3 % + amount II x 11.3 %
643 hi x 12.2 % - 643 hi x 11.3 % = amount II x 11 .3 % - amolmt II x 0 %
amount II (11.3 % - 0 %) = 643 hi (12.2 % - 11.3 %)
(12.2 % - 11.3 %) 643 hi x 0.9 % 11
amount II = 64311
1 = = 51 2 1
11.3 - 0 % 11 .3 % .
 470
When compared it can be seen th at this calcu-
lation gives the same fin al result as the Andreas
cross.
111e above examples indicate how the amOlmts
to be fixed to produce a blend can be calculated.
In fact there are one or two flaws in the data in the-
4 se calculations. For exa mple, the p ercentages
should actually be replaced by the 20 °Cj4 °C den-
sity since they are multiplied by the volume. 111e
temperature of the wort or beer also plays a role.
4.3.4 Yeast collection in the tank
After transfer the yeas t remains on the fermen-
tation tank bottom in three layers.
The uppermost layer is the top yeas t layer.
The top yeast layer consists substantially of col-
lapsed foam particles and yeas t cells which h a-
ve settled at a late stage.
The middle layer is the core yeast. It consists
of healthy yeas t cells which can ferment vigo-
rously and should b e as light in colour as possi-
ble. The lowest thin layer is the bottom yeas t
layer. It con sists of yeast together with particles
which sedimented first, such as hop resins, de-
ad yeast cells and trub particles.
Collecting the yeas t in tlu'ee laye rs is only theo-
retically possible and is not done in practice be-
cause no physiological differences in the yeast
layers have been found - only differences in the
degree of contamination by dirt - and tl1ese can-
not be separated during yeast collection.
The average yeast crop is 2.0 to 2.5 I of thick
yeast slurry per hi of pitching wort. More is ob-
tained with flocculent yeast than w ith powdery
yeast, whereas more of the latter is present in
the deposits in the lagering vessels than is the
case with flocculent yeast.
The yeas t collected is either used for pitching
the next wor t (added "dry") or often washed
and stored under wa ter (added "wet"). The col-
lected yeast alwa ys contains residual beer, the
more so the less the yeast is compacted. With
"dry" addition this residual beer is not washed
out by water and is therefore not lost. For infor- The solubility for carbon dioxide is greater
mation on keeping and treating harvested yeast the lower the tem perahll'e. At higher tempera-
(see Sect. 4.4.5). tures substanti ally less CO, dissolves in beer.
This statem ent applies generally to the solu-
4.3.5 Processes during beer maturation bility of gases in liquids but the degree of solu-
in conventional tanks bility varies from gas to gas.
In the m atura tion or conditioning phase there
are two add itional processes which must also Depelldellce of Cil rboll dioxide all press ure
be considered separa tely: In accordance w ith Henry's law, the solubility
Satura tion of the beer w ith carbon dioxide of gases increases in direct proportion to the
lU1der excess pressure and removal of all haze pressure. This m eans tha t the amount of carbon
forming components from beer. dioxide dissolved in beer is increased wh en the
pressure on the vessel is increased.
4.3.5 .1 Saturation of beer with carbon dioxide
under pressure EXI!1I1ple:
The carbon diox ide content depends primarily At + 1 °C at atmospheric pressure 0.306 % mass
on the tempera ture and pressure. percent carbon dioxide dissolves in beer.
How does the solubility increase w ith increa-
Depell(fellce of cllrboll dio xide cOlltellt all tem- sing pressure if the temp erature remains con-
peratllre stant at + 1 °C?
The solubility of CO, in wa ter is almost as great This is obtained by multiplying the carbon
as its solubility in beer. Nevertheless there are dioxide content at the temperahue in question
small differences which are sho wn in the follo- (see above) by the value of the absolute pressu-
wing solubility table (water, beer 12°P(V, = 80%) re on tl1e vessel contents:
(figures in g CO, in 100 g water and beer): 1.0 bar 0.306% x 1.0 = 0.306 % CO,
1.1 bar 0.306% x U = 0.337% CO,
Temperahlre Solubility of CO, 1.2 bar 0.306 % x 1.2 = 0.367% CO,
in °C Water Beer 1.3 bar 0.306 % x 1.3 = 0.398 % CO,
0 0.335 0.317 1.4 bar 0.306% x 1.4 = 0.428 % CO,
6 0.268 0.258 1.5 bar 0.306% x 1.5 = 0.459 % CO,
1 0.321 0.306
8 0.249 0.241 The solubility of carbon dioxide mcreases
2 0.309 0.296 with increasing pressure.
10 0.232 0.226 Filled beer should contain about 0.5 % carbon
3 0. 298 0.286 dioxide. The pressure must therefore be set de-
15 0.197 0.193 pending on the lager cellar temperature so that
4 0.287 0.276 the beer contains more than 0.5 %, because so-
20 0.169 0.165 me carbon dioxide is lost on the way to filling.
5 0.277 0.267 A beer containing 0.32 % carbon dioxide is con-
sidered to be flat.
Since the amolU1ts of CO, quoted are for 100 ll1e carbon dioxide produced during secon-
g of water and 100 g of beer, they also represent dary fermentation escapes from the beer unless
the CO, content in %. it is held back by increased pressure. The esca-
471
ping carbon dioxide exerts a gas washing effect
on the beer wh ereby it removes volatile fermen-
tation gases. It thereby con tributes to mahll'ati-
on of the beer.
In Sect. 4.1.2.5 it was mentioned that part of
the sulphur compolmd fraction is removed in
this way, whereas most of the sulphur com- 4
pOlU1d fraction is converted bio-chemically by
subs tances in the beer. There are, however, ot-
her volatile components which are extensively
removed by the carbon dioxide gas washing ef-
fect. It is therefore possible to shorten the matu-
ration process by making gas washing more in-
ten sive. This, however, calU10t be done without
the addition of carbon dioxide.
4.3.5.2 Beer clarification
Tran sferred yOlU1g beer still contains yeast cells
which make it cloudy and they slowly sediment
in the lagering vessel. Settling of the yeast de-
pends mainly on the duration of lagering. It is
also affected by lI11iform lagerin g temperahlre
which prevents layering in the beer, and the si-
ze of the lagering vessel. Small vessels have a
larger surface, relative to the contents, than lar-
ge lagering vessels.
The young beer is hll'bid not only because of
yeast but because there are also some cold
break p ar ticles sllspended in the beer which
were not formed until the further cooling. The
colder the lagering conditions the more of them
precipitate. These p ar ticles are very small and
therefore sediment only slowly. Part is absor-
bed by the yeast. It is very important to remove
the cold break par ticles from the beer before fil-
tration or by filtration. Lagering should therefo-
re be performed at -1 °C.
Clarification of beer can be accelerated by ad-
dition of wood chips which increase the surface
area . Beech wood or hazeh1Ut chips which have
previously been sterilised are used for this pur-
pose, often light metal foil is also u sed. The
chips are rarely used because this entails addi-

472
tional work and costs. On the other h and, other
costs are saved because the filter does not beco-
me filled as quickly and consequently does not
h ave to be emptied as often.
Beer clarification is favoured by
a long lagering time,
small vessels,
cold lagering in constant conditions, and
add ition of wood en chips.
To allow the cold break particles to settle out,
beer is lagered for at least 7 days at a low tem-
pera ture (-2 QC to -1 QC).
The yeast which settles in the lager vessels is
called tanl< bottoms or yeast sediment.
4.3.6 Equipment in conventional lager
cellars
4.3.6.1 Lager cellar installations
During its production beer spends the longest
time in the lager cellar. The lager cell ar is there-
fore the largest sections in the brewery. It usual-
ly consists of a main gangway with the indivi-
dual tank and cask Sect.s opening onto it. The
part of the lager cellar containing vessels into
which the beer is transferred must be kept
slightly warmer so that secondary fermentation
can start properly. Th e cellar is insul ated from
the environm ent by thick walls and is equipped
with powerful room cooling. This cooling con-
sists of cooling pipes which are arran ged so that
condensa tion wa ter cam10t drop onto the ves-
sels and cause rust stripes (F ig. 4.23).
To cool the lager cellar a daily cooling requi-
rement of about 3000 kJ per m 2 ground surface
is expected . Because of its large surface area the
lager cellar is consequently the grea test user of
cooling power in the brewery.
4.3.6.2 Lagering tanks
Traditional lagering is rarely performed in
wooden va ts but usually in m etal tanks .
473
....
tS;J.....
Q
Fig. 4.23 4
Spnce coolillg willi coll velliiollniinger vessels
(n) woodell bnn-e/s, (b) Inger Inllks
Woo dell Vl1ts
The oldest lagering vessels are wooden vats
with a content of 15 to 150 hI. To u se the lager
cell ar as efficiently as possible the upper lage-
ring barrels sit in the gaps between the lower
ones . However, because of their characteristic
shape barrels make very poor use of space. Mo-
reover, their large interna l and ex ternal su rfaces
take a lot of cleaning. But their greatest disad-
vantage is that the barrels must be relined with
pitch every year. For this they must be removed
from the cell ar and, after relining, mu st be re-
turned to the cell ar and fitted into place again.
This necessitates a great deal of work wh ich is
very hard to justify. Fig.4.23n
Wooden barrels are therefore found only ra- The coopers of Ili e Felsel1keller Brewery ill Oresdw, 1890
rely today - in sma ll breweries.
At this stage we should remember that for
centuries, the wooden fenn enters, wooden la- of iron on flavour they have an enamel, special plies when using alluninium lagering tanks as
ger vessels as well as the wooden transport ves- pitch, or plastic lini ng. w hen using allUninium vessels (see Sect. 6.1.1).
sels and yeast tanks were made, maintained Stainless steel tanks, w hich require no lining, A disadvantage of aluminium is that the low
and repaired by the coopers of the breweries are best (see Sect. 6.1.2). s trength of this material means that they can ea-
themselves . Furthermore, the coopers were the Steel tanks are usu all y horizontal tanks. They sil y be deformed if treated carelessly. Alumi ni -
second largest occupational group in the bre- are either welded together to form one piece or um vessels, like all other tanks, are very sensiti-
wery, after the brewers and m altsters. Fig. 4.23a consist of several segmen ts which are bolted to- ve to vac uums.
shows the coopers at the Dresdner Felsenkeller gether or welded toge ther (ring tanks). More ra-
Brewery at a party in 1890; at this point in time rely there are ver tical tanks in the lager cellar 4.3.7 Performance of lagering in conven-
the brewery h ad an annual output of 110,000 hi, which, for better cleaning, are divided once or tional tanks
which was of course exclusively drau ght beer. tvvice in height (vertical cell tanks). For lagering the beer mus t be transferred into
AllUTunimn tanks are also frequently fmUld in the lagering vessels. These vessels are equipped
Metal tl1l1ks lager cellars. A particular advantage of these is with a closing device, the bunging d evice, in or-
Steel and alumillium tanks are used . Most lage- that aJlU11inilU11 requll'eS no linlllg when it is ma- der to be able to adjust the carbon dioxid e con-
ring vessels are steel tanks. Because of the effect de Sltlficiently passive. In general the same ap- ten tin the beer.
z> I.

474
The old brewer's rule used to apply to the la-
gering duration:
" for each percentage original wort content,
one week longer!"
A lagering temperatme of 0 to 1 °C was consi-
dered normal. If, however, the temperature is im-
4 mediately lowered to 0 °C, the yeast no longer has
the possibility to degrade the diacetyl, a result of
which being that the diacetyl content can still be
very high even after a longer period of lagering.
Nowadays, lagering takes at leas t two to
three weeks; however, before the tempera ture
is lowered to deep cooling, the diacetyl break-
down first has to be monitored. Since the lage-
ring tanks, however, do not have individual
cooling, the temperature in the Sect. can only be
lowered when the diacetyl in all the tanks has
been broken down. This results in an increase
in the lagering duration. A cold storage phase of
at least a week is also aimed for here.
4.3.7.1 Beer transfer
During beer transfer the lager vessels and fer-
m entation vessels are connected by hoses
through which the YOlUlg beer is transferred to
the lager vessels. The latter vessels are filled to
about a hand's breadth below the bung hole. To
avoid luulecessary loss of carbon dioxide and
entry of air, the vessels are filled from below
while subjected to a slight overpressure.
At transfer fermentation is still relatively vi-
gorous. The lager vessel is therefore not closed
immediately but only after one or two d ays by
means of the blmging device.
When the lagering vessels are very full a whi-
te foam cap emerges from the vessel which re-
moves trub particles and som e extract with it
(" frothing over"). To avoid this loss the vessel is
not comple tely filled at first and is topped up
after a time when there is no longer an y d anger
of loss of foam.
To achieve constant bee r quality, the contents
of a fermentation vessel are, if possible, distri-
buted into severa l tanks so that there are beers
from several brews in every tank.
4.3.7.2 Pressure regulation
Closing the lager vessel prevents the pressure-
less escape of the ca rbon dioxide produced.
Consequently the pressure in the lager vessel
increases . The pressure relief valve or blUlging
de vice is u sed to control this pressure.
Pressure distriblltioll hI tI,e lagerillg vessel
The increased pressure which d evelops in the
lagering vessel ac ts evenly outwards on all si-
des. It is obvious that the pressure in the lager
vessel CCUU10t be increased at will, because ot-
hen,yise the very g rea t force would split open
the end and considerable damage to p ersons
and installations could result.
Pressllre release devices
Every preca ution mu st be taken to prevent the
pressure inside the lagerin g vessels caused by
the additionally form ed CO 2 rising above the
desired value. A pressure release device com-
prising an overflow and sa fety valve is used for
this .
The pressure re lease device is both an excess
pressure valve and pressure regulator.
The oldest pressure release devices worked
with a colul1m of water (water column bunging
device) . To maintain CUl excess pressure of 0.3
bar in a lagering vessel the escaping carbon di-
oxide must overcome a 3 m high colunul of wa-
ter before it can escape. Water column blmgs
are therefore m eta l or glass pipes about 4 111
long filled to the desired height with water. In-
stead of one ta ll pipe several small ones COlU1ec-
ted one after a no ther m ay also be u sed.
Later m ercury, which is 13.6 times as heavy as
water, was u sed (mercury collUlln bunging de-
vices). Corresponding to the higher density of
mercury the mercury column only needed to be
1/13 .6 times as lo ng as the water colwl1n. A
pressure of 0.1 bar corresponds to a 1 m water
colu mn or a 100/13.6 = 7.4 cm me rcury column .
Mercury vapour is po iso nous and so the mer-
cury col umn bunging d e vices dis appeared
fr om brewe ries a lo ng tim e ago . Nowadays
spring or weight loaded va lves a re used which
can be accura tely set and open at a d efined in-
ternal p ressure to release the excess pressure.
Fig. 4.24 shows a pressure safe ty valve of this
kind.
Fig. 4.24
Sprillg pressllre snfety vnlve
Sources of error wTtell regulatillg pressure
It can happen tha t the bungin g d evice or excess
pressme valve does not produce the desired ef-
fect. There are several possible reasons for this:
The beer was trculs ferred too late or contai-
ned insufficient fermentable extract to achieve
saturation at the d esired pressure, or the yeas t
is too weak culd has already se ttled .
In this case the beer must be blended with
)'Dlmg beer in the low krau sen s tage to supply
475
fermentable ex tract culd fr esh, fermenting yeas t
in the logarithm ic phase. This process is known
as krausening.
When kra usening, ca re mus t be taken that the
yeast is no t suddenl y shocked by a low tempe-
rature, otherw ise the fermentation m ay stop.
In so me breweries krausenillg is always used 4
to obta in a s moo ther tas te.
There may be places w hich are n o t sealed and
from w ll ich CO 2 can escape unhindered . Leak
testing is best performed by smearing or spray-
ing on a concentrated cleaning liquid w hich fo-
ams a t unsealed loca tions .
It ca n h ap pen that the cOlmection to the ves-
sel interior is blocked. This can occur if the tcuLk
is filled too much and the krausen escapes
through the safe ty valve, cau sing it to becom e
stuck, o r if a blwt-in tap is closed. Safety regu -
la tions, h owever, forbid the installa tion of pipes
w hich can be closed.
In this case the fermentation still proceeds
further and even if somevvh a t re tarded
by the increased pressure. The increase in pres-
sure can be so large that finally there is a burst
w hereby the end of the barrel, the mculhole or
the we ld is blown out.
4.3.8 Storage vessel tapping
By storage vessel tapping (anstecken) is mecult
the establislunent of the connection from the la-
gerin g vessel to the filling section where contai-
ners are to be filled. It is dependent on the s truc-
ture of the lagering vessels used. Basic
requirements are:
Up to the filling stage the pressure on the li-
quid mu st be maintained as otherwise CO,
escapes.
Everythin g possible must be done to avoid
uptake of oxygen by the beer.
4.3.8.1 Establishment of the connection
Ea rlier the tapping of lager vessels was a very
diffi cult problem beca use the deepest position
 476
in the vessel was a long way below the outlet
and consequently special spear fittings had to
be used for tapping. These can now be seen
with amazement in brewery museums. Older
tanks often still have closures which need a
tank tapping fitting to which the hose can be
4 cOtUlected. By tank fitting brewers mean all
stopcocks with a spigot.
If the beer were to come into contact with air
the beer quality would be greatly spoilt. In addi-
tion the beer would foam and thereby lose CO,.
The cOtUlecting hose is therefore filled with
deaerated water (or the pipe is rinsed with CO,
and COlmter pressured with CO,) before the
COtUlection is opened. Howeve r, this results in a
mixing of the last part of the water and the first
part of the beer along the filling path. This mix-
ture is called the fore-run. Because the beer is
also displaced by water there is alsCl a post-run.
The separation can be seen in the inspection
lantern by a change in colour. However it is not
a sudden change but gradual (see Sect. 7.5.10).
Fore- and post-runs are collected and treated
separately.
As a result of the mixing with water there is
also a reduction of the original gravity which
must be taken into accOlUlt since beer tax mus t
be paid which in many colUltries depends on
the original gravity.
4.3.8.2 Pressure during tapping and emptying
There is an overpressure of about 0.5 bar in the
lager tank lmtil filling. When the beer is drawn
off, the pressure in the vessel would sink if ad-
ditional gas were not supplied. This is done by
supplying CO, or compressed air to the vessel.
When compressed air is used air comes into
contact with the beer and the oxygen uptake
spoils it. It is therefore advantageous to intro-
duce carbon dioxide into the vessel to avoid
oxidation. A large amoLmt of carbon dioxide is
produced during fermentation and it can be
collected, although this is almost impossibl e
with open fermenters. As will be seen, when
CCVs are used the situa tion is different.
Pressure accelerates the filling process but
there is a limit to the load which can be put on
the vessel material. The pressure applied on the
tanks when drawing from the vessels is usually
0.9 to 1.0 bar overpressure, and in the case of
barrels only 0.4 to 0.5 bar overpressure.
Not only too high, but also too low preSSlU'e
can cause extensive material damage:
If the com pressed gas pi pe is not opened on
drawing off, as the vessel is emptied a vaClllun
is created which can cause the vessel to collap-
se inwards.
In particular aluminium tanks are very mud1
at risk because of the softness of the material.
The tanks collapse completely and have to be
beaten out again at great expense. Small w1der-
pressures also have a particularly damaging ef-
fect on cylindroconical tanks.
4.3.9 Drawing off from conventional
tanks
The beer is drawn off from the lagering vessel
through the blending unit and pressure regula-
tor to the fil ter. Often the beer is also cooled in a
refrigeration device to make it more stable.
4.3.9.1 Blending unit
The beer is passed to the blending lmit. With
this it is possible to blend two or more tanks
with one another in order to obtain a constant
beer quality.
If a tank becomes empty - this can be detec-
ted by the beer in the inspection lantern beco-
ming turbid and foam being drawn in - the next
tank can immediately start to empty. Conse-
quently there is no interruption in the beer flow,
no pressure surges which can endanger filtrati-
on, and no drawing of oxygen into the beer.
The blending lmit provides 2 to 6 cOlUlections
for a hose to the lagering vessels. An observati-
on lantern is associated with each cOtUlection.
Fig. 4.25
Til/'ee positiol/ blel/riillg llIlit, I/wllllolly opernteri
The blending unit ensures a smooth and conti-
nuous flow as well as making it possible to ex-
amine the beer by means of the observation lan-
tern (Fig. 4.25) . Usually there is a lantern at the
water attachment so as to be able to fill the pipe
and at the end to displace the beer (post-run).
4.3.9.2 Pressure regulator
The last station in the lager cellar is the pressu-
re regulator which supplies the beer under con-
stant pressure to the filtration plant. This is
achieved by means of fixed pumps, mostly with
frequency regulated speed control. The pressu-
re is controlled so that no pressure surges occur.
As filh'ation proceeds, the pressure required
increases. As a result the pump has to be conti-
nually regulated if the pressure regulator and
filter pump are one and the same. If the filter
plant h as a separa te pump, the pressure regula-
tor can be operated with an almost constant
discharge, or so regulated that the level in the
buffering tank in front of the filter remains con-
stant.
4.3.9.3 Recovery of tank bottom beer
The tank bottom sediment holds some beer
back whicll is called tank bottom beer or reco-
verable beer. This residual beer must be reco-
477
vered but naturally it no longer conta ins any
CO, and in the case of open fermentation ves-
sels it is also infected . The tank bottom sed i-
ment (yeast crop and beer) makes up approx 1.5
to 2 % of the beer amount. 1 % of the total ou tpu t
can be recovered in the form of yeast beer.
For this a separate plant is used (see Sect. 4
4.4.6.4).
4.3.9.4 Deep cooling of the beer
Some breweries chill the beer again to a low
temperature before filtration to precipitate cold
break particles and thereby make the beer mo-
re stable to chilling.
For this purpose bee r chilling devices are
used which consist of tube coolers or plate heat
exchangers and cool the beer down by means of
a cooling agent (brine or glycol solution) to
-2 to -3°C.
As a rule the advantage of using a deep coo-
ling device is overvalued, since the chill haze
appears only aiter a long holding time at low
temperatures, in other words only after days,
and the success of cooling immediately before
filling is questionable. In addition there is a risk
of filtration problems as a result of the increase
in viscosity at low tempera tures.
To ensure precipita tion of chill haze particles
beer should be lagered before filtration for at le-
ast a week at -2 to -1 °C.
4.3.9.5 Fore-run and post-run
With all transfer processes (beer transfer, draw-
ing), mi xed fractions ranging from wa ter to
beer or vice versa occur. These fore- and post-
runs are collected separately. They are almost
always oxidised, are always contaminated and
contain diluted beer. These fractions have to be
sterilised by means of HTST and then pressed
onto the beer or better, returned to the whirl-
pool.
Modern plants mainly avoid fore- and post-
runs.
 478
4.4 Fermentation and maturation in
cylindroconical tanks (CCVs)
The previously customary fermenters an d stora-
ge tan ks could be used only up to a certain size.
The dri ve for greater profitability an d larger vo-
lumes led inevitably to the introduction of larger
4 p roduction lmits for the fermentation an d mati!-
ra tion of beer. The results with the cylind roconi-
ca l fe rmentation and lagering vessels, w hi ch
most breweries now consider indispensable, ha-
ve p roved to be completely successful. They not
only provide operating advan tages but also en-
sm e the quali ty of the beer is maintained d uring
fermentation and mati!ration.
4.4.1 Construction and installation of
cylindroconical vessels
With regard to the design and installa tion of cy-
lind roconica l vessels the foll owi.n g are of parti-
cular in terest:
the con struction material and sha pe of the
CCV,
their h eight, diameter, volume, tan k size,
head s pace, and
their p ositioning and ins tall ation.
4.4.1.1 Design, shape and cons truction materi-
al of cylindroconical vessels
Cylindroconical vessels are built with a cylin-
drica l upper p art and a cone sh aped lower p art.
As a result of this shape yeast collects at the bot-
tom and so can be easily and completely remo-
ved . Emptying and cleaning is also m ade easier.
CCVs were first m ad e of ordinary steel (liab-
le to rust) and provided with a coating of epoxy
resin to protect it from the beer, which had to be
regularly examined for dam age and renewed at
intervals. Nowadays cylind roconical vessels -
like fermenters, filters, etc. - are made almost
exclusively of non-rusting chrome-nickel s teel
(type 1.4301 or 1.4306), which by brewers is ge-
nerally referred to as V2A. This is considered
more full y in Sect. 6.1.2.
But it is not only the tank material which is of
importan ce. Jus t as important is the inner sm face
of the tank. It m ust be as smooth as possible and
not contain an y recesses on the microscop ic level.
Such lmevenness resulting fro m m anu fac ture is
called surface roughness. The surface rougluless
depth of surfaces can be redu ced by suitable
treahl1ents. The charac teristic measurement of
the surface constitution is the average stU'face
rouglmess (R.,), which depends on the surface
rougluless dep th . The average surface rouglmess
should be R., < 0.8 pm . By grinding and polishing
this can be reduced to 0.08 pm, w hich of course
invol ves ad d iti onal costs.
The cylindri ca l sid e walls (casing) are rolled
cold according to Procedure 2D (or preferably
according to DIN EN 10088) (Fig . 4.26a). As a
result of this an ave rage surface rouglmess of
0.3 to 0.5 pm is obtained whi ch is sufficient to
meet high dem ands in an lmprocessed state, as
lon g as no d am age occurs. This surface
rouglmess depth corresponds more or less to
the su rface of a materi al n a with grinding corn
240 (b). Su ch an average surface roughness, ho-
wever, d oes not su ffice for the cone floo r, w hich
is produced from warm rolled sheets because
for the sake of safety during cleaning, all yeast
cells and trub p articles h ave to be removed and
nothing may be left behind. One should bear in
mind here that there are no visible controls.
These cone fl oors are p olished (mechanically)
w i th increasingly fine emery p owder - prefera-
bly vertically - to an average surface roughness
of 0.4 pm (c).
By way of explan ation: in the case of electro-
polishing, a p rocedure is used whereby the
equipment p arts to be polished are trea ted in a
large bath with fin e emery. The vibra tions re-
quired for this are produced electrically. The
process is not suitable fo r use on the hu ge cone
floo rs.
A ben chmark for the surface composition is
specified in DIN EN 10088:
2D Processed cold, hea t-treated, stained
2B Cold rolled, heat-treated, s tained,
cold rerolled
2R Cold ro lled, brig ht almealed,
2G Polished
2J Brushed or matt polish ed
2P Polished, brightl y p olish ed
Of particular interest are the welded joints
which nowadays have to be finely ground to
prevent the establi shment of contaminati ons.
The size of cultilre yeast is 6 to 10 A cell of
this size Calm ot be held by a milled base but
bacteria alld sp ores are 0.7 to 4 in size an d
so there is a possibility that on a surface with a
greater surface rouglmess depth some could be
retained and multiply. This relates to bacteria
and small w ild yeas ts which es tablish them sel-
ves in this way and in tim e give rise to contami-
nations . It is therefore necessary to examine the
tank contents very ca refull y for contaminati ons
and, if necessary, introduce a m ore vigorous
clealling alld sterilisa tion (see Sect. 4.4.7).
Biological monitoring of the brewery h as all
important role here.
(
} 4.4.1.2.2 Ratio of diameter to w ort height
. 'l"
'r t
( a s ma ll amount of CO, is fo rmed .
Fig. 4.26
Treated slIIfaces with varyillg slI lface rOllghlless depths
479
4.4.1.2 Size of CCVs
Cylind roconical tan ks we re built in almost any
chosen size - up to 30 m hi gh an d m ore than 10
m in d iameter. Nowadays rather m ore care is
taken in choosing the dimensions, esp ecially in
the case of cylindroconica l fermentation ves-
sels, as a res ult of exp erien ce and tests which 4
s how it is better n ot to exceed certain d efined
measurements [46].
4.4.1.2.1 Wort height in the cylindroconical
fermentation vessels
Tests have shown that the composition of the fer-
mentation by-products is affec ted by wor t
height. It should be borne in mind that a yeast cell
fe rmenting at a depth of 20 m is subject to the
pressure of a 20 m CO,-containing column of
wort. The possible height of the COltU1Ul of wort is
thereby limited by the CO, content. In the light of
present knowledge the maxiln llll wort height il1
a cylind roconical fermenter should be 20 m . Th e-
re are however man y cylindroconical fennentati-
on vessels with a filling height of 23 to 27 m . Wort
heigh t plays n o role ill a cylindroconicallagering
vessel provided that the matilra tion process (dia-
cetyl removal) has ended .
There are different opinions about the optimum
diameter to wort height ratio in cy lilld roconical
fe rmentation vessels. Th e ra tio va ries fro m 1 : 1
to 1 : 5. Recently wider vessels h ave been more
w idely discussed [46] :
the ra ti o o f diameter to total wort height
should be 1 : 2,
the ra tio of dialneter to w ort height in the cy-
lindrical part should be 1 : 1 to 1 : 5.
In the case of CCVs with a coolin g jacke t the
di ameter : height ra tio h as an effect on the ho-
mogeneity of the contents, above all when only
Most tank diam eters are between 3.50 and
4.50 m an d are also difficult to transport. Th e
 480
cone angle may be between 60 and 90° and is usu-
ally 60 to 75°. For calculations it is im portant to
know that with a con e angle of 60° the height of
the cone equals the diameter times 0.866.
The ca pacity of the cylindroconical fermentati-
on vessel is calculated from the sum of (Fig. 4.27)
4 Basically, therefore, the heads pace volume of
the cylindri ca l part: 1'2 X n x h
and
the conical part: r2 x n x h
3 volume of 969 hI there is a lso a 25% headspace
Example:
The total wort height in a cylindroconi ca l fer-
mentation vessel is 9.40 m .
The diameter of the cylindroconical fermen-
tation vessel is 4.20 m and the h eight of the co-
ne 3.60 m.
How many hl of wort does the cylilldroconi-
cal fermentation vessel contain?
Total wort height 9.40m
cone height 3.60m
cylinder height 5.80m
Cylilldrical part:
2.10 m x 2.10 m x 3.14 x 5.80 m = Vc)'1
Conical part:
(2.10 m x 2.10 m x 3.14 x 3.60 m) : 3 = Veone
VC)'I 80.31 m 3
+ Veone = 16.62 m 3
Vlolal = 96.93 m 3 = 969.3 h1
The tank contains 969 hI of wort.
4.4.1.2.3 Tank size
The size of the CCV is designed ill acco rdance
with brewhouse production. Basically the tank
should receive only half a da y's production (on-
ly in exceptional cases a full day's production).
There are several reasons for this:
If the tank is larger, fillillg takes too long- the
first brew is already well into the fermentati-
on stage.
'<>
\7
... '" "'"
Fig. 4.27
V "<
CCV ns n c!flillrier nllri n coile
(1) totnlheight, (2) COile heiglIt, (3) c!flillrier heigllt, (4) height
of wort ill the c!flillriel; (5) henri spnce, (6) totnlwort height,
(7) coile al/gle
If the last brew is pitched w ithout yeas t, this
wort rem ams standing for a longer time wit-
hout yeas t since the contents of the tank do
not mix. This encourages the spread of conta-
minants.
Very large tanks are unproductive during the
long times required for emptymg, cleaning
and refilling .
Large tanks are only suitable for main beer
brands.
peak load for cooling is greater in the case of
large tanks than with several small tanks.
In a very few cases, however, breweries base
their ilwes tment decisions on other teclul010gi-
calor operational requirements. Very often
transportation considerations d etermine the
diameter and height of large vessels.
4.4.1.2.4 Headspace
The cylindroconical fermentation vessels can of
course not be completely filled for fermentation
because here too, quite large volume foams are
formed by the CO, evolution and in ex treme ca-
ses these can emerge from the gas pipes and
cause the safety valves to stick. This can be very
dangerous because the adhering wort can even
block the valves to such an extent that they no
longe r operate.
fermentation tanks s hould be equal to 18 to
25 % of the pitched wort volume.
In the above example ill addition to the wort
volume. How large must the total height of this
cylmdroconical fennenter be?
Wort volume
+ 25%
CCV volum e
96.9 m 3
24.2 m 3
121.1 m 3
The height of the hea d space is calculated
using the equation
headspace volume = r2 x n x h of the headspace
head space
h of the volume = 24.2 m 2 = 1.75 m
headspace 1'2 x n 13.8 m 2
The total height of the CCV must therefore be:
wort height + headspace height = total CCV
height
9.40 + 1.75 = 11.15 m
TIle CCV must have a total height of 11 .15 m .
Wheat beer fermentation vessels are only 50
0/0 filled because of the great foam formation.
TIle headspace should be at least 40 %.
Lager tanks need less head space but this de-
pends on what happens in the CCV:
i£ only cold storage is performed 5 - 8%
if diacetyl removal s tiU occurs 10 -12 %
if hausen is added 25 %
4.4.1.3 Location and arrangement of the CCVs
Because cylindroconical tanks are very tall ves-
sels, at first they were always sited outdoors in
481
the open air, appropriately insulated against
weather effects. Later there was an illCreasil"lg
trend to bring them indoors lmder cover. Both
a lternatives, w ith varia nts, are s till common
(Fig. 4.28).
Outdoor CCVs (a) are very widespread and
require hea t insulation of the individu al contai-
ners. Erection occurs either
with a frame supporting ring in a fa lse cei-
lillg,
with a s tandillg frame on the fOlmda tion, or
on more than one suppo rt.
In the case of standing frame CCVs, the servi-
cing room is loca ted n ex t to the standing frame
or the frame room is used directly as the servi-
cing room. In other cases the tank cone juts free-
ly into the servicillg room, provided this has
not been transferred to illl adjacent building.
There are various reasons for indoor installa-
tion:
a cover is desired for a better view,
conditions imposed by an authority are the-
reby fulfilled,
a complete or partial hea t insulation of the
vessels is desired.
The decision as to which variant is to be used
should only taken after carefully examilling all
the relevant factors.
Advillltages of outdoor CCVs are
it is possible to regulate the temperature of
each tillLk individually,
the tilllk temperatures do not affect each ot-
her.
Disadvillltages are
the considerably large heat insulation neces-
sary around each tank,
the larger surface causes larger losses of ener-
gy.
In the case of indoor tillLks, there are conside-
rable costs for
the steel framework illld the cons truction co-
ver, as well as
the surface design.
 482
4 4
On the other hand energy is saved in the la-
ger cellar department in insulated buildings
with room cooling for the individual cooling of
the cylindroconicallagering vessels.
4.4.2 Cylindroconical tank fittings
Cylindroconical tanks are equipped in particu-
1m with
control and operating elements and also
safety valves,
equipment for cooling the tank, and
equipment for controlling and automating
the fermentation.
Fig. 4.29 indicates the extent of the equipment
necessa ry and it is described in the following.
4.4.2.1 Control and operating elements and
safety fittings
The following elements are needed to operate
and control the tank and to provide the neces-
sary safety:
devices for filling and emptying the CCV,
safety valves,
483
Fig. 4.28
Armllgelllellt of CCVs
(a) olltdoor illstallatioll with a Fig. 4.30
closed servicillg 1'00111 Distrivlltioll pal/el with C/Irved cOllllectors
(v) illdoor tallks ill all IIl1illsllla-
ted Vllildillg; for tl/is the
tallks have to Ve illslliated
alld cooled sepamtely It is not possible to use hoses for a long time
(c) illdoor tallks - lIl1illslllated ill
without contamination, because the interior
all ills lila ted Vllildillg.
surface of a hose is usually much worse than
the outwmd appearance suggests. Hoses requi-
re very careful treahl1ent and good care (see
control instruments, and Sect. 6.1.3).
CIP equipment. Most breweries lise panels for switching (Fig.
4.30), on which the desired cOlUlections are pro-
4.4.2.1.1 Equipment for filling and emptying g
the CCV
Cylindroconical tanks are always filled from
below and emptied from below. This is necessa-
ry because 13
it is considerably easier, and
filling from above would cause an undesira-
ble introduction of air into the beer. 1'1-
Filling and emptying from below, 15 -t--l----'
means that the CCV must be cOlmected to seve-
ral pipes, namely
a wort supply pipe, Fig. 4.29
Cylilldl'Ocollical tallk (illslliatioll pm·tially relllOved)
a yeast crop removal pipe,
(1 ) st'n1icillg I'll1t/O/"III, (2) tnllk dOli/I! wilh fill illgs, (3) en/lIe rillet alld wa-
a beer removal pipe, and ta TI?IIlO ilnl pipt' ills/nllt'd ill tlrt' iusulntioH, (4) thermometer coJ1l1ection,
a pipe for supplying and removing crr li- (5) slIIaller coolillg ZOI1I:' for lngerillg, (6+8) coo/illS ZUllI'S JOfferll/cllln/ioJl,
(7) illslI fniiol1, (9) cO/medioll fiJI' supply of liquid amlllonia, will! lIn /ves,
quids.
(9n) Te/llO lln l of collriel/sed flI/II/IOI/;n, (10) COIlt! COO/illS lO Ilt', (I1) COIlt! base
It is important that these cOlmections are ma-
will/llulI/llOft' cover O N 450, (12) sample cock, (13) supply aJ/d re lllOlml
de with no contamination and without access of lIt'S 10 lI,e dOll/e CIP) illstalled ill tile illsll lalioll, (14) pressure Fig. 4.30a
oxygen. IIu.'flsl/rillg nlld collfrol, (15) collielits II/easllrelllelll, ell/pty slale alanll CI/rved collllectors all a pipefell ce
 484
duced by means of curved COlU1ectors (hinged
elbows) on a pipe fence (Fig. 4.30a) using very
few movements. By means of manually or re-
motely operated butterfly valves (Fig . 4.31) the-
se cOlU1ections can be opened or closed.
4 Great damage can be ca used, particularly when
Fig. 4.31
Bllttelfly or disc valve
It is particularly important to avoid the entry
of oxygen which inevitably causes a deteriora-
tion in quality. To exclude oxygen, on drawing
off the beer the pipe is filled as far as the valve
with deaerated water (fore-rem). But the curved
cOlU1ection would introduce air again into the
pipe if the air were not removed, by an air re-
lease valve at the top position for example. Al-
ternatively, the pipes and fittings can also be ef-
fectively rinsed out with CO, which totally
expels the air.
In large plants the entire installation is often
permanently COIU1ected by pipes and remotely
operated by remotely controlled valves. The
equipment costs are substantially higher, but
fewer operators are needed . These valves are
either
attached to every tank (individual COlU1ecti-
on), or
collected together to form a "valve junction"
Fig. 4.32
DOllble sent vnlve
(1) valve rod, (2) lower valve, (3) IIpper valve, (4) cOlllpressed
air sllpply, (5) elltry of compressed nir IIIlder the pistOil, (6)
pressllre sprillg, (7) small pressllre sprillg, (8) leakage pipe,
(9) ClP attnclllllellt, (10) pistoll
to w hich all the tanks can be connected. In the
second case one speaks of a gro up connecti-
on.
In such a plant there are a large number of
valves in the smallest possible space. Valves
may wi th time no longe r form a complete seal.
cleaning fluid gets into the beer. Everything
possible is therefore done to limit such occur-
rences of damage by using "leakage indica ting
valves" .
Leakage illdicatillg va lves
Valves are used to open or close the cOlUlecti-
ons between the pipes. To provide greater secu-
rity double-seat valves with leakage indication
when the sea l is incomplete mus t be used .
Such a double-seat valve (Fig . 4.32) operates
as follows:
A strong spring (6) forces the lower valve (2)
down, by means of a rod (1) to which it is secu-
rely fixed and form s a seal. The upper valve
disc is likewise forced by the spring (6) but be-
cause of the spring (7), it can be pushed by a
small amOLmt against the lower valve disc. The
space between the valve disc opens to the atmo-
sphere via the leakage pipe (8). It is cleaned by
a separate CIP attachment (9) .
When the command to open the valve arri-
ves, compressed air is introduced through (4)
and flows downwards inside the valve rod (5)
as far as the piston which it then raises against
the pressure of the spring. The double-seat val-
ve is lifted with the pi ston whereby the lower
disc lifts the upper disc with it and they are
sealed together.
On closing, the compressed air is released
and consequently the pressure of the spring be-
comes greater again. It now forces the pis ton,
and thus by means of the valve rod (1) the lower
valve (2), downward s again. Firs t the upper
and then the lower valve closes . However a
small space still remains between them. If a val-
485
ve is not properly sealed, the liquid can flow
unhindered downwards and out through the
small pipe (8). The leak produced is visible.
Naturally the valves made by different firms
have different structures. However, w hen they
are double-sea t valves there is always a small
space between the two valves providing a pres- 4
s ure-free outflow to show leakage.
SlIpply alld removal of CO,
The CO, produced during ferm entation must
inevitably be removed from the highest point in
the tank. When the beer is drawn off, CO, - or
for the lack of it, air - must be applied to the
tank. In addition the CIP cleaning liquid must
inevitably be sprayed from the very top for it to
be successful. The valves required for this are
loca ted accessibly below and connected by a
vertical pipe to the tank top (Fig. 4.33).
Fig. 4.33
lIalve asse/llbly for
the gas collllectioll
IIlIit
(1) vertically ascell-
dillg pipe
(2) CIP valve
(3) gas pressllre re-
glliator
(4) COl olltlet valve,
(5) COl Slipply val-
ve
(6) sterile air sllpply
valve
This valve station comprises
a valve for the supply of eIP liquids
a gas pressure regulating valve (at the top)
 486
4 If, howeve r, higher temperatu res are used, it
l
a valve for CO 2 remo va l
a valve for suppl ying CO, during drawing
off, and sometim es
a valve for supplying s terile air.
4.4.2.1.2 Tank dome valves
The topmost p art of the tank is called the dome.
The dome is accessible and contains fittings at-
tach ed to the central region, the d ome plate.
The dome fittings are p ro tected from weather
effects and comprise (Fig. 4.34)
an excess pressu re valve,
a VaCUl1l11 valve,
a CIP unit with the associated pipework,
a sensor for filling levels (safegu ard against
ove rfilling) and
a pressure detecting device for the tan k pres-
sure.
Th e dome fittings should be connected to the
CIP sys tem to keep them full y op erational.
They must also have protection from freezing.
4.4.2.1.2.1 Excess pressure valve
The necessity for a pressure relief va lve is ob-
vious since, as demons trated ea rli er in relation
to a conventional lager cell ar, enorm ous for ces
are p roduced w hen the pressure inside a tank
487
increases. Th e danger is corresp on d in gly tel' weighs 1000 kg (= 1 t). If the s team conden-
greater w ith large CCVs, par ti cul a rly wh en the ses it contracts to the 1786'" (= 1000/0.56) part of
pressure build-up occurs in an almost em pty its origin al volum e. This will ca use problems!
tank. Th e p ressure relief val ve is built into the Consequentl y most breweries do n ot use
dome valve and is mass or spring loaded (F igs. clea ning solution tempera tures above 35 °C for
4.35 an d 4.36). clea ning CCVs.
4
Fig. 4.34 is recommended that the increased pressure
Tallk donlC fi tlillg p roduced during heating should n ot be allo-
(1) ascending pipe (CO" COI/1- wed to esca pe, but should be allowed to decrea-
pressed ail; CIP)
se again during cooling down to prevent forma-
(2) liqn id / gas sepamtor
(3) pressll re relief valve
tion of a vac uum.
(4 ) vaClIlI1/1 valve Vacuum va lves must respond reliably and ea-
(5) spmy head sily (Fig . 4.37).
(6) CIP c1eallillg of lile fitling
At norm al or excess pressu res the weight of
the cover ca uses it to close the opening. If a va-
cuum is form ed, the relatively large valve cover
is raised and outside air is su cked in .
Fig. 4.36 Sticking or freezing mus t be p revented .
ivlass-Ioaded pressllre relief valve Th e vacuum valve is therefore co!Uw cted to th e
CIP wut and must also be raised dming cIeatUng.
Th e vacuum valve is built into the dome fit-
tings .
4.4.2.1.2.2 Vacuum valve
Large ta nks are easily dam aged by a vacuum
and their shap e changes even with very slight
reduced p ressures. The risk of a tank imploding
is disproportion ately greater than the risk of
one explod in g. The reasons are as follows:
Gases expat1d on wa rming by 1 °C by about
1/ 273 of their volume and contrac t by the sa me
amount on cooling. Wh en a gas in a wa rm or
hot tank is sp rayed with cold water it contrac ts
and produ ces a vacuum wluch makes the tan k
collapse in wa rds.
Operating with tanJ<s a t higher temperatu res
is par tic ul arly d angerous beca use then increa-
sing amo unts of stea m are produced . H owever,
the steam does not just contrac t on cooling but
Fig. 4.35 it also condenses at1d the volume is abruptly
Sprillg- Ioaded Fig. 4.37
decreased (bea t of the blas t pipe).
press llre relief lIaCl/lI1/1 valve
valve with valve It must be re membered that at s tandard p res-
(1 ) valve disc, seated by its OW II Illass, (2) pipe to tallk inte-
disc aeratioll Sure 1 m 3 of s team weighs 560 g but 1 m 3 of wa- riO/; (3) oll tside air access, leakage dminage
I
I
t
 488
489

4.4.2.1.2.3 CIP cleaning equipment
Cylind roconical vessels ca n, of cou rse, only be
cleaned by surface flu shing with liqui d in a Clr
process. The cleaning fittings (spray ball, direc-
ted jet cleaning head s) are cOlm ected to the d o-
me fitting and are sized so th at the outflow ing
4 liquid film rem ains continuous over the enti re
h eight and also clean s the con e prope rly.
For this about 20 hi of cleaning liquid per hou r
and per meh'e of tank peri p hery is circulated.
Norm al spray balls are not adequate for large
tan ks. In this case special di rected jet cleaning
heads (Fig. 4.38) are u sed .
Durin g clean ing of the dom e fitting the val-
ves m ust be lifted off their seats to preven t stic-
king and to clea n the val ve seats.
ProbleJ11 :
How mu ch cleaning liquid must be used for the
tank considered in the prev ious ca lculati ons?
Tank diameter: 4.20 m
Perimeter = diam eter x 3.14 = 13.2 m
Needed for 1 m perimeter = 30 l11/h
Needed fo r 13.2 m perimeter = 13.2 x 30 = 396 hl/h
di vided by 60 = 6.6 h1/min
di v id ed by 6 = lll/sec
11 I of cleaning liquid p er second mus t be
sprayed in the tank.
4.4.2.1.3 Control instruments
The contents of the cylindroconical tank are not
accessible to the brewer. Tllis increases the im-
portan ce of the control instruments used to mo-
pressu re d etecting devices . In the case of mo-
dern eq uipmen t, the contents amount as well as
the conten ts heigh t is ind icated .
A conten ts m easu rement is possible by me-
ans of:
diffe rential pressu re measure ment (gas pha-
se/floor pressure),
ultrason ic sensors (assembled from outside),
sonic de pth finde r p rinciple (n ot usua l in the
case of cy lind roconica l tank s),
measurement of the am OLmt flow ing in by
mean s of IFM,
pressu re gau ge box (in the case of s ma ll
CCVs, loca ted under the s tan d) .
Two meas urements should be carried out in -
dependentl y of each other.
4.4.2.1.3.3 Pressure in dicator
During fermentation Lmder pressure illl d d uring
lagerin g the pressure in the CCV must be mOlu-
a fter the beer and li kewise grea t d amage wo uld
be caused.
Th e em pty alarm probe is also important fo r
the opera tion of the CIP processes, in particular
for the exact separation of the media . For safety
reason s, two measurements are made indep en-
den tly of eac h othe r. 4
4.4.2.1.3.5 Sam p ling
Samp les are taken fro m a CCV by a sampling
device which, by mea ns of a small permilllently
insta lled pu mp, p rod uces a circulation circui t
fro m which a sample of yeas t or yOLmg beer Cilll
be taken at any time.
I

- - ----- - -
_

.
• •• ___ • _ • _ __ __ _ __ _

nitor the tank contents illld control the proces- - - -- -------,

Fig. 4.38
Directed hend dea II illg jet
Because the entry of the CIP cleaning liquid
and the suppl y and removal of gases occur
through the sam e vertical pipe, the d om e fitting
must contain a device for sep arating the liquid
and gaseous phases.
ses inside the tank. These include:
thermom eter,
contents indica tor,
pressure indica tor,
minimum and ma ximum volume p robes,
and
tilllk contents sampling p oints.
4.4.2.1.3.1 Thermometer
Du ring the fe rmentation illld quick-freeze pha-
ses it is necessary to h ave exact temperahlre
man agement illld therefore exact temperahlre
measurement. The contents of the CCV are sub-
ject to considerable turbulence during this time
illld consequentl y there are tempera ture diffe-
rences. Th ermometers are therefore built into
the lower and upper third s of the tank an d their
values are regularly trilllsmitted .
4.4.2.1.3.2 Contents indicator
Contro l of the state of filling of the tank is very
important illld is measured and trilllsmitted by
tored. TIus becomes particularly important if the
preset pressure is not reached or is delayed. TIle
pressm e relief valve prevents a p ressure increase
above the preset value (see above) as does a limit
value switch. Again, two pressure meaSlU'ements
should be taken if possible.
4.4.2.1.3.4 Minimum and maximum volume
probes
CCVs are all equipped with minimum and ma-
ximum volum e probes w hich s top the fl ow
when a m aximum p ermissible fill in g h eight
(safeguard agains t overfilling) is reach ed or
when the tank becomes empty.
The importance of these probes needs to be ma-
de cleill·. If the inflow were not stopped at the ma-
ximlUll pernussible height, there would no longer
be enough room for the fOillll . Consequently tlle
foam would flow out thl'Ough the dome valve and
the ascend ing pipe and sp read over the entire
plant. Tile dam age would be enormous.
If, on the other hand, the tank ra n completely Fig. 4.39
emp ty, vast amounts of air would be su cked in Snlllplillg device

Q
 490
There are tlu'ee possible ways of sampling
from a pipe:
a spot check,
this is taken at any chosen time and gives a
picture of the quality of the product at the ti-
me of taking the sample,
4 1I111ltipie checks,
these are taken at preset time intervals and
provide information relating to a defined ti-
me period,
a representative avernge snlllple,
for this the sample container is previously
pressurised to the same pressure as the pro-
duct pipe and continually adjusted to this
pressme. Sampling occurs proportionately to
the flow velocity and so the sample gives
both qualitatively and quantitatively repre-
sentative information about the product and
its composition (Fig. 4.39).
4.4.2.1.3.6 Inspection openings
From time to time the CCV must be entered to
inspect for example
there is evidence of cracks or corrosion, or
there are places on the walls which were not
reached by the flow of cleaning liquid and as
a result islands of residues have been formed.
For this purpose every tank has a lockable
manhole at least 50 cm in diameter at both the
top and bottom.
The lower opening (DN 450) consists of the
unscrewable and turnable bottom part of the
outlet cone. For entering tanks, ASI 2.40/91 ap-
plies (see Sect. 4.9 .2).
4.4.2.2 Cooling of the CCV
It has to be guaranteed that the temperature
progression in the fermenting beer is optimally
set. For this it is necessary to equip the tanks
with their own cooling. The possibilities and
the scope of the cooling result from the cooling
requirements .
4.4.2.2.1 Cooling requirements
During fermentation, process heat is produced
which has to be removed . Furthermore, the
beer is cooled to temperatures of -1 to -2 °C for
the cold lagering phase. The amOlmt of heat
which has to be removed is composed of
heat arising from fermentation (enthalpy),
the necessary cooling of the beer for cold la-
gering (liquid heat) and
losses due to heat irradiation.
Ferlllelltntioll lIent
The amount of heat produced during fermenta-
tion is
587 kJ = 140 kcal = 0.16 kWh per 1 kg of extract.
With an original gravity of 11.5 to 12 % and a
V,end of 75 to 80 % there is a fermented extract
amOlmt of 7.0 to 8.3 kg/hI. This results in a heat
formation in kJ/hl of
Original gravity 75% 80% 85%
Degree of fermentation
12.0 % 4287 4573 4845
16.0% 5700 6068
It is thus possible to calculate a midpoint va-
lue in the case of full beers of 4300 to 4600 kJ/hl .
Liquid hent
For cooling from 9 °C to -1 °C (= 10°C), 4200
kJ/hl is required. This means the amolmt that is
required for the cooling of the beer is about as
large as the amOlmt for the removal of the fer-
mentation heat.
E1/ergy loss through Ilent irrndintioll
Through radiation and convection to the sur-
rOlmding area, heat losses occm. Nowadays the
losses can be minimised by excellent heat insu-
lating materials, sizing of the heat insulation
around the tanks and insulation of casings.
TIle complete cooling requirement can there-
fore be estimated to be a total of
8600 to 9000 kJ/hl.
For the sizing of the heat exchange surfaces, a
value of 587 kJ/kg rea l fermented extract can be
used [314].
This amOlmt of heat is not, however, produ-
ced LUuformly and does not have to be removed
Uluform ly. The point in time and scop e of h eat
remova l depends on
the fer mentation and matura tion procedure,
and
the timing and speed of cooling.
The grea test cooling requirement arises on
the cooling of the beer following fermentation
within 24 to 48 hours.
4.4.2.2.2 Cooling possibilities
The production of cooling (= low temperature
heat) occurs in the brewery almost exclusively
by meilllS of compression refrigeration plants
(Sect. 10.3.2), and more rarely in absorption
plants (10.3.3). Compressed liquid ammoniac is
thereby evaporated. To evaporate, ammoniac
requires heat energy. The ammoniac draws this
heat fro m its surroundings, which are cooled as
a result. There are two possibilities for cooling:
the ammoniac is directly evaporated in the
cooling pipes or cooling pockets (direct eva-
poration cooling) or
the ammoniac is evaporated in an evaporator,
thereby cooling down a cooling agent, usual-
ly glycol, which is in turn fed through the
cooling pipes or pockets (indirect evaporati-
on cooling).
Cooling with chilled water at 0 °C is not pos-
sible because at the end a temperahlre of 0 °C
has to be obtained and for heat exchange to ta-
ke place a temperature difference of 3 to 4 °C is
necessary.
Information on the basics of the production
of cooling can be found in Sect. 10.3.
491
Direct evnporntiol/ coolil/g
In the case of direct evaporation cooling (Fig.
4.41), the cold liquid illllilloniac from the NHJcut-
ter (3) is introduced into the segmented pipes of
the coolLng zone from above. While the ammOtu-
ac evaporates, it extracts hea t from the interior of
the tank illld cools it. The evaporated ammoniac 4
is passed to the NHJ compressor (4) via the cutter
(3) where, on heating, it is compressed. In the
evaporation condenser (1), the (35 °C) wann NH3
is liquefied again through cooling ill1d reinh'odu-
ced to the cycle via the collector (2) .
II/direct coo/jllg IIsillg glycol
In the case of indirect cooling (Fig. 4.42), the
ammoniac circuit (1-4) is cOLUlected to a separa-
te glycol circuit. The glycol, which at -1°C is re-
latively warm, is cooled to -3 to -5 °C in the NH,
cutter and is first put into a glycol till1k (6) used
as storage. From there it is introduced into the
segmented pipes of the cooling zone from be-
low and heats up, whilst the contents of the
tank cool down. The heated glycol is then put
back into storage, to be then reintroduced into
the cycle.
The advantage of direct evaporation lies abo-
ve all in the low specific electrical energy costs,
which result in considerable energy cost sa-
vings (up to 15%).
In contrast to indirect cooling by meill1S of
glycol, there are a number of advill1tages:
the glycol circulation stage is lumecessary,
it is possible to work with higher evaporation
temperatures (-4 to -6 °C) ins tead of -10°C,
substantially smaller pumps are required sin-
ce less has to be trill1sported,
substantially smaller supply pipes are requi-
red,
this results in conSiderably lower insulating
ill1d installation costs,
temperature control is more accurate and
the system is more flexible.
 492
Disadvantages on the other hand are:
higher operating pressures in the conveyors,
resulting in higher costs,
evaporation temperatures are not constant,
the plant can barely be used in a stationary
state,
4 large amounts of refrigerants are necessary,
which in some countries require specia l ap-
proval (Germany: 3 t NH3requires special ap-
proval (4th Federal Immission Control Ordi-
nance)),
relatively high fittings expenditure for safety
reasons,
danger of loss of refrigerants,
hardly any possibility of storing COOllilg energy,
trained staff necessary,
stringent safety requirements,
high investment cost for assembly.
In the case of indirect cooling, nowadays
ethylene or propylene glycol solutions are al-
most always used, which are set to be frost-pro-
of to -10 to -15°C. This procedure also has ad-
vantages and disadvantages.
The advantages are:
the lower operating pressures in the heat
transfer slU'faces,
a uniform burden of the cooling plant when
using cold storage,
constant evaporation temperatures are possi-
ble, which are 3 to 4 DC below the set-point
value temperature,
considerably less ammoniac is required.
Disadvantages are:
the considerably increased energy require-
ment of the cooling plant,
the larger pipe system and pl1lnps, as well as
the other advantages of direct evaporation
cooling.
In general the advantages of direct evaporati-
on prevail so that the majority prefer this solu-
tion.
4.4.2.2.3 Heat transfer
Heat transfer occurs by means of
segmented pipes,
vertical distribu tion pipes or
specially designed h eat exchange surfaces
(temp plates, dimple jackets, pillow plates).
Heat exchange surfaces are designed so that
maximum heat exchange is possible on the
smallest surfaces. The heat exchange surfaces
for direct evaporation have to be monitored sin-
ce they have to withstand the s toppage pressu-
re of the refrigerant - and in the case of ammo-
niac this is a considerable 11.6 bar.
The following cooling jacket types are usual:
segmented pipes with horizontal flow of the
refrigerant.
On cooling using glycol (Fig. 4.40), the refri-
gerant is fed in from below and passes out at
the top.
Fig. 4.40
Seglllellted pipes with horizoll -
tnl flo w
(g l1fcol coolillg)
In the case of direct evaporation using ammo-
luac (Fig. 4.42) on the other hand, the ammoni-
ac is introduced from above. Four to six pipe
coils in a cooling zone assembled into one secti-
on (train) are thereby used to enable a muform
heat exchange.
It is advantageous to have as small a volume
of NH3 in the cooling segments as possible be-
cause then
there can be a smaller total amount of ammo-
luac in the brewery,
the separator can be smaller, and
there is less re-evaporation .
Wlulst the usual distribution pipes muts con-
tain 12 - 151 of NH3per m 2 (Fig. 4.42a, 1), newer
lmits contain only 4.51/m 2 (2).
e
493
4
Fig. 4.41
Coolillg vy lIIenllS of direct evnporntioll
(1) evnporntioll colldellsel; (2) N HJ col-
lecfOl; (3) N HJ sepnrntol; (4) N HJ COIII -
pressOl; (5) oil sepnrntol; (6) NHJ plllllp
New horizontal shallow profi- 1
le evaporators may even use only 1.91/m2 .
In the case of vertical distribution (Fig. 4.41),
the ammoniac evaporates as it flows down-
wards. This form of evaporation is not fOlmd
very frequently, and is not as easy to monitor as
Fig.4.42n
evaporation in horizonta l evaporation pipes. SegllleJ/ted pipe cooler
Heat exchangers known as "Temp-plates", (n) old profile, (v) flnt profile
"Pillow plates", "dimple jackets" or others are
produced for tanks consisting
of metal sheets which are spot
welded at equal intervals (Fig.
4.43). By use of excess pressu-
re the spaces on the tlun cove-
ring sheets between the point
welds are bent out, thereby
forcing the cooling medium to
flow turbulently through the
jacket. Tlus results in good he-
at exchange.
Fig. 4.42
Illdirec/ coolillg wilh glycol coolillg
(1) evnpornlioll colldellsOl; (2) NHJ collec-
/0/; (3) NHJ coolel; (4) NH J colllpressOl;
(5) oil sepnrnfol; (6) glycol/nllk, (red) gly-
col cirCl/ if
 494
4 ratively low costs.
Fig. 4.43
Temp -plnles or dimple j nekels for N H3 evnporalioll coolillg
The largest cooling requirement arises after
fermentation and maturation when the beer is
quickly cooled to lagering temperatme. The tem-
perature of the cooling agent should thereby be 3
to 4 °c below the set-point value of the beer. For
this the following cooling surfaces are required:
for cylindroconical fermenting vessels using
direct evaporation
3.4 m 2 cooling surface / 100 hI at evaporation
temperatures of +1 °c
1.6 m 2 cooling surface / 100 hi at evaporation
temperatures of -4 °C
using indirect evaporation
3.8 to 4.4 m 2 cooling surface / 100 hi at +1 °c
pre-temperatu re,
1.7 to 1.8 m 2 cooling surface / 100 hI at / -4 °C
pre-temperature.
for cylindroconical storage tanks
0.9 m 2 cooling surface / 100 hI at -4 °C pre-
temperahHe.
The beer can also be cooled externally by re-
moving it from the cone c01U1ection nozzles,
cooling it in a plate cooler and pumping it back
through an ascending pipe 1 to 2 m below the
beer surface level. The ascending pipe is built
into the reactor (Fig. 4.44) and is cleaned by me-
ans of a reversing bell at the upper end. The pi-
pe can just as well be installed in the insulation
outside the tank. However, the different layout
of the pipe and the introduction into the tank
have to be taken into consideration.
Fig. 4.44
CCIf (bio-renclor) w illI coolillg blj plnle lIenl exclInllger
(1) nscelldillg pipe, (2) pllmp, (3) plnle eoolel; (4) draw-off
cOlllleelOJ ; (5) calle eOlllleclioll
As a result the yeast is kept in suspension and
therefore kept fermenting, and layering in the
tank is inevitably prevented. So as not to impe-
de subsequent sedimentation of the yeast, the
beer is pumped from the upper part of the cone
(Fig. 4.45). This form of cooling has proved very
successful.
1 upwards (Fig. 4.46a).
3 ration processes, finally the temperatllre in the
2 peratlu·e for at least a week before the beer is fil-
Fig. 4.45
Rnpid coolillg ill file CCIf blj pin Ie lI enl exclInllger
(1) nscelldillg pipe, (2) pllmp, (3) plnle lIenl exclwIIgel; (4)
drmu-off COIIIICCIOJ ; (5) coile collileclioll
The advanta ges of cooling by plate heat ex-
changer are the subs tantially lower equipment
costs:
cooling jackets are responsible for 25 to 30 %
of the total cost of cylindroconical tanks,
a plate heat exchange circuit requires compa-
Instead of a plate cooler, multitube evapora-
tors may be llsed and the most economical form
of cooling is then obtained by direct evaporati-
onof NH 3 •
more rapid metabolism as a result of constant
mo vement of the yeas t. Because of the shorte-
rung of fermentation and maturation time the
tanks can be used more often .
A disadvantage is the increased electricity
usage required in order to drive the pumps . It is
however less than indirect cooling by means of
jacket cooling.
4.4.2.2.4 Temperature layering and cooling
TIle temperature is not uniformly distributed
inside a CCv. In the intensive fermentation
phase considerable movement occurs - especi-
ally as a result of CO, evolution. Because the
warmer beer rises, it is possible during this pha-
se to obtain good cooling from above. Convec-
tion flow (resulting in exchange of position) al-
so occurs in the tank whereby the colder beer
sinks downwards whilst the warmer beer flows
Independently of the fermentation and matll-
cold lagering phase is lowered to 0 to -2 °C to pre-
cipitate cold break particles. It is held at this tem-
tered and packaged. At this temperatllre there is
a completely different type of layering of the beer
which can be illustrated by reference to water.
Water is most dense at +4 0c. This is the tem-
peratlll'e at the bottom of lakes and oceans.
Warmer water and cold ice rise upwards.
495
4
Fig. 4.46
0) coll veclioll ill side 0 CCIf
b) cold slorage of IlIe beer
Full beer is most dense at about +2.5 0c. Beers
with a higher extract content, such as bock beer,
are most dense at about 1 °C, beers with a lower
content at about 3 0c.
If beer is cooled to -1 °C, in the case of a Voll-
bier, the following occurs: in the lowest part, in
the cone, the most dense beer (with a tempera-
ture of +2.5 0c) collects. Above, as a result of
cooling, the beer becomes more and more cold
and ice may even form in the topmost region.
In this connection it must be pointed out that
beer begins to freeze at about -2 °C, pilsner at
about -2.2 °C, and bock beer at about -2.9 0c.
This sets lower limits to the cooling since ice
formation spoils the beer and makes heat remo-
val more difficult.
Beer freezes slowly. It begins with ice forma-
tion at the edge whilst the alcoholic solution
and the extract material dissolved in it becomes
more concentrated. For details on the producti-
on of ice beer (see Sect. 4.8.2) .
For the cooling down and cold lagering of the
beer to 0 to -2 °C it is essential that the CCV has
 496
cone cooling, otherwise it is impossible to cool
this region to th ese temperatures (Fig. 4.46, b) .
Cone cooling is also particularly important
for the condition of the yeas t harvest. Without
cone cooling the warm beer and the yeas t "fall"
to the bottom; the cone region is consi dera bly
4 wa rmer than the upper tank region. Since the
beer now no longer contains any nutrients for
the yeast, the metabolic p rocesses of the yeast
are n ow grea tly inhibited. If the tempera ture is
higher, however, the metabolism of the yeast is
grea ter, resulting in all in creased breakd own of
reserve substances (glycogen, malUlan ). Wea-
kened yeas t cells go on to break d own other
groups of substan ces . The metabolism becomes
mixed up, the yeas t cell autolyses . The cell wall
is d estroyed and essential components of the
cy tosol (p ro teins, en zym es, unsa tu ra ted fat ty
acids, etc.) slowly dissolve in the beer:
the pH of the beer increases,
the fl avour of the beer dete riorates,
the flavour stability is substantially reduced,
the biological stability deteriorates, and
the foa m deteriorates as a result of the excre-
ti on of pro teinase A.
In the case of reacto rs with ex ternal cooling in
the deep cooling pha se, i.e. that in w hich the
beer is cooled to -1 to -2 °C, the beer is pumped
fro m below into the reactor (Fig. 4.45). This re-
sults in LUlifo rm cooling of the reactor contents
and precipitation of the cold break particles.
Cooling is p erformed in several cooling zo-
nes. It is usu al to h ave tlll'ee cooling zones in the
jacket cooling and cone cooling in the lowes t re-
gion. It is thereby possible to cool the tank dif-
ferently depending on the situ ation.
4.4.2.2.5 Thermal insulation
O utdoor tan ks mus t naturally be p ro tec ted
from addition al beating and cooling effects. In-
d oor tanks also need individual cooling for tar-
geted man age ment of the fermentation and m a-
turation processes. Therefore outd oor tan ks are
alwa ys insulated from ou tside effects and so
are mos t indoo r tanks.
Solidified polyurethane foa m (PU) has pro-
ved to be the best insulating materi al and it is
a pplied in layers 100 to 150 mm thick (PU soli-
dified foam system) . The insulation is sea led on
the outside by chrome nickel steel or alumini-
um sh eets. If possible the insul ation is foamed
on before transp ort to the brewery.
Wh en that is not p ossible or the insulation
must be renewed, sca ffolding mus t be p ut
round the tank, the outer cover and spacing p ie-
ces ins talled at the correct spacings and the in-
sulating m ass foamed on layer by layer.
Water must never get into the insulation be-
cause it CCUU10t be rem oved again .
Before the applica tion of the polyurethane fo-
am the tank must be p ainted with a chloride
blocking layer.
Solidified polyureth an e focun has very good
insulating p ro perties and so there is no need to
worry, even w ith very large CCVs, about the
temperature inside the tcull< at either very high
or very low outside temperatures.
However, sp ecial attention must be p aid to
two things:
Polyurethane is fl ammable, but only if oxy-
gen can access it. This is not possible in the ca-
se of foam in place systems. PU is designed to
be flam e retardant.
If the insula tion is n ot completely sea led
against steam, the wa ter vapour diffuses into
the PU laye r and the insulating effect is essen-
tially eliminated . Even small spots, e.g. screw
cOlUlections or poor overlapping, suffice to
allow continu al penetration by water vapour.
Even wooden spacing pieces (used to obtain
a constcult insulation thickness) are sites for
water entry. One can therefore reckon that af-
ter 10 years at most the major part of the insu-
la ting effect is lost.
The PU fo am h as to be secured against wa ter
vap our intake by means of diffusion. It therefo-
re requires a water va pour diffusion proof co-
ver (aluminium sheet, s tainless steel sh eet, zinc
plated or coa ted s tee l cover). The deterioration
of the insulati ng effect d ue to wa ter vap our dif-
fusion CCUUlOt be recognised optically. The ther-
mal insulation therefore h as to be ca rried ou t
with great ca re by special firms. The opera tor
should insis t on a guara ntee for the wo rk (long
term gucu·aIltee!).
4.4.2.3 Possible m ethods for con trolling and
autom ating cooling
What h appens in an open fe rmenter CCUl be seen
and smelled. No thing at all ca n be seen in a cy-
lindrical conical vessel. Therefore control in-
strum ents mus t be relied on, but one must also
take steps in good time to prevent the en or-
mous amounts of wo rt an d beer from suffering
damage. It is therefo re ad vcultageous to control
these processes co rrectly and if p ossible to au -
tomate them. Th at depends on the amOLUlt of
money available.
4.4.2.3.1 M ethods for controlling the fennenta-
tion p rocess
There are several ways in w hich the fe rmentati-
on process can be controlled :
Manual control is the simplest form of control.
Semi-automatic w ith pre-selected tempera tu-
res.
Automatic w hich depends on tempera ture,
time culd even extrac t removal.
For fully autom atic cont rol of the fermentati-
on processes, there are several measuring sy-
stems which are sufficientl y accurate:
CO, quantitati ve measurem ent;
in this the amount of CO, p roduced is measu -
red and fro m this, together w ith the temperatu-
re and time, the required measures are taken.
Pressure difference measurem ent;
this is based on the follow ing con siderations:
497
Wort is heavier than wa ter beca use it contains
dissolved ex tract. Thus, as mentioned earlier
(Sect. 3.5.1.1), CUl 11.4 % wort has a density of
1.04395 culd so l cm 3 of this wort weighs 1.04395
g. During ferme ntation most of the extract is
con ve rted to volatile CO, and very ligh t alcohol
an d so the density n aturall y decreases. The d e- 4
crease in d ensity CCUl be measu red with sensiti-
ve ins truments culd the ex ten t of the fermen tati-
on calcul ated fro m this.
At p resen t, sim ple timetable con trol is still
used successfully on the condition that the star-
ting p arameters are held at a constcult level:
the con cen tra tion of the wor t,
the oxygen content of the wor t,
the pitching temperature,
the pitching cell count.
These variations can be fu rther im proved by
using fuzzy logic control.
4.4.2.3.2 D isplaying the automa ted process
control
As has already been d escribed in relation to the
brewhoLlse, the process is increasingly being
automated culd the control of the p rocess equip-
ment displayed on the monitor screens.
The main features of p rocess control are:
fu lly automatic m an agement of fermen ta tion
aIld lagering,
measurement of extract content culd attenua-
tion without fitti ngs built into the tank,
continuous monitoring of the s ta te of all
CCVs on the monitors,
indi vidual param eters CCUl be ch anged indi vi-
dually by m eCU1S of the com puter at any tim e,
all d ata is stored in mem ory an d CCUl be reco-
vered at any time,
on connecting a p rinter all the d ata CaIl be
printed .
COlltillllOIlS i lllficiltioll of tempera t ure
With large, modern plaIl ts, control of fe rmenta-
tion and m aturation CCUl scarcely be achieved
 498
Pitchillg
J- - - -- co, The wort is inullediately pitched with 20 t0 30mio
yeast cells per ml (20 - 30 x 10· yeast cells/ml)
and the yeast lU1iformly distributed in the stre-
am of wort; during the course of fermentation,
the cell concentration increases to 60 to 80 mio
4 yeast cells/ml. The cell concentration on pit-
ching influences the speed of fermentation and
other biochemical reactions. If the temperature
,,,
., ,
", , is kept constant, increasing the pitching results
I' :
I I,
in [311]
T - ---, "I : 1
I
an increase in the intensity of fermentation,
, I IT
: I
I I I I
I I a reduction in the growth of the yeast,
I I 1 r
;
L _______ _
a higher and earlier maximum concentration
of the vicinal diketones,
faster removal of the green beer aroma sub-
stances,
a reduction in the mature beer aroma sub-
stances,
an increased loss of bitter substances in the
case of primary fermentation at ahllospheric
pressure, and
Fig. 4.47
Process cOlltrol nlld displny all n 1II0llitor screell an increased danger to the autolysis of the yeast.
Ageing indicators also increase together with
the yeast cell number on pitching; thus the fla-
except by computer, since only in this way can vour stability deteriorates with an increase in
high operational security be obtained with a the pitching rate [381].
mirtimum use of persOlmel (Fig. 4.47). The pitching temperature is
But because no one is in the position to conti- 8 to 10 °C in the case of cold fermentation,
nuously monitor all parameters it is necessary and
to arrange that all defects which occur (deviati- 14 to 18 °C in the case of warm fermentation.
ons, failures, etc.) are indicated visually or au- The temperature of the wort flowing in must
rally so that the person responsible can react be at the same temperature as the already pit-
immediately. ched batch to prevent the yeast being shocked.
An increase of the pitching tempera hue leads
4.4.3 Managing the fermentation and to:
maturation in CCVs accelerated yeast propagation,
If possible fermentation and maturation are intensification of the yeast metabolism,
now performed in cylindroconical vessels, but greater turbulence and thus better yeast dis-
the very varied teclmological equipment in bre- tribution,
weries, as well as established opinions, also al- faster and lower drop in the pH value,
low the use of a combination of conventional greater excretion of nitrogenous and bitter
fermentation and lagering vessels and CCVs. substances,
a grea ter increase in higher alcohols and a lU1-
favourable ratio of alcohols to esters,
less aromatic and emptier beers, and
a reduction in the volatile acids and increase
in fixed acids.
Till/illg amI fa 1'111 of pitchillg
From a microbiological point of view, pitching
has to already occur at the start of the wort in-
flow, distributed over the total volume. The ye-
ast dosage and aeration devices therefore have
to be integrated into the wort flow (see Sect.
3.9.3). Without yeas t, wort bacteria formed
from spores, which reproduce 10 times fa ster
than yeas t, can develop within very few hours
and deprive the wort of necessary vitamins and
growth substances.
The form of pitching occurs
from only propagated or pure culhue yeast,
or
from a mixhlre of harvested yeast and propa-
gated yeast, or
from only harvested yeas t, or
by krausening from the topping up procedu-
re.
Despite the additional work and increased
microbiological risk, a mixture of (70%) harve-
sted yeast and (30 %) propagated yeast is often
preferred because
faster fermentation with a LUuform high qua-
lity,
higher SO, content [285],
lower investment costs,
smaller amOlU1ts of surplus yeast and
better yeast clarification
can be expected .
Aeration of tI,e CIlst wort
General guidelines for the oxygen content of
the aerated cast wort require 5.5 to 8.0 mg 0 ,11
12 % wort at 60 to 80 % oxygen sahlration of the
highest obtainable saturation value with air
[311].
499
To achieve faster fermentati on and matura ti-
on in CCVs, 4.5 to 6 m g 0 ,11wort is necessary.
In creased aeration results in
increased yeast propagation,
increased fermentation intensity,
a reduction of the nitrogen content in the fi-
nished beer, 4
a fa ster and lower decrease in the pH value,
increased formation of acetaldehyde and the
precursors of vicinal diketones,
increased formation of esters and higher alco-
hols during the fermentation stage,
an increase in the loss of bitter subs tances du-
ring primary fermentation,
decreased formation of hydrogen sulphide,
DMS and lower fatty acids,
in the presence of other necessary nutrients,
reduced SO, formation and thus a reduction
in the anti-oxidative activity of the beer and
danger of accelerated ageing.
Excessive rates of aeratioll CIluse
excessive oxidation of the wort, increased risk
of ageing,
expensive teclmiques and energy consumpti-
on,
strong development of foam, poor use of spa-
ce,
excessive loss of foam advantageous substan-
ces,
oxidative stress for the yeast cells.
An old brewers' rule said: one week fermen-
tation and one week lagering for each percent
original extract content. This saying has no lon-
ger applied for a long time and even half the la-
gering time can usually no longer be allowed .
Beer must be fermented and mahlred in the
shortest possible rune to make the plant economi-
cally viable. Nowadays usually no more than 17
to 20 days can be used for the fermentation, ma-
hlration and lagering and there is a trend to even
further shortening of the fermentation and matu-
ration time whilst maintaining the same quality.
500
This is also possible with conventional fer-
mentation and maturation, but fermentation
and maturation in cylindroconical vessels also
provides good opportllllities for modifying the
processes while maintaining good quality.
4.4.3.1 Special points to consider when fer-
menting and maturing in CCVs
When fermenting and maturing in cylindroco-
nical tanks in less than three weeks, particular
attention must be paid to a few points - especi-
ally since it is no longer possible to get any vi-
sual impression of how the fermentation is pro-
ceeding during this time .
First of all the nitrogen compound content of
the wort, which has been established during
mashing, is particularly important. Ideally,
wort should contain at least 23 mg FAN/lOO ml,
so that the proper yeast nutrition is ensured.
The FAN content of all malt wort should not be
less than 20 mg/lOO ml and when adjuncts are
used it should be at least 15 mg/lOO ml.
Wort aeration and yeast pitching rate are extre-
mely important factors for a rapid, vigorous onset
of fermentation, as has been mentioned. A yeast
pitching rate of 30 million yeast cells per ml corre-
sponds to about 1lih'e of thick yeast slurry per hI.
Aeration at intervals during the start phase
guarantees the necessary supply of oxygen for
the yeast propagation; constant aeration of 2 m 3
air/h during the start phase leads to excessive
and harmful oxidation of the beer [311] . The
motto should not be: a lot helps a lot, but rather
aeration at intervals during the start phase. Par-
ticular attention should furthermore be paid to
the fact that the yeast already passes from the
logaritlU11ic phase to the delayed phase at alco-
hol concentrations of 0.7 - 0.8%, and at 1.5% to
the stationary phase. As long as growth is ta-
king place, however, there is a requirement for
air, even in small amOllllts.
Oxygen is the most harmful factor for the fla-
vour stability. Aeration is, however, believed to
be indispensable on pitching, because without
aeration only very little or halting yeast propa-
gation occurs and the fermentation time increa-
ses. It is of decisive significance whether all
brews have to be aerated or just some of them.
As a result of the formation of S0, by the yeast,
the flavour and £]avour stability of the beer are
enhanced. S0, is formed as an intermediate
product of the synthesis of sulphur containing
amino acids, but only produced towards the
end of fermentation . S0, formation is however
at its greatest when aeration is at its lowest. At
an alcohol content of more than 1.5 %, aeration
should be stopped in the interest of S0, forma-
tion. It is therefore advantageous to reduce or
stop aeration of the final brews, in order to
maintain fermentation activity as well as have a
beneficial effect on S0, formation and thus the
flavour and ageing stability of the beer [288] .
High vitality yeast forms no SO,; the ability to
form S0, increases considerably only after a ye-
ast cycle . To achieve a high S0, content in a
good fermentation time, harvested yeast (60%)
mixed with assimilation yeast (40%) should be
used for pitching [285].
Modern yeast management with an aerobic
yeast cycle provides yeasts in an optimal phy-
siological condition. These yeasts have been
supplied with sufficient oxygen during cultiva-
tion and can ferment in totally non-aerated
worts [319], thus avoiding the introduction of
oxygen, which has a harmful effect on ageing
acceptability. In any case, aeration of the wort
should therefore only occur during the first
brew or, alternatively all brews should be aera-
ted more weakly.
Yeast is sensitive to sudden temperature
changes and shows signs of shock on sudden
cooling, with adverse effects on fermentation
and cell multiplication. During the initial and
logarithmic phases rapid cooling must always
be avoided, and if topping up is done the added
wort should be at the same temperature.
The indicator for the sta te of maturation of
beer is diace tyl remo val. It can be assumed that
if almost all the diacetyl has been removed the
other green beer aromas will also have disap-
peared. The "total diacetyl" content (vicinal di-
ketones) should be less than 0.1 mgl I at the end
of mahua tion. A small amount is also removed
during lage ring. Beer should contain less than
0.10 m g of diacetyl I I.
Deposited yeast should be removed from the
tank as soon as its consistency allows this. Au-
tolysed yeast spoils beer quality.
After maturation all beers should be cooled
to -1 to -2°C and kept for at least 7 days at this
temperature to achieve the required colloidal'
stability. In general, cooling takes approx 70
hours, providing no external cooler is used.
Shorter lagering times and warmer lagering
tempe ratures necessitate more expenditure on
stabilisation.
The maximum fermentation temperature is
lmder cold fermentation conditions
10 to 12°C, in the maturation phase 1 to 2 °C
higher,
under warm fermentation conditions
14 to 16 °C, in the maturation phase 1 to 2 °C
higher.
Temperature and pressure are oppositely ac-
ting controlling variables, which produce the
following effects [311]:
An increase in temperature during the fer-
mentation stage causes [303]
an increase in yeast propagation (higher ex-
tract loss),
an increase in fermentation activity (shorter
ferm entation phase),
increased formation of higher alcohols, esters,
aldeh ydes and vicinal diketones,
higher OMS and lower H ,S concentrations,
a faster fall in pH value and lower pH in the
beer,
increased uptake of FAN from the wort,
an increase in the bitter substance loss,
501
a reduction of the h ead retention and
increased protein excretion.
An increase in temperahll'e during the mahl-
ration stage causes
faster conversion of the diacetyl,
faster reduction of other green beer aroma
substances and thus acceleration of mahuati- 4
Oil,
a greater risk of yeast autolysis,
a reduction of the soluble CO, content,
an increased risk for the re-dissolution of ex-
creted components.
An increase in pressure during the fermenta-
tion stage causes
a reduction in yeast propagation,
a decrease in fermentation activity and thus a
longer fermentation phase,
a decrease in the formation of fermentation
intermediate products,
a slower fall in pH value and a higher beer
pH,
a decrease in the bitter substance loss,
a decrease in protein excretion,
a decrease in hubulence as a result of reduced
CO, release and
an increase in CO, content in the finished
beer.
An increase in bllllging pressure of 0.16 bar
balances out an increase in the average tempe-
rature of 1 0c.
It should be pointed out here that green beer
should only be cooled by a maximum of 1 to
1.5 °C/d during primary fermentation, otherwi-
se there is the danger of a shock to the yeast,
which can result in a significant reduction in ye-
ast propagation and damage to the yeast batch.
In the extreme case fermentation can come to
halt.
In addition, movement of the fermenting
substrate can have an effect on fermentation:
Increased movement during the fermentation
stage causes [303]
an increase in yeast propagation,

502
an increase in fermentation inten sity,
an increased and fas ter fall in the pH va lue,
a rise in the bitter substan ce loss,
more intensive p ro tein excretion,
a reducti on of the head retention,
increased formation of green beer arom a sub-
4 stances,
increased formation of mature beer aroma
substances and
a decrease in the free fatty acids .
Increased movement during the maturation
stage cau ses
fas ter and more intensive secondary fe rmen -
tation and fas ter final ferm entation,
forcing of the m aturation reactions due to m o-
re rapid breakd own processes,
accelerated dis tribution of yeas t excre ti on
substances in the beer and
an in creased risk of CO 2 losses .
Faster yeast sedimentation is prom oted by
sudden and rapid cooling of the tank con-
tents,
rapid pressure increase at the end of the fe r-
mentation phase to 0.8 - 1.0 bar and higher,
the application of a green beer sep arator,
the use of clarification aids (no lon ger in use
in Germany) and
use of yeast with a clearly flocculent charac-
ter.
Ferm elltatioll procedllre
It is possible to perform fermentation and ma-
turation in a CCV - on e tank process -
or to ferment in a cylindroconical fermentation
vessel and perform cold lagering in a cylindro-
conicallagering vessel - two tank process.
It is also possible to p erform the fermentation
in a cylindroconical vessel and p erfo rm the ma-
turation and lagering in conventionallagering
tanks.
•
503
If the two tank procedu re is used, matu ration the diace ty l con tent by a red cur-
(diace tyl removal) mu st be perform ed in the cy- ve,
lind roconical fer men ta tion vessel to obtain Con- the ex tract content by a d as hed
s tant beer qu ality. The cylindroco nicall agering green cur ve, and cu
U
vessel should then onl y be used fo r cold lage- the pressure as a blu e chain dot- 'i5
co
ring for coll oid al stabilisa tion, clarifica tion and ted curve.
tas te sm oothing . The S inside an arrow indica tes 4
Basically, the on e tank techniqu e p rovides when beer hosing occurs, and
grea t ad van tages: the sma ll arrows sh ow when ye- , " c. x Ie) 12
cleaning costs are less beca use only one vessel ast was remo ved . Approx 21 days
has to be cl ean ed,
Fig. 4.48
the CO, loss is smaller beca use one d oes not 4.4.3.2 Cold fermentation - cold Cold j el'lllell ini ioll - cold IIIn l II rnlioll
tran sfer under pressure to an empty tank, ma turation
beer losses are less because there are no losses This process h as a lread y been
.or
in pipes or wetting losses, described in relation to conventio-
mg l l
less working time is needed because there is nal fermentation and m aturation . 12 1.2
n o beer transfer, Pitching is performed at 6 to 7 °C
10
energy costs are saved becau se the beer is not and the temperature all owed to
O,S
pumped over, and rise to 8 to 9 °C (Fig. 4.48). After UA
the risk of oxygen intake is avoided . about two d ays the highest tem-
A disad vantage is the worse vessel volume perature is reach ed and thi s is 2 '" (, 11 iO 11 1-1
utilisation in the lagering stage because foa m
22 Days
maintained for about two d ays
head sp ace is n o longer requi red . TI1ere is no before slow cooling d own to 3 to
til til tH til
ftmd amental diffe rence in beer quality between 4 0c. The beer is then transfe rred Fig. 4.49
the two processes. Basica lly every fermentation still containing residu al fermenta- Cold jel'lllell in i io ll w illi jorced lllnlll rn lioll i ll n CCII
process can be performed as a on e tan k or two ble extrac t, the difference measu-
tank p rocess. red by hydrometer from the a tte-
CO 2 recovery is always necessary or strongly IlUation limit being
advised for econom ic and en vironmental rea- in the case of open tank ferm en-
sons. Carbonation is only necessary with warm tation 1.1 to 1.3%, an d
ma tura tion processes and low pressures. A coo- using a CCV 0.8 to a m aximum u.s
ling system is absolutely essential for each tank. of 1.0%.
The fe rmentati on and maturation processes Then it is cooled to lagering
n ,.l
for bottom fe rmentation beers can according to temperatu re so slowly that the ye-
, I
Miedaner be divided into the foll owing tlU'ee 20 Days
ast can rem ove the diace tyl s till
groups: present to a level below the tl1l'es-
cold fermentation - cold maturation hold val ue (0.1 m g/I). Th e beer is Fig. 4.50
cold fe rmentation - warm matura tion, and then lagered at -1 °C for at least Warlll j erlllellin i ioll w ilho lll pressll re - coldlllnlllrnlioll
wa rm fermentation - cold maturation . another week. A very long lage-
ring tim e of more than 5 weeks is not recom- beer with a yeasty taste,
In the diag ram s 4.48 to 4.53: mended. Lager cell ar processes mus t al ways be commen cement of yeas t autolysis with an in-
the temperature p rogression is shown as a properly controlled . Failure to ensure this can crease in pH, and
bl ack curve, result in defects in the flavour, foam and stability.
•
 •
504 505

A special process is transfer w ith krausen. 4.4.3 .4 Warm fermentation without pressure _ 4.4.3.6 Cold fermentation-
By krausening is meant the addition of yOlUlg cold maturation warm maturation
beer in the state of low krausen (low foam stage) In the search for ways to accelerate fermentati- Warm fermentation always
when the attenuation is about 25%. Krausening on and maturation, use is made of the fact that produces a large amount of mg/l

is often performed to provide extrac t for secon- all fe rmentation and maturation processes pro- fer me ntation b y- produ c ts .
G,8 U
dary fermentation when there is not enough ex- ceed faster at hi gher tempera tures. With co ld ferm entation and Z.
...
u
4 h'act left in the beer - bu t this is only an emergen- Thus if pitching is performed at 8 °C and the warm maturation there is the (I.S 'D 4
cy measure which is not a subject for discussion temperature allowed to rise to 12 to 14 °C (Fig. advan tage that there is less by- \ . _- a
· - ·_ · - - - - Pu I-
here. Instead wh at is of interest here is that m any 4.50), mu ch more diacetyl is fo rmed but it is al- product formation and these Ortl 1J..t

breweries deliberately add krausen at transfer to
improve the foam and flavour. For this purpose
the beer is almost completely fermented in a vi-
gorous primary fermentation and this beer, wi th-
out the now sufficiently sedimented primary fer-
mentation yeast, is h'ansferred with about 10 to
12 % krausen at about 5 0c.
Krausening produces high quality beer but
the primary fermentation yeast should be re-
moved as completely as possible, otherwise it
spoils the beer.
so more rapidly and more completely removed.
Only after the diacetyl removal is the beer
coo led to the lagering temperature of -1 °C and
the cold lageri n g phase is continued for a week.
The process takes between 17 to 20 days and
can also be performed in a conventional cellar.
The ad va ntages of the process are:
final attenuation is reached very quickly,
the diacetyl is rapidly and reliably removed,
beer p rod uced in this way is of high quality,
and
by-products can be eaSily re-
moved during warmer m atu- (, X
20 Days
ration (Fig. 4.52) .
In the case of cold primary
fermentation w ith integra ted Fig. 4.51: Pressllre/el'llleJI lnlioll
maturation, fermentation is
performed at 8 to 9 °C to a de-
gree of attenuation in fermen-
tel' of abo ut 50 %, then cooling Cooling to
is switched off so that the tem-
ffi£/I
perature rises of its own ac-
cord to 12 to 13 °C. After a ma- " '2

4.4.3.3 Cold fermentation with accelerated ma- the process h as also been used successftLl ly as turation phase with control of "'
u.x
turation in a CCV a pressure fermentation . the diace tyl removal, the beer
In this process pitching is performed at 6 to 7 °C is transferred and lagered cold 0.4

and the tempera hlre is again allowed to rise to
8 to 9 0c. But in this procedure thi s maximum
temperature is maintained and the beer is
transferred to the cylindroconical tank at the sa-
me tempera ture (Fig . 4.49) . Durin g transfer
4.4.3.5 Pressure fermentation for a week, or it is cooled in the
If the temperatu re is allowed to rise even ILig- tank to -1 °C and lagered (one 1 -I (1 S 10 1_
20 Days
her, for instan ce above 20 °C, then n aturally tan k process) . With one bar 1" , 1
more fermentation b y- products are formed . overpressure it is possible to
Th is proceed s without res traint unless the for- obtain a CO2 content of 5.4 to Fig. 4.52: Cold /e rlllelliniioll - wnrllllllnlllrnlioll

about 10% of krausen (yolmg beer a t the low fo-
am stage) is added to the green beer. As a result
there is vigo rously ferm enting active yeast in
the beer, which further reduces the amolmt of
diacetyl still present to below the tlU'eshold va-
lue. Only then is it cooled to the lagering tempe-
ra ture of -1 °C and kept at this tempera ture for
a week.
When the final attenuation is reached, which
should b e as close as p ossible to the attenuati-
on limit, yeast mus t be removed every 2 to 4
days, the last removal naturally being before
filtration.
The production time is about 20 days.
mation of additional diacetyl and other by-pro-
ducts is limited by pressure (Fig. 4.51). TILis as-
su mes, of course, that pressure vessels are
available wlLich are authorised for use at the
pressure required.
A t an attenuation of about 50 % the applied
pressure is raised to the calcul a ted d esired
cOlm ter pressure. TlLis pressure is maintained
lmtil the end of the maturation phase and then
red uced to the COlUlter pressure appropriate for
the lagering temperature. After cooling on the
9th or 10th day, a cold lagering phase at _1°C is
aga in employed for at least a week.
This process takes about 17 to 20 days.
5.6 gil without carbona tion.
nus process can also be performed in a con ven-
tiona I lager cellar.
The total process takes about 20 days.
4.4.3.7 Cold primary fermentation with pro-
grammed maturation
The so-ca lled 9/20 procedure is considerably
more complicated. Again the primary fennen-
tation occurs at 8 to 10 °C and proceeds to al-
most complete attenuation (Fig. 4.53). The
YOlmg beer, with the addition of 10 % krausen,
is then hea ted by a pIa te hea t exch anger to 20°C
and held at this temperature for 1.5 to 2 days
with monitoring of the diacetyl removal. Th e
beer is then cooled to a lagering temprature of -
1 °C and stored cold for ano ther week.
It is advisable to remove the primary fer menta-
tion yeast before fina l attenuation is reached, in
other words before the addition of krausen. For
this purpose it is best to use a centrifu ge, but
CO 2 must then be used to prevent access of air.
The process takes abou t 20 days and comprises
the following special features:
maturation is shortened to 2 to 3 days,
the entire maturation and cold lagering phase
lasts 10 to 12 days,

506
chapter for the brewer. Of particular interest
are:
4.4.4.1 Time of yeast cropping
4
The yeas t should be collected as often and ear-
ly as possible. There are severa l reasons for thi s:
•III Fig. 4.53
Colrljennentntioll witll progmnllllerllllntu-
mtioll
this results in a substantial increase in capacity.
reliable yeast separation after maturation is
It is usually only sensible to perform warm
important.
fermentation together with krausening and use
of special maturation conditions .
4.4.3.8 Warm primary fermentation with nor-
mal or forced maturation
4.4.4 Yeast cropping from the CCV
It has been shown above that it is possible to
During yeast cropping, the yeast, which is un-
shorten fermentation time considerably if the
der pressure, is firstly conveyed from the tank
temperature is increased. However, this also
cone to an expansion tank (Fig. 4.53a, 2). There
changes a number of things:
the yeast is still foaming heavily because the
the amOlmt of fermentation by-products is
CO" which is poisonous to the yeast, is prompt-
increased,
ly released. At the sanle time the yeast is sup-
with increasing temperature the beer tends to
plied with oxygen for 2 to 3 hours. It is now
develop yeasty-floral aroma notes,
possibJe to reuse the yeast directly for pitching,
foam and colloidal stability are generally worse.
or alternatively to pitch it again following pos-
Advantages are:
sible treatment (3) and cold storage (4+5).
ferncentation time can be reduced to 4 days,
Fig . 4.53n
Yenst cropping
(1) CCV
(2) Expnn sioll tnllk
(3) Yenst sieve
(4) Yenst cooler
(5) Yenst collectioll tnllk
(6) Surplu s Ilenst
Yeast cropping is an extreme ly important
the time of yeast cropping,
the method of yeast cropping.
The yeast does not settle as desired. After the
turbulences of the main fermentation, increa-
sed cell concentrations occur on the surface
up to the end of the maturation period, which
is caused by active yeast cells rising [178]. Du-
ring cold lagering there are also ebullitions of
yeas t clouds from the warm sediment in the
cone. Nevertheless, the main amount of yeast
gradually settles in the cone, whereby the
heig ht of the tank has a considerable effect on
the sedimentation time. The yeast which has
already settled should be removed as soon as
possible.
As the beer increasingly matures, the yeas t
excretes above all low molecular weight pro-
teins which can no longer be absorbed; these
have a negative effect on head retention.
With increasing maturation and cold lagering
of the beer, the yeast excretes a proteinase A
[179], which leads to a considerable deterio-
ration of the foam due to the breakdown of
foam positive substances in the beer. This is
of particular importance for beers where no
heat treatment occurs before filling and whe-
re proteinase A passes into the finished beer.
Yeast which is collected early has a lower pro-
teinase excretion ability than yeast collected
later, and yeast in suspension has a lower abi-
lity than sedimented yeast. Hence better beer
quality results from early yeast collection.
Yeast in a poor condition leads to autolysis
products, which has a negative effect on the
further course of fermentation. The comple-
xes formed from protein, glycogen and man-
507
nan dissolve again and if they exceed the ta-
ste threshold lead to turbidity and filtration
problems.
The yeast suffers from CO, partial pressure,
particularly in high tanks in the cone, which
also enriches this cell poison in the yeast cells.
The yeast cell withstands the pressure better 4
than the CO,. The longer the yeast lies in the co-
ne the more it is weakened, whereby the large
cell density in this region hardly h'ansfers any
more nutrients. Particularly old yeast cells
(with several bud scars), as soon as their reser-
ve substances are used up, start to metabolise
their own cell components. This condition is
known as autolysis. In this process, imler secre-
tory enzymes dissolve the membranes in and
arOlmd the cell, and anlino acids, fatty acids
and enzymes, particularly proteinase A, are ex-
creted. The entire metabolism gets out of con-
trol, resulting in the death of the yeast cell. The
substances released have a very negative effect
on the quality:
through the release of amino acids and pro-
teolytic enzymes, the flavour and foam stabi-
lity are permanently damaged,
the fatty acids released, particularly the lUlsa-
turated acids, have a negative effect on the
flavour stability of the beer,
the substances which are excreted are a cultu-
re medilU11 for possible contaminants in the
beer,
the pH of the beer increases; this is an lmmi-
stakable sign that autolysis has started.
The number of dead cells, which can easily be
detected through methylene blue coloration
under a microscope, should be as small as pos-
sible and on average about 1 to 2 %. If the pro-
portion of dead cells continues to increase, the-
re is the danger of an increasing number of
autolysis products, particularly the foam im-
pairing proteinase A, passing into the beer.
A short consideration will show the amounts
we are dealing with: in a 1000 hI tank (with 2.51
 508
thick mushy yeast/hI) 25 hI of yeast is coll ected.
If 3 % of this is dead, it represents no less than
75 1itres of d ead yeast cells. One h as to imagine
what cell content subs tances these 75 litres
transfer into the beer and w hat qualitati ve da-
mage they can cause.
4 The proportion of d ead yeas t cells is fre-
qu ently higher than thought (or hoped for) .
Monitoring the proportion of dead yeast cells
should therefore be a fixed part of the procedu-
re, even for small breweries.
All the reason s mentioned clea rly indicate
that the yeast should be removed as early as
possible. This should occur in several stages .
4.4.4.2 Methods of collecting yeast
The yeast is collected in the tank cone before the
beer is transferred.
From the cone the yeast can be
collected by making use of the pressure of the
coitUlU1 of beer above it, or
additionally, an appropriate pump can be
used to keep the volume flow constant. A
membrane, rotary piston or eccentric screw
ptU11p is used, and nowa days also already
cOlm ected to a turbidity indicator.
... Fig.4.S3b
Yenst collectioll
I .• • • •. :
(n) yens t slides IIlli-
:{j,:: JOJ'/lIly to th e bot-
,.
« tom
v
..
v
v (b) jll II lIel jormntioll
callsed by too rnpid
removnl
It is important here that the yeas t slid es down
slowly in the cone and that the horizontal mar-
ginal surface between the yeast and the beer is
retained (Fig. 4.53b, a). If the yeas t is removed
too quickly or if the angle of the cone is too flat,
the yeast can no longer slide down quickly
en ough fro m the sides and a flllu1el is forme d
(b), through w hich beer will also be drawn and
which can then only be removed again with dif-
ficulty. Since, however, the DN 80 or DN 100 pi-
pes which are usual for CCVs render slow re-
moval impOSSible, it m akes sense to use an
intermediary reduction valve in order to gua-
rantee a LU1iform sliding of the yea st by slowing
down the contents being removed .
The yeas t removal is supported by
electri cally polished inner smfa ces in the co-
ne,
smaller ang les inside the cone (60 to 70°), and
pulsating con veyor pumps which transfer the
vibrations to the yeast.
During fermentation and ma turation the
pressure exerted on the yeas t present in the
tank has to be balanced by an equal inner pres-
sure (turgor) . In the case of a 10 m high beer co-
lumn in the CCV, for example, the yeas t interior
is exposed to an inner overpressure of 1 bar. If
the yeast is then released into a pressmeless
container, the pressurised CO 2 in the yeas t cell
expands very suddenly. This represents a real
stress situation for the yeast ce ll, which now has
to balance its high ilmer pressure again with its
new sUl'J'OtLl1d ings. The yeast foams in the sa me
way as the yeas t beer surrounding it and forms
a large am OtLl1t of relati vely stable foam (up to
50% h ead space sh ould be observed). This has
to be taken into acco unt when collecting the ye-
ast, tLl1less the yeast is immedia tely ptU11ped in-
to a container with counter pressure and,
through the blowing in of sterile air, subject to
aeration and CO2 washing out before the pres-
sure is exp anded. The removal of the CO, and
the suppl y of oxygen are very important for the
vitality of the yeast if it is to be immediately
reused.
4.4.4.3 Treatment and storage of the yeast crop
After collection the yeast has to be treated in a
suitable manner and s tored. This includes:
the aera tion or non-aeration of the yeast crop,
the tempe rature of the yeast storage,
the method o f storage and
the monitoring of the yeas t crop.
4.4.4.3.1 Aeration of the yeast crop
The yeast should be reused for repitching as
soon as possible. Aerating the yeast grea tly in-
creases its vitality. Before the dissolved air can
pass into the yeas t cell, the intracellu-
lar CO 2 firstly has to be removed. This aerati on
phase to remove the CO 2 and to s upply the ye-
ast with oxygen takes two to three hours [1 76].
The yeas t is then ready for repitching.
Through aera tion the energy m etabolism in
the cell is changed over to res piration and lea ds
to a large recovery of energy with a low brea k-
down of reserve carbohydrates. If the yeas t is
not to be immediately used for repitching, it is
advisable to leave the yeast crop unaera ted so
as not to initiate the synthesizing and energetic
metabolic processes, sin ce s upply of oxygen
leads to the immediate commencement of re-
spiration and m etabolic processes, but n ew
sources of energy (wort) are not provided [158).
The yeast th en begins to increasingly break
down the reserve substances available. The ye-
ast then lacks this reserve potential at the begin-
ning of fermentation . As a result it is in a consi-
derably worse condition, which is reflected in
the higher proportion of dead cells in the nex t
population . This weakening of the cells should
be avoided. Aeration should therefore only oc-
cur on pitching of the yeas t.
4.4.4.3.2 Temperature of yeast storage
The longer the yeast has to be s tored, the lower
the storage temperature has to be. A sh ort and
cold storage is always the most suitable method
for storing yeas t. Even in the case of wa rm fe r-
mentation and maturation, the yeas t retains its
ferm enting proper ties if it has been stored cold
betvveen the generations [1 75J.
509
The only factor which does not favom a low
s torage temperature is that the yeast may tend
towards shock excretion because of the negati-
ve temperature difference, w here in particular
amino acids and nucleotides are p assed into the
wort, wi th only the former being taken up
aga in after a few h ours. 4
In the case of s hort term s torage, cooling
should occur
at pitching tempera ture, but not higher than
8 °C,
at 3 to 5 °c if storage is to take place over the
weekend.
Each d egree higher is bad for yeas t vitality!
In the case of brewing breaks, storage should
occur at 0 to 1 °c and the yeast kept
in beer with some remaining extract or
in beer with additional wort, but not under
wa ter.
In the case of long breaks, the yeas t should be
pressed and stored at 0 to 1 dc.
4.4.4.3.3 Method of storage of yeast crop
Previously it was usual to wash the yeast, sieve
it and s tore it Lmder water. Sieving took place
using a vibrating sieve (Fig. 4.54). This led to
trub particles being removed and the yeast
being finely di vided. The risk of contamination
associated with washing and sieving is, howe-
ver, very grea t, so that no wad ays sieving the ye-
ast is generally avoided.
The same applies to storing the yeast LU1d er
water, which used to be usual in large yeas t
baths. The yeast is alkali zed by the wa ter. Os-
motic processes mean that vitamins, minerals
and amino acids are given up which results in
the yeast being weakened. The yeast is therefo-
re stored in ferm ented beer residue. If the yeas t
is stored under water, then it should always be
very cool and with a wort dosage, but w ithout
aeration . Since ace tic acid bacteria are still pre-
sent, these reproduce on oxidation of the alco-
hol available.
 510
1 of reductions,
--- ------
4
I ---US
i" .\
Fig. 4.54
Yenst sieve
(1) slIspellsioll, (2) oll t-oj-bnlnllce drive, (3) yenst ill let, (4)
sieved yenst, (5) wnste
In some countries it is usual to add su Iphuric,
phosphoric or citric acid to the yeast and there-
by reduce the pH to a value of 2.0 to 2.5 (taking
up to 12 hours to become effective). The low pH
means that the development of harmful conta-
minants is inhibited, whilst the yeast is resis tant
to the low ph value. Nevertheless, the yeast is
weakened.
In such cases it is always preferable to bring
in a new culture.
4.4.4.4 Monitoring the yeast crop
It is in the interest of every brewery to obtain
good yeast quality, particularly since many
technological and senso ry difficulties can be
traced back to poor condition of the yeast, such
as:
sulphury yeasty first tas te,
poor head retention,
broad and lasting bitte rness,
pH increase of the beer by 0.1 to 0.2,
fermentation delays,
increase in diacetyl values and poor reduction,
stong presence of pests harmful to the beer re-
sulting from the weakened yeas t,
increase in the numbe r of dea d yeast cells,
a reduction in the flo cculation behaviour of
the yeast,
soup-like sed imentation of the yeas t,
reduced flavour stabili ty as a result of a lack
filtration difficulties.
The properties of the yeast a re the refore mo-
nitored after every brew, in particular for
the presence of conta minants, which would
otherwise p ass from one brew to the next
\6 with increasing deterioration of the qua lity,
the number of dead yeas t cell s, which if pos-
sible sho uld n ot exceed 2 to 3% and lmder no
circumstances be more than 5%. Alower pro-
portion of dead yeas t cells indi ca tes a more
vital yeast.
In order to judge the vitality of the yeas t, it is
therefore regularly monitored for
the extract breakdown (.6 Ej urlit of time),
the maturation time.
Bottom fermenting yeas t is not culti va ted
more than 5 or 6 times, sometimes no more than
once or twice.
Top fermenting yeast is cultivated much mo-
re often: 5 to 15 times are u sual and there are
top fermenting breweries whi ch u se their yeast
for a yea r or longer without u sing a new culti-
vation. When re-using yeast for the production
of wheat beer in a CCv, however, special atten-
tion is required (see Sect. 7.3.1.2) .
The yeast should be monitored for the pre-
sence of bacteria after every brew. If the yeast is
infected, the bacteria responsible for infection
pass from one brew to the next. Only extremely
hygienic working methods can help avoid this.
Good pitching yeast should meet the follo-
wing requirements:
it must b e fre e from micro-organisms which
could harm the beer,
the proportion of dead yeast cells must not
exceed 2 - 3 %,
it must have a good initial fermentation
speed,
it should ha ve fermented in 4 to 5 days apart
from a residual extract of 0.1 to 0.3 %,
it sho uld enable extensive fermentation,
it should possess good sed imenta tion and cla-
rifica tion abilities « 1 mio yeast cells a t the
filter inlet),
it mus t enabl e 8 to 10 cultivations at full per-
form ance,
its consis tency should be pulpy (1 - 3 billion
yeas t cells/ml),
it should be visually clean and not look dirty
due to trub,
with rega rd to sm ell and taste it mus t be of
proven quality for the type of beer to be pro-
duced.
Monitoring of the dead yeas t cells still usua l-
ly occurs by m eans of the m e thylene blue tes t.
Dead yeas t cells take up the dye whereas living
ones do no t (see Sect. 4.1.8).
The fac tors h aving the greatest effect on the
condition of the yeas t are summarised in Fig.
4.54a.
4.4.5 Beer quality before filtration
After yeas t removal the beer is moved from the
lager tank to filtration. The beer at this stage
should be collOidally s table and should have
the following properties:
yeast cooling
on cropping
correct yeast
propagation
Fig.4.54n
Fnctors nf!ectillg tile cOllditioll of tile yenst
511
temperature 0 to -1 °C (after a week of lage-
ring a t -1 to -2 °C),
CO, content w ithout carbonation of a t least
0.50 %,
pH 4.2 to 4.4, maximum 4.6,
yeas t concentration 1 - 2 million cells/ml, m ax.
5 million/ ml, 4
diacetyl content ma x. 0.10 m g/l,
oxygen content 0 mg/l.
4.4.6 Beer recovery from surplus yeast
(tank bottom beer, yeast beer)
By tank bottoms is m eant the yeast remaining
in the lageri ng tank after drawing off the beer.
Naturally it s till contains beer (tank bottom
beer, yeast beer). It can be assumed that 3 I of
harves ted yeas t + tank bottom beer is obtained
per hi of beer, or expressed differently, the
amount of tank bottoms is 1.5 to 3% of the beer
volume, of which 60 - 70% can be recovered.
Of primary importance here is the quality of
the yeast su spension attained for treatment.
Over time a series of s tress factors and chemical
factors lead to a deterioration of the physiologi-
cal condition of the yeast cells. The death of ye-
ast cells results in autolYSis and thus excretion
good yeast quality
short storage
i
times
appropriate
wort
composition
 512
of cellular components, particularly the foam
impairing proteinase A, whereby the quality of
the yeas t beer can be severely harmed.
About 1 % of the total output can be recover-
ed as tank bottom beer (yeast beer) from the se-
dimented yeast [54]. There are several ways of
4 accomplishing thi s:
sepa ration by means of sedimentation and fil-
trati on,
separation by mean s of a separator,
sepa ration using a decanter,
separation by means of cross flow m embrane
separation process or
the vibration-membrane p rocedure.
4.4.6.1 Separation by means of sedimentation
or filtration
It is possible to separate the yeast by m ean s of
sedimentation and to draw off the clarifying
beer above it. The procedure is very complica-
ted and is no lon ger used. The same applies to
filter presses, which are now hardly ever used
for yeast beer recovery on qualitative and mi-
crobiological grolmds.
Fig. 4.55
Seif-elllpt!fillg p/n te sepnrntorJor the recovery oJyenst beer
(WestJn/in, Oelde)
4.4.6.2 Yeast separation
For many years separa tion of the yeast h as oc-
curred during the production of baking yeast.
The yeast suspension (known in the case of ba-
king yeast as fermentation brew) is thereby pre-
concentrated in jet separators and, in rotating va-
cuum filters, fo rmed into the concentrations
required for sales and packaging. For the separa-
tion of beer yeast, plate separators are used (Fig.
4.55), sometimes separators with jets. The solid
substance content of the thickened yeast is bet-
ween 15.5 and 20 % of the yeast dry matter. Sect.
3.4.8 provides details of the method of operation
of plate separators. For optimal operations, the
concen h'ation of the inflowing yeas t suspension
sh ould not exceed 40 % (10 % of the yeast dry
matter). Plate sepmators ha ve up to a 90 % yield,
relating to the amOlmt of beer contained in the
yeast. Up to half a million yeas t cells/ml remain in
the sepma ted beer. The flow is 15 - 20 h1/h .
4.4.6.3 Beer recovery using a decanter
A decanter removes the solid substan ce content
(the yeast) w ith the aid of a hori zontally moun-
ted drum (Fig. 4.55a). The decan ter enables the
flow of a much higher solid substance concen-
tration so that dilution is not necessary. The
drum of the d ecanter has a diameter of 50 cm
and a revolution COlUlt of 3600 min" to 6000
min". The entry of oxygen is completely pre-
vented by a hydro-herm etic seal. The tlu'ough-
flow is up to 40 hl/h, the solid subs tan ce con-
centration is 20 - 24 % and is thereby higher
than at separation. The construction of the de-
canter enables continuous operation without
the use of manpower.
A further example of a decanter is the Sedi-
kanter© [260, 348] (Flottweg company, Vilsbi-
burg). It is a high speed horizontal centrifuge
with a centrifu gal speed of 6000 g. In a normal
decanter, which works with a sp eed of 4000 g,
the yeast settles on the cylindrical drum wall
and is removed from the decanter by means of
a conveying screw via the dry region in the co-
nical drum area. The yeast cake, however, with
a solid ma tter content of 20 to 22 %, is very soft
Fig. 4.55n
High perforlllnllce decnllter CB
506
(WestIn/in, Oe/de)
Fig. 4.55b
Sediknllter©
(F/ottweg COillpnll!f, \li/sbibllrg)
(1) illJlOW, (2) dischmge oj pn-
ste-/ike yenst, (3) celltrifllgn/
discilnlge IIl1der presslIre
and therefore unsatisfactory results me obtai-
ned. bl the sed icanter (Fig. 4.55b) on the other
hand, the solid matter at the largest diameter
with the highest acceleration is enriched, con-
centrated (represented in the diagram by the
colour ye llow) and continuously discharged as
required lmder pressure in p aste-like or crum-
bly form. The solid matter con tent of the yeast
cake is then 26 to 28 %, and the solid matter con-
tent of the recovered beer 0.1 to 0.3 % vol. The
oxygen uptake is less than 0.05 ppm. It is n ot
possible to recover m ore than 28 % solid matter
content; even pressed yeas t still contains over
70 % mois ture .
The sedicanter has a tlu'oughflow of 6 to 10
h1/h (S3E) or 20 to 25 h1/h (S4E) using an electri-
cal capacity of 20 or 30 kW.
513
4
4.4.6.4 Membrane filtration of the yeast
With membrane filtration the s tream of liquid
p asses over a membrane containin g fin e pores,
allowing only the thin beer liquid to diffu se
through a cera mic membrane, whilst the s tre-
am of yeast continues to pass over it.
This type of filtration is called cross flow fil-
tration (see Sect. 4.5.2.7). It does not require any
filter aid and is being used increasing ly for re-
covery of beer from yeast. Preferably, ceramic
membranes (Fig. 4.90b) are used, w hich are re-
sistant to acids such as caustic acid . The laid on
separa ting layer has pores of about 0. 8 j-lm dia-
meter and prevents yeast cells from passing in-
to the filtrate (Fig. 4.55c). The solid m atter con-
tent of the concentrated yeas t in the repeated
cycle is about 20 %.
 514
Yeast concentrate -
4 Owing to quality impairment concerns, ma-
Yeast
Residual beer
4.4.6.5 Vibration micro-filtration (VMF)
This procedme involves introducing the yeast
to an oscillating membrane package, thereby
filtering so gently that beer of reasonable quali-
ty can be recovered from the surplus yeast
[328].
4.4.6.6 Treatment of tank bottom beer (yeast
beer)
The yeast beer is of lower quality than the beer
from which it has been recovered: it has
a higher pH value (5 to 6),
a darker colour,
a yeasty and sometimes even bitter
a higher concentration of proteinase A, bitter
substances, free amino N, medium chained
fatty acids, diacetyl, DMS and esters.
The yeast beer which is recovered can cause
great biological and flavour problems if it is not
treated immediately. The condition of yeast
beer deteriorates very rapidly due to the effects
of time and temperature.
The pH of tank bottom beer is often well abo-
ve 5.0, because proteins, bitter substances and
fatty acids are excreted by the autolysed yeast.
Medium chained fatty acids (particularly octa-
ne and decane acids) are autolysis products of
the yeast, which even in small amOLmts can ha-
ve a negative effect on the flavour and foam. In
the case of tank bottoms, great care has to be ta-
Fig.4.55c
Crossjlo1V-lIIicrofiltratioll for
batcil operatioll
(Filtm\', St. Gal/ell)
ken because it is very difficult to determine the
degree of autolysis without precise examinati-
on. Particularly harmful in this context is the re-
lease of proteinase A from the yeast undergoing
autolysis, which has an especially foam impai-
ring effect.
As soon as the pH rises above 4.5, the bacte-
ria of the megasphaera (see Sect. 7.4.2) can de-
velop very well and cause biological problems
[158].
With an increasing proportion of dead yeast
cells the blocking tendency during filtration al-
so increases; in the case of 15 to 20% dead yeast
cells, such as occurs in yeast press beer, the fil-
terability greatly decreases.
It is necessary to only keep the yeast beer for
a short time and at temperatures no higher than
o to 3°C.
To prevent the flavour from being affected
50 g of active carbon and
50 g of silicon gel
are added per hi of tank bottom beer.
The beer should then be filtered over kiesel-
gulu and passed over a HTST pasteuriser to
inactivate the proteinase A [288]; then the now
germ-free tank bottom beer is fed up to 5% into
the fermentation tank for the begimung of the
main fermentation [383]. The yeast then greedi-
ly takes up the autolysis products dissolved in
the yeast beer and converts them into its own
6
515
body substances. As a res ult a nega ti ve effect on beer loss, conserve resources and reduce waste
the beer quality due to tank bottom beer is lar- water costs. The precondition for this, however,
gely excluded . Yeast beer in which the proteina- is a high quality of the original beer.
se A has not been fully inactiva ted does consi-
derable harm to th e foan1 s tability of the 4.4.6.7 Treatment of other process beers
blended beer. Other process beers, such as first, interm ediate
or last runnings, which form up to 6% of the fil- 4
ny breweries forego the recovery and reuse of tration batch, have to be separately trea ted. Sin-
tank bottom beer. ce the alcohol content of these beers is Lmavoi-
Technical equipment is necessmy for the re- dably reduced, there is an increasil1g risk of
covery of yeas t beer (Fig. 4.55d). contamination development. These beers
should therefore be mi xed into the ongoing do-
sage as quickly as possible. In the case of pro-
cess beers where there is a risk of contaminati-
on, adding them to the whirlpool is re-
commended .
4.4.7 CO 2 recovery
In Sect. 4.3.1.2 it was shown that during prima-
ry fermentation in a conventional fermentation
cellar, about 4 kg of CO2 is produced which cau-
ses a problem there, because CO, is a respirato-
ry poison which must be removed . On the other
Fig. 4.55d hand, the brewery buys expensive CO 2 because
Diagralll silowillg yeast recovery [326 J it is needed for many processes, namely for
(1) (2) expallsioll tallk, (3) yenst sieve, (4) l/east coolel;
(5) tallk for slIrpllls yeast, (6) yeast - beer separatioll, (7) sllr-
kg CO,lhl
pillSyeast, (8) bllffer tank, (9) jlasil pnsteurisel; (10) yenst
veer tallk Counter pressure on the lagering
tank and pressure to empty it 0.35-0.50
COLmter pressure on the pressure
filter and pressure to empty it 0.40-0.50
To achieve microbiological safety, recovered Pressure tank 0.30-0.50
yeast beer has to be fla sh pasteurised with 40 to Counter pressure on the bottle filler
100 PU, which also s tops the proteinase A acti- without pre-evacuation 0.18-0.22
vity. Counter pressure on the bottle filler
The yeast beer, together with the first and last with pre-evacuation 0.35-0.40
rWUlings and any other residual beer, repre- Keg pressure with COlmter filler 0.90-1.10
sents the largest proportion of the beer loss, Can filler 0.60-0.80
which lmavoidably occurs and, with an alUlual Carbonation adjushl1ent 0.10-0.20
volume of over 5% of the total output [310], has Full carbonation 0.50-0.70
a not inconsiderable effect on beer loss. By reu- Road tankers 0.30-0.50
sing these process beers, as they are summarily Dispense 0.20-0.50
known, the breweries are able minimise the Soft drink bottle filling 0.60-0.70
 516
This is a large amount of CO, which is requi-
red, but som e of the data given are alterna tives,
i.e. one replaces the other. By carbon ation (see
Sect. 4.7) is mea nt the addition of CO, to beer in
order to reach the required CO, content.
Altogether it can be calculated that about 1.8
4 to 2.0 kg of CO/hi of beer is required.
When ferm enting and maturing in a CCV the
CO, occurs in a concentrated form and can easi-
ly be extracted and collected. Of course it can-
not be assumed that CO, will be collected wit-
hout loss, but in practice it can be assumed that
about 2.0 kg of CO/hi of beer can be collected.
This corresponds approximately to the brewe-
ry's own needs.
Many breweries with CCVs have therefore
converted to ensure that their own requirements
are met by their own CO, recovery plant.
A CO, recovery plant (Fig. 4.56) consists first of
a foam separa tor (1) in which the foam par ticles
carried over are removed whilst the gas collects
517
in a large CO, gas container (2). This, naturally, is flUther remova l of still dissolved fore ign gas oc- yeas t at many locations in their pores. The yeast
fullest ea rly on Monday, and during the week its clll"S and with it, an increase in the degree of pu- settles on the support material but not every ye-
gas content decreases. 1lle gas container is the rity to 99.998 vol. %. The liquid is then stored tem- ast strain is able, by secreting s ubstances en ab-
necessary buffer for the collection of gas. In the porarily in a CO, storage tank (12) and for further ling it to adhere, to settle p erm anen tly. Howe-
gas scrubber (3) the CO, is freed from water-solu- use can be extracted by means of an evaporator ver, once it has become immobilised (Fig. 4.58)
ble impurities. A compressor (4) sucks in the gas (13) or pressure reduction station (14) . the yeast can function for a very long time w it-
and compresses it in two stages to the liquefying The stripper system, which can also be subse- hout having to be replaced. There is a constant 4
pressure of 18 to 22 bar. Because the gas becomes quently built into the plant, has the major ad- balance between the amOLUlt of yeast cell mate-
very hot as a resu It of this, it must be cooled again vantage that a final CO, purity level of 99.999 rial washed out with the medium and the new
in a cooler coupled to the compressor (5) and pre- vol. % (compared to 99.7% with s tandard sy- cells w hich grow on the ca rrier.
filtered. In the following drying towers (6) which stems) can be guaranteed. This high degree of
are used alternately, moisture still contained in purity is not snobbery, but gu arantees a consi-
the CO, is removed. Silicon gel and aluminiluu derably lower introdu ction of oxygen and aro-
oxide are the med ia mostly used for this. In the ma components caused by the CO, during im-
following active carbon filters (7), which likewise pregnation and thus an improved beer quality.
are used alternately, undesirable aroma com- Standard Stripper system
pounds still present are absorbed. The gas is H,S 50 ppb 30 ppb
post-filtered (8) and the compressed CO, is con- OMS 50 ppb 30 ppb
densed in the CO, liquefaction urilt (9) by a coo- 0 , concentration 50 ppb 5 ppb
ling plant (10).
By means of a stripper (10) and reb oiler (11), the 4.4.8 Immobilised yeast
For a long time there has been a wish to make
yeast immovable (immobilised) by binding it to
a carrier. Use of immobili sed yeast is of very
great current interest to brewers. Fermentation
Fig. 4.57: "Sirall " particle
takes a very short tim e but the yeast can be used
(SEM pictllre Research celltre ]iilicll / Schall Ellgilleerillg,
for a long time. Thanks to the small size of the Ma illz)
Fig. 4.56
CO, recovery plallt
yeast colonies the whole process is greatly re-
(CEA Hllppll/allll, Kitzill- duced in size.
gell) A decisive factor is, first of all, the inunobili-
(1) foall/ separator
sation of the yeast on a macroporous carrie r
(2) gas cOlltailler
(3) gas sCJ'/Ibber
material. One suitable carrier is a macroporou s
(4) gas coli/pressor with sintered glass "Siran" (Schott Engineering,
cooler Mainz) . It is m anufactured by mixing powde-
(5) prefilter
red glass with salt and sintering it (by burning).
(6) nryer
.u_.....L:=._, ,_ . unit (7) active cm'boll filte r
After th at the solubl e salt is washed out so that
(8) post fil ter - depending on the amount of salt and grain si-
(9) liqllefactioll I1l1it ze - particles with very different pore volumes
(10) call/pressors
can be obtained. Fig. 4.57 shows such a spheri-
(11) reboiler
(12) CO, storage tallk
cal "Siran" particle w ith a diameter of 1 - 2 mm
and 60 - 300 pm pores. Fig. 4.58
(13) evaporator
1IIIIIIobilisen yeast cell all a Sirall pnrticle
(14) pressIlre renllclioll stati- When enlarged the pores appear highl y bran- (SEM pictllre Research eelltre ]iilicll / Scholl Ellgilleerillg,
all ched and they acco mm oda te the immobilised Maillz)
'&
 518
519

If necessary, h owever, it is also p oss ible to
wash the yeast out of the carrier with suitable
chemicals and to use the carrier again after ne u-
tralisa tion .
Immobilised yeasts are used at p resent pri-
marily fo r the production of alcohol-free bee r
4 (see Sect. 4.9.3.3.1.3).
However, for the fermentation or brea kdown
of diace tyl, too, individual reactors are used, in
which the Siran p articles enriched w ith imm o-
bilised yeast are s tored some metres high and
a re slowly p enetra ted by the wort or beer.
In this way it is p ossible by h ea ting to greatl y
shorten the brea kdow n of the ace tohydroxy
acid to di ace tyl (see Sect. 4.1.3.1) which las ts a
long time lU1der normal fermentation and ma-
turation conditions. No yeast is necessary fo r
this. The breakdown of diace tyl to acetoill and
butandiol, which ha ve a very hi gh flavour
thTeshold, can then occur very quickly.
With such a procedure (Alpha-Laval/Schott
En gilleerillg), normally fermented wort is sepa-
ra ted from the yeast by separation, the b eer
h eated to 80 °C in a heat exchanger and the tem-
perature maintained for 10 mill. This results in
the breakdow n of acetohydroxy acid to diace-
tyl. In the second region of the heat exchanger,
the temperature is lowered again to about 15 °C
and the beer is now passed illtO a fi xed bed re-
ac tor. In this reactor the beer slowly flow s from
the bottom to the top through a metre-thick lay-
er of Siran with immobilised yeast, w hereby the
diacetyl is completely broken d own. The beer is
collected ill buffering tanks and further proces-
sed as usu al.
Substances are removed w hich would, ill the very good removal of yeas t and trub sed iment
course of the next few weeks or m onths, them- before the s tart of fil tration
selves precipitate an d m ake the beer turbid .
The purpose of filtration is to make beer so sta- 4.5.1 Various filtration methods
ble that no visible changes occur for a long time. Filtratio n is a p rocess in which the s till turbid
To achieve good filtration, a number of fa c- beer (LUl filtered liqu id) is sep ara ted by a filter
tors sh ould be observed in malt and beer pro- mediulll illtO a clea r filtrate and a filtered resi-
du ction, the neglect of wh ich can lead to severe
due, or filter cake, which is left belund .
problem s during filtration. According to the clarifica tion ta rge t one d iffe-
rentiates between coa rse, fine and s terile filtra-
Factors affectillg the filterability of beer tion w ith all the intermedia te stages. With in-
There are numerous factors w hich affec t the fil- creasing fineness of filtra tion, the flow rate of
terability of beer. A few of the most imp ortant the filter decreases (in hl/h x m 2 filter surface),
ones are aga in m entioned here [380]: since fin er filtra tion inevitably requires sm aller
Malt quality pores. For the filtrati on a filter medium is there-
fine/coarse ex trac t differen ce < 2% fore required, the filtermg effect of wlu ch must,
viscosity of the con gress wort 1.6 mPa' s in some cases, be supported by a filter aid .
Kolbach index 39 - 42% The drivillg force for this is always a pressu-
homogeneity (fri abilimeter value) > 80% re differen ce between the filter illiet and filter
Brewhouse technology outlet. The pressure at the illlet side is always
optimal malt commillution grea ter than the pressure at the outlet side. Th e
optimal breakd own of alpha and beta glucans grea ter the pressure differen ce the grea ter the
sh ort p ro tein res t resistance with which the filter opposes filtrati-
prevention of too s trong lixiviation of the spent on. It rises greatly towards the end of filtration.
grains
4.5.1.1 Separation mechanisms
Q uality of the casting wor t In the case of usual filtration the LUlIiltered beer
viscosity < 1.65 mPa ' s is passed throu gh a filter medium, whereby the
trub / solid substan ce content < 100 mg/l turbidity-causing p articles (yeast cells, turbid
alpha glucan content < 100 mg/l particles) are filtered out (dead end filtration).
beta glu can content <200 mg/l
pH valu e 5.2 - 5.45
coagulable nitrogen
Fermentation and mahlration
<30 mg/l
0 0 00 0
mtensive pre-fermentation 0 0
L'>E, after 24h >1%
A distinction is thereby made b etween the
fo llowillg sep ma tion mech anis ms (Fig. 4.59):
Sievillg or sill/ace filtratioll (a)
The particles cannot p ass through the p ores ill
the filter medi um and are retail1ed ill a layer
w hich becomes contilluously thicker. The filtra- 4
tion becomes increasingly fille but the volume
fl owing through decreases continu ously.
Depth filtmtioll
Increasingly, sep aration m edia are being used
w hi ch consis t of very porous m a teri als an d
w hich as a res ult of their ve ry large surface and
labyrillthille s tructure compel the liquid to take
a very circuitous p ath.
The particles are thereby h eld back by a me-
chanica l sievillg effect because of their size.
They g radually block the pores (b) and there-
by decrease the flow ra te through the filter, or
fine particles are fi xed by adsorption (c). This
ad sorption occurs beca use of differen ces ill
electrica l charges between the filter and the
material retained .
Sieving and adsorption effects are u sually
u sed in combinati on.
In the case of crossflow filh'ation (Sect. 4.5.2.7),
the lmfiltered beer flows past a filter membran e.
Whilst only pure beer diffuses tlu'ough tl1e fiJle
p ores of tlle membrane, the beer wludl is emi-
0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0

0
0 0
4.5 Beer filtration decrease ill pH valu e ill 24h > 0.4 pH wuts
0 0
0
0
0
0

0
A t the end of the maturation p rocess the beer is tempera hue man agement
oxygen-free, but up to 1 million yeas t cells and no tem peratu re shocks a b c
other turbidity-causillg particles per ml are s till clarification time at 0 to -2 °C > 5 days
Fig. 4.59
contained ill susp ension, which ha ve to be re- no introduction of oxygen after pre-fermentation
Fiitrntioll lIIedln ll isllls
moved without harmful oxygen h aving access addition of clarify ing agents
(1) slIlfnce jiitmlioll, (2) depth fiitmlioll (paJ·tides nre heM bnck lIIechnllicnffy), (3) depth jiilmtioll with ndsorptioll of the pnrti-
to the beer. silica sol (30%) 30 mg/hl cles
 520
ched in turbidity-causing material flows off. This
process is repeated several times.
4.5.1.2 Filters
Filters include
Sieves of all kinds, e.g. metal sieves, slotted
4 sieves or parallel arrangements of wedge w i-
re in ca ndle filters.
Metal or cloth tissues. Of these the metallic
ti ssues are eas ier to clean and sterili se, but
modern textile cloths, e.g. based on polypro-
pylene, are of almost eq ual va lue in m an y po-
sitions (see m ash filter). They are, ho wever,
not u sed for beer filtration because they can-
not be sterilised so well and are unstable.
Filter shee ts IT\ade of cellulose, cotton, kiesel-
perlite, glass fibres or other materials
(asbestos is no longer used, h owever, on he-
alth safety grOll11ds). Filter sheets are now
very widely used and are available for very
different filtration cut-off limits right down
to sterile filtrati on.
Loosely packed beds, for example, sma ll peb-
ble filters for water filtration and layers of
powdery filter aids used as "precoats" on fil-
ter sheets.
Porous bodies such as sintered metals or me-
tal frits as used for atomising air, and to an in-
creasing extent
Membranes. Nowadays these are mainly ma-
de from polyethersulphone, but also from
polyurethane, polyacrylate, polyamide, poly-
ethylene, poly ca rbonate, cellulose acetate
and other substances, such as a.-aluminium
oxide, in a specially processed form with a
pore size of 0.4 - 0.6 flm. The membranes are
very thin (0.2 - 1.0 mm) and are therefore ap-
plied on large-p ored support layers, because
they would otherwise tear. In place of mem-
branes, ceram ic materials are increasingl y
being used nowadays, particularly for yeast -
beer sep aration. Since the membranes beco-
me more and more blocked with increasing
filtration, they regu larly have to be cleaned
using acids and other media; this presuppo_
ses that the membranes are very res istant.
The pores themselves are made by in corpora-
ting sa lts w hich are later dissolved out again to
form pores.
Because of the different m anufacturing mate-
4
rials used, n owadays membranes with any de-
sired pore size (Fig. 4.60) can be made and they
can correspondingl y filter out materials of any
chosen molecular size [115].
Because these filters contain very fine pores,
one speaks of
microfilters when the flm range is concerned
(10 " to 10' pm) and of
ultrafilters or nanofilters when the nm range
is con cerned (10 " to 10 " pm).
Fig. 4.61 shows the size range of particles and
pores which are d ealt w ith here. It mu st be re-
membered that each Sect. covers a range only
one tenth that of the Sect. to its right. Thus the-
se membranes contain very fine pores.
With the reduction in pore size, the pressure
necessary to carry out filtration increases and
the flow throu gh is reduced (Fig. 4.61b). n) eel/Idose ester IIIelllvrnlle (x nvollt 10.0.0.), v) pol,/vi"yldifl"oride IIIelllvrnlle (x nvollt 100.0.), c) polyslllpllOlle IIIelllvrnlle (x
nvolltl DDD), d) polyslllpllOlle IIIelllvrnlle (x 10,0.0.0.)
(5EM pictllres; n + v 5cltellk Filterunll GlllvH, Wn ldstetlell, c + d Seilz-Filter- \-\'erke, Bnd Krellzllnclt)
4.5.1.3 Filter aids
Filter aids are powdery substances, such as kie-
selguhr or perlite, which are deposited on a fil-
200.
ter (tissue or layer) and as a result of their sha-
pe and arrangement make filtration possible. '-
C\)
100. ' . . .,
.Q
Filter aids CaJU10t be used without a supporting .S:
filter. Q.
<l 10
Filter aids in a brewery are Q)
t.:l
kieselguhr fo r the filtration of beer, and c::
p erlite for the filtration of wort. 'Q
:::,
4.5.1.3.1 Kieselguhr '"
Kieselguhr is the term used for fossi ls of single-
'"
Q)
Q:
celled algae (diatoms) containing silicon dioxi- 0.1
de (SiO,), of which there are more than 15,000 0,00.0. 1 0.0.01 am 10 100.
Fig. 4.61
types in the sea. They must ha ve existed for mil- Pm·tic/e nlld filter pore size Particle / molecule size. Op in 11m
lions of years in isolated seas or regions of the m"ges
 523
522

Particle size Ions , ICfO - Macro - Small Calcilled gullI's of the nahlral guhr is converted to crystalline si-
[11 m] molecules molecules molecules particles To be ab le to produce filtrating guhr more licic acid. This results Ul gulu's which have been
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 100o quickly, the dried gu hr is heated to 800 °C. As a ignited with a flux additive ha ving a silicic acid
I Sand
result the surfaces of the gullr particles sinter content of up to 90 %.
Viruses Pollen
Sugar
I I
Bacteria
together and larger particles are formed . The Forms of crystalliJle silicic acid include in par-
Components Water-solutlle imler porous structure and its filtration activity ticular cristobalite, wh.ich is formed during the
Colloids Yeasts
salts
I I
are thereby retained. calcination process, quartz and h·idymite. The 4
4 potential risk lies in the ulhalation of cristobalite
Particle filtration
Gulfl's igllited witll a flux additive with the kieselgulU' dust. Contulued, lUlprotec-
I For the prod uction of guhrs for even quicker fil- ted inhalation of SUcil dust can cause pneumoco-
Microfiltration
tration, 2-5 % sodiLU1l chloride or sodium carbo- niosis (silicosis). In addition to silicosis, the dust
Filtration
nate as a flu x additive is added to the raw kie- can cause cancer and is therefore classified in
technique Ultrafiltration selgulU' Ul the rotatin g oven . This results in the Group 1 of "human carculogens". ln suspension,
I melting point of the silicon dioxide (of which however, cristobalite is not dangerous.
Nallofiltration the di atom s consis t) being reduced and the The content of cristobalite is lUlder 1 % in raw
1 guhr ignited for a long time at 800 to 900 °C. kieselguhr; however, it increases during calci-
Reverse The diatoms are thereby coated with a thUl gla- nation to 10 to 40% and when ignited with a
osmosis ze which seals most of the pores. This cemen- flu x additive, reaches values of 40 to 90 %.
I I
ting together results in the formation of even In general, the filtration speed depends on
Fig.4.61b
Rnllge of pm'fide size nll(i press llre differeJlces II sillg press llre drivell lIIelllbrnlle sepnrnfioll procedll res larger struchlres. Inorganic secondary substan- the fineness of the guhr.
ces, su ch as iron and aluminium oxide, are the- The fUler the guh r the better it clarifies, bu tat
reby conve rted to practically insoluble mixed the same time, the lower the filtration speed.
silicates, giving the coarse guhrs, which have Coarse guhrs, on the other hand, filter more
Dried glllll's been ignited with the flux additive, a whitish quickly but do not filter as completely.
sea in such quantities that their fossils in the
The raw material is broken up and dried in ro- appearance. These coarse guhrs are generally Throughput and degree of clarification con-
course of time covered the bottom of the sea in
tating ovens at 400°C. In this state the nahlral preferred for the precoa ting (Fig. 4.66). sequently are inversely related.
a very thick layer.
form of the diatom coat and its porosity are re- The most important property of kieselguhr is
As a result of movements of the earth's surfa-
tained, so that kieselguhr can be produced from its great porosity. As a result of this porosity
ce, kieselgulu' deposits several hlUldred metres
it, which offers the sharpest filtration (Fig. 4.65). and of the particular formation of the diatom
thick occur, such as that in Lompoc, Califor-
Nahll'al guhr generally contains less than 1 % shells, a very fine pore layered filter cake pro-
nia/USA. In the case of many deposits, howe-
crystalline silicic acid. duced from kieselguhr is formed, which ca n
ver, mining does not prove economically viab-
hold back turbidity-causing particles up to a si-
le. Mining occurs today in
ze of 0.1 111m.
Lompoc, California
The surface area of kieselguhr can be as much
Jalisko, Mexico
as 20 m 2/g. It thus has a far lower adsorption
Myvahl, Iceland
ability than kiesel gel s (400-700 m2/g).
Murat, France
It is, however, importan t that the guhr is free
Alicante, Spain
from all types of admixtures.
Arica, Chile and two works in China. Fig. 4.66: Conrse g llilr (ellint ged nbollf n WOO-fold)
An important feahlre for the economic use of
Mining takes place in surface mines using (SEM picfllre, Sd,et/k Filferbnll GlllbH, Wnldsfeflell)
kieselgulu' is the wet denSity. By this is meant
high performance diggers and huge lorries,
the volume which the guhr occupies under
which transport the material, sorted according
As a result of the calcination process at a high pressure. The wet density is quoted in gil. Kie-
to quality, to natural silos. Depending on their
Fig. 4.65: Fille g llllr (elllnrged nbollf n WOO-fold) temperahlre range, the amorphous silicic acid selguhrs with a wet density less than 300 gil are
processing there are three types of guhrs [160]:

IS
 524
most suitable for filtration. With higher wet
densities, for the same clarification and
throughput, one must expect to use more guhr
and to obtain a higher pressure increase.
Non-calcinated and calcinated gulu's have a
specific surface area of 12 to 40 m 2 /g and a wet
4 density of 270 to 380 gil. Calcinated gulu' has a
specific surface area of 2 to 5 m2/g and a wet den-
sity of 280 to 400 gil. Gulu- ignited with a flux ad-
ditive (coarse gulu') has a specific surface area of
1 to 3 m2/g and a wet density of 300 to 500 gil.
Kieselgulu- usage can vary between 80 to 200
g/hl and is usually about 150 to 180 g/hl. Kiesel-
guhr is not only very expensive, it also results
in costs for disposal of the kieselgulu' slurry
(see Sect. 4.9.3).
4.5.1.3.2 Perlite
Perlite is a material of volcanic origin and consists
principally of almninimTI silicate. Raw perlite is
heated to 800°C. The water contained in it ex-
pands and leads to swelling and bursting. The
glassy sh'uctures produced are milled (Fig. 4.67).
This gives rise to a very light, loose powder
which weighs 20 to 40 % less than kieselgulu-. At
low pH values perlite releases chalk and iron.
Consequently it can only be used for wort filtra-
tion since the pH is then still 5.4 to 5.5.
With perlite the filtration speed similarly de-
pends on the type.
4.5.2 Structural forms of filters
The following types of filter are used for filtra-
tion in the brewery:
powder filters:
sheet filters
candle filters
screen fil ters
leaf filters
sheet filters
chamber filters (e.g. mash filters)
sectional filter presses (e.g. mass filters) and
membrane filters
Fig. 4.67
Perlite (elliarged abollt WOO-fold)
(SE1vl pictllre, Scllellk Filterbnll G//IbH, Wnldstettell)
For beer filtration nowadays almost only
powder, sheet and membrane filters are used.
The mass filter which for decades was predomi-
nantly used for beer filtration is scarcely ever
used today.
This type of filter, in which filtration is per-
formed at right angles to the filter is referred to
as a static filter or dead-end filter.
4.5.2.1 Mass filters
The mass filter is hardly any longer used. Ne-
vertheless, it must be briefly discussed here sin-
ce it dominated beer filtration for decades.
In a mass filter the beer is passed through an
approximately 6 cm thick filter mass (filter
mass cake) and thereby filtered (Fig. 4.68) .
The filter mass consists of cotton linters to
which 1 % asbestos was added to obtain a shar-
per filtration . But even before the ban on asbe-
stos usage the mass filter had disappeared from
the brewery because the amolmt of work it en-
tailed, and consequently the costs, are very
high:
after every filtration the filter must be lUlpac-
ked,
the mass cake must be taken apart, washed
and sterilised,
the filter mass must be pressed into a filter
mass cake, and
- - unfiltered beer
_ - - - filtered beer
Fig. 4.68
Beerflow throllgh a //Inss filter
n) filter sectioll I, b) filt er sectioll II, 1) c1wllllel fo r IllIfiltered bw; 2) chnllllel for filtered bw; 3) distriblltioll opellillg, 4) distri-
blltioll grooves, 5) slIspeusioll, 6) filter //lass
the filter must be reassembled.
In addition there are a number of associated
tasks which in total require a special work force
for a middle sized brewery.
The disad vantages of the mass filter are:
high manual cost for filter regeneration,
high energy requirements for the mass was-
hing,
large water requirement for the mass washing,
too small filter surface and filter capacity.
4.5,2.2 Powder filters
Powder filters are filters in which filtration is
performed by a fil ter aid - usually kieselguhr or
perlite - which is coated onto the filter.
Precoating is necessary because the particles
of the filter aid used for continuous dosing are
too small to be held back by the filter itself. Con-
sequently with powder filters a distinction
must be made between
525
4
precoating of the filter layer and
filtration.
4.5 .2.2.1 Precoating
4.5.2.2.1.1 Basic principle of precoating
Kieselguhr filtration is performed using fine
wire mesh, with a mesh gap of 70 to 100 pm, or
other fine pore filters, which, however, all have
a much greater hole size than the 2 to 4 par-
ticles of small diatoms. If the guhr was only do-
sed into the beer it would pass unhindered
through the mesh and the beer would become
even more turbid than it was before.
4.5.2.2.1.2 Initial coating and continuous do-
sing
To obtain a perfect filtration effect a filter cake is
applied in three coating layers:
Base, primary or precoat layer. Degassed wa-
 526
tel' or filtered beer containing a con centrated
suspension of coarse guhr is circulated at an
overpressure of 2 to 3 bar through the filter. A
pressure stable primary layer is thereby built
up w hich will prevent the finest filter aid
from entering the filtrate. This primary layer
4 forms the most important element for the
further building up of the cake and for filtra-
tion itself. The pal'ticles of this primary layer
support each other and prevent each other
from flowing an y further (Fig. 4.69) . For the
primary coating about 500 g/m2 is used; this
is about 50% of that used in the total precoat
- approx 1.5 mm coating thickness.
Second precoat or safety laye r. This ensures
that even the first filtrate after precoa ting
nms clear. This layer is again applied with
degassed water or filtered beer, but approx
500 g/m2 of a finer more effective kieselguhr
mixture (also approx 1.5 mm coa ting thick-
ness) is used for it, so that the haze materials
are retained and blocking of the filter is pre-
vented. It is very importal1 t to h ave a comple-
tely wufonn dis tribution of the precoat over
the enti re filter surface . Thilmer regions or
edges in the precoat cause unevenness in
flow and possibly also allow haze to p ass
thl'Ough .
The total precoat contains about 1000 g/m2
and is 2.5 to 3 nun tluck. The coa ting process ta-
kes about 10 to 15 min.
Continuous dosing . This serves mainly to
maintain the permeability of the precoat after
the chal1geover to filtration with a constal1t
volume flowrate. The constant flowrate is ne-
cessary since w ith pressure surges or flow ir-
regularities the bridges formed on the sieve
or candles may be broken through and the
beer would nm turbid. This must be preven-
ted in all circumstances. The muform flowra-
te, however, causes a continual increase in the
pressure difference between inflow and out-
flow. It is desirable that tlus pressure increase
occurs slowly al1d contin uously up to an ex-
cess pressure of
- in the case of powder sh eet filters 2 to 5
al1d
- in the case of p owd er pressure filters 6 to 8
bar.
The pressure difference should on average
increase at m ost 0.2 to 0.3 bar per h our (normal-
ly filterable beer). The brewery decid es on the
com position of the guhr mixture on the basis of
experience. Normally the continuously dosed
mixture con sis ts of
2/3 medium guhr and
1/3 fine guhr.
Kieselguhr usage during continuous dosing
is between 60 al1d 120 g/h1 of beer.
b) c)
Fig. 4.69
Contillg willI kieselgllhr
(n) first preeont, (b) secollr! preeon t, (e) cOlltilll/ol/s r!osillg
4.5.2.2.1.3 Oxygen during filtration
In this first phase of filtration - the first and se-
cond precoating and commencement of conti-
nuous dosing - the lmd esirable oxygen uptake
and consequent reduction in quality is of parti-
cular importance.
At the end of fermentation and maturation
the oxygen content has decreased to 0.0 to 0.01
mgOil.
It is possible, but very difficult, to maintain
this value. But there is no longer any way of re-
moving any more oxygen which dissolves.
a
Ail: enters mainl y tlu'ou gh
introduc tion of air locks from incompletely
deaera ted empty sp aces,
use of wa ter which is not deaerated,
use of CO, already mixed with air,
hollow spaces in the kieselguhr i tself, and
unsealed places.
Since every hundredth p ar t of a mg of Oi l
must be excluded, even the smalles t amounts of
air play an important role.
How much even a small introduction of air
contributes will be made clear by the follow ing
calculation.
Air con tains 23.01 %
by weight oxygen = 20.93 vol %
1 m 3 of ai r weighs 1.29 kg
23.01 % of this amount is 0.297 kg = 300 g
At 1 bal' 1 m 3 of air contains 300 g 0 ,
11 of air contains 300 mg 0 ,
At 0.5 bar overpressure = 1.5 a litre con-
tains 300 x 1.5 = 450 mg 0 ,
If this amount of air is mixed in then
4501= 4.5 hI will contain 1.01 m g Oi l
4500 I = 45.5 hI will contain 0.10 mg Oi l
45,000 h1 = 450.5 hi will contain 0.01 mg Oi l
This example shows that even a small airlock,
consisting of a litre of air, suffices to raise the
oxygen content of a volume of beer of tlus size
significan tl y.
Consequently d egassed, biolog ically clean
water is used for precoa ting and CO, is used as
a counterpressure gas. It will be shown that it is
a problem to keep the water and beer separate
without losses.
At the end of filtration, too, the residual beer
remaining must be treated ca refully. Tlus also
relates to the treatment of the fore and post
rW1S. These cut-off batches are mos tly rich in
oxygen and thei r colloid al composition is n o
longer normal. It is therefore advantageous to
perform fi ltra tion without the fore and post
runs and so n ot to use these fractions.
527
Every introduction of oxygen into the beer
during filtration is even more damaging to the
beer than introduction before then . The follo-
wing measures make it possible to obtain an
oxygen uptake of less than 0.01 mg Oi l beer du-
ring filtration:
avoidance of pulling in air when emptying 4
the tank
use of CO, as counterpressure gas
complete removal of air from all pipes and
containers by oxygen-free water before be-
g ilming and during filtration, by continuous
m onitoring of the air release valves
remova l of ai r pockets in the pipes
correct installation of pipes with air release
valves
avoidance of cross-section cons trictions
use of sufficien tly lugh liquid pressure before
the filter pump to prevent CO, release and to
prevent air entry
use of inert gas (CO" N,) for COlmter pressure
and flu shu1g the pipe and container systems
d eaera tion of the kieselguhr suspension in the
d osing vessel by gassing with CO,
n o inclusion of oxygen -rich fore and p os t
runs
use of inflow discs and deflectors for the beer
entering the pressure tanks (bright beer
tanks) to avoid the fo rma tion of fountains
and of inflow eddies
counterpressure of the p ressure tank with pu-
reCO,
4.5 .2.2.1.4 Dosing equipment
The addition of gul1l' with oxygen-free wa ter
for precoa ting or with beer for continuous do-
sing is p erformed in the dosing device (Fig.
4.70). The lise of beer presupposes a pressure
vessel for the kieselguhr susp ension : the beer
must be directed into the dosing pump under
pressure to prevent CO, discharge.
The dosing equipment consists of a s torage
container (1) in which a mechanically driven
 528
stirrer (2) produ ces thorough mixing of the sus-
pension. Si nce a forceful flow of liqui d is n eces-
sa ry to apply the precoat, it is d elivered by a se-
pat'ate centrifugal pump (3). Th e continuous
dosing is later performed by a diaphragm do-
sing pump (4). The dosing equipment must ha-
4 ve a CO, spear for the gasing of the suspension
and be maintained at very low CO, overpressu-
re (a few wa ter COlllllli1).
Beer
Kieselgullr -
G
dosing
PrecoaJing
Fig. 4.70
Dosillg eq lliplllellt (prill ciple)
(1) slorage cOlllaillel; (2) slirrer wilh drive 1110101; (3) rapid
coalillg plllllp for the precoat, (4) dosillg PIlIllP, (5) dosillg ad-
jllstlllellt, (6) sllspeJIsioll lIIixillg, (7) sight glass with flow ra-
te illdicator
The diaphragm dosing pump, w hich can be
set very accurately, controls the guhr add ition
during continuous dosing. This is necessary be-
cause one wants to use as little kieselguhr as
possible when filtering. The core element of the
diaphragm piston pump (Fig. 4.71) is a rubber
membrane (1) which is moved by the piston (2).
Because the space is filled with silicone oil (4),
which is not compressible, every movement of
the pis ton acts on the membrane. If the piston
moves to the right it forces the rubber membra-
ne to the right and the pressure produced forces
the lower ball bearing agains t the seal whilst
the upper ball b earing is lifted and the passage
for dosin g is opened. When the piston and
membran e move to the left the upper ball be-
Fig. 4.71
Dosillg pllllip (diaphraglll pistoll plllll p)
(1) IIlelllvralle, (2) piStOIl, (3) vnll vnllle (lIsllnlly vllilt ns a
dOli vie vnll llnllle), (4) silicolle oil
aring closes the exit whil st the lower ball be-
aring is lifted and a new dose is sucked in. The
amplitude of the membrane movement
ch anges with the length of the piston stroke and
with it the amount of kieselguhr / beer mixture
deli vered. This length of the piston stroke is ad-
justed by means of an adjusting screw (Fig.
4.72). Because, on rota tion, the adjus tm ent
screw moves backwards and forwards on the
shaft, the setting of the continuous dosing can
be directly read from the point of contact bet-
ween the adjustment screw and the shaft.
Fig. 4. 72
Adjllstlllellt of dosillg
vy al terillg the pistall
stroke
The dosing unit (Fig. 4.73) is a component of
every powder filter independently of whether
it is a sheet, ca ndle or disc filter.
529
4
Fig. 4.73: Kieselglllir dosillg IIl1it (Cllt opell )
(1) dosillg vessel, (2) stirrer with drive IIlOtOI; (3) precoatillg
PIlIllP, (4) dosillg PIlIllP, (5) sigllt glass with j70w rate illdica-
tor
Fig. 4.74
4.5.2.2.2 Plate and frame filters Sprayillg off the kieselgllhr contillg layer
Plate an d fram e filters consis t of a fram e in
which alternating, usu ally square, frames and
plates are susp end ed. Filter sheets are hlU1g
over the plates on both sid es and these form
seals between the frames and the plates. The fil-
ter sheets are made of cellulose and ion ex-
change resin. They are stabilised by mass har-
dening so that the sheets are washable and ca n
therefore be used for a long time. After filtrati-
on the kieselguhr is sprayed off and the filter
sheet can then be used again (Fig. 4. 74).
Usillg {I pl{lte {Iud fm1l1e filter (Fig. 4.75)
Fig. 4.75: Plate alld f rallle f iltratioll (prillciple)
A plate and frame filter consists of alternating (Exploded dingrOlIl )
frames (2) and plates (1). Because sheets are hung (1) plates with coa ted sheets IlIIlIg over thelll
so that they cover both sides of the plates (1), af- (2) frOi lles
(3) sllpply of II IIfiltered veer
ter the filter is pressed together there are cavities
(4) fi ltrate Olltf/OW
in the frames to receive the kieselguhr coating (5) .
(5) kieselgllhr coatillg
The precoating and later the beer, continuously
dosed by a dosing device in the m anner descri-
bed above, is plUnped into the frames from abo- 4.5.2.2.3 Powder coated candle filters
ve and below and covers the filter sheets with Candle filters (Fig. 4.76) are cylindrica l, vertical
coatings which become increasingly thick. pressure containers (1) with conical bottoms.
 531
530

Beneath the filter lid there are filter cand le p la- 35 mm in di ameter and 2 m long is 0.220 m 2 .
tes (3) from which the filter candles (2) are sus- Associated with the candle filter there are a
pended. nlUllber of other pipes, cOlUlections and control
The fi lter candles are the filter bases on which instruments. All the filter accessories of the filter
the filter aid kieselguhr is coated. To make fil- are carefully constructed so that tmder no cir-
tration possible a wedge wire is wOlllld radial- cumstan ces can even the smallest amOlUlt of oxy-
4 ly with a fixed separation of 50 to SO on a gen be taken up at the begimling, during or after
longitudinal section. filtration. This entails considerable expense.
The longihldinal section consists of wedge Sequence of operations during filtration and
wire spirals or a cylindrical perforated sheet cleaning of the fi lter (Fig. 4.79 a to i):
(Figs.4.7S and 4.77). Tlu-ou ghout the length of Filling of the filter with water. Since this wa-
ter later comes into contact with the beer, de-
gassed water mllst be used. This water is
pumped rotmd in a circuit (a).
The first precoat is mixed into the water and
Fig. 4.77
Filter cnlldle coated on the filter cand le for about 10 min .
(l) jilter wildie bot/alii Until a support layer has built up, the liquid
(2) I/Oled pipe containing the first part of the coating flows
(3) wedge wire spirnl
turbid. Then the second precoat is applied si-
(4) screw wp
milarly (b).
The liquid in the filtration mut is circulated (c).
Then filtration is begun. During this stage a
change is made from water to beer and the
unfiltered beer slowly displaces the water
upwards in the filter and is filtered through
the candles. The kieselguhr m ixture was pre-
viously introduced into the dosing unit and 4
dosed into the beer by the dosing pump. It
must be remarked that the boundary region
between water and beer, although small, is
not abrupt. There is thus a small amowlt of
mixed liquid, the forerun (d) .
Filtration now proceeds in the same way, and
as a result of the kieselguhr dosed in, an in-
creasingly thick layer forms arotmd the cand-
Ie which filters increasingly finely but causes
the inflow pressure to rise continuously.
When the permissible highest pressure of 6 to
S bar overpressure is reached the filtration
must be terminated (e).

3
1 2 1 2

Fig. 4.78
Filter cnlldle (sectioll)
(1) wedge wire spirnl, (2) spncer IIInde frolll wedge rods
7

9 10
the filter candle, which may be up to 2 m long,
there is a very narrow but very long gap. Becau-
se up to 700 candles may be arranged in the fil- 8 = = = = = = = = ===:: !J11

Fig. 4.76
Cnlldle filt er (Cltt opell)
(1) filter cOlltnillel; (2) sllspmded f ilter cnlldles, (3) pellornted
plnte to sllspelld the filter wlldles, (4) filt er lid, (5) IIl1filtered
beer sllpply pipe, (6) filtrnt e relllovnl pipe, (7) kieselgllhr sedi-
IIlellt relllovnl pipe, (8) nir relllovnl pipe
ter a very large filtration surface is produced
w hich guarantees a high throughflow of the fil-
ter, w hich also has no moving parts.
The filtration surface of a filter candle
25 mm in diameter and 1.5 m long is O.l1S m 2,
30 mm in diameter and 1.5 m long is 0.141 m2,
U
Fig. 4.79
Operntioll seq"e" ce forfiltrntiollwith n Wildie filter
(1) filter colltnillel; (2) filt er cnlldles, (3) dosillg IIl1it, (4) IIl1f iltered beer sllpply pipe, (5) filtrntioll P"IllP, (6) precontillg P"IllP,
m dosillg PIllIlP, (8) filtrnte relllovnl pipe, (9) nir relllovnl f rolll the lid top, (10) nir relllovnl f rolll the filtel; (11 ) kieselgllhr sedi-
//Iellt relllOvnl, (1 2) WII StiCcOlltnillel; (13) ncid cOlltnillel; (14) hentillg
 532 533
---------------------------------------------------

4 4
Fig. 4.79 d)
Fig. 4.79 n) Begillll illg offi llra lioll
Slnrl Fi/lrnlioll is beg II II by dispineelllelli
Tlte filler is filled witll degnssed wn- of lite wnler bl, beel; provided tllnl
IeI' or fi llered beer nlld nil' is rell/O- beer wns 1/01 nlrendy II sed for II,e
ved. Tlt e liqllid is eirC/llnled. preconlillg.

------1
y y
Fig. 4.79 e)
Fig. 4.79 b) Fi/lrnlioll
Preeonlillg Fi/lrnlioll of II,e beer willt colllillll-
y y
Applienlioll of lite preeonl fllld OilS (body feed) dosillg ofkieselgllitr.
snfely Inyer (firsl nlld seeolld preeo- rite press llre differCllee ill II,e f iller
nls). slowly illcrenses.

1
y y

Fig. 4.79 c) Fig. 4.79 j)

y
y Cirelliniioll £lId offillralioll
For enelt conlillg lite liqllid ill lite Filtrnlioll is elided by displncillg lite
plnlll is eirellinied for 10 10 15 II/ill. beer willt degnssed wnler.
 534
Filtra tion is ended by displacing the beer out
of the filter from below with degassed water.
Here, too, there is a s mall amOlmt of post run
which arises from the mixing of beer and wa-
ter (f) and h as to be collected separately.
The kieselguh r is removed as a paste or in
4 fluid for m after the candles have been freed
from the kieselguhr slurry by surges of com-
Fig. 4.79 g) pressed air (g) or a mi xture of water and com-
SllIrry removnl pressed air.
Tile f ilter cake is blow II off by COli/ - Cleaning is then performed in the opposite
pressed air f rolll tile illside alld is re- direction, by mixing air into the water at in-
Illoved ns n slllrry. tervals. This results in vo rtex formation and
leads to blasts of air in the candles and conse-
quently the candles are completely clean ed
again from inside (h).
In the final s tage the filter and all pipes and
COlU1ections are sterilised again by acidified
hot wa ter and thus prepared for reuse (i).
The flow within the filter h as an effect on the
sedimentation of the kieselguhr particles: large
particles settle m ore quickly than smaller ones.
Within a traditiona l candle filter the flow velo-
city slows d own. Sin ce the flowing off of the fil-
Fig. 4.7911) trate ends at the perforated plate to suspend the
C1enll illg filter candles (see Fig. 4.76 (3)), this means the
C1enllillg blj bnckwnsllillg sllppor-
led by nir press llre sllrges.
A 0=:)
------1 ' Fig.4.79j
Twill-Flo w-System (TFS)
y y (A) flo w ill n traditiollnl calldle
ji/lel; (8) flow ill n Twi ll -Flo w-
System (TFS)
Fig. 4.79 i) (1) l/l/filtered beel; (2) filtrate,
y (3) bypnss, (4) ill let disiriblllol;
Sterilisnlioll
(5) l/Ilf iltered nrea, (6) elld plale,
Tile elllire plnllt is sterilised by 1101 (7) fillrale aren, (8) register pi-
wnter. pillg
535
vertical flow is also ended. As a result more
small particles are coated onto the upper part of
the candle than the lower part. This can lead to
varyi ng filtrate quality.
With the Twin-Flaw-System (TFS), Steinec-
ker, Freising [221], on the other h and, the en tire
filter ke ttle is an unfiltered area (Fig. 4.79j). In 4
place of the perforated plate there is a register
piping w hich drains the filtrate from all the
ca ndles . The surplus continues to run through,
is drained off as a bypass at the top and retur-
ned to the unfiltered beer. With tradi tional
candle filters the flow ends at the end plate, re-
sulting in the distribution of the precoated guhT
no t being quite uniform over the candle. In the
case of the TFS filter the entire kettle is an lLllfil-
tered area because the perforated plate is repla-
ced by a register and the tmfiltered beer can
continue to flow tmhindered . As a result a mli-
form, gentle flow and filtration over the candle
is gu aran teed . Due to the longer filter life cycles
resulting from this, the operating costs can be
reduced [268].
The name of the system arises from the twin-
fl ow principle: one inlet and two outlets which
can be regulated in relation to each other.
B
7
III 1 I
I I I 1I
I rI r r
4

536
4.5.2.2.4 Powder coated screen disc filters
Coated screen filters consist of a vertical cylin-
der. A large number of circular filter elements
which perform the filtration are arranged on a
hollow shaft (Fig. 4.S0). The filter elements are
covered on the upper side with a wire mesh
4 made of chrome-nickel steel with a mesh size of
50 to SO The construction of the filter ele-
ments, the resulting coating of the kieselguhr
and the flow of the beer are thereby of conside-
rable importance.
The operating sequence with screen disc fil-
ters is in principle the same as with candle fil-
ters but the necessary uniform coating of all fil-
ter elements is - as is the case with candle filters-
not easy to achieve and can lead to problems
(see following Sect.) .
Some plants operate with two chalU1els in the
hollow shaft al1d distribute the precoat and bo-
dy feed on each filter element so that the filter
cake builds up uniformly on every filter ele-
ment (Fig. 4.S1).
Below the bottom filter element a small resi-
due remains which calU10t be filtered and has to
Fig. 4.80
be treated separately.
Canted screell disc filter "Filterollmt "
(Filfro.\" COII/pnll!!, St.Gnllell) Extraction is performed by rotating the filter
elements, whereby the filter cake is spun
against the walls by centrifugal force al1d slides
to the bottom in a paste-like form . For the follo-
wing cleaning, the shaft is rotated slowly whilst
(I being thoroughly sprayed.
For the further disposal of the used gulu-, it is
of general concern to extract the guhr in a paste-
like form .
Best Filtratiol1 Systelll (BeFiS), Pall GlIlbH Seitz-
Schel1k
Filtration using kieselguhr is coming lU1der in-
creasing pressure because
contact with dry kieselguhr is dangerous for
Fig . 4.81 health,
Filter elell/ellt witii fwo ClInll/leis ill tlIe lIollow slmji, 71/pe
kieselguhr is only available in limited
" PrilllllS"
amolu1ts,
(SclICllk Filterbnll COlllPall!!, Wnldsfettell)
kieselg uhr slurry disposal is b ecoming in-
creasingly problematic.
Effor ts have therefore been made in recent ti-
mes to move towards kieselguhr-free filtration
(cross flow filtration, the use of regenerative fil-
ter aid s).
In the case of Best Filh'ation System (BeFiS),
kieselgulu- conslUl1ption is reduced by up to SO %
as a result of regenerating the filter aids used
(ZHF = centrifugal high-performance filter),
where it is possible to choose between chemical,
enzymic and combined regenerating variations.
In the case of chemical cleaning of the used fil-
ter aid, water, caustic soda al1d nitric acid are
used . Hot caustic soda at SO - 90 °C solubilises
the yeast cells al1d organic components in 15
to 30 min; following neutralisation with nitric
acid, the delicate microstructures of the lde-
selguhr remain intact and the guhr can, after
being rinsed in cold water, be used for further
filh·ation .
In the case of enzymic clealung, a
se compOlU1d and a protease compOlU1d are
used to dissolve the stored organic substal1-
ces excluding the yeast. For this, the optimal
temperatures for the compounds
se 62°C 30 min long, protease 55 °C 60 min
long) are circulated and the compOlU1ds inac-
tivated for 30 min at S5 0c.
In the case of combined clealung, chemical
cleaning with a low concentration is carried
out in the first stage. Enzymic cleaning then
occurs in the second stage.
The savings on kieselguhr using this proce-
dure are up to SO%. Savings compared to con-
ventional operations are said to be 20%.
4.5.2.2.5 Filtration problems caused by the
plant
Problems frequently occur with kieselguhr fil-
tration. Small mistakes can have major conse-
quences. Such problem sources during filtrati-
on can be [IS4]:
537
release of gas due to air pockets in the lan -
terns or filter,
the flow velocity is too lugh or too low,
the precoat has not been applied muformly,
the shaft seal is defective or the cal1dles are
too loose,
the filter aid used is lU1suitable, 4
biological mistakes have occurred,
the beer is difficult to filter, or
procedural mistakes (e.g. introduction of 0 ,)
have occurred.
Mistakes dllrillg precontillg
Precoating should result in the building up of a
pressure resistal1t primary layer. A preconditi-
on is a well-balanced relation between coarse
and fine guhr. For this, a first coating with
about 70% total all10lmt of coarse guhl' is requi-
red. The second coating consists of fine gul1l' -
more or less that over wluch filtration is to oc-
cur. A second separate coating is, however, fre-
quently omitted - without being disadval1tage-
ous - and the precoat is prepared as a mixture
of coarse al1d fine guhr in one working proce-
dure . For the precoating, it Cal1 be asslU11ed that
the following amount wi]] be used:
SOO to 1200 g/m2
(= layer thickness 1.5 to 3 mm).
At 2 bar, the circulating volumetric flow rate
should be 1.5 to 2 times the volumetric flow ra-
te of the filtrate.
The application of the precoat takes about 10
min. Too rapid filling or emptying can lead to
tears al1d vortexes, which can move the filter ca-
ke to the side and result in the deterioration of
the filtration performance (Fig. 4.S2, a).
Mistnkes durillg cOlltilll/OIlS dosillg
During filtration the pressure difference bet-
ween the filter inlet and outlet becomes greater
and greater because the increasing layer thick-
ness creates a continuously increasing resi-
stance.
 538
Continuous dosing is mainly concerned with
keeping the increase in this pressure difference as
constant as possible at a value of 0.1 to 0.2 bar/h
(in the case of kettle filters up to 0.5 bar/h). 1£ one
is working Witll mi xed gulu-s, the relation of the
guhl"s to one another can be varied . If only one
4 gulu' is being used, the only possible adjustment
is by varying the size of the dosing.
Kieselguhr usage during the entire filtration
process is normally between
80 and 120 g/h!.
Whilst the pressure difference normally increa-
ses linearly by 0.2 bar/h (Fig. 4.82), in the case of
too Iow a dosage (b) it is not possible to embed
the yeast as an additional backing layer in the kie-
selgulu- mixture. It leads to an irreversible barrier
layer which subsequently leads to considerably
increased rise in pressure (blockage). If a yeast
breaktlu'ough ill the form of a so-ca l!ed yeast sur-
ge occurs, this may result in a more or less large
blockage (c). Too high a dosage can also lead to a
flat filtration curve and to the premature exhaus-
tion of the trub space in the filter (d).
Mistakes ill tlie sterilisntioll oftlie filter
Too short sterilisation times lead to biological
problems. At least 30 min exp osure time is n e-
cessary after obtaining the required temperatu-
• Time
I d
• Time
re (d > 85 DC, or preferably 90 to 95 DC at the out-
let). Measu ring of the te mperature is of p articu-
lar importance here. The temperature probes
must be regularl y checked for their accuracy of
display.
On cooling, the pressure must be maintain ed
so that n o surrounding air and thus contami-
n ants can p ass into the beer due to the VaClll1l11
which occurs on cooling.
4.5.2.2.6 Treatment of the fore and post runs
Fore and p ost runs contain oxygen, free wa ter
and runaway beer. Fore and pos t runs are
highly susceptible to contamination, also be-
cause of their high pH value. They should the-
refore be further processed as soon as p ossible.
For this the beer sh ould, fr om the beguming, be
brewed with an ex tract of 0.2 to 0.3 % higher, so
that even after d OSUlg the fore and post ILms,
the d esired concentration is guaranteed .
Fore and post runs can be processed separa te-
ly and be at least treated usmg the HTST pasteu-
riser (28 to 30 PE is necessary). Krausening and
fermentation Ul separate tanks is preferable.
4.5.2.2.7 Kieselguhr filter plants
Kieselguhr filtration presupposes a completely
shock-free operation. Every shock effect UlUlle-
• Time
Fig. 4.82
SOll rces of lIIis takes ill COlltill ll-
0 115 dosillg
(n) 1/01'11101pressl/re iI/crease
(b) dosage too low
(c) blockage dlle to yeast break-
• Time throllgh
(d) dosage too high
diately leads to the kieselgLLhr particles beulg
torn and the beer ILllllli ng turbid. Th e plant
concept of the kieselguhr plan t is intended to
have a buffe r ta nk before an d after the filter,
whereby p ressure sh ocks can be p revented
(Fig. 4.82a, 2 + 5). Bu ffe r tan ks are only partly
filled fo r this and h ave a CO, gas buffer. A tur-
bid ity measurulg dev ice (8) sign als when the
turbidity value in creases.
It sho uld independ ently switch the plant
over to circulatory opera ti ons until the turbidi-
ty value h as returned to normal.
4.5.2.3 Sheet filters (fra m e-typ e filte rs )
By sheet filters are meant filters which, in con-
tras t to plate and fr ame filters, consis t only of
plates. Filter sh eets, whi ch perform the filtrati-
on, are hun g between the plates . Beer is sup-
plied to every second plate from above and be-
Fig. 4.82a
Kiesclgllhrfiller plal/t
(1) lageril/g ta/l k
(2) bllffer tallk
(3) dosil/g device
(4) kieselgllhrfilter
(5) bllffer tnllk
(6) pressllre tal/k for fi ltered
beer
(7) fore al/d post ntl/ tal/k
(8) tllrbidity IIleasllrillg device
(9) cirwlatioll pipe
539
low Simu ltaneously, flow s thro ugh the filter
shee t an d is led off aga in at the adjacent p late.
Conseq uen tl y there is a fil ter shee t be tween
each pl ate and the nex t (Fig. 4.82b).
These filter sh eets are therefore very impor-
ta nt. They consist of cellulose and kieselguhr.
4
It is not only the ratio of the mixture which is
important, but also the fi bre stru cture of the
wood fro m whi ch the cellulose was obtauled
plays a d ecisive role. A distulction mus t be m a-
de between the filtration sh arpn ess of a layer
and the filtrate flo w rate. BaSically, the follo-
wing applies:
With ulcreasing filtration sharpness, the vo-
lumetric flo w rate tlu-ough the filter medimn
decreases.
Depending on the purpose for which tlley are
used, there a re filter sheets fo r
------1
y y
 540
4 it cannot be automated and h as to be clean ed
Fig.4.82b
Slleet f iller
coarse filtration
clarifying filh'ation
polishing filtration and
s terile filtration (EC filtration)
In breweries sheet filters are frequently in-
stalled for the finest (polishing) filtration after
the kieselgulu- filter. In small breweries both fil-
ters - plate and fram e filter - are often found
combined in a single filter w ith a chan geover
plate between them. Fig. 4.83 sh ows how the
las t yeas t cells are trapped in the complica ted
stru cture of this high p erformance sheet, thus
ensuring a yeas t-free beer.
However, it must not be overlooked that the
sheet filter has a few substantial disad va ntages
which limit its general applica tion:
the sheets can only be back washed in the bre-
we ry,
the filter occupies a large sp ace and a con side-
rable amount of work is required,
op eratin g cos ts are relatively high (fi lter
sh eets, wa ter usage),
the filter pac kage h as to be sterilised with hot
water and then rinsed with cold water,
the air must be di splaced,
manually, and
it is lU1able to cope w ith high solids concen-
trations and la rge numbers of germs in the
beer to be filtered .
Fig. 4.83
SUlfnce of n filter slleet
(SEld pictu re: Seitz-Filter-I"lerke, Bnd Kreuzuncll)
4.5.2.4 M embrane filters
To ensure a germ-reducing and s terile filtrati-
on, membran e filters are increasingly used no-
wadays. By this are meant filters in w hi ch the
beer is p assed through very finely pored mem-
branes, whereby it is ex ten sively freed from 111 i-
cro-organi sms and turbidity-causing p articles.
The m embranes are ava ilable, amongst other
forms, as
filter m odules (module filters),
membran e candles (candle filters).
The precond ition for successful membrane,
fine or polishing filtration is always a good pre-
clarifica tion and clarifica tion of the beer.
2 3
Fig. 4.84
Structure of n filter module
(1) specinl filter slleet, (2) drniunge system, (3) module closure
Fig. 4.85
lvlodule filter willI n set offilter modules
(Photo: Seitz-Filter-Wa ke, Bnd KreJIZllncll)
4.5.2.4.1 M odule filters
Filter modul es (Fig. 4.84) are ro und rigid filter
elements up to 40 em in diameter w hich, by m e-
ans of an integral sp acer, allow flow out of a
cenh'al colLuml . Filtration is performed from the
outside to the inside. The filter sheet of the m o-
dule consists of cellulose with a kieselgulu' fil -
ling. There are filter sheets providing different
541
degrees of filt ration efficiency, and here too the
sharper the filtration the lower the flow ra te.
A module filter consis ts of a large number of
modules arranged parallel to each other an d in-
sta ll ed in a special casing (Fig . 4.85).
There are also fi lter m odules co ntaining
PVpp fo r simultaneous removal of p olyphe- 4
nols.
Fig. 4.86
Cnrt ridge (co lldle) f ilter
(Pho to: Seitz-Filter-Wake, Bnd KreuZllnc/l)
4.5.2.4.2 M embrane cartridge filters
In membran e cartridge filters, the fi ltration is
p erformed by candle-shaped ca rtridges, w hich
are mostly arranged p arallel to each other in
one casing (Fig. 4.86) .
The filter candles (Figs . 4.87 and 4.87a) usual-
ly h ave several laye rs of filter s hee ts m ad e
ma inly of polyp ropylene with a co ntinuou s
narrowing of the pore diameter fro m the outsi-
de to the in side and h ence have a la rge filtrati-
on surface p roviding a frac tionated liquid re-
tention techn ique. These can d les are therefore
known nowad ays as depth filter ca rtrid ges and
 543

par tl y sterile filtra tion,

s te rile filtra tion .
3 - -lfrtl"*fftTl Every typ e of filter can be classified in on e of
these categories.

2.. -
4 , 4
4.

Fig. 4.87
Oeptll fi lter cartrid-
ge with illcreasillg
pore detl sitytownrds
the illside
(Pall Fillra tiollstecll-
lI ik, Oreieich)
Fig. 4.88
M lilli-layer fill er
cnrtridge
(1) 011 tel' pleatillg
o
with glass fivre 1-
strellgthellillg
(2) comvilled depth
alld memvralle Fig. 4.89
fi lter Mu lti Micro-System-Filter
(3) ill ller pleatillg (A. Halldtma ll ll, Biverach)
IIlemvralle fi lter (1) kieselguhrfiltel; (2) vllffer tallk, (3) Mlliti microfiltel;

0.65 11111 (4)fillillg

4.5.2.6 Areas of filtra tion

Fig.4.87a
Filter ca lldles with
pleated memvra lles
to ill crease the fi ltra-
tioll slllfa ce
(Pall Fill ratiolls-
tecllllik, Oreieich)
are used in slllaller and m edium-sized brewe-
ries instead of sheet filters for post-filtra tion .
Instead of s tratification, folding o r plea ting of
the main filter sheets occurs in som e candles,
whereby the filter surface is further increased .
It is even p ossible to arrange severa l fold ed
(plea ted) layers of a filter candle on top of one
an o ther. The diameter of the "Jumbo" candle il-
lu strated (Fig. 4.88) is 26.5 cm.
4.5.2.5 Multi Micl'O-System-Filter
The compan y HandtmalUl/Biberach have follo-
wed a comple te ly di fferent p a th with the Multi
Micro-Sys tem-Filter. Corresponding to the flow
amount, a number of slightly conical filter bo-
dies are placed in the vertically standing filter
(Fig . 4.89) . The filter bodies (Fig. 4.89a, 5) con-
sis t of cellulose and kieselguhr and are pressed
together to form a n a pprox 5 cm thick multi-
layered m ass which consists of
a coarse inlet layer,
clarification laye rs which become finer, and
a coarse backin g layer a t the outlet for back-
washing .
The beer filtered over the kieselguhr flows
centrally fro m below (1, red) into the filter and
into each fila ment, whe re it is filtered by one fil-
ter bod y at a time and then flows off (3, yellow).
Depending on the area of u sage, filter bodies
with va riou s separation sh arpness up to sterile
filtration are offered .
Different requirem ents are m ad e regarding the
clarifica tion sharpness of the beer which is to be
bottled. Whils t only a low clarification sharp-
ness is adequa te fo r some beers and the biologi-
cal stability is produced using thermal proce-
dures, other beers are stabilised by m eans of
sterile filtra tion . It is LUlders tandable that the re
therefore calUlot be a LUliform filtration system. Fig. 4.89a
Companies which p ro duce filters therefore Filtralioll procedllre ill the Tv/lllli IIlicrofiller
(1) veer slIpply, (2) vase plate, (3) oll ifiow of filtered vw;
offer different filter m a terials in the form of
(4) fil ter ollilel, (5) filter vody, (6) stailliess steel fi lter ele-
sheets, candles or modules so that the required Illellt, (7) head plnte, (8) denerntioll
filtration e ffect can be obtained . A basic rule is
(see also Fig. 4.61):
11le sh arper the degree of filtra tion, the sm al-
ler the flo w. 4.5 .2.7 Kieselguhr-free beer filtration
These filtration materials can be classified ac- Increasing efforts are being m ade to replace the
cording to sep ara tion sharpness into the follo- filtra tion of beer using kieselguhr by o ther pro-
wing categories, whereby the companies produ- cedures . The reason lies no t o nly in the costs for
cing these materials verify the m aterials with their the guhr itself, bu t also increasingly in the cos ts
company letters or combination of munbers: fo r the disposal of the used g uhr. In p articular,
coarse filt ra tion, howe ver, the du sty guhl' w ith its cristobalite
clarifica tion filtra tion, s tructure, which is a crys talline modi fication of
fine filtration, silici um d ioxide, h as fOlUld itself in the m edical
 544
Dead-end filtration
Unfiltered beer
•
• •
°1 ...
4 ............
• •
••••••••••••••• ••••
-----------
• •• .:•
t t t t
Fillrate
Fig. 4.90
Oend-wd nlld crossJlow filtrntioll
dend-elld jiltrntioll
line of fire: inhaled as dust, calcinated kiesel-
guhr causes silicosis (see Sect. 4.9.3) and was
therefore classified as carcinogenic b y the
WHO in 1997.
To filter beer without using kieselguhl', two
lnethods are used nowadays:
filter teclmology is used and instead of kiesel-
gulu', another filter medium is used e.g. Cros-
spure (BASF, Ludwigshafen), or a specific
mixture (KHS, DorhmUld), or
the beer is filtered in crossflow tlu'ough fine-
pored membranes w hich h ave to meet strict
specifications (e.g. processes by Norit, Pall
Corp., Alia-Laval-Sartorius).
Cl'Ossflow lI1elllbmlle jiltmtioll process
With the previously mentioned filtration pro-
cesses, the beer flows tlU'ou gh a filter m edium
or filter aid and is thereby filtered (dead-end fil-
tration); in the case of crossflow membrane fil-
tration, the beer flows p as t a membrane (Fig.
4.90), through which a considerable proportion
of the beer is diffused (permea te), whilst the re-
mainder of the beer with the ha ze- formin g sub-
stances (retentate) flows on . This results in an
ever larger proportion of the haze-forming sub-
Crossflow filtration
• • Retentate
•• •
•• •
•• •••••••••
••••••••••••••••
-----------
t t t t
Permeate
stan ces being deposited on the membrane, thus
increasingly hindering filtration.
Depending on the arran gement of the mem-
branes, a distinction is made between flat and
tubular membranes.
Flat membran es are predominantly coil mo-
dules (Fig. 4.90a), so called because of their de-
sign . The unfiltered liquid is introduced (1) and
filtered through a two-dimensionally coiled
membran e made from polyether sulfone or po-
lyacrylonitrile (3), whereby a feed sp acer (2) en-
sures sp atial difference. The (filtered) permeate
is collected from both sides of the permeate spa-
cer (4) and finally discharged via a perforated
collecting pipe (6), so that at the end, the per-
meate (7) and the retentate (8) can be drained
off separately. Such coil modules are frequently
used for wa ter treatment.
Since only part of the liquid flows through
the opening of the membrane, whilst a large
part is p assed along the membrane, a large
membrane surface area is required . For this, re-
sistant ceramic modules (Fig. 4.90c) are now
used, as are spaghetti-like hollow fibres made
from polyether sulfone (PES), polyacrylate or
other polymers of 50 to 200 pm in diameter and
545
.--- 5
6
Fig. 4.90n
Coillllodllle: scilelllntic desigll
(1) uOlllldnry IIlelllurnlle
(2) feed spncer
4
(3) lIIe1llUrnlle
(4) per1llente spncer
(5) lll1filtered liqllid
(6) perfornted col/ectillg pipe
(7) per1llente
(8) reteIl tnte
1 to 3111 in leng th, hundreds of which are blUld-
led in these modules. With pore widths of 0.4 to
0.8 pm - depending on the purpose of their ap-
plication - they ensure very good filtration.
The unfiltered beer flow s along the llmer side
of the membranes and is fed back again (reten-
tate); part of the unfiltered beer runs throu gh
the membrane pores and is filtered (permea te),
but at the same time, increasll1gly blocks the p o-
res (Fig. 4.90b and 4.90d). The flu x (the flo w th-
rough amo unt), which is ll1itially very high, is
increasll1gly reduced by the dissolved and un-
dissolved par ticles of the beer. Less and less Fig.4.90b
Hnze-forlllillg sllustnllces deposited all tile Sill/nee of tile
flows tlU'ough w hils t the pressure required in-
lIIelllurnlle
creases. Before a blockage occurs and nothing (RElVl pilato, Scilellk Filterunll, Wnldstellell)
more can flow through, filtration has to be in-
terrup ted and the membranes cleaned again
lIsing appropriate methods (backflash) before moved into the used yeast tank. This method
the filtration process can restart. has the advantage that a higher concentration is
In the case of crossflow membrane filtration possible and the losses of the con cen trate are
(eMF), there are two basic procedural methods: small. The method is suited for large batches
batch method and but a larger working tank is required in this ca-
continuous method. se. Since this concentrate can be diluted with
With the batch method (Fig. 4.91), followin g degassed water, the beer losses are low and in
crossflow filtration, a partial strea m which is ll1- the case of s trong dilution, can be reduced to
creaslllgly enrich ed with yeast is fed back ll1tO virhlally zero.
the working tank, whereby an increasll1g con- In the case of the continuous method (Fig.
centration occurs. The concentrate collects in 4.91a), the increase in concentration occurs ex-
the cone of the tank and can be periodically re- clusively in the CMF plant, since no partial stre-
 547

Circulating pipe

Retentate
........ ..

Fig.4.90c 4
4 crossflow j iltm lioll II sillg Kern-
fl lI X Baldi TFF ele1l1ellis (TFF = '
lallgelliial flow jillm lioll )
(Pall SeilzSchcllk filter sysle1l1s, Fig. 4.91
Wa ldslellell) Crossflow balch process Permeate
(1) penlleale, (2) retell tale, (3) collcel/ lm- Concentrate
Ie, (4) cirCIIlatillg pipe

am can be fed b ack into the tank, bu t is imme-
diately re-circulated as retentate. An advantage
of this is that it is possible to react quickly if the
beer type is changed and the p erformance re-
mains con starlt. A disadvantage is that it is not
possible to increase the concentration to more
than 17 to 18% dry matter w ithout ad versely af-
fecting the p erformance. The beer loss is there-
fore higher than with the batch method.
Both methods are used for kieselguhr-free fil-
tration.
With the p rofession al system for kieselguhr-
Un/iltered !Jeer in/low Circulaling pipe Concentrate
free filh'ation developed by Pall Corp in co-ope-
ration with Westfalia Sep arator Food Tec, the
Re/en/a/e
lmfiltered beer from a buffer tank is initially LS
freed fr om 99.5% of yeast cells in a separa tor
and all particles which are smaller than 1 j-l1TI
are also h ereby removed . For this a so-called
hydrohermetic inflow is used, wh ereby due to Fig. 4.91a
an increase in volume at the inflow into the se- Crossflow cOll tillllOllS process
(1) pel'llleate, (2) retclllale, (3) cOllcelltm- l
parator, the speed is not increased so suddenly, Ie, (4) circll lalillg pipe, (5) circII/alillg I Circulating pump I
thus considerably redu cin g the effects of shear pll1l1p

forces. This is to ensure that all sensitive parti- p olyether sulphone. The modules are construc-
cles su ch as high molecular weight proteins and ted in su ch a way that there is a stable bonding
polyphenol complexes are re tained. During the of the hollow fibres at the top and bottom end
Waler Unfilered beer inflow into and outflow from the separator, a (Fig. 4.91c,I) . The discharge of the p ermea te oc-
! .: PaJlicIes (yeast cfils. coIkids) haze measurement is taken (normal: 10 EBC) curs through a lateral disch arge pipe.
;: 0 DissoWed SIlbsl2nces (e.g. proleins. po/jsacchaJk/es)
"
, . . and in the case of increased outflow haze, recir- Whilst a p art of the beer is pumped th rou gh
!,.i Cake Surface Pore Pore
blocking
culation occurs. The fl ow volume through the the fine p ores of the membran e (0.65 j-lm) lmder
,..,
fomlation absorplion narrowing
centrifu ge is adjusted to the fill level of the buf- overpressure with an overflow speed of 1.3 mis,
\i fer tank and thus to the flow through of the fil- the yeast cells (6 - 10 and other haze for-
trate. ming particles rem ain behind in the b eer flow
The beer filtration plant is constructed as a and are fed back into the retentate cycle using
MemlNane crossflow membran e filtr ation plant (CMF) the continuous CMF method, w hereby they in-
with modul es [273]. Each CMF block (Fig. creasingly accumulate on the membran es. Befo-
4.91b) consists of 24 modules with the appro- re the membrane becomes blocked - after about
Fig.4.90d priate control equipment. In the modules the 3 to 4 hours - the module is back-flushed, the-
Redllclioll oj per1l1eate flow by
1I1eallS oj sillface layerjol'lllati- beer flows throu gh the more than 2000 h ollow reby chan ging over to an o ther module so that a
Filtration duration
all {386] fibre membranes (Fig . 4.91c), which are made of continuous flow of beer is gu aranteed . To pre-

s<>Z
 548
vent beer losses, a part of the unfiltered beer
whkh is still in the plant can be passed via the
membrane to the filtrate side. Beer losses are ci-
ted as being 0.4 % (beer in the concentrate du-
ring continuous operation and beer on empty-
ing before cleaning).
4 An important procedural step is the cleaning
of the sensitive membranes of all impurities to
again provide a free filtration area. Using cau-
stic soda for this only achieves a good result in
the short term and the membranes soon block
up again. Better results are achieved with a
combination of an alkaline cleaning agent and
hydrogen superoxide at temperatures of 80 °C.
The membranes, which have a load capacity up
2 3
JIll
to 10 bar, nevertheless have to be replaced with
new ones after approx 4000 hours of operatillg
life due to increased blocking and ageing.
If possible, a sterile filter (e.g. membrane car-
tridge) should be fitted at the end of the combi-
nation. This results in high quality separation
efficiency even for heavy loads [354].
In the case of the beer membrane filtration
process (BMF) produced by Norit Process Tech-
nology, Enschede, NL 274, a similar method is
used; however, a preceding separation of the
lmfiltered beer is omitted. Using the eMF batch
method, the unfiltered beer is filtered through
permanently hydrophile membrane modules
made from polyether sulphone (PESU/PVP),
Fig.4.91b
Melllbmlle f iifmtioll wit" sepa-
mtol; CM F block ami sterile fil -
tmtioll, Profi Systelll, Pall ami
Westfalia Sepamtor Food Tee
(1) "ig" pellorlllallce celltrijllge,
I (2) CM F block, (3) sterilefiifer
Fig.4.91c
Hollow fibre IllOdllle
( 1) "allow fibre, w t opell (jll ller
dialll eler approx 1.S 111111)
(2 ) cross-Sect. of a "allow fibre
lIIodllle
I (3) "allow fibre lIIodllle, ellt opell
(Pall)
3 Th e unfiltered beer is con veyed from the
2 se the module in question should be switched
3 s tarts. After approx five backwashes, the pres-
Fig. 4.91d
Modllie of lIIelllbmlle fiifmlio ll process, 2'" gellemtioll (Norif,
ElIsc"ede, N L)
(1) lll1filtered beer ill, (2) lll1filtered beer ali i, (3) fillered beer
ali i
which are 1 m in length and have an llmer fibre
diameter of 1.5 mm with a pore size of max 0.5 m.
The filter surface is specified as 9.3 m 3 per mo-
dule. A filter block (BMF 120) has 12 modules
(Fig. 4.91d) and an hourly flow rate of 100 (to
120) hI/h.
Fig.4.91dd
Melllbmlle f iltmtioll plalll
211d geJIcm tioll (Norif, Ell scllede,
NL)
549
working tank (Fig. 4.91£) by mean s of an inflow
pump and then pumped through the membra-
ne fibres of the modules by a circulation pump.
In the illu stration, the many membran e fibres of
the modules are reduced to one for clarification
purposes. The filtrate is filtered through the po- 4
res of the membrane and drained off, whilst the
unfiltered which must be cooled, increa-
sing ly accumulates in the cycle; this leads to an
increase in pressure.
Membranes made from polyether sulphone
(PES) are extraordinarily resistant and durable.
If a membrane nevertheless breaks, it becomes
noticeable in the haze measurement. In this ca-
off immediately and changed.
A filtration cycle takes about two hours, then
backwashing is necessary and a new cycle
sure on the separating membrane by the increa-
sed clogging of the pores is so high that a gene-
ral cleaning is necessary (Fig. 4.91e). The flow
rate of the plant is specified at 120 h1/h (BMF
120), and beer loss at 0.2 to 0.4 %.
The second generation III e lllbrl1l1e filtratiolJ
plnl1ts (Norit Process Teclmology, Enschede) are
constructed for a considerably higher flow rate
of 220 to 250 h1/h and have 18 to 20 modLues
(skids) (Fig. 4.91dd). As a result of the new mo-
dule design (Fig. 4.91d), the mechanical mem-
 551
550

rapid reaction of the system Since the Sartocon <il fi ltration cassettes of the
150 by sea ling off the module as size 210 x 175 mm h ave a compact design and
I Backnush I _ Flow - TMP

soon as a membrane breaks, to are supplied with 0.7 m 2 filter surface (10 hI
"-..
'i:'
S 100
1 1,5 prevent haze formation in the
filtered beer, and
flow rate/day) (Fig. 4.91g1), the whole system is
integrated in a filtration block (Fig. 4.91g). The
.:.
3 e'" an op timal cleaning proce- plant is constructed for filtration flow rates bet-
0

4 ii: tl.
::E
dure to enable the regenerati- ween 100 an d 500 hl/h. To increase the flow ra- 4
'" f--
on of all pores. te of the filter, the add ition upstream of a sepa-
50
u: 0,5 The AlfaBrigh t TM Beer Fil- rator is also envisaged with this method to
tra tion method (Alfa La val remove approx 99% of the yeast and haze com-
Corporate and Sartorius Food ponents beforehand. This makes filtration ea-
0 0
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 & Beverage, Gottin gen) does sier but nevertheless entails considerable addi-
time[hr:m inJ not operate w ith hollow fibre Fig. 4.91g tional costs; if required, a sterile fil ter can also
membranes but carries out fil- Flow passage tlil'OlIgli filtmtioll block (Aifa-Laval, Glillrie) be subsequently added to the filter block (Fig.
Fig.4.91 e
Prill ciple of cleallillg pl'Ocess IIsillg BM F tration by means of specia l 4.91k).
(Noril , Ellsclierie, NL) Sartocon® filtration cassettes Future experience will generally determine
(Fig. 4.91g1), the membranes w hich processes prove to be better in practice
of which are also made of po- (batch or continuous, with or withou t a separa-
brane load is lower. Cleaning of the membranes Iyether sulph one (PES). The membranes have a tor).
is possible LIp to 80 °C. flat form but greater depth resultin g in greater
The core problems of working with hollow fi- stability (Fig. 4.91h). The flow direction of the
bre membranes are: filtrate is from top to bottom in the diagram; the
the lmiform width of the pores of 0.45 to 0.5 m, red arrow depicts the direction of flow during
to enable removal of all yeast cells and conta- cleaning (reverse feed and backflushing). The
minants, su rface of the membranes, with a pore size of
long stability of th e membranes agains t the 0.45 holds back all the yeas t cells and im-
constantly increasing pressure, purities (Fig. 4.91 i).
Fig.4.91g1
Sartocoll f iltmtioll cassette

Fig.4.91i
Yeast cells all a filter IIICJllbrnlle
(Pliotos: Sartorills, Gottillgell)

Fig.4.91f
CrossfiolU filtmtioll Fig.4.911i
cirClllatioll Sect. tlirollgli a JII eJllbmll e

n
_f

553
552

4
Filtmtioll methons IIsillg otller filter (lins
In addition to membrane filtration, there are al-
so attempts to replace kieselguhr with other re-
genera tive filtration materials, thereby m aking
use of alread y existing equipment, or develo-
ping new equipment.
Crosspllre Process, BASF, LlIdwigshl1fel1
Crosspure consists of 70% polys tyrol and 30 %
Divergan F (PVPP). As a result of the PVPP con-
4
4
Fig. 4.91k
Snrloj7ow crossj7ow filtrn lioll process-
elllire pinII I
(A lfn-Lnvnl!
1
Fig. 4.91111
KOlllelrollic filter
tent, Crosspure has a good stabilisation effect as (1) IIl1fillered beer, (2) filtrnle, (3) filler
well as good filtration properties. The Crosspu- elelllenl, (4) vnlves, cOlllrolled illdivi-
re usage for primary precoating is approx 2 dllnll!}
kg/m2, the operating consumption ranges bet- a b
ween 50 and 300 g/hl. The waste volume of
Crosspure is much higher than with kieselguhr.
2
Therefore the filter surface and the existing trub Fig. 4.910
volume both h ave to be checked and the batch KOllletrollic filtrnliol l process
adjusted, otherwise overloading of the filter can (n) seelioll , (b) detnil, (1) filter nid, (2)
filtrate, (3) sepnrntillg plnle, (4) slotted
occur, leading to mechanical damage.
sieve j700r

Fig. 4.91 1
KOlllelrollic - elllire pln lll
(1) preconlillg collinillel; (2) filter
KOMETrol1ic Process (KHS Dortll1ll17d)
The KOMETronic process produced by KHS
Dortmund breaks completely new grOlUld ill
kieselgulu'-free filtration. In this case, not only
is the kieselguhr replaced by a cellulose and
synthetic fibre based regenerative filter aid, but
the conventional kieselguhr filter is also repla-
ced by a filter with a completely different de-
sign - the Kometronic.
The Kometronic filter works on the basis of a
powder filter and therefore consists of a precoa-
ting container illld the actual filter (Fig. 4.911).
The filter consists mainly of a number of filter
elements arranged over each other (Fig. 4.91m)
which, depending on filter size, Cilll vary bet-
ween 7 illld 38. These filter elements are controJ-
led by a central pipe. The ready-made filter aid
is mixed together in a separate precoa ting con-
tainer and lmiformly illld h omogenously fed
through the central pipe onto the filter elemen ts
to a thickness of 30 mm. By means of a control
system, it is possible to targe t the filter elements
individually, in groups or all at once. This pro-
cess takes about 30 min.
During the subsequent filtration, the beer sa-
turates the filter cake which has been formed
and is drained off laterally below the slotted
sieve floor as fibreless filtrate (Figs . 4.910, a+b).
As a result of the large and h omogenous thick-
ness of the cake up to 30 mm, the filter is relati-
vely insensitive to pressure surges. At 16 hI per
m 2 of filter surface per hour, the s pecific flow

554
KOMETron;c - P KOMETron;c - ST KOMETron;c - 5
7 2 3 before or maximum storage date) is very im-
4 beer can multiply, make the beer hazy and as
Fig.4.91p
Sterilised filtrntioll IIsillg KOJlletmllic
(1) clenrfiltrntioll, (2) stnbilisntioll, (3) sterile filtrntioll
filtration stages, according to the different
rate of filtration is approx 11 times as great as
tasks. The Kometronic is fully automated and is
that of a classical sheet filter.
At the begilming of filtration, a differential controlled from a central switch room.
pressure of 0.1 to 0.2 bar is reached, which of The advantages of this process over kiesel-
course increases as filtration progresses. The fil- guhr filtration are:
ter cake remains in the filter up to a differential a reduction in the filtration costs of about 50%
pressure of about 2 bar, and then a regeneration through
with warm water (50°C) and sterilisation with the elimination of costs for the guhr and the
hot water (95 0c) takes place. If the differential introduction of a regenerative filter aid,
pressure of 2 bar cannot be reduced due to in- a reduced usage of cleaning agents, and
creased coating of the filter cake - this point is lower perso1U1el requirements as a result of
reached after about 100 filtration hours - the fil- computer controlled equipment;
ter mass is regenerated within the filter using the elimination of kieselguhr, and thus
hot caustic soda and then remixed in the adjoi- no health problems (cancer risk),
ning precoating container. The discharge of the no hazardous waste (guhr sludge);
filter cake occurs by means of rotation of the fil- compact design, thus
ter package and spray jets, which break up the only 10% of the filter surface of a sheet fil-
filter cake. This process can also be carried out ter is required,
separately for individual filter elements or for very high specific filter surface load (16
the whole package, and takes about 5 min. h1/m2h);
With the Kometronic process, it is possible computer controlled design, thus
- according to requirements - to only pre-filter lower operating and maintenance costs, su-
the beer and/or to stabilise it, or to carry out fi- pervised filtration results.
nal filtration of the beer. If all tlu-ee steps are to
be carried out with the Kometronic, it is neces- 4.6 Beer stabilisation
sary to set up the three plants next to each other A pub or restaurant brewer who can immedia-
for the three filtration stages of increasing clari- tely serve his beer as fresh and lmfiltered as
ty (Fig. 4.91p). It has already been mentioned possible in a jug need not worry about the sta-
that a separate precoating container is required bility of his beer. That is a great advantage.
for each filter. Likewise, a different composition However, if the beer must be sold a long way
of the filter aid is required for each of the three away from where it is produced, the stability of
the beer for the duration of the sell by date (bes t
portant.
Beer can become spoilt and lU1pleasant very
quickly. There are several reasons for this:
Any micro-organisms (contaminants) in the
a result of excreting metabolic products, ma-
ke it unpleasant.
In time colloids in the beer increase in size, for
various reasons, and make the beer hazy, and
• with time the beer flavour becomes spoilt.
The brilliance of the beer is, along with its fla-
vour and foam, an important evaluation factor
which every consumer can easily check without
any aid within the sell by time. A beer drinker
considers a visible haze in the beer to be a serio-
us quality defect. This can damage the image of
the beer and lead to a loss of customers. There-
fore everything must be done to ensure stabili-
ty throughout the sell by period. There are two
approaches to this, namely
making the beer microbiologically stable, and
making the beer colloidally stable.
As well as this, every effort must be made to
maintain the flavour stability for as long as pos-
sible.
4.6.1 Microbiological stabilisation of beer
At the end of wort boiling the wort is sterile.
Beer damaging micro-organisms can only get
into the beer as a result of lack of cleanliness.
They multiply in beer and produce metabolic
products which can make the beer completely
undrinkable . If care is not taken, and if scrupu-
101lSly clean working conditions are not used,
haze and flavour changes can occur extremely
rapidly - a few days after filling. In extreme ca-
ses they can occur even during lagering. There-
fore the following applies always and everyw-
here in the brewery:
The most important commandment in the bre-
wery is "meticulous cleanliness everywhere".
555
The microbiological stability of beer is shorte-
ned
by unclean operations,
by overloading the beer filtration plant,
by a large difference between attenuation li-
mit and final attenuation
(too short lagering or too green transfer), 4
as a result of air introduction into the beer,
particularly during filling,
by warm storage,
by continuous movement.
Of these factors the brewer can have most in-
fluence on cleanliness of the working operati-
ons. This must be a permanent operating prin-
ciple. Micro-organisms can get into the beer
from the workforce staff and their clothing, or
they are not removed as a result of careless
work (slacking) . Consequently a summary is
presented here of what a brewer must under-
stand by "working under clean conditions" as
far as the occurrence of biological ha zes is con-
cerned:
Maintain personal cleanliness and order and
look after personal hygiene; always wear clean
working clothes.
Wear pull-on boots when cleaning fermenta-
tion vessels and lager tanks and clean them af-
terwards; store cleaning equipment, such as
scrubbers and brushes, clean in disinfectant so-
lution and after use clean equipment again. Do
not use already used brushes; clean away me-
chanically all dirt and deposits from vessel
walls until they ca1U10t be seen. Watch out for
small holes and tears.
Remove, clean and disinfect all taps inclu-
ding sampling taps, and smear them with sili-
cone grease.
Brush and disinfect level gauges and pipes.
Follow cleaning and sterilising programmes
established for the brewery exactly.
Constantly examine cleaning and disinfecting
solutions for efficacy. Eliminate all possible
sources of contamination.
 556
If all brewery staff observe these require-
ments, a great step will have been made to-
wards improving the microbiological stability
of beer.
Undesirable beer spoilage is caused in pmti-
cular by
4 wild yeasts, such as Saccharomyces diastati-
cus or Saccharomyces pastorianus, and beer
spoilage bacteria, such as Pectil1atlls, Me-
gasphaem, Lactobacilllls brevis, Lactobacilllls fri-
gidlls, Pediococclls dall1110SII S and others (see
Sect. 7.42), which make the beer hazy and the
metabolic products of which can make the
beer lUlpleasant.
The places at which these foreign organisms
get into the beer must of course be discovered
in order to determine the sites of contamination
and to take suitable COLU1termeasures. This di-
scriminating control of the production process
and of the microbiological stability of the beer
constitutes the main task of microbiological
production control (Sect. 7.3).
Since the beer must remain in perfect conditi-
on at least lUltil its sell by date, all contaminants
which have passed into the beer must be remo-
ved or made harmless. For this the brewer has
the following possibilities at his disposal:
heat treatment by pasteurisation,
heat treatment by flash pasteurisation
(HTST),
hot filling of the beer,
cold sterile filtration and filling of the beer.
4.6.1.1 Pasteurisation
By pasteurisation is meant the killing of micro-
organisms in aqueous solution by heating. The
term goes back to Louis Pasteur who discover-
ed that it is possible to make liquids biological-
ly stable by strong heating. Acidic liquids beco-
me sterile at lower temperatures than neutral or
basic liquids (in the case of beer 10 to 20 min at
60 to 62 °C).
In further research it was found that the time
necessary to kill the micro-organisms is shorte-
ned exponentially when the temperature is in-
creased only slightly. Thus if beer is exposed to
a higher temperature, the micro-organisms
contained in it are killed in a shorter time.
4.6.1.2 Flash pasteurisation
(also referred to as high-temperature
short-time pas teurisation (HTST))
In flash pasteurisation the beer is heated by a
plate heat exchanger to at leas t 68 to 72 °C and
held at this temperature for about 50 seconds.
Then it is cooled down again.
4.6.1.2.1 Flash pasteurisation equipment
As a rule the beer is heated and cooled in plate
heat exchangers which allow rapid heat ex-
change.
In the plant (Fig. 4.92) the cold beer is wanned
up in a first section (2) of a heat exchanger,
brought to the pasteurisation temperature in a se-
cond section (3), by accurately controlled hot wa-
ter (10), and then maintained for the preset time
in a temperatme maintaining loop (4). This tem-
perature maintaining loop can take the form of a
section of the plate heat exchanger but nowadays
it is mostly a tubular temperature maintenance
device. Finally the beer is cooled down again to
filling temperature in the heat exchanger (2 + 5).
This cooling is nowadays always produced by
the cold beer fed in. By employing a large section
2, the cold beer flowing in at 0 °C can cool the out-
flowing beer to about 3 to 4 °C and supply it to fil-
ling without any problem.
The whole process lasts about 2 min and scar-
cely affects the beer quality. Because of the well-
designed exchange of heat between the beer
flows up to 96 % of the energy used can be reco-
vered again. The advantages of the process ha-
ve contributed to its successful widespread use.
It is important that the CO, saturation pressu-
re is lower than the applied pressure at all times
557
10
_ _ _::wI!!!!!7
-- 7
4
6
1
Fig. 4.92
Flnsh pnslellrisnlioll plnlll
(1) cold beer illflow, (2) wnnllillg of Ih e illflowillg nlld coolillg of Ihe ollifiowillg bw; (3) zOlle for henlillg 10
pnslellrisnlioll lell/pemillre, (4) le1llpemillre IImilllellnll ce ZOI/e, (5) coolillg lofillillg le1llpemillre ZOlle,
(6) olliflow of pnslellrised beer; (7) slen1ll illlel, (8) cOlldellsnle ollilel, (9) coolillg brille ill lei, (10) 1/01 wnler
circllil
and that the pressure at the beer inflow side is If the temperature is increased to 61 °C the re-
greater than that at the outflow side (Fig. 4.93). sult is
High pressure pumps for pressures up to 12 bar PE = time x 1.393(61 .6/JOC)
are necessary for this. = time x 1.393(1) =
= time x 1.393
4.6.1.2.2 Temperature and duration of pasteu- If the temperature is increased to 62 °C the re-
risation sult is
Much less time is needed to kill micro-organ- PE = time x 1.393(6'-60"C)
isms when the temperature is increased only = time x 1.393(')
slightly. = time x 1.940
and
This leads to a measmement wut for pasteu- for 64 °C: time x 1.393' = time x 3.76
risation, for 66 °C: time x 1.3936 = time x 7.30
the pasteurisation unit (PE). for 68 °C: time x 1.3938 = time x 14.18
One pasteurisation lUlit is a heat retention pe- for 70 °C: time x 1.393'°= time x 27.51
riod of 1 min at 60 °C and one calculates that for 72 0C: time x 1.393 ' '= time x 53.40
PE = time x 1.393 (temperature in the heater- For beer pasteurisation 14 to 15 PE are nee-
60 °C). ded. The fewer PE are used, the more the valu-
TI1e term in brackets is an exponent (to the able properties of the beer are protected but the
power of). Thus when the temperature in the nearer the beer approaches the limit at which
heate r is 60 °C, the exponent is (60 - 60) = 0 and micro-organisms can still survive.
hence the result is 1 since every number to the The number of PE necessary depends above
power 0 is always 1. all on the degree of contamination. The more
 558 559

germs the beer contains, the higher the number
of PE required (mostly 22 to 27 PE).
Fig. 4.93 sho ws the number of pasteuri sation
lmits required to kill various micro-organisms.
If 15 PE is chosen as an example of what is n e-
cessary, the temperature must be maintained at
4 64 °C = 15 PE: 3.76 = 3.98 min
66 °C = 15 PE: 7.30 = 2.06 min
68 °C = 15 PE: 14.20 = 1.07 min = 64 s
70 °C = 15 PE: 27.50 = 0.545 min = 33 s
72 °C = 15 PE: 53.40 = 0.28 min = 17 s
The exponential effect becom es very clea r
with increasing temperature.
A higher temperature means a shorter tempe-
rature mainten ance period, but the temperatu-
re must be maintained exactly.
The temperature regu lation mus t be mortito-
red very carefully and adjusted exactly to pre-
vent qualitative damage.
Flash pastemisation, only guarantees
the biological purity of the beer. According to
present knowledge, however, 50% of all foreign
organisms are introduced as secondary infecti-
ons dming beer filling, so that flash p as temisati-
on alone does not guarantee that the beer has un-
linlited biologically stability (see Sect. 5.2.2.5).
Flash pasteurisa tion therefore places heavy de-
PE unil
80
mands on the cleanliness of the bottles and the
filling teclmique. Nevertheless, flash pasteuri-
sation is nowadays the most common form of
s tabilising bottled and keg beer.
4.6.1.2.3 Effect of flash pasteurisation on beer
quality
The widespread opinion exists that higher tem-
peratures during flash pasteurisation are syn-
onymous with grea ter harm to the beer fla vour.
11us as such is not true. Comprehensive studies
[187] have shown that the temperature mainten-
ance period plays a disproportionately more im-
portant role.
The prediction of the influence of pastemisation
on beer quality caJmot be based on only one pa-
such as PE for example, but a variety of
factors must be considered.
Apart from the composition of the beer, the
most important factors include
the temperature maintenance period,
the temperature observed during this period
and
above all, the oxygen content of the beer.
The PE is a ya rdstick for the biological effect
of flash pasteurisa tion but not for any possible
product harm to the beer.
Exposure time (in minutes)
40 20 10 5 4 3 2
0.5
0.25
4.6.1.3 Hot filling of beer
One p ossible way to avoid to a large extent the
additional contamination of beer is to use hot fil-
ling of beer. However for tlus one must work
with very high pressures of 8 to 10 bar over pres-
slU'e so that the CO, is not released. An advaJltage
is that the bottles do not have to be cooled after
cleaning but the disadvaJltages are velY grea t:
beer quality is decreased as a result of the he-
at acting fo r a long time,
bottle breakage is very high because of the
lugh pressure aJld the abrasion of the filling
machine, and
the process requires a lot of energy.
The process is no longer used for beer fillin g.
4.6.1.4 Pasteurisation in a tunnel pasteuriser
To have absolute security the beer must be pa-
steurised in the already filled b ottle or can in a
tLUmel pas teuriser. Since it takes the bottle or
can about an hour to pass through the pasteuri-
ser, the latter occupies by far the largest space in
the filling department. It is also the equipment
with th e highes t inves tment cost and the
greatest energy requirement, which is about 14
to 24 MJ/hl or 70 to 120 MJ/1000 bottles.
Uruform heating of the beer in the bottles is
not very easy, as everyone knows who wishes
to warm the contents of a bottle quickly. The h e-
at exchaJlge occurs through the poorly conduc-
ting glass wall aJld first warms the outer p art of
the bottle contents whilst the imler part still re-
mains cold . The required warming of the entire
and makes it smaller. The gas cu shion is there-
by compressed aJld the pressure in the bottle
therefore increases. Only gases are compressed,
however, not liquids. The gas cusluon therefore
has aJl important p rotective flUlction.
Th e sp ace in the bottle during pasteurisation
must not be less than 4% of the volume of the 4
bottle otherwise the pressure in the bottle CaJl
ca use breakage.
Because of increase in pressure the CO, sa tu-
ration p ressure also increases aJld CO, from the
beer re-establishes the equilibrium in the head
space of the bottle.
In a tU!Ulel pasteuriser the bottles aJld cans
and their contents are hea ted to the pasteurisa-
tion tempera ture aJld then cooled again. The
cons truction and operation of the tL1IUlel pa-
steuriser are described in Sect. 5.2.6. TLUmel p a-
s teurisers are nowadays employed almost only
for pasteurisa tion of calm ed beer, malt beer,
malted drinks aJld alcohol-free beers.
4.6.1.5 Cold s terile filling of beer
Tlrnnel pasteurisation and flash p as teurisa tion
are proven methods for biological s tabilisa tion
of beer. Despite the gentle treatment of the beer
- including during flash pasteurisation - the
hea t treatment of the beer always invol ves a
risk of chaJlging the beer constituents.
There is therefore an increasing effort to re-
m ove all micro-organisms from beer by a cold
process. EC sheets and membrane and module
filters are available for su ch a filtration . It h as

10 bottle is not achieved lmtil the part remaining

cold longest, the cold core has been dealt with.
The cold core is about 1.5 cm above the bot-
been shown that by choice of suitable membra-
nes very sharp filtration can be obtained but the
flowtlu-ou gh rate is then very small aJld a very
tom of the middle of the base of the bottle. 11le large number of modules are required to achie-
pasteurisation tempera ture mus t therefore be ve a satisfactory tlu-oughput. Consequently the
checked at this point (see Fig. 5.55). process is very exp ensive. Every effort is there-
0.1.L..- L..-- -- - -- - - - -- -- -- - - -
56 58 60 62 64 G6 68 70 72 74 76 78 80
Tempera!UTe (in CC)
Du ring pasteurisation a somewhat higher fore made to operate economica lly.
M!ftrtlpll<50 • flJ'!1 tftl cca:rr.-'V:IS I pressure is produced in the bottle. Tlus occurs If it is intended to employ cold filtration, the
•
• /J....
ISnJ(I rWl ctIs'mI)
astQ;f«f'iot
•
•
Pc;1·xc..-ws diT<1O<>..A Fig. 4.93
• JWl'S W5) I Pnsteurisntioll /llI its lIecessnrlj to kill differellt because on heating the beer eXPaJlds slightly. It entire production p rocess must be adapted for
.•
lIIicro-orgmlisllls (nccordillg to Bnck) therefore rises into the sp ace filled with CO, this [109] . Tlus meaJ1S:
 560
good filterability of the beer,
close supervision of any possible source of
contamination, in particular including the
cOimections for CO" air, etc.
the filler and closer must correspond to state
of the art CIP cleaning techniques. The use of
4 steam to sterilise packages and containers be-
fore filling can improve the preconditions.
About 50% of the contaminations detected
can be traced back to infections after filtration
[108] (see Sect. 5.2.2.5).
Biological security without pasteurisation is
possible if
the filter is well-adjusted,
good biological conditions exist ill. the w1filte-
red beer and filtrate areas,
the beer has a high umer stability, and
• there is an efficient biological production con-
h'o!'
There are many possible methods for cold
sterile beer filtration . Usually three or four mo-
dule or cartridge filters with u1creasing filtrati-
on sharpness, and consequently decreasing
throughputs, are located after the kieselguhr
filtration. For larger flow volumes, of course,
correspondu1gly more filters cOimected U1 par-
allel are needed.
The sequence of filters after the kieselguhr fil-
ter is U1 general
Fig.4.94a
Cold sterile beerfiltrntiol/
(£.yall/ple 1)
(1) beerfrolll kieselglllzrfiltel; (2) iliad II Ie filter as fille filter I
(pore size 10 11IlI), (3) lIIodl/le f ilter as fille filter II (pore size 5
filii) , (4) cartridge filter as polislzizlgfilter (pore size 111111),
(5) bllffer tallk, (6) cartridge filter as sterilisil/gfilter (pore si-
ze 0.45 filii), (7) filler
fine filter with a pore size of about 5
polishing filter with a pore size of about 1
and finally
a sterilising filter with a pore size of about
0.45 pm .
Figures 4.94a and 4.94b show examples of
cold sterile beer filtration sllch as can be fOlmd
in breweries.
6 mine the expected shelf life of the beer U1 prac-
Fig.4.94b
Cold sterile beerfiltrntiol/
(£.yalllple 2)
(1) beerfrolll kieselglllzrfiltel; (2) cartridge filter as fil/e filter
(po re size 5 filii), (3) cartridge filter as polislzillg filter (pore
size 1 filii), (4) IlIodlllefilter as sterilisillgfilter (pore size 0.5
filiI), (5) bl/ffer tal/k, (6) filler
With cold sterile fillu1g almost the same effect
is obtau1ed as with flash pasteurisation. It is ho-
wever important that the filling plant also meets
all the requirements for cold sterile filling.
Because cold sterile filling avoids the flavom
damage associated with heat treatment, the
trend nowadays is towards cold sterile filling
(see Sect. 5.2.2.5).
A disadvantage with this is a frequently ob-
served poor foam stability IU1ked with an LU1fa-
vourable yeast physiology, because the yeast
proteinase A is still then present (see Sect.
4.4.4.1) .
4.6.2 Colloidal stabilisation of beer
Even when beer is pasteurised it becomes hazy
with time. This hlrbidity is caused predomi-
nantly by colloidally dissolved substances in
the beer. To prevent its formation, the way in
which it is formed must first be shldied in order
to draw conclusions about how to prevent it.
4.6.2.1 Nature of colloidal hazes
Experilllen t:
A bottle of beer is placed in ice water. After so-
me tUl1e it can be seen that the beer is slightly
hazy. The bottle is heated to 40 DC; it can then be
seen that the ha ze disappears . This experiment
is repeated a few times and it is finally observed
that the ha ze does not disappear agau1 on war-
mU1g bu t persists.
This "forcu1g test", which the beer does not
norma lly undergo, serves to defu1e the two ty-
pes of colloidal haze - chill haze and permanent
ha ze. The forcing test makes it possible to deter-
tical conditions.
Chill ha ze is defined as colloidal ha ze which
appears in beer on cooling and dissolves again
on warming. With time chill haze changes into
perm anent haze which no longer dissolves.
Chilllw z e
Because chill haze should be regarded as the
precursor of permanent haze it is of particular
interest and importance to the brewer. It does
not however occur if the beer w1dergoes quick
freezing at the end of storage.
The chill haze ill beer consists of a loose bon-
ding of high molecular weight protein degradati-
on products with highly condensed polyphenols.
In these loosely bOlmd aggregates small amOlmts
of carbohydrates and u10rganic material, particu-
larly heavy metal salts, are included. This loose
bod.ing is broken again on warmu1g [59].
To lmderstand this haze formation it must be
imagined that the dissolved colloidal particles
contained in beer, as a result of their Brownian
motion, collide and u1creasingly form hydro-
gen bonds between the particles. In the course
of time increasu1gly large aggregates come to-
gether until finally they are visible as haze.
Haze formation is increased by the following
factors:
• increased temperature,
561
oxidation of the beer,
heavy m etal ions, in particular Cu and Fe
movement of the beer,
light.
The storage temperature has without doubt
the greatest u1fluence on haze formation becau-
se an increase in temperature increases the rate 4
of the reactions. From this it can be seen that pa-
steurisation accelerates colloidal haze formati-
on.
Oxidation also has a very great effect on ha ze
formation in beer. Extensive oxidation can in-
crease the rate of appearance of haze fivefold.
Heavy metal ions greatly promote the forma-
tion of colloidal haze. Movement of the beer ac-
celerates haze formation because of the more
rapid coming together of the colloids, and light
encourages oxidation and consequently haze
formation.
Of all these factors the effect of oxygen is par-
ticular! y detrimental to colloidal stability. It is
therefore advantageous always to prevent ac-
cess of oxygen to beer.
PemUlllellt haze
Chill haze changes with time, lmder the influ-
ence of the above-mentioned factors, into per-
manent ha ze. Consequently both types of ha ze
have almost the same composition. The time
before the appearance of permanent ha ze can
vary enormously. In general it appears a few
weeks after filling . Consequently permanent
ha ze is important ill the case of beers with a
long shelf life (6 months and longer). Therefore
the measures to delay or prevent the appearan-
ce of colloidal hazes are important.
The polyphenol flavan-3-ol (32 %), in parh1er-
ship with proline (32 %), is considered to be the
main haze forming substance. A previously un-
derestimated effect of the alcohol content ill-
creases with decreasing concentration of fla-
van-3-01. Other factors are negligible [384].
 562 563

4.6.2.2 Improving the colloidal stability of 4.6.2.3 Technological measures for improving avoid contact with bare metal parts (except 4.6.2.4.1 Silica gel preparations
beer colloidal s tability stainless s teel), Silica gel preparations are important stabilising
Principle of colloidal haze formation: Some of the possibilities can to a large extent be avoid any contact with air, this includes agents which bind haze-forming polypeptides
achieved by teclmological measures. Moreover, - avoid drawing in air, but ha ve littl e effect on foam pron1Oting sub-
Chill haze Permanent the use of stabilising agents is necessary to ob- _ avoid creating turbulence by reducin g stances. They are applied in amOLUlts of 50 to
haze tain good stability. speeds of movements, 150 g/hl and are put into the dosing d evice be-
4 com plex pro- The technological measures include: _ use degassed water for fore and post runs, fore filtration . 4
tein degrada- heat
.. Use malt from low nitrogen barley with a fine _ removal of air from the filter and dosing A distinction is made between
tion products oxygen
..
complex
protein
husk: protein content less than 11 %,
use anthocyanogen-free barleys, low oxalate
equipment and flu shing with CO"
- avoid any a ir pi ckup on the way to filling
hydrogels with a moisture content of 45 to 65 %,
and
loose degradation content, and beware of the smallest amounts, xerogels (dry gels) with a < 5% water content
bonding
..
heavy metals products long and cold germination, good corn modi-
fication,
- use only compl etely pure CO" beware of in-
troducing air.
(e.g. Stabifix).
The silica gels are prepared from sulphuric
complex movement
. complex intensive final kilning, acid and sodium silicate. As a result of agg rega-
polyphenols light
.. polyphenols residual alkalinity in the brewing liquor be-
low 5 °dH,
4.6.2.4 Addition of stabilising agents
By observing the factors set out above, the for-
tion, both wide and narrow pore prepara tions
are made. The surface of very narrow pore gels
separate the husks during milling, mash in se- mation of colloidal haze can be substantially cannot be fully utilised and those with too wide
parately (Kubessa process), delayed but not prevented. Beers with a longer pores have too little adsorption capacity. Con-
From this it emerges that a colloidal haze can- no long protein rest, shelf life are therefore also stabilised. sequently silica gel preparations with a pore ra-
not be formed or can be formed only slowly if strive for a high attenuation limit, diu s between 3.0 and 3.5 pm are preferred .
either of the two components is completely or take care to obtain complete saccharification The main stabilising agents used at present are With these there is an optimum adsorption of
partially removed or the factors promoting the and iodine normality, kieselgel (silica gel) preparations and/or haze-forming polypeptides in beer.
conversion are largely excluded. not too ex tensive sparging of the spent grains polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP). An important criterion for the applicability of
(polyphenols ), Both agents can be used together. the silica gel preparation is the particle size dis-
The following possibilities exist: long and intensive wort boiling, make sure In add ition, antioxidants can be used, so long tribution. The finer the particle size distribution
there is good protein precipitation (not more as the Reinheitsgebot does not need to be re- the faster the filter can block. Large particles (>
1. Prevent the formation of large amounts of than 2 mg coagulable N/lOO ml wort), spected. 40 pm) on the other hand have little effect.
complex protein degradation products du- control break formation,
ring beer production. acidification of the casting wort (pH 5.1 to
2. Remove some of the complex protein degra- 5.2),
dation products. hop addition not too early - malt polyphenols
3. Enzymically degrade the complex protein should react,
degradation products. keep oxygen away,
4. Partially remove polyphenols during beer complete separation of hot break, optimal
production. cold break removal,
5. Remove £lavan-3-01 from beer. intensive aeration of wort for rapid conunen-
6. Enzymically degrade the £lavan-3-01. cement of fermentation,
7. Store beer cold. cold and vigorous fermentation,
8. Remove and prevent access of oxygen. • promoting 502formation dming fermentati-
9. Keep heavy metals and their salts away from on
the beer. cold lagering phase of at least 7 days at
Fig. 4.95
10. Move the beer as little as possible. ·2 to 0 °C before filtration to precipitate chill Stl'llcture of PIIPP
11 . Protect from light during storage. haze particles, omuge: ndsorbed pilei/otic substnllces
 564
Stabifix is a finely grOlmd silica xeroge l with
a water content of 5% and illl ilUler surface area
of approx 400 m2/g. The pore volume is 1 to 1.2
ml/g. The diameter of most of the pores is > 5
lUll. Stabifix consists of many small particle si-
zes with a very close particle size distribution.
4 Despite there being many small particles, very
good filterability occurs.
Silica hydrogels are produced in a similar
way to xerogels but are not dried at the end of
the process. As a result there is no development
of dust. Xerogels are used in the same way as
hydrogels, however they do have some advan-
tages. These include better stabilisation, a smal-
ler amount is necessary, they have better clari-
fying properties and a higher biological
stability, and their use is generally more econo-
mica!.
4.6.2.4.2 Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP)
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) is a compound si-
milar to proteill, which can billd polyphenols to
it. PVP is, however, water soluble and therefore
not permitted as a stabilising agent. Only when
three-dimensional cross-lillking in the form of
polyvinlypolypyrrolidone (PVPP) (Fig. 4.95)
occurs does it become insoluble and can be
used to bind polyphenols. PVPP is a powder in-
soluble in all known solvents and in water it on-
ly swells.
PVPP selectively removes all phenol-contai-
ning Substilllces. This selection depends on the
pH-sensitive formation of hydrogen bonds
which are split again ill alkalille solution with
release of the adsorbed phenolic compounds.
This is the basis of the regeneration of PVPP
which can be used repeatedly. In Germany a
maximum of 50 g PVPP/hl of beer may be used.
Nowadays PVPP is used mostly ill combilla-
tion with a silica gel preparation, but it is often
used by itself. For stabilisation
the PVPP can be added by the dosing device,
but then only once, or
PVPP-containing filter sheets Cilll be used for
stabilisation, or
PVPP stabilisation can be performed in a re-
cycling process.
The last is being used more illld more illld is
described in the following.
Beer stabilisatioll by PVPP ill a recyclillg pro-
cess
The equipment consists essentially of a coated
screen filter with a dosing vessel illld pump
(Fig. 4.96).
At the begiluling of stabilisation the sterilisa-
tion water still present is displaced from above
by CO 2 (1). The regenerated PVPP cakes stili on
the filter disc are slid off by rotating the filter as-
sembly and the PVPP is conveyed back to the
dosillg device (2). During rotation the filter is
rinsed and the residual PVPP pumped back to
the dosing device (3). The filter remains under
CO, pressure. The filter is then filled with filte-
red beer containing suspended PVPP which de-
posits on the filter discs (4). Beer stabilisation is
then performed by flow through the PVPP du-
ring continuous dosing (5). PVPP particles car-
ried off in the beer are removed in a small post
filter known as a trap filter. At the end of stabi-
lisation the residual beer is displaced by degas-
sed water (6). For regeneration the PVPP cake is
first rinsed with warm water (7). Then 1 % sodi-
um hydroxide at 85°C is pumped in for regene-
ration illside the filter (8). The hot caustic is cir-
culated. Then the caustic is displaced agaill by
hot water (9) . Finally acid is pumped in illld the
whole plilllt is sterilised cyclically.
Regeneration of PVPP with hot caustic is very
effective. Most polyphenols are already washed
out by the first caustic wash which consequent-
ly becomes deep black and is discarded. Becau-
se of its colour, the caustic concentration and
temperature it CaIUlOt be added directly to the
waste water but must first be diluted with other
waste waters in a neutralisation tank.
565
The second caustic wash is not as completely in side through the PVPP-containing filter
spent and it is used again the next time as the s heet, the polyphenols ill the beer react with the
first wash. Nowadays attempts are made to free PVPP and precipitate on the surface. The filter
the caustic from all admixtures by very fille fil- can therefore be rillsed, regenera ted and sterili-
tration and to use it again. sed up to 30 times. The t1uoughput is sa id to be
When using PVPP, 1 kg of PVPP is suspended on average 20 hl/m 2 filter surface.
in 91 of wa ter. For each m 2of filter surface about This filtration, however, does not remove po- 4
200 g of PVPP are required . In the cycle about lyphenols to the same extent throughout the
0.5 to 1 % of the PVPP is lost. process because the filtration capacity of the
Instead of addillg PVPP to the filter, in smal- module becomes exhausted. In this case blen-
ler plilllts PVPP-containing filter modules can ding and balancillg ill the pressure tilllk is ne-
also be used . On passing from the outside to the cessary.
Fig. 4.96
Beer stnbilisntioll by PVPP IIsillg n recy-
dillg process
(1)At the beginning of stabilisati-
011 the filter is filled with water.
The water is displaced from above
by CO, nlld oxygen access is there-
by prevented.
y
(2) The regenerated PVPP cakes
still 011 the filter disc are slid off by
rotntillg the filter asselllbly and the
PVPP is conveyed back to the do-
sing device by the addition of wa-
ter.
 566
4 4
(3) Dllring rotation the filter is
rin sed alld the still relllaillillg
PVpp is plllllped back to the do-
sing device. The filter rellwillS
IIlIder CO, press llre.
(4) The filter is thell filled with al-
ready filtered beer and dllrillg this
PVPP frolll the dosing device is
distribllted alld deposited all the
jilter discs. Following filling, the
beer is circlliated (= precoating).
(5) The beer is stabilised by fhe
PVPP bll t there is no actllal jiitrn-
tion . PVPP particles en/Tied off
by the beer are rell10ved ill a sl/lall
down streall1 post filter.
567
(6) Whell this process is finished
-
, y
the residllal beer is displaced by
degassed water and the filtrntion
thereby ended.
(7) Regenerntion is beg lln by rin-
sillg the PVPP cake with warll1
water at 45°C.
(8) The PVPP is regenernted with
wal'lll to hot 1 % sodhI/II hydroxi-
de. The enllstic is thereby introdll-
ced to the cycle. Beenllse of its re- " >
action with the dissolved alit
polyphenols, the enllstic tlll'l1S
black ill colollr.
 568
4 y
4.6.2.4.3 Addition of antioxidants
As is described in the following Section, beer
flavour changes after filling as a result of an in-
crease in the amount of carbonyl compounds
which is promoted in particular by oxidation.
By the addition of substances which act against
the oxidation (antioxidants), this process can be
very greatly retarded.
Sulphur dioxide hinders the oxidation to
form carbonyls and therefore greatly delays fla-
vour ageing. SO, is in fact formed by yeast du-
ring fermentation but its formation depends on
the yeast strain [144]. The amount of formed
S02is insufficient for complete stabilisation, but
it does give a certain amOlmt of protection from
ageing.
As well as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) (2 - 8
mg/hl), sodium and potassium metabisulphite
(up to 20 g/hl) are mainly used, usually in com-
bination. Their effect depends on the release of
S02' the maximum amotmt being determined
by the ED at 10 mg/l. Sugar reductones or glu-
cose oxidase (in crown corks) can also be used.
The use of ascorbic acid on its own can be detri-
mental in the case of long standing times due to
the breakdown of the ascorbic acid to dehydro-
ascorbic acid [323].
(9) For Ileutraiisiltioll 0.1 to 0.2 %
HN0 3 Ilcidified wilter Ilt 40 to
50 °C is pUlI/ped illlllld filllllly the
filter is sterilised cycliclllly.
The use of antioxidants is not permitted un-
der the German Reinheitsgebot.
4.6.2.4.4 Addition of silica sol preparations
Silica sols are colloid solutions of silicic acid
(SiO,) in water. The stab le silica sols contain tm-
crosslinked, spherical particles,S to 150 nm i.n
size, of pure amorphic silicic acid. These parti-
cles have no imler porosity and have a negative
electric charge.
Silica sol preparations are used in beer pro-
duction to improve the clarity and filterabi lity
of the beer and, to a small extent, also to increa-
se the colloid al stability. The addition of silica
sol preparations in dimensions of 50 ml sol/hi
beer (30 to 60 ml/h]) usually takes place after
the final fermentation and before the cold lage-
ring phase, but an addition to the casting wort
or before the filter is also possible.
Through the crosslinking of the silicic acid
particles with protein compOlmds in the beer, a
hydrogel is formed, which leads to hazing, floc-
culation and finally, due to decelerations of 5 to
7 ml/day, to sedimentation . Through the use of
silica sols, therefore, the clarity and filterability
of the beer can be improved. The hydrogel is
569
comp letely removed again from the beer, mea- prod uced at the mixing point, the qual ity para-
ning that its use is also in accordance wi th the meters of which can be adjusted according to
Rei.nhei tsgebot. the requirements of the brewery.
It is, however, necessary to ascertain an opti-
mal dosage by prior experimentation. This is
4
necessa ry both for the desired effect and in or-
6
der to reduce costs. 4
5 3
Stllbilisntioll IIsillg CSS
The CSS method (Combined Stabiliza tion Sy-
t
stem) by the Handtmann compa ny, Biberach, -J.--
t
basically consists of an adsorber constructed
0-'-0
I
7 8 I
from polysaccharide agarose and the disaccha- I
I· I' I
ride residues ga lac tose and 3,6-anhydrogen lac- I ' I
· I I
tose, w hich, by means of a special procedure, I'
· I I
I'
i L._(fO i
has tmdergone an intense cross-linkage with an 9
I
extremely stable, insoluble matrix with a parti- i
i
cle size of 100 to 300 pm. Proteins with a mole- i
0
cule size between 30 and 40 kDa are bound by
8 2
the adsorber, whilst foam positive proteins are
not removed. Polyphenols are removed to a les-
Fig. 4.96n
ser extent than with PVPP stabilisation, hovve- CSS beer stnbilisntioll systell/
ver it is mainly hi gh molecular weight polyphe- (1) beerfroll/ the kieselgllhrfilter
1101s, which are largely responsible for haze (2) defilled nllIOl/llt of beer to the CSS filte r
(3) stnbilised beer
formation, which are removed . The adsorption
(4) II//iforll/ly stnbilised beer
of the proteins and polyphenols is reversible; (5) defilled nlllOllllt of II//stnbilised beer
following regeneration, the adsorber is again (6) lIIixillg poillt
fully absorb ant. During regeneration, the mo- (7) COlltrolllllit
(8) flow gnllge
dules are rinsed with 12% NACI and 4%
(9) cOlltrol vnlve
NaOH. Protein is hereby removed by the NaCl
without being denaturised and NaOH then dis-
solves other absorbed material. The stabiJjsing
agent is thus fully regenerated and remains ac-
tive in the plant for many years without loss. 4.6.2.4.6 Best Filtration System BeFiS
Haze sensitive proteins are adsorbed by the (Pall GmbH SeitzSchenk)
agarose; foam active proteins remain unaffec- With this method, filtration and s tabilisation
ted so that head retention is retained [356]. occur with kieselgulu-, sili ca gel and PVPP in
Only part of the beer s tream is now passed one operation in a horizontal filter (ZHF Pri-
over the adsorber (Fig. 4.96a); the other part is mus III by Pall) with a Durafil '" precoated base.
returned to the mi xing point (6) via a bypass. Following the filtration cycle, the Durafil and
The CSS has its own pressure and flow control, PVPP are regenerated in the filter and stored in
which directly accesses the data of the kiesel- a tank The kieselguhr and stabilising agent are
guhr filter. Thus a tmiformly stabilised beer is clogged each time. The regeneration can occur
 570 571

Usu al procedural paths for beer fiitration

Station Plants, machines and vessels required

Storage ce ll ar Cy lindrocon ica l lage r vesse l

ZKT IUT
4 Prec la rifi ca ti o Separator 4
3 t
Bufferin g IBuffer tank

• rr
:::::::::;:::::: M . c0
Inlmum 3-Sm-+ 12 Mai n filtration IK iese lg uhr tilter I
t:: ! t
Stab ilisation [PVPP filter I
. . .I[]IITIllIl] t
Partic le trap

Fine filtration
,
[Trap filter

[Sheet filter
I ,
IF ine me mbrane filter I
Fig.4.96b
t t
Additioll of dOlVllstrenlll bit/erillg pmdllcts
Ster ilisation II
Short-time )1 1Co ld sterilisation
(1) ndditioll of dOlVlIstrenlll pmdllcts, (2) ndditioll of PlfPP, silicates, (3) ndditioll of nlltioxidnllt ngellts, mnsted lIlalt beer
heat ing ( HTST) membrane filter I
i i
Buffering Buffer tank
t t
consecutively, chemically with NaOH and nitric on of the dosing pump. Press ure tank farm Pressure tank I
acid or enzymically with water soluble enzyme
preparations (p-glucanase, proteinase) . A combi-
ned procedme is possible with chemical follo-
111e addition of downstream aroma products
(e.g. PHA) should likewise occur after filtration.
Fine filtration

Steri Iisatioll IShort-time heating

Wine filter I
IFine membrane filter l
ICo ld steri Iisation fi Iter
I
I
wed by enzymic conditioning. According to data, 4.6.3 Filtration plant (HTST) I
70% of the kieselgulu' and PVPP is saved. The filtration plant comprises all the equipment t
from the lager vessel to the filling stage. The Fi lling I Bottle fi lIer I
4.6.2.5 Dosing with downstream hop products high demands made today of the stable quality
It has been shown (Sect. 1.2.7.2.6) that the use of of the bottled beer require a treatment of the Fig. 4.97
COllll1101i procedllrnlllletllOds ill beerfiltrntioll
downstream products prevents the formation beer in several stages. Here, it is important that
of a light struck flavour and that as a result the all already present quality characteristics are
filling of beer in crystal clear bottles is possible. maintained and MSR technology with haze measurement, 0 , Precoat candle filter: 4.8 - 6
111e dosage of downstream products, however, any subsequent reduction in quality is ruled measurement, CO, measurement, pressure Precoat layer filter: 3.8 - 4
depends on a series of conditions being met: out. gauge, sen sors for recognition of filling level Sheet filter: 1.8 - 1.5
dosage should occur after the first filtration, In the filtration plant are etc., Steriliza lion filter: 0.8 - 1.0
the yeast cell COlmt should be lmder 2 mio ye- buffer tanks, a control of the plant and PVPP filter : 8.8 - 12
ast cells/m!, filters arranged in order of increasing filtering a pressure tank warehouse.
in the case of high gravity beers, the adjust- sharpness, The firm philosophy dictates which types of Fig. 4.97 gives an overview of the usual pro-
ment should already have been carried out, equipment to generate oxygen-free water, filter are used and how they are arranged one cedures in beer filtration. Procedures which on-
dosing should occur for approx 70% of the tanks to collect the fore run and post l'lU1, after the other. ly affect small amOlU1ts of beer, such as the fil-
circulation time, a filter aid depot/filter aid extension (kiesel- In this context, the following specific filtrati- tration of yeast beer in the crossflow procedure
great attention should be paid to the precisi- guhr kitchen), on capacity in hi per m 2 x h is calculated: (see Sect. 4.4.6.3), have been left out.
 572
4 There are many ways of filtering the beer and
Buffer failles
In order to avoid pressure impacts and to enab-
le the filtration to nm completely muformly,
buffer tanks are set up at the beginning and at
the end of the filter path. The buffer tanks are
usually positioned upright, because it is easier
to clean them, and are only equipped with
spray heads.
Attac/11l1ellt of a separator to preclarifiJ
The lugh costs for the kieselgulU' (about 450 to
500 €/t) and its disposal increasingly make sa-
vings necessary. One possibility, wluch is increa-
singly used, above all by larger breweries,
Fig.4 .97n
Sepnmtorfor prcc/nrijicnti-
all of tile beer
(Westfnlin Sepomtor AG,
Oelde)
is tlU'ough setting up a separator at the begimung
(Fig. 4.97a). A sigruficant amOlmt of the yeast cells
can already be removed by the separator and the
yeast sh'ess can be kept at a constant level.
Thus, yeast impacts in the filter, which occur
when drawing up and emptying the tanks, can
also be intercepted. The kieselguhr consumpti-
on is reduced by 20 to 50% through the setting
up of a separator and the filter standing time of
the kieselguhr filter is doubled.
In spite of the high costs of the purchase of
the separator and of its operation, the invest-
ment pays off within a short time in many bre-
""eries. The separation of the beer has no nega-
tive influence on the quality, if CO, losses and
0 , up take are avoided.
possibilities of filtering allrl stabilising the
beer
making it biologically and colloidally durable.
Basically, there is always a row of filters in or-
der "from rough to fine". With increasing fine-
ness, however, the throughput always decrea-
ses, so that with increasing fineness the filter
areas must get continuously larger.
In the main filtration, the kieselguhr filter is
dominant, but the further clarification, insofar
as it is necessary, is very differentiated.
Alongside the "normal" beers, thermally
treated with HTST, cold filtered "draft" beers
which are not thermally treated are playing an
increasing role today in many countries. The
added membrane and sterilisation filter are de-
sigr1ed for their sterilisation.
Pressure tallle warehouse (filtrate beer ware-
house)
TI1e filtered beer is stored in the pressme tank wa-
rehouse in pressm'e tanks, The pressure tanks pro-
vide the buffer before bottling.
Pressure tanks are chrome-nickel-steel tanks
without integral parts, which can take in the fil-
tered beer for one to tlU'ee days. Through room
cooling, the temperature is kept at 0 to 1 0c. For
this purpose, the pressure tanks today are often
equipped with insulation.
The cleaning takes place using the CIP proce-
dure; the highest demands are made of the
walls and the exit, as far as surface rouglmess is
concerned (electropolished surface) .
Any addition of oxygen is to be avoided at all
costs (fill the tank with degassed water, compress
and preload with pme CO" fill from below).
573
4.6.4 Flavour stability
Even if the beer is made biologically durable
and colloidally stabilised, the flavour deteriora-
tes with time: the beer ages in flavour. The
ageing process can be noticeable even after a
short time, but it can also proceed for a few
months before it becomes recogr1isable . 4
4.6.4.1 Ageing process
The ageing process begins with a
loss of palate fullness, an
increase of the bitterness, and a
change of the aroma profile of the beer.
After several days to weeks, the ageing fla-
vour begins to form wluch over the course of se-
veral months progresses through the following
flavour profiles (Fig. 4.97b):
berry-like aroma ("ribes flavour")
cardboard flavour
bread-like flavour
caramel-like, honey-like, sweetish
sherry-like flavour.
The ageing process can be above all ath'ibu-
ted to oxidation reactions . It can therefore be
delayed by reducing the effect of oxygen and by
a high content of substances wluch have a redu-
cing effect.
The main factors for ageing are in particular:
formation of ageing carbonyls,
breakdown of lipids,
Maillard reactions and
the breakdown of isohwnulones.
Carbonyls (= aldehydes) are formed by the
Strecker degradation of amino acids. Strecker
aldehydes are substances with low flavom and
aroma thresholds, the concentration of which
becomes decisively stronger with the increa-
sing ageing of the beer. Numerous ageing car-
bonyls originate primarily from Maillard pro-
ducts, particularly from the Strecker
degradation of amino acids. The aldehydes are
reduced to alcohol by the yeast:
 574 575

Maillard products, which come into being about the expected stability while the beer is
particularly in kilning and wort boiling, have a s till fresh, in order to come to conclusions for
very important influence on the formation of the teclmological measures to be taken.
the ageing flavour. The formation of the precur- With today's testing methods [154, 343], it is
sors (amino acids) and the total thermal stress possible to artificially age the beer and to gain
on the malt during kilning (see Sect. 2.5.1.3) and information within a very short time about ra-
4 on the wor t during and after wort boiling there- dical reactions in the beer. This occurs through 4
by play an important role. the determination of the lag-time and the anti-
caramel Since a significant fraction of the Maillard re- radical potential (ARP) (see Sect. 4.6.4.4) .
action products are already formed during mal- In all cases, oxygen encourages the formation
ting and can no longer be reduced later, an im- of ageing carbonyls. Oxygen is therefore the
portant aspect of the beer quality is already arch-enemy of beer! Since oxygen is the factor
determined beforehand and must be observed. triggering off the formation of ageing carbonyls
During the ageing process of the beer, an oxi- or of their precursors, it is necessary steadfastly
dative degradation of the isohumulones to al- to avoid the addition of oxygen from the begin-
kenals also occurs. The degradation is furthe- ning of the beer production up lmtil the bottled
red by light. As a result of the effect of light beer. It must, be pointed out that many
(white and green glass!) together with iso-o:- transformations also take place without oxygen.
acid, a light struck flavour (3-methyl-2-buten-l-
Time in weeks
thiol) develops which has a very low flavour 4.6.4.2 Factors encouraging flavour stability
Fig.4.97b tlu'eshold value (30 ng/l). It is therefore necessary to eliminate extensive-
Clwllges ill tile flavolIl' profile dllrillg the ageillg of beer (accol'd illg to Dalgliesh) Heavy metal ions, in particular iron and cop- ly all factors which lower flavour stability from
per ions, have a catalytic effect on the formation the begimung, and in contrast to this to promo-
of radicals. te all factors which improve flavour stability.
The ageing carbonyls do not only have a low Oxidation is furthered by:
Amino acids Aldehyde Alcohol The fatty acids are inh'oduced from the barley, flavour threshold, they also increase in quanti- fatty acids,
valine 2-methyl- 2-methyl- esterified to fats (lipids) with glycerol (see Sect. ty in the bottled beer. With the aid of a Shldy, it aldehydes from the breakdown of fat,
propanal propanol 1.1.4.3). The fatty acids are partially degraded by will be shown here to what extent these compo- oxidising enzymes, such as the lipoxygenases,
isoleucine 2-methyl- 2-methyl- the lipases during germination and mashing. So nents increase [106]: (measurements in flg/l): heavy metals,
butanal butanol far as low temperatures and a higher pH value al- active oxygen, e.g. from enzymic reactions.
leucine 3-methyl- 3-methyl- low it, the lipoxygenases already degrade the fat- Components Fresh beer Aged beer The following have an antioxidative effect:
butanal butanol ty acids in the process (see Sect. 3.2.1.6). phenolic substances,
phenylalanine 2-phenyl- 2-phenyl- Through oxidation of the fatty acids, precur- 2-methylbutanal 60 180 melanoids and other Maillard products,
ethanal ethanol sors of the ageing carbonyls appear. Unsatura- 3-methylbutanal 20 110 antioxidative enzymes, such as catalase, per-
ted fatty acids thereby react particularly active- 3-methylbutan-2-on 16 110 oxidase.
Further ageing relevant substances are for- ly and quickly while forming a peroxy radical, phenylacetaldehyde 45 250 The following factors, which can be influen-
med on the breakdown of lipids . The break- which finally causes the formation of a radical benzaldehyde 4 259 ced teclmologically, therefore promote flavour
down of long-chained fatty acids (C I6-C 1S ) can chain reaction. 2-furfural 40 3000 stability [151, 183, 381]:
occur by enzymic, autoxidative or photooxida- It is important not to forget, however, that the y-nonalactone 60 150 During lI/alting:
tive means. The breakdown occurs in different fatty acids, particularly the lmsaturated fatty use of barley types with a low protein content
intermediate stages and leads to a series of acids, have a great influence on the formation of Since weeks and possibly months go by bet- (10 .0 - 11 .0%),
ageing relevant compolmds, such as hexanal cell substance in fermentation, as main compo- ween the bottling and the consumption of the use of barley types with a tendency to a low
and nonenal. nents of the cell membranes (see Sect. 1.4.1). beer, one is interested in gaining information degree of protein modification,
 576
low degree of steeping,
oxygen reduction during germination s tar-
ting from the 3'" germination day,
keep the degree of protein modification be-
low 41 %,
low withering temperatures (30 to 45 DC) and
4 longer withering times,
low thermal stress during kilning
(4 h at 80 DC),
keep the thiobarbihlric acid number (TBA) in
the malt < 12,
a rise in the Strecker aldehydes with increa-
sing temperahne,
low DMS-P values,
correlation between aroma substances and
ageing indicators and sensory evaluation.
Ol/ril1g lIIashil1g:
conditioned milling with higher conditioning
temperahlres (up to 80 DC),
removal of the acrospire,
particularly avoid addition of oxygen during
mashing-in; tuuform mi xing,
low oxygen mashing-in and mashing with a
lugh mashing-in temperahlre (60 to 62 DC),
aim for a mash-pH of under 5.4, from mas-
lung-in onwards with biological lactic acid,
gentle transportation of the mash, avoiding
shear forces,
infinitely variable control of the stirrer, use of
frequency controlled mashing pump,
keep oxygen away wlule mashing, if necessa-
ry pump nitrogen in,
mashing out from tmderneath, low oxygen
working method,
no narrow elbows in the piping, no entrance
of air,
high content of non-oxidised polyphenols ha-
ve a positive effect,
mash storage in the lautering vessel from be-
low,
the use of phenol rich malt provides oxidati-
on protection and improves the antioxidative
potential.
Ol/ril1g tal/teril1g alld wort boilillg:
avoid any intake of oxygen,
low lixiviation of husks,
lautering haze should be below 30 EBC for
more than 60% of lautering time,
short contact times be tween spent grains in
the wort and those in the water,
input from below, avoidance of oxidative pro-
cesses,
short boiling times (max. 30 min) enable bet-
ter flavour stability,
miJumisa tion of thermal stress before and af-
ter wort boiling,
evaporation of DMS and other volatile sub-
stances,
lower the hot temperahlre time in the whirl-
pool to under 30 min.
Ol/ril1g ferlllel1tatiol1 al1d lIIall/ratioll,
optimal aeration of wort and yeast,
rapid fermentation,
optimal yeast teclulology, treatment of the
harvested yeast, cultivation process,
optimal yeast management has a positive ef-
fect on the flavour stability,
quick and extensive separation of the sedi-
men ted yeast in the CCV,
SO, values up to 10 mg/l,
low storage cellar tempera hlre and no over-
long storage times,
avoid any oxygen entrance from filtration to
bottling,
pay attention to evacuation tmder pressure
and prestressing of the pipes and tanks,
aim at a total 0 , content in the bottle/can
<0.15 mg/l.
The teclmological m easures needed to ac-
complish these factors have been explained in
the relevant Sections.
To prevent further oxidation - in cOlmtries
where the Reinheitsgebot does not apply - as-
corbic acid or other reductive means (E 102) are
added. The addition of these reductones, howe-
vel', causes an increased formation of carbonyls.
This mea ns that the addition of ascorbic acid
camlot increase the durability of the beer tmli -
mited ly.
4.6.4.3 M easures for the avoidance of oxygen
addition during filtration and bottling
Some preconsiderations and g uidances are ne-
cessary for the avoidance of oxygen addition on
the way from the lager tank exit to the bottling
stage via the filter plant and pressure tanks:
At the lager tank exit, the beer has an 0 , con-
tent of 0.00 to 0.01 mg/l.
The oxygen uptake to the bottling entrance
must be 0.01 to 0.02 mg/l at the most.
Possible sources of oxygen uptake on this
path are [152]:
the press uri sed gas for e mptying the lager
tank,
the fi lter aid suspension and the filter plant,
the fore and post runs during filtration,
• the secondary carbonisation of the beer,
the composition of the pressurised gas of the
pressure tank during filling and emptying,
the shaft sea ls of the pumps,
the pipes, hoses and fittings,
the equipment, such as pumps, plate heat ex-
changers and HTST plants and
all leakage points (wherever beer comes out,
oxygen can diffuse in).
Mea sllres to elimillate oxygell ill vessels alld
pipes
The necessary measures to avoid or reduce oxy-
gen uptake were or will be described in the re-
levant Sections. Special attention must, howe-
be paid to the necessary measures when
preloading empty vessels and pipes:
Normally, the vessel is firstly filled with wa-
ter and the water is then displaced downwards
by CO,. Since, however, the water contains rela-
tively large quantities of dissolved oxygen, this
oxygen would partly dissolve again in the CO,
577
and thus rai se the oxygen content in the tank. It
is therefore necessary to degas tlus water by
(see Sect. 1.3.5.5)
stripping-degassing (CO, washing),
thermal degassing,
using hollow fibre membranes,
vacuum degassing or 4
reduction us ing hydrogen (catalytic),
before it is pressed out of the vessel u sing
CO,. The degassing costs money, of course,
even if, as sometimes happens, the water is re-
cycled. Moreover, degassed water must be sto-
red in a CO, atmosphere.
The elimination of oxygen from pipes, fit-
tings, elbows, lUnged elbows etc. can cause con-
siderable difficulties, because air pockets can be
formed in particular places, which cause oxy-
gen addition in the beer. A typical example are
hinged elbows, wluch inevitably have to be set
up filled with air. It is possible to deaerate them
using deae ration valves.
It is more difficult with pipes which change
direction vertically several times or run hori-
zontally over long stretches. The displacement
of air bubbles by means of lugh flow velocities
is possible, but requires a considerably lugher
water consumption - even if degassed water is
used.
It is also possible to wash the air out of the pi-
pes and containers with CO,. The oxygen is the-
reby displaced relatively quickly because of the
large partial pressure difference in comparison
with the CO,. The pipe can then immediately be
preloaded again with CO,. This variation is
cheaper than the use of degassed water.
The purity of the CO, is very important. A CO,
pmity of 99.97% vol is no longer sufficient today,
because it causes too lugh an oxygen uptake
[153]. CO, contents of 99.998% have to be aimed
at in order to avoid oxygen uptake.
 578
4.6.4.4 Measures to prevent negative influen-
ces on the flavour stability after bott-
ling
Particularly after bottling, the beer is very often
subjected to negative influences concerning fla-
vour stability, over which the brewery often has
4 only a moderate influence:
higher storage temperahnes in shops cause
the flavour profile of the beer to deteriorate
after a while,
constant movement has the same effect,
exposure to light leads to the development of
a light flavour in the beer, which is very tU1-
pleasant. The light flavour is formed because,
tmder influence of light, 3-methyl-2-buten-1-
thiol is separated off from a side chain of the
iso-(X-acid of the hop via intermediate pro-
ducts.
The separating off of the side chain takes pla-
ce, induced by light, at wavelengths of 350 to
500 !Un. That is the reason why beer is, as a ru-
le, bottled in brown bottles, the colour of which
to a large extent - but not fully - protects it from
transformation (see Fig. 5.1). Green bottles do
not protect the beer sufficiently from the light
flavour; if the beer is nonetheless bottled in
green or other-coloured bottles for advertiSing
reasons, it mlls t be protected £ronl.light by suit-
able packaging.
Stm- and daylight harm the beer more than
artificial light. It is necessary, therefore, to have
influence over the distributors and traders, so
that the beer - even during daytime working -
is not allowed to be exposed to strong light - not
even during transport! But long exposure to ar-
tificiallight also harms the taste of the beer per-
manently.
Recently, there are some breweries that bottle
their beer in clear bottl es with a UV blocker for
advertising reasons. Unless one is reckoning
with a considerable loss of quality from the
start, for the production of these beers
no hops or only very small hop fractions have
been used, or
the beer has been hopped with tetrahydro-
iso-extract (see Sect. 1.2.7.2.6).
In order to predict flavour stability, the aniline
index (AI) can be determined . This provides a re-
ference point concerning the ageing of the beer
and warm storage. In the casting wort, the AI has
a value of 100 and dming fermentation it is redu-
Fig.4.97c
ESR spectroll/eter (Bl"llker Bio-
Spill COli/pOllY, Rlleillstelf ell alld
EII/illgell)
ced to values of 0 to 2. In filled beer the AI increa-
ses with the duration and temperahu'e of storage.
In the case of cold storage, the i.ncrease is very
small (3 - 5), whilst with warm storage, values of
over 70 are reached. This behaviour can be prede-
termined by means of forced ageing, mal<ing it
possible to obtai.n information about flavom sta-
bility at a very early stage.
The specification of the lag-time is increa-
singly used nowadays to provide a definite de-
termination of the oxidative stability of the
beer. Here, the antiradical (antioxidative) po-
tential (ARP) of the beer is measured by mea ns
of accelerated beer ageing at an increased tem-
perahue (60 Q q. The value d etermined is eva-
luated as a criterion for the antioxidative poten-
tial of the beer. The d e term ination of the
lag-time is carried out using electron spin reso-
nance spectroscopy (ESR spectroscopy) (Fig.
4.97c). Using a specific spin trap reagent (EAP
determination), the influence of particular pro-
cedural steps and ingredients on beer stability
can be demons trated even more accurately
(370). The theoretical fotmdations of electron
spin resonance spectroscopy are, however, very
complicated [371] and cannot be described wit-
hin the framework of this book.
The flavour stability of the beer is an impor-
tant factor for the preservation and expansion
of a brewery's clientele. It is therefore necessary
to oblige all staff to make their own contributi-
on to preserving flavom stability.
It is also important, however, that the staff in
charge of the brewery keep on checking the
quality of their beer when it is sold in retail, af-
ter it has been standing at various distribution
points. The customer is king - after all, he must
keep on buying and drinking our beer. He
forms his opinion based on the quality of the
sold beer, and acts accordingly - our opinion is
of no interest!
As a rule, fresh beer always tastes best!
579
The sell by date on the label, which is requi-
red in many cotmtries, says nothing about the
quality of the beer, especially as beers are prac-
tically limitlessly bright as a result of stabilisati-
on. Much more important - for the brewery as
well as for the consumer - is the bottling date,
since only that guarantees fresh, good-tasting 4
beer. Of course, the connection between the
bottling date and the freslmess of the beer fla-
vour must be explained to the customer, who is
unaware of it.
The flavour stability of our beer is an impor-
tant factor for the preservation and expansion
of our clientele. It is therefore necessary to ob-
serve strictly all factors which keep oxygen out,
from mashing-in up to bottling, and also to ob-
serve the other factors. It is, therefore, also very
important that all logistics staff know the fac-
tors which promote flavour deterioration of the
beer.
It is, however, also important that we oursel-
ves exactly record how quickly or slowly the
flavour in our beer is diSintegrated. If we only
ever taste our own fresh beer, we will not find
this out. Our customers, however, drink the
beer after it has already (to express it cautious-
ly) been standing arotmd here and there. It is
pointless to praise our own good beer if the cus-
tomers are only able to drink aged beer and the-
refore have a completely different opinion of
our beer (for tasting, see Sect. 7.4.1).
4.7 Carbonisation of the beer
A normally treated beer keeps its CO, content
up to the bottling stage. It can happen, howe-
ver, that the CO, content has been lowered
through trea tment under lower pressure or at a
higher tempera hue, and that it now has to be
improved before bottling.
In these cases, the lost CO, has to be replaced.
This process is known as carbonisation. For
this, a carbonisation plant is set up part-way
through the beer process.
 580
5 tion fo r a less longer las ting flavour.
r--2-------- - -- - - - --- - -- --i
4 n
1-_Cl<J_--;-.'
In many breweries, the CO, content is standar-
dised according to the requirements of keg or can-
ned and bottled beer is recmbonised. Alter-
natively, beers with different CO, contents must
be produced with different blll1ging presslU'e.
In the carbonisation plant (Fig. 4.98 and
4.98a), CO, is atomised and dissolves in the
beer, in a subsequent reaction path, which is
normally laid out in the form of long pipe el-
bows. In principle, the same applies to this as to
wort aeration:
The CO, must be atomised as finely as possi-
ble and must have the opportunity of dissol-
ving in the beer;
The linking of the CO, (solution) is at first on-
ly loose; the tight bonding with the beer takes
some time.
I Fig. 4.98
Cnruollisnlioll plnlll
(1) VeIIlllri jel
(2) Regllinior unlue for co,
(3) CI P unlue
(4) CO, sell sor
(5) Dissoluillg pnlll (slnlic mixer)
(6) CO, j10lV Illei er
Fig.4.98n
Cnruollisnlioll plnlll
(PllOlo: HnfflllnllllS GIIIUH,
Vel/lo, NL)
The carbonisation plant also contains a con-
stant pressure relief valve, which is necessa ry
because the static pressure constantly changes
with the filling of the pressure tank.
For quality reasons, one must observe the
highest purity level of the CO" since the oxygen
which has now been introduced causes great
damage.
Since there is no longer a filter set up behind
the carbonisation plant, one must observe strict
hygiene in the plant. From this point of view,
particular importance is given to the method of
introducing the CO,. The atomisation equip-
ment must be easy to clean; sinter candles and
similar tools which it is practically impossible
to keep constantly in a perfect state of hygiene
should lmder no ci rcumstances be used. Other-
wise, one could be exchanging a better carbona-
Therefore, one is interested in getting by with-
out carbonisation if possible.
4.8 Special methods for
beer production
There are several procedures which can be used
to obta in certain effects. These include in pat'ti-
cular:
mashing with a higher original gravity (high
gravity brewing),
freezing the water out of the beer (ice beer)
and
the procedure to reduce the alcohol content in
beer.
4.8.1 High gravity brewing
By high gravity brewing is meant brewing with
higher casting wort. The process was thought
up about 30 years ago in the USA to increase the
capacity of existing plants. The process is per-
nutted lmder the current legislation in Germa-
ny.
In the process a high percentage wort is pro-
duced which later, before fermentation or du-
ring filtration, is diluted with water to the desi-
red extract content. Hop preparations, dyes and
aromas can be mi xed in with tlus to obtain par-
tiCltlar types of beer.
In the case of lugh gravity brewing, there are
three possible concentrations of the casting
wort:
13.5 to 14.5 %; this is the norm,
12 to 13 %, to make a correction to the original
gravity,
• above 16 % is seldom used .
The reason for introducing the process may
be an insufficient brew house capacity, in pat'ti-
culm in the lautering system, which can be
overcome in this way. However, the cluef rea-
son is that the water wluch is to be used later in
a cold sta te for dilution does not have to be hea-
581
ted up and boiled with the wort. Th is gives a
s ubs tantial economic advantage. This can
roughly be calculated as follows:
A brewery casts 300 hi of 11 % wort. There are
thus in the kettle about 300 x 11 = 3300 kg of ex-
tract. If it is decided to cast the wort with 15 %
ex tract then for the 3300 kg of extract (300 x 11/ 4
15 = 220 hi) are required . In tlus case that is ne-
ver theless 80 hi = 26.7% less than before wluch
has to be heated and boiled.
This enormous energy saving shows that
even with a smaller increase in the extract con-
tent, for example to 13 or 14 %, visible savings
can be achieved.
The raising of the extract content in the wort
also presupposes, of course, a corresponding
raising of the extract content of the first worts,
which in general is 4 to 6% higher than the ex-
tract content of the casting wort because suffi-
cient sparging water mu st later be used to wash
wort out of the spent grains.
In the above example the first worts' extract
content will be about 19 to 20%. For this the
mashing follows the rule of thumb:
1 dt of grist + 3 hI water = 20% first worts
For pure malt mashes in general that creates no
problems. Cereal adjLU1ct is preh'eated and hy-
drolised in the cereal cooker. as soon as
a large amOlmt of adjlU1ct is mashed together
with malt there can be serious problems witl1 ge-
latinisation - especially witl1 rice wluch swells
greatly. 1£ one heats rice too quickly and neglects
to liquefy the rice paste by adding a portion of the
malt mash, it can happen that the rice burns on or
even that the stirrer remains stationary because
the viscosity of tl1e mash is mud1 too high. When
using cereal adjlll1cts one must proceed very ca-
reftdly when attempting to obtain an increase in
the ex tract content of the first worts.
In some countries the extract content is raised
simply by the addition of sugar, commercial SLl-
 582
crose syru p or s tarch syrup. Sucrose syrup is
pure fermentable sugar. Consequently it increa-
ses the attenuation limit of the beer and this
mu s t be borne in mind w hen m ashin g (e.g.
jump mash process). With starch syrups the
contents of fermentable sugars is quoted.
4 Syrups are, of course, added to the wort kett-
le onl y about 10 min before the end of boiling
when there is no more substrate breakdown.
Hjgher ex tract content worts ca n be more ea-
sily separated u sing the new generation mash
filters than with lauter h.ms. The higher ex tract
content of the first worts and the greater spent
gra in volume are also limiting factors for mo-
d ern lauter tuns.
It is important that more tim e is won for was-
hing out the spent grains in order to keep the
ex tract content of the last nuu1ings low. Reuse
of the las t nmnings is unfavourable on the
grolmds of quality and time.
Because of the high viscosity of the wort and
the correspondingly larger amount of break
and possibly spent hops, trub sedimentation in
the wl1irlpool can be worse with hjgh ex tract
worts. Basically, however, the process proceeds
in the normal maIUler.
The addition of cold water then follows either
before fermentation, after the primary fermen-
tation or only after filtration.
If the water is added b efore fermentation, the
fermentation proceeds n ormally and one need
fear no problems.
With addition after the primary fermentati-
on, using CCV fermenters and lager tanks of
the sam e size, the volume decrease caused by
the disappearance of the foam is used and the
tanks CaIl be fully utilised.
Addition of cold water after filtration requi-
res the grea test care in order to guaraIltee 11ig-
hest beer quality, as is described later.
The addition of water before fermentation is
usually performed at the plate cooler and in fact
at the SaIlle temperature as the wort. The addi-
tion mus t be made at the same rate throughout
the wort traIlSfer to obtain a uniform mixture. It
is not possible to obtain a unjform mixture by
nuuling a predetermined am ount of water into
a filled tank ins tead.
The water should be softened and must not
present any microbiological problems. It does
not have to be deaerated since the yeast will a
few minutes later h ave removed aIly oxygen
contained . One CaIl then proceed normally.
It is also possible, and frequently usual, to
ferm ent the hjgh extract wor t aIld only then di-
lute it. TI1is admittedly gives hardly any energy
gam since the hea t of fermentation must be re-
moved, but tank capacity, and therefore capital
investment, is saved .
When high ex tract wort is fermented, the fer-
mentation takes longer and more by-products
are formed, especially esters (ethyl ace tate aIld
isoamyl acetate) and higher alcohols. In p arti-
cular the higher ester content CaIl be detected in
beer diluted down again LUlless the fermentati-
on is accelerated and yeast growth improved.
TI1is is acl1ieved by:
all increased yeas t addition,
better supply of oxygen to the yeast - recom-
mended amount: 1 mg 0 , per p ercent origi-
nal wort extract,
intensive aeration of the wort by a static n1ixer
or other aeration device,
removing settled trub a few hours after the
tank is full aIld attempting, e.g. by blowing in
air, to mo ve yeast upwards from the lower re-
gion,
collecting yeast as soon as possible aIld pit-
cl1ing again after aerating. It is advantageous
to provide fresh yeas t in good time for pro-
paga tion. Moreover, it is advantageous to
employ yeasts wl1ich produce fewer fermen-
tation by-products or to use s timulating salts
for the yeast.
During fermentation of l1igh gravity wo rts,
the loss of hyd rophobic polypeptid es (i .e. ones
583
that repel water) is grea ter than with normal In general the foam suffers from the dilution,
worts. This has an influence on the fini shed the more so the grea ter the dilution. A correcti-
beer. The reason for this is the increased foa - on, also in relation to the hop bitterness can, as
ming aIld all increased activity of proteinase A alread y described, be made by the addition of
in the bee r [322]. Proteinase Ais s table at pH va- hop ex tracts or hop aroma essences. Such ad di-
lues between 4.0 and 4.5 and tempera tures be- tions are not allowed for beer produ ced in ac-
low 50 DC. In s tressful conditions - increased cordance with the Rei.tllleitsgebot. 4
osmotic pressure, alcohol con centration, tem-
perature, mechanic load - increased amounts of
proteinase A are released.
In general, with higher tempera hires and a
higher orig inal wort extrac t content m ore fer-
mentation by-products are formed. The limit
for the original wort extract content is 14.5 to
15%. Above tl1is value the by-products can be
detected in the finished beer.
Water addition after fermentation is p erfor-
med as a rule on the way from the lagering tank
to the filter or after the filter (Fig. 4.99). TI1is is
Fig. 4.99
the most complicated p ar t o f the entire process Beer redillltioll
since this water must satisfy many require- (I) slIpply of high gmvity veerfro lll the tallk
ments. The wa ter must (2) slIpply of degassed mid cold water
correspond in chemical composition (pH va- (3) coilirol of oxygell colltellt
(4) pllllip
lue, salt content) to that used for beer produc- (5) nlitolllatic throllghflow illdica tor
tion, (6) filter
be cooled to -1 DC, (7) cnrvollisatioll statioll
be sterilised by a sterilising filter, (8) lIIixillg statioll
(9) colltrol of the CO, COli tell t
be completely deaerated (vacUlUll, CO, pur- (10) additioll of lso-Extmct, colo III; arollla
ge), (11) fillislled veer 10 tile pressllre tallk
be carbonated to the CO, content of the beer,
and
be dosed in throughout the beer transfer. It
must also be dosed into the fore run and pos t
nUl. A subsequ ent correction calUlot be ma- 4.8.2 Ice beer production
de. As is well known, water freezes at 0 DC. Beer
The addition of this water requires complica- freezes at a lower temperature depending on its
ted control and m easuring equipment. The fi- extract aIld alcohol content:
nancial expendihll'e necessary for it is only ju- original wort extract 11.5 %
stified for larger breweries. alcohol content 4.6 % vol
Th e flavolU' of beer produced by hjgh gravity freezing tempera ture -2.3 DC;
breWing is, after dilution, scarcely distinguisha- original wort extrac t 15.5%
ble from normal gravity beer provided that the alcohol content 6.0% vol
original wort extract did not exceed 14.5 to 15%: free zing tem peratu re - 2.9 DC.

584
The beer does not freeze homogeneously, i.e.
with a constant composition, but water first be-
gins to freeze out. If the tempera ture is lowered
below 0 °C, water separates out in the coldest
parts as ice. With the water some components
insoluble at low temperatures, in particular po-
4 Iyph enols and polypeptides, also precipitate
whilst the concentration of alcohol and the ot-
her ex tract components increases.
Previously brewers liked to make " their
own" Ice Bock by placing a cask (if possible me-
tallic) of Bock beer in the chilled brine container
or, on a cold winter night allowed it to stand
outside. An increasingly thick ice layer formed
on the inside wall whilst the increasingly strong
Bock beer - now turbid - became more concen-
trated inside it. Because the liquid on cooling
expanded greatly, as a result of the pressure in-
crease the s toppers flew out easily and this
could ruin the result if some of the cooling bri-
n e could flow in . The lU1controlled hi gh alcohol
content and the pleasantly smooth, mild fla-
vour made such Ice Bock a "dangerous" drink.
For the production of Ice beer such a batch
process is of course completely unsuitable.
Above all one must avoid the ice which forms
being de posited at one place and with increa-
sing thickness, obstructing the process.
It is therefore necessary for this reason, and to
form large ice crystals, to move the beer il1Ces-
santl y during the cooling dow n stage. At first
ice crystals form ill the cold beer, but they beco-
me increasin gly large as a result of suitable mo-
vement and the deposition on larger ice cry-
stals. It is then possible to filter them out or
separate them iJl hydrocyclones.
The beer produced always has a higher alcohol
content than the starting beer. Then degassed wa-
ter iJnpregnated with CO, is added to adjust the
Ice beer to the desired alcohol content. The alco-
hol content of the fiJlished Ice beer is usually so-
mewhat higher than that of the starting beer and
is defuled exactly by the brewery produciJlg it.
As a result of the partial removal of polyphe-
nols and polypep tides the Ice beer produced in
this way tastes smoother and rOlU1der. The fo-
am and s tability are usually improved in com-
parison with the s tartiJlg beer.
The name Ice beer refers only to the produc-
tion method and has nothing to do with the
drinking tempera ture, as man y people think!
Fig. 4.100 shows the principle of an Ice beer
plant (Labatt/Niro). The end fermented beer is
cooled down by a beer cooler and the yeast re-
moved by a centrifuge. Then the beer is cooled
down even further by a freezer and then pum-
Fig 4.100
Ice beer prodllctioll
(LnvnIlINiro)
7 (4) denlcoholised veer
(1) frolll fenllell iniioll
(2) beer cooler
(3) celltrifllge
(4) yenst
(5) beer freezer
(6) henl exchnllger
(7) recryslnl/iser
(8) lofil/illg
l±J LtJ IJ
a b c
Fig. 4.101
OSIII05is I reverse os II 105 is
(n) eq llililnilllll stnle, (v) oSlllosis, (c) reverse oSlllosis
ped thro ugh three hea t exchan gers in which the
beer tempera ture is lowered to -4 0c. Small ice
crystals are thereby formed. In the following re-
crystalliser the beer is mech anically moved and
the very cold small ice crysta ls deposit on alrea-
dy present larger ones. They thereby mute with
the latter to reach a filterable size . A fixed
amOlU1 t of ice (percen tage) always remains in the
recrystalliser. The ice is n ow removed by filh'ati-
on or in a hydrocyclone whereas the beer enri-
ched iJl alcohol is first pumped iJlto a storage
tank before it is adjusted with carbonated water
to the previously established alcohol content.
- 4
Fig. 4.102
Prillciple of reverse oSlllOsis
(1) illflow of 1IIIIrented veer
(2) lIIelllvmlle
(3) wnler ndrlilioll
(5) dilllied nlco/101S011l 1io11
The main ad vantage of the process lies in the
usually detectable improvement in the quality
of the beer. A desired increase in alcohol con-
585
tent can also be aclu eved w ith high grav ity bre-
w ing. The teclmological expense of the ice beer
process can only be justified if an appropriately
hi gher price can be obtained for the product.
4.8.3 Processes for removing alcohol
4
There ca n be several reasons for removiJlg alco-
hol partially or completely from beer:
there is an iJlcreasing trend to a healtluer life-
sty le without alcohol,
motor vehicle drivers can enjoy alcoh ol-free
beer without haviJlg to fear adverse conse-
quences,
there a re also religious groLmds for a ban on
alcohol.
The main problem is that the alcohol makes a
con siderable contribution to the flavour of the
beer and has a flavour enhancing effect. Dealco-
holised beer will never attain the flavour of the
original beer, also because other fl avour com-
ponents are removed together with the alcohol.
It is therefore necessary to use a different for-
mula when producing alcohol-free beer as well
as making adjustments to the beer fl avour.
There are three methods of producing alco-
hol-free or alcohol reduced beer:
the removal of the alcohol by m eans of a heat
trea tment procedure or
the removal of the alcohol by means of a
membrane separation process or
the interruption or restriction of alcohol for-
mation.
All three types of process are used and have
their advantages and disadvantages which are
considered iJl detail in the following.
4.8.3.1 Membrane separation process
In membrane separation processes the beer is
passed over an extremely thin sheet of cotton
cellulose or cellulose acetate and the alcohol is
thereby removed. But different physical effects
are used for the removal of alcohol in these pro-
cesses.
586
4.8.3.1.1 Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis is the opposite of osmosis. What
osmosis is will be explained by the following
theoretical experiment. A vessel is divided in the
middle by a wall in the lower part of which there
is a hole which is sealed by a membrane. The
membrane has such fine pores that it aJlows only
pure water to pass tlu-ough. Membranes which
have such small pores that tIley do not allow sub-
stances greater than a particular molecular size to
diffuse tlu'ough them are called semipermeable
(not completely permeable).
If the vessel is half filled with water it rises to
the same height on both sides of the membrane
(Fig. 4.101). Salt is then added to the left side of
the vessel and dissolved there. The molecules of
salt have a strong tendency to dissolve in a very
large amowlt of water. Because the salt molecu-
les are too large to pass tlu'ough the membrane,
they draw water through the membrane to their
side lmtil the concentration of dissolved sub-
stances is equally great on both sides. The hydro-
static pressure of the higher colwnn of liquid
which thereby occurs, during which the process
comes to a standstill, is the osmotic pressure (=
eqlrilibrilU1l pressure) between the water mole-
Clues which enter and the molecules which, be-
cause of the hydrostatic pressure, escape again.
This process is called osmosis and is well-
known. All life processes, including those in ye-
ast, are osmotically controlled.
Now if, in contrast, pressure is applied to the
left side of the vessel, pure water is forced,
against the osmotic pressure of the solution,
tlu-ough the membrane into the right hand side
of the vessel (c). This process is known as rever-
se osmosis, the reversal of osmosis
Prillciple of alcohol redllction by reverse OSIllO-
sis
In the removal of alcohol by reverse osmosis the
beer is pumped batchwise or continuously
through a separation module (Fig. 4.102; 1).
Water and alcohol are thereby forced through
the membrane against the natural osmotic pres-
sure of the beer (2). On the other hand, all larger
molecules, such as flavour and aroma Com-
pOlmds, remain in the beer. Since water is remo-
ved, deionised and deaerated water must be
continuously added (3). Consequently the alco-
hol content is continuously reduced. Because the
high pressure caused by the plU11p also causes
heating, the equipment must be cooled so that
the beer temperature does not exceed 15 °C.
In this process the beer flow direction is tan-
gential to the membrane surface and the mem-
brane surface is washed clean by the shear for-
ces produced. Processes of this type are called
tangential filtration or crossflow filtration (see
Sect. 4.5.2.6).
r--------_
---
.5
Fig. 4.103
Reverse oSlIIosis plnllt (1I0t colltillllOIlS)
(1) pressllre tnllk, (2) high press llre P"IllP, (3) circllintioll
P"IllP, (4) filter 1II0dllle, (5) ndditioll of dinlysis filtratioll wn-
IeI'
The water / alcohol mixture which passes
through the membrane is ca lled permeate (5)
and it has an alcohol content of 1.5 to 1.8 %. The
low alcohol content does not justify any con-
centration of the alcohoL The permeate is reu-
sed for sparging.
Eqllipll1ellt for reverse osmosis
A reverse osmosis plant (Fig. 4.103) consists of a
pressure tank for beer (1) in which the beer
from w hich alcohol is to be removed is s tored.
The pressure is increased to about 40 bar by a
hi gh pressure pump (2) and, by means of a cir-
culation pump (3), the beer is mad e to flow over
the membranes with a high velocity so tha t not-
hing se ttles. A pressure relief valve guarantees
cons tant pressure.
The modu les (4) form the largest, most im-
portant and by far the most expensive part of
the Lmit. The throughflow capacities of these
membranes, mostly made of cellulose acetate,
are 50 to 80 I per m 2 per hour. The membrane
surfaces Llsed must accordingly be very large
which is reflected in the cost. A plant with 18 se-
paration modules can produce about 25 hI of
low alcohol beer per hour.
The amo unt of alcohol/water mixture (per-
meate) removed is replaced by dialysis filtrati-
on water (5) because otherwise the concentrati-
on would be increased. Circulation is continued
until the desired alcohol reduction is obtained.
A necessary associated installation is a water
deionisation plant. The water mus t also be ful-
ly deaerated to keep harmful oxygen away
from the beer. Furthermore, only carbon dioxi-
de must be used as displacement gas, including
during the storage of the d eionised, deaerated
water, otherwise oxygen would immediately
diffuse into the beer again.
Cleani.ng of the membranes is also extremely
important for the output of the module. All de-
posits must be removed from the membrane to
maintain the throughput. Cleaning processes
and materials depend on the type of membra-
ne. Improper treatment leads to changes in the
pores and consequently to destruction of the
expensive membranes.
Pel/orlllillg the reverse osmosis process [37]
Beer is introduced by the high pressure pump
and the circulation pump, in the way described
above, into the modules, of which there are
usually six in a group fastened together. The
587
first partially dealcoholised beer is led back in-
to the tank again through a reducing va lve
which reduces the pressure again from the high
pressure of 40 bar in the module. In thj s phase
no water is added yet.
During the alcohol removal there are three
phases: 4
the concentration phase,
the dialysis filtration phase, and
the redilution phase.
COl/cel/tratiol/ pTlnse
During passage through the module about 2.2 I
of permeate are produced per hi of beer. As a re-
sult the alcohol content and concentration of
the beer increase (Fig. 4.104).
L i
I Dealcoholised
j/ :
r
ConeenlIalion phase Dialysis fillralion phase Redilufjon phase
Fig. 4.104
Phases ill nlcohol removal by reverse osmosis
(1) Alcohol COli tell I
(2) COllcelltratioll phase
(3) Dinhjsis f iltralioll phase
(4) Redillltioll phnse
(5) DealcollO/ised veer
Above a certain concentration some of the
beer components, in particular the gel,
reduce the permeability of the membrane and
so the concentration is limited.
Dialysis filtration phase
During the dialysis filtration phase the amoLmt
of permeate removed from the beer is replaced
by completely deionised water until the desired
alcohol content is obtained in the concentrate.
588
Redillltioll phase
The concentrate is now rediluted with water to
the original volume of the starting beer and the-
reby the alcohol content is reduced to less than
0.5%. At the same time CO, must be added to
the beer since as a result of the reverse osmosis
and the addition of water, only a small amount
of CO, is still present in the beer.
Beer obtained in this way is relatively empty,
bready and spice-like in flavour as well as aci-
dic. There is a small loss of the bittering sub-
stances.
4.8.3.1.2 Dialysis processes
In dialysis processes the membrane is built as a
hollow fibre with a very thin wall. These hollow
fibres have a diameter of a fraction of a millime-
tre (50 to 200 pm) and have very fine pores. In a
module many thousands of these fine membra-
nes are bundled together and, apart from con-
nections, the modules are sealed at both ends.
The beer is forced uniformly through the fibres
whilst the dialysate (or water) passes through
the hollow fibres in the opposite direction. The
exchange of components occurs thmugh the fi-
ne pores in the membranes (wall thickness 10 to
25
Prillciple of tile dialysis process
During dialysis all the dissolved substances on
both sides of the membrane try to come into
equilibrium with their concentrations on the ot-
her side. This means that alcohol passes out of
the beer into the dialysate lUltil the same con-
centration is reached on both sides [113] . If alco-
hol is removed from the dialysate, alcohol dif-
fuses from the other side of the membrane until
the balance is reached. If a counter flow of dia-
lysate is used (Fig. 4.105), the alcohol is remo-
ved very quickly.
The diagram shows that the beer containing
alcohol flows in from the right. Since there is
little alcohol in the dialysate at this position, al-
2
... ---- ... ._--- --- , -
1+-"
l; - .".
Fig. 4.105
Prillciple of dialysis
(1) dil'ecfioll offlow ill file ilollow fibre of file beer fo be dealco-
ilolised,
(2) dil'ecfioll offlow of file dialysafe ill file all fer cnsillg
coho 1flows through the membrane into the dia-
lysate to reach equilibrium. The further the beer
flows to the left the less alcohol it now contains,
whilst the dialysate flowing in the other directi-
on contains even less - and on flowing in at the
left none at all- so that when the beer reaches
the left hand end, almost all the alcohol molecu-
les have passed into the dialysate which is sent
past the membrane in a counter flow.
The alcohol is thus almost completely remo-
ved from the beer but it is now in the dialysa te
and must be removed again so that the process
can continue. The alcohol in the dialysate is ca-
refully removed by continuous distillation at a
reduced pressure (vacuum distillation = lower
distillation temperature).
In comparison with reverse osmosis dialysis
requires much more expenditure of both effort
and money. In return the beer is treated more
gently beca use the separation occurs at low
temperatures and is warmed during the pro-
cess only from 1 °C to about 6°C. The system
operates with a small overpressure on the beer
side of about 0.5 bar, which is however sltffi-
cient for the exchange of materials.
Pe1fol'millg the dialysis process
A dialysis plant (Fig. 4.106) consists of the dia-
lysis membrane modules (1+2) as the heart of
the plant. These modules are usually hollow fi-
bre modules and the exchange of substances
.. .
.... .......
.. ........
. ... -
.........
Beer
Water
Fig. 4.106
Tile dialysis process
(diffusion) occurs in a coun terflow process
tIu'ough the fine pores in the membranes. The
alcohol-reduced beer is then cooled to about 1°C
in a plate heat exchanger (6) and led back to the
pressure tank.
The alcohol is removed again from the alco-
hol-emiched dialysate in a rectification column
(3) and the dialysate is then pumped back into
the module by a dialysate pump (4) with an ad-
justment of the temperature (5).
The claim that only alcohol diffuses through
the membrane is, of course, only true lmder cer-
tain conditions. In practice all volatile fermenta-
tion by-products, as well as CO" are to a large
extent removed from the beer during dialysis
[38]. During dialysis the alcohol is driven out -
and with it a considerable part of other volatile
substances, in particular esters and higher alco-
hols. Consequently these substances pass out of
the beer into the dialysate and are therefore re-
moved from the beer. The loss in the case of cer-
tain esters is up to 65%. On the other hand sub-
stances from the dialysate can also pass into the
beer. This relates to salts in the water which are
concentrated in the dialysate during rectificati-
on and then during dialysis increase their
amoW1ts in the beer (sodium, calcium, nitrate).
srtihz
589
Permeate
4
Retentate
o
This shows how important the continuous
use of the dialysate is and how complicated this
exchange process is. Similarly with the other
processes for removal of alcohol there is no ca-
se in which only alcohol is removed since other
volatile su bstances behave similarly to alcohol.
Nevertheless, at present dialysis is a common
method of alcohol removal.
4.8.3.2 Heat treatment processes / distillation
In heat treatment processes the alcohol is re-
leased from the beer by heating. At 1 bar water
has a boiling point of 100 °C and alcohol has a
boiling point of 78.3 0C. However, water does
not begin to evaporate only when it reaches 100
°C but evaporates slowly even at much lower
temperatures. Alcohol evaporates with it but at
a lower temperature than water alone so that in
this way a separation can be achieved . Evapora-
tion under atmospheric conditions, however,
spoils the taste because of the higher tempera-
ture.
As is well known, the boiling temperature, or
evaporation temperature, depends on the pres-
sure. If the pressure is reduced, in other words
a vacuum is created, the alcohol can be draw n
off at a much lower temperature. All hea t treat-
 590 591

ment processes to remove alcohol are therefore ways. The following types of evaporation in va-
performed gently in a vacuum, at an absolute cuum distillation are used: :...................?
pressure of between 0.04 and 0.2 whereby 11 10 9
evaporation temperatures of between 30 to 55 2 0

°C are obtained. A reduction in beer quality by "

12 -
the increased temperature then depends on 7
13 5
4 the evaporation temperahlre and 3
4
the delay time between heating and cooling
L_____-J
""" -;;7' 0 0

down again.
A further point that needs to be taken into
-, 8

consideration is that as well as the ethanol, a va- i

14 ,
riety of other volatile compOlUlds are transfer-
red to the distillate. Although these normally
,,/
0
lj ,'L-6'
have a higher boiling point than ethanol, they 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23
accumulate in the gaseous stage to a greater ex-
tent than the ethanol. As a result, the ethanol
concentration has a greater effect on the beha- Fig. 4.108
viour of the aroma substances. The degree of DenlcollOlisatioll plnllt Sigmntec (API Schmidl-Breltell )
accumulation within the rectification column (1) beer supply, (2) degnssel; (3) fnllillg strenm evnpornlol; (4) rectificntioll colli II II I, (5 ) pipe cOlldellsel; (6) denlcoholised beer
dischnlge, (7) nlcoilol, (8) nromn, (9) CO" (10) brewillg wnlel; (11) glycol, (12) stenm, (13) colldellsnte, (14) nil; (15) feed p"mp,
thus to a large extent determines the relations-
(16) cOlldellsnte pllmp, (17) prodllcl pllmp beel; (18) prodllct pllmp nlcollOl-free beel; (19) vncllllm p"mp, (20) prodllct pump nl-
hip of the aroma substances to ethanol. collOl-free beel; (21) flow dlsc/wge pump, (22) vncuum pump, (23) nromn pump, (24) nromn recovery
In the thermal dealcoholisation plant, a signi-
ficant loss of beer aroma substances such as llig-
her alcohols and esters can therefore be obser- use of tllin layer evaporator with mechanical-
ved. Volatile alcohols (phenyl ethanol, furfural ly created thin film or
alcohol, a.o.) usually remain w1changed, whilst use of falling stream evaporator or, more sel-
the short and medilun chained fatty acids, as dom,
well as ageing carbonyls are reduced to a lesser use of centrifugal evaporation (Fig. 4.110).
extent. The loss of aroma substances is clearly
noticeable from a sensory aspect using this me- Fallillg stream evaporator (Fig. 4.107)
thod . Empty and unbalanced beers are charac- A falling stream evaporator consists of a 4 to 5

teristic of thermal dealcoholisation methods. It
is therefore necessary to bring about a balance
in flavour by means of an additional treatment.
This occurs either through blending with 8 -
10% of an lmtreated beer, without thereby ex-
ceeding the 0.5% limit, or through the addition
of an aroma rich beer or the addition of fresh
yeast. A CO2 wash of the dealcoholised beer is
also recommended.
The heat treatment processes used all consist
of vacuum distillation plants with a heat ex-
changer wllich can be constructed in various
-
m high column (1) containing heating pipes (2)
by means of which the beer is heated lUlder va-
cuum to a maximum of 45 °C. The alcohol esca-
pes from the falling film, is separated in a sepa-
rator (3) cOlmected to the outlet of the eva-
10 10 porator and finally condensed in a condenser.
Fig. 4.107 The already partially dealcoholised beer is sub-
Fnllillg slrenm evnpornlor jected to t1lis process again in a second falling
(1) evnpornlioll COIIlIlIlI, (2) i1enlillg pipes, (3) sepamtor, (4) stream evaporator and finally gently dealcoho-
slenm ill let, (5) colldellsnle outlet, (6) beer ill let, (7) cOlldCllsn- Fig. 4.109
lised to about 0.03 % vol.
lioll of the pnrtinlly denlcollOlised beel; (8) Irnll sfer pipe, (9) High pel!ormnllce
removnl of nlcollOl-colllnillillg stenm, (10) removnl of denlco- Increasingly today, rectification columns pnckillg of Iile rectifi-
i10lised beer (Fig. 4.109) are used to remove the alcohol, in cntioll coilllllll
592
which the beer obtains a very large surface area
as a result of a lot of resis tance . Since the beer
dripping down encounters vapour coming in
the opposite direction, the alcohol can be com-
pletely evaporated and is drained off a t the top .
The high perfo rmance packing of the evapora-
tor can the refore be kept relatively small.
The widely used dealcoholisa tion plant Sig-
matec, for example, operates as follows: the
beer flows in at 0 - 1 °c from the storage cella r
(1), is hea ted to approx 40 °C in the heat ex-
ch anger, and the CO, is more or less removed in
the degasser (2). The beer is then fed into the
rectifica tion collUlm (4) a t the top. As a result of
an enormous increase of the surface area, the al-
cohol is evaporated and the dealcoholised beer
drawn off at the bottom . At the column base
(below), from 40 hI at 40 °C, we now have 43.4
hI at 46 - 48 0c. The higher tempera ture and lar-
ger amolU1t are necessary for the required ener-
gy input for the substance separa tion alcohol /
beer through vapour. The d ealcoholised beer is
now fed to a falling stream evaporator (3) or a
h eat exchanger. As a result, from the 43.4 hI of
650 kg of vapour is formed and added to
the colmID1 base of the rectifier (4). With this
m ethod, the evaporator serves only to supply
the power for the rectification collUlm and h as
nothing more to do with the dealcoholisa tion.
The dealcoholised beer with a residual concen-
tra tion of alcohol below 0.1 % vol is cooled to
about 0 °c by mean s of a heat exchanger. Of the
40 hl/h of inflowing beer, approx 40 h1/h have
become dealcoholised beer below 0.1 % vol (6).
This takes into account 260 l/h aroma water,
which is returned to the b eer through the arom a
recovery plant (24) .
The alcohol-water vapour created from the
beer flows against the liquid in the rectifier (4)
from the colunu1 base to the colunu1 head, and
in doing so, passes through an intensifying co-
lumn and reaches a concentration at the top end
of 75 % vol. From the column head, approx 1000
kg/h alcohol vapo ur passes into the condenser
and is condensed the re. 750 kg/h are returned
as a liquid phase to the column head. 250 kg/h
leave the plant at approx 10 °C.
About 250 to 270 1/h of brew ing wa ter are ad-
ded to the a roma recovery pl an t (24) to wash
out the arom a substances. This amount is then
returned to the beer, thus com pensa ting for the
quantitative loss of the alcohol.
High pel/or1l1al/ce cel/trifugal evaporator
Another useful method of removing alcohol
from beer involves passing beer in thin films
over the h ea ted surfaces of centrifuge pl ates
[42,43].
As a result of the centrifugal force the beer is
introduced in thin films be tween the plates and
the reby warmed by the sa tura ted steam sent
through the double w all of the centrifugal eva-
porator (Fig. 4.110). The alcohol consequently
evaporates and can be led off whilst the alco-
hol-reduced beer is forced outwards and can be
rem oved through a disc COlU1ection.
In this case a vacuum is also used and tempe-
ratures of 30 to 34°C are used to provide the
best possible protection to the product. Altoget-
her the process takes less than 10 s, but the pro-
cess must be repeated several times since an im-
mediate reduction of the alcohol content to
below 0.5% is n ot possible without problems.
This me thod is only rarely used .
Flavour changes of dealcoholised beers made
by membrane or evaporation processes
Alcohol-free beer n o longer tastes like the ori-
ginal beer. There are two reasons for this:
• alcohol itself contributes to the flavour im-
pression, and
• during alcohol removal, not only alcohol is re-
m oved but also many other volatile aroma
compOlmds with it. This concerns in particular
higher alcohols and
esters, some of which may be up to 80% re-
moved.
4 J
1
Fig. 4.110
CelltriJl/gnl evnporator
(Ceutri- TI'erJlI process, Alfn Lnvnl)
(1) illflow of stenlll nlld rell/ovnl of COlldCllsnfe
(2) distribl/fioll of stenll/to tile ilentnble cClltriJllge discs
(3) illfl ow of file beer/or nlcollOl rell/ovnl
(4) OIlIJlOW of tile pnrtinlly denlcollOlised beer
(5) rell/ovnl of fil e nlcoilol-colltnill illg stenll/
To obta in a certain amolU1t of flavour m a t-
ching, the alcohol content is reduced to about
0.30 % vol and m a tched by adding, up to the
permissible alcohol content of 0.5 % vol (for al-
cohol-free beer), krausen, green beer or fully
matu re beer. This results in aroma compounds
being present in the beer again which at least
partially restore the original flavour. That this is
not always achieved is shown by a taste compa-
rison of various alcohol-free beers.
Similarly when partially reducing the alcohol
content of other beers (light beers, diet beers) it
pays to reduce the alcohol content further and
then to bring the beer to the desired alcohol
content by blending with krausen, green beer
or fully m a ture beer.
593
As a res ult the blend contains
wi th filtered beer the proportionate amOlmt
of arom a substances,
w ith krausen a lively, som ewh a t yeasty, floral
note.
4.8.3.3 Suppression of alcohol formation 4
Another method for reducing the alcohol con-
tent is to allow no alcoholic fermenta tion or to
interrupt the ferm entation so early that the a l-
cohol content must remain low.
The problem is that the flav o ur does n ot
ch an ge sufficien tly in the direction of beer fl a-
vo ur and a sweet, cloying tas ting wort/beer
mi xture is produced.
In ord e r to remove or lessen tlus wort-like
character beforehand the following measures
h ave proved successful [11 2]:
the s tarting point should be a 7 to 8 % beer,
the grist should contain 8 to 15% light cara -
mel malt (see Sect. 2.9. 10),
do not boil for too short a time, to enSLU'e wor t
flavour substan ces are evapora ted; p articu -
larly important in tlus cOlmection are the vo-
latile carbonyl compounds (aldehyd es)
which contribute wort fla vour,
suitable selection of yeas t strain for the forma-
tion of by-products,
the time of dilution after boiling is impor tant,
the pH value of the beer produ ced is impor-
tant. With a 10% fermentation the pH rea-
ched is ca. 5.0 or a little less, and tlus contri-
butes to the worty taste.
Processes witll illterrupted / erlllelltatioll iHelU-
de
fermentation with special yeas ts,
the yeast cold contact process,
interruption of fermentation a t an alcohol
content of less than 0.5%,
use of immobilized yeast.
 594
Ferlllelltatioll with special yeasts
TIle simplest method is not to use the usual bre-
wing yeast but yeasts of the Saccharomycodes
ludwigii species which ferment fructose and glu-
cose but are cmable to hydrolyse and ferment mal-
tose. Consequently in this process tlle alcohol con-
4 tent in the beer always remains below 0.5%, but
the beer has a high sugar content and tastes sweet.
Yeast cold cOlltact process [53]
In this process wort at 0 to _2 °C is intimately
mixed with brewing yeast. Under these conditi-
ons the yeast produces practically no alcohol
but nevertheless develops its most important
abilities to produce the beer aroma and counte-
ract the wort flavour. This involves the uptake
of certain organic acids and hop aromas as well
as the formation of various esters. Very impor-
tant, however, is that the carbonyl compounds,
carriers of wort flavour, are reduced. The yeast
should be in contact with the wort for as long as
possible. It hereby reduces the wort carbonyls
and cleans their surface.
Alcohol-free beers based on the method of in-
terrupted fermentation are characterised by a
marked wort aroma; there is a noticeably sweet
flavour and the beers do not have a typical beer
aroma. To prevent the wort aroma, it is advan-
tageous to give the beer a stronger hop aroma.
By means of biological acidification, a beer pH
value of 4.4 to 4.5 is aimed at. As a result of an
intensive CO 2 washing of the beer, wort aroma
notes are washed out. Low temperatures
around 0 °C at the start of fermentation have
shown the smallest amOlmts of higher alcohols;
the aroma and flavour of cold fermentation are
described as more balanced.
Beers produced using the yeast cold contact
process at 0 °C have the lowest content of hig-
her alcohols and the greatest removal of Strec-
ker aldehydes. The aroma and flavour of cold
fermentations is judged to be more beer typical
and more balanced.
IlLtel'l'IIptioll offer1llelltatioll at all alcollOl COIl-
tellt of less tllall 0.5 % vo l
These beers are mostly brewed with an original
wort extract of 9 to 11 % and boiled with a redu-
ced hop addition, pitched and fermented to an
alcohol content of 0.5% (apparent attenuation
about 10%) . A generally lower final attenuation
limit can be obtained by
a jump mash process or
co-use of spent grains to provide flavour com-
ponents [72] .
In the latter case an approximately 15% mash
(1 dt malt + 4 hi water) is mashed for 60 to 80 min
at 40 °C (104 OF) and added to a spent grain mash
(1 dt spent grains + 2 hi of last rLUU1.ings) which
has been boiled for 30 min, and the total mash
brought to 72 °C (161 °F) (apparent attenuation li-
mit 60%). After 30 to 45 min saccharification it is
heated to 76 °C (169 OF) and mashed off.
Fermentation is performed at a temperature
below 8 °C (46 OF) to an alcohol content of less
than 0.5% vol and stopped by
centrifuging the yeast off,
filtering it out, or
flash pasteurisation.
Then the beer is matured for at least 10 days
at 0 to 1 °C (32-34 OF) to avoid an overpowering
sulphur flavour and then filtered, carbonated,
stabilised and sterilised.
Ferlllelltatioll with immobilised yeasts
By immobilisation of yeast is meant its attach-
ment to a carrier (see Sect. 4.4.9). Attacimlent of
the yeast cells to suitable carrier materials pro-
vides the possibility of controllable utilization
of the enzyme potential of the yeast [44], espe-
cially in the exponential and stationary phases
of fermentation, and consequently the formati-
on and removal of fermentation by-products.
The yeast is made to form a colony on the car-
rier material. This is however not possible with
every yeast strain and so the selection of suitab-
le strains is very important and this also applies
with regard to flavour formation . When the ye-
ast has coloni zed the carrier it can work there
for a long time. Yeast cells washed off are repla-
ced by newly grown cells.
In the Bavaria brewery Lieshout/NL, 800,000
hi of alcohol-free beer are produced per year by
this method [45]. Wort flows slowly, in a con-
h'ollable time of 5 to 20 h, at 1 °C (34 OF) through
a granular mass which has been colonized by
the yeas t. As a result of the low temperature
and the controllable speed of the flowthrough,
alcohol formation can be accurately monitored
and controlled.
The process is conh'olled so that although alco-
hol formation is restricted, fermentation by-pro-
ducts are formed including flavour components.
According to information from the company the
bioreactor operates for months without pro-
blems. No biomass is formed. Further advan-
tages of the method are considered to be:
• better utilization of raw materials,
no losses,
no envirOlUllental problems,
very rapid start-up phase.
Work is being done to improve the process, in
particular w ith regard to further improvement
of the beer aroma.
Use of immobilised yeast enables accurate
control of the fermentation and maturation pro-
cesses and therefore provides a good basis for
continuous improvements in the design of
plants for the production of alcohol-free beer.
There are clear sensory and analytical diffe-
rences between beers produced using the three
process groups. The starting product is decisive
in this case. Achieving a flavour equivalent to a
normal beer, however, is not possible.
595
4.9 Accident prevention in the
fermentation, maturation and
filtration areas
4.9.1 Danger of accidents due to
fermentation carbon dioxide
The greatest source of danger due to fermenta- 4
tion is without doubt the CO 2 formed during
fermentation. It has been mentioned (Sect.
4.3.1.2) that colossal amOlmts of CO 2 are formed
during fermentation. For the brewer who, par-
ticularly in conventional plants, comes con-
stantly in contact with the CO 2, it is important
that he has accurate knowledge of the proper-
ties and method of action of CO 2 :
CO 2 is odourless and without taste. It is 1.5 ti-
mes as heavy as air and therefore collects in the
bottom part of vessels and spaces. However,
when the working atmosphere is kept moving
it does not just settle at the bottom of vessels
and spaces, instead there is an increased CO 2
concentration everywhere. When the CO, con-
centration is increased, the 0 , fraction of the air,
which is necessary for respiration, is decreased
and consequently breathing difficulties can be
caused .
With a concentration of less than 1% by vol
CO2 no permanent adverse effect is detectable.
Therefore, in Germany,
the maximum workplace concentration is
0.5% vol CO2,
the short time value, the value which may be
reached, but not exceeded, 3 times per shift in
the space of 60 min, is established at 1.0 % by vol
CO 2 ,
There are variolls effects on the human body
as the concentration increases.
At 1 to 2 % by vol the blood composition
changes when doing phYSical work.
Above 2 % respiration becomes difficult,
blood flow to the brain is disturbed and the first
visual disturbances occur (rings and discs).
At even higher concentrations the pulse rate
j
 596
increases, headaches, dizziness, ringing in the
ears, etc. occur, and at concentrations above 8 to
10 % LU1consciousness and finally death occur.
The history of brewing records many acci-
dents with a fatal outcome due to CO,. The cau-
se was almost always overestimation of perso-
4 nal ability to cope with CO,. The "pattern" of
most accidents was often along the lines of
"You go off and eat now - I can make the fer-
menter or lager tank ready by myself." The oc-
currence of tiredness and the noticeable loss of
strength are attributed to the after-effects of the
previous weekend and the work is continued
until weakness forces the worker to his knees
and the higher CO, concentration at the bottom
leads to unconsciousness and finally to death.
The worker rehtrning from his meal then in
most cases found his colleague dead.
But even when the colleague survives, serio-
us permanent damage must be expected. It is
therefore necessary to take note of the follo-
wing information concerning removal of CO,
before entering containers.
Removal of CO, before ell terillg vessels
In the case of cylindroconical vessels the pro-
b lem of CO, removal is solved in that one wis-
hes to collect the fermentation carbon dioxide
and send it to the CO, recovery plant in order to
be able to use it again for internal purposes.
With open fermenters, however, the CO, over-
flows and must be led away from the lower part
of the fermentation cellar. It must be remembered
that the greatest CO, concentration there is early
on Monday mornings before work begins. In lar-
ger plants the removal of CO, must, of course, be
assisted by powerful ventilating fans .
Special guidelines exist concerning the entry
of fermentation vessels and lager tanks. These
are important because, as a result of the restric-
ted possibility of ventilating these vessels, a
high CO, concentration in them must be expec-
ted . Important points are:
CO, must be removed from the inside of the
fermenter or tank, before entry, by extraction or
flushing out to such an extent that a value of
0.5% vol CO" and temporarily 1.0% vol CO" is
reached.
A permit has to be available on which the
safety measures to be observed must be stipula-
ted.
The person entering the vessel must be pre-
viously and regularly instructed about the dan-
gers occurring.
A safety station should exist which is in con-
tact with the person entering the vessel.
A supervisor must be named who is respon-
sible for the observance of the safety precauti-
ons.
Measllrelllellt obligatioll
In Germany there is an obligation to make mea-
surements in the case of open fermenters and
lager tartks because "it is not certain that a dan-
gerous substance will not be present in the
workplace atmosphere".
Previously this measurement was performed
by lowering a burning candle to the bottom of
the vessel. If the candle went out there was still
CO, in the vessel. However a candle does not go
out until there is a concentration of 8 to 10%
CO" in other words in a region in which there is
a very acute danger, and this method is therefo-
re useless for making a measurement.
Nowadays a gas detector is used to make spot
checks or, better, for continuous measurement.
4.9.2 Work in pressure vessels
Basically it is laid down that all vessels in which
an excess pressure greater than 0.1 bar can oc-
cur above the liquid level must be regarded as
pressure vessels and the provisions of the rele-
vant regulation apply.
Such vessels include conventional lager tanks
and cylindroconical fermentation and lagering
vessels. Because of their great height and the
amounts of beer or wort contained, special re-
qui re ments must be sati sfi ed in particular with
CCVs.
MalllIoles
For risk-free entry, every CCV must have a bot-
tom and a top manhole with an opening cross-
section of at least 450 mm. The bottom opening,
whi ch is located in the bottom section of the
outlet cone, must be d esigned in such a way
that the outlet does not fall down when all the
screws have been undone.
The top opening must be made in the dome
plate. When entering from above - especially
for inspection of the state of the walls - the per-
son entering must be secured by a body be lt
and rope. Rope ladders or portable ladders
must not be used. For entry there are special
personal entry devices, and
vessel entry devices which enable work on
tlle walls.
In every case thorough ventilation of the tank
must be performed before entry. The "Guideli-
nes for working in containers and restricted
spaces" must also be observed.
Safety devices for excess of pressure
An excess of pressure is possible at any time in
a CCv. Overpressure can occur already if the
tank is accidentally overfilled. The Max sensor
can cOLU1teract this by switching off the pump
once the fill level has been reached, thus pre-
venting overfilling. A possible overpressure,
however, catmot be discounted even when fil-
ling at counter pressure or empty pressure.
For safety reasons, all tanks have a spring or
mass loaded overpressure valve (see Sect.
4.4.2.1.2.1).
Safety devices for reduced pressures
The necessity for and the method of operation
of vacuum valves is discussed in Sect.
4.4.2.1.2.2.
597
Cleallillg alldlleatillg oftTle safety devices all a
CCV
The safety devices on tanks can become fLU1CtiO-
nally inoperative as a result of sticking. Free-
zing, especially in the case of outdoor installati-
ons, can endanger the reliability of the entire
va lve fitting on the dome. Therefore it is neces- 4
sary
to include the safety devices in the CIP circuit,
to heat the safety devices when necessary.
Accessibility of tlIe dome plate
It must be possible to reach the fittings attached
to the dome plate easily and without datlger at
any time. For this purpose a service platform is
located above every CCv, level with the dome
p late, independently of whether the tat1l<s are
outdoors or housed indoors.
For yet another reason the CCVs are pressure
vessels in the sense of the pressure vessel regu-
lations. Ammonia is sprayed into the cooling
mantle at a high pressure which is much
greater thatl the pressure inside the tank itself.
Cracks, defective welds, etc. lead to the escape
of ammonia from the system. This Catl cause
very great damage . For this reason the use of
very large amOLmts of ammonia is subject to
strict statutory control.
4.9.3 Working with kieselguhr
Filtration without kieselguhr can no longer be
considered. But when working with kieselguhr
a silicaceous dust is produced which is datlge-
rous to health according to the datlgerous sub-
stances register.
The datlger results from the high proportion
of crystalline SiO, (cristobalite) in the kiesel-
guhr, which occurs together with the amor-
phous form, atld which further increases du-
ring the preparation in the rotary kiln.
Cristobalite is a crystalline modification of SiO,.
During operations with kieselgulu' this silica-
ceous dust is taken in by respiration . A large
 598
part of the dust breathed in is transported out
of the lungs again.
Some of the fine dust, however, settles in the
llmgs. The scavenging cells (macrophages) pre-
sent there are able to take up foreign bodies and
make them harmless.
4 With the inhaled dust these cells are ruined,
however, with the result that with time calluses
and deformations are caused in the respiratory
tract and lungs. The end result is silicosis and
silico-tuberculosis.
For this reason strict regulations have been
made for the handling of quartz and quartz-
containing dust, to which kieselguJu belongs.
The following are recommended as protecti-
ve measures against kieselgulU' dust formation:
Suction cleaning of the plant and filtration of
the dust (fine filter made from paper or other
membranes),
dust extraction from the dosing device by
means of a water jet vacuum pump,
dust-free emptying of kieselguhr sacks by
means of a sack emptying machine,
dust-free removal of the empty sacks by a
screw compressor,
use of a breathing mask (filter device with a
P2 particle filter), origi n of great beers. ™
delivery of the kieselguhr in a silo wagon and
storage in silos.
Workers who are exposed to the effects of si-
licaceous dust must be regularly examined by a
doctor qualified to make such an examination.
4.9.4 General advice regarding accident
prevention
Prevention of accidents is a general matter of con-
cern for plant operators as it is for the workers in
the plant. Observing U1e accident prevention re-
gulations of the professional trade associations
(BG = Berufsgenossenschaft) should therefore be
a matter of course for all employees.
For the German brewing industry the BG
Nahrungsmittel lmd Gaststatten (BGN) is the
body responsible. They provide safety at work
information (ASI regulations) in the form of in-
formation and training material.
These draw particular attention to:
AS/9.11/96 "Health and safety in breweries",
AS/8 .01/02 "CO, in the fermentation indu-
stry".
The enjoyment of beer depends on small but important details : well thought-out recipes, subtle
differences in the brewing process and sophisticated plant engineering.
With all these factors in mind, GEA Brewery Systems develops optimal technological solutions.
Together with our customers we create pioneering innovations. Therefore, open communication and
cooperation are the true origin of great beers.
For more information please visit our website at www.gea-brewery.com.
If you have detailed questions, send an e-mail tosales@gea-brewery.com.
GEA Brewery Systems GmbH
Huppmann Tuchenhagen
Heinrich-Huppmann-Str. 1, 97318 Kitzingen, Germany Am Indu5triepark 2- 10, 21514 Buchen, Germany
Tel +49 9321 303-0, Fax +49 9321 303-603 Tel +49 4155 49-0, Fax +49 4155 49-2770
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 609

5 I Filling the beer

Beer is filled are very heavy (the packaging - with the crate-
mainly into glass bottles, weighs as much as the contents) and
• sometimes into cans and are breakable - the glass splinters have very
5
sometimes into kegs, party kegs and smaller sharp edges and there is a great risk of injury.
.. I _"
containers. Removal of the glass splinters can sometimes
I II " Beer is increasingly being filled into plastic cause problems.
I·,J ••,. I
'. I
I•
bottles .
, f '7:.' .[.1. - During filling all quality parameters must be 5.1.1.2 Glass bottle production
- • f
retained and every access of air (oxygen) to the Glass is melted in glass plants, mainly from
beer h as to be prevented. 72% quartz sand (SiO,), 13% Na,O, 10% CaO,
For the filling process, comprehensive machi- 2% MgO, 1.5% Al,0 3 and coloured additives
nery, packing and transport systems are requi- from metal oxides (Fe,O" Cr,0 3)'
red from supply to despatch. By means of a The glowing blanks are blown into bottle sha-
comprehensive inspection system care has to be pes in high performance plants. The mould gi-
taken that only those bottles or containers ves the bottle its exterior shape including the
which fulfil the required norms find their way mouth, whilst the uniform formation of the in-
into the retail outlets (Fig. 5.0). terior including the uniform strength of the
walls is the work of the machine, which has to
5.1 Filling in returnable glass bottles be inspected after the bottle has slowly cooled.
The largest proportion of the beer in Germany
is filled into returnable glass bottles and a smal- 5.1.1.3 Bottle shape
ler proportion into non-returnable bottles. Pla- There is an incredibly large munber of bottle
stic bottles made of PET, PEN or other material shapes. In Germany, as in other European COLm-
are increasingly gaining the interest of brewe- tries, only 0.51 Euro bottles were used for deca-
ries. des .
In the case of the Euro form, the cylindrical
5.1.1 Returnable glass bottles part of the bottle wall was initially designed
with a uniform cylindrical shape (Euroform 1);
5.1.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of glass the result of this was scratching and damage to
bottles the labels which rubbed directly against each
Glass is in many ways an ideal packaging mate- other. To prevent scratching, small thickenings
rial for beverages. It is or so-called rubbing rings were designed into
VLB Berlin neutral in taste, the top and bottom end of the cylindrical part of
impermeable to gas, the bottle form (Euro form 2). This prevents da-
Centra l Laboratory heat resistant and mage to the labels .
cam10t be deformed . Since 1990 0.5 1 NRW bottles (named after
Nega tive points in contrast are that bottles North Rhine Westfalia, the first state where
www.vl b-berli n.org/l abor made of glass they were introduced) with a predetermined
[;:] harms@vl b-berlin.org

I
 610 611

U1asS of 380 g + 20 g ill1d two rubbing rings ha- Basically brown coloured bottles offer the
ve been increasingly introduced in Germany. best - but not complete - protection from the
TI1e long neck bottle in particular has also now formation of light struck flavour (Fig. 5.1). Bott-
established itself. Nowadays there is an increa- led beer should therefore, as a basic principle,
sing number of bottle shapes ill1d closures for be stored lmder dark conditions. If green or co-
glass bottles, which hinder the sorting on re- lourless bottles are used for advertising rea-
turn in many breweries. In some areas the sons, complete light protection is necessary
swing top is again spreading. which has to be maintained until final con-
5 5
sumption. The light struck flavour Cill1 occur in
5.1.1.4 Bottle colour an extremely short period of time ill1d conside-
The flavour of beer is in particular damaged by rably damages the quality (see Sect. 4.6 .4.4) .
light w ith a wavelength between 350 ill1d 500 The formation of the light struck flavour can
nm, since through the splitting of a side chain of be prevented by the use of Tetra-hydro-iso-ex-
iso-a-acids of the hops, a horrible smelling mer- tract hops (see Sect. 1.2.7.2.6) thus enabling fil-
captan compound splits off and, even when ling of the beer in clear (white) bottles.
<lJ
-<= C
greatly diluted, ill1 unpleasill1t light struck fla- In recent times, some breweries have used
V) o
cu <lJ '';:::;
u
voul' spreads through the beer. This light struck clear glass bottles with UV protection for adver-
S f------+ U
flavour occurs all the more quickly the more in- tising purposes, particularly for the filling of
<lJ
"'-'
cu VlC
cu D.. C :3
U tensively ill1d longer the beer is exposed to light cocktails.
Q)
.D
ro with this wavelength .
,
,- -
Transmission at 2mm wall thickness
<lJ in 0/0
o
u UV range visible range IR range
<lJ
-0 100

80
c
o
<lJ
>- '+=i
t:' cu U
oV) "'-' D..
<lJ
V)
C

40
"--
Q.)
.:;
"--

.§"'
Vl <lJ
'';::::; "--
-0
C

1.::
Q.)
cu
ro <lJ
D 20
0... u "'-'
<lJ
Q.)
-0 cu
D.. o I I I I I
330 400 470 540 610 680 750 820 890 960 1030 1100
t t I
nm
t whiteglass
blackglass
greenglas
antik-greenglas
- brownglass

Fig. 5.1
TImlslllittollce of light rays of riijferellt wovelellgtlls ill I'elotioll to gloss colol/I'
 612
5.1.1.5 Surface coating
The glass bottle - as it comes out of the blowing
machine - is not able to meet the demands of
high filling speeds nowadays due to its rough
surface and the high wear and tear and tenden-
cy to break caused by this. Only through a com-
bined hot and cold coating in the glass plant do-
es the glass bottle acquire its smooth surface. In
5 5
the case of the hot coating at about 600°C, the
micro tears on the glass surface are filled with
metal oxide (SnO, TiO) and the glass surface is
thereby protected from increased tear formati-
on in the further course of production [185]. As
a result the solidity of the bottle is increased.
By means of a cold coating at about 100 °C
using a basis of polyethylene dispersion, the
glass surface is given a smootlmess and slip
which is necessary for a problem h'ee procedure.
5.1.1.6 Scuffing
After five to seven circuits the cold coating is
more or less washed off by the effect of the
cleaning caustic at high temperatures. As a re-
sult the hot coating also loses its protection and
is also attacked by the hot caustic soda (chemi-
cal scuffing). From now onwards the surface is
totally exposed to all wear and tear effects and
is increasingly scratched and silicon is even eli-
minated from the glass body.
The scratches are particularly noticeable
where the bottles can bump into each other: on
the rubbing rings. The rubbing rings therefore
increasingly take the form of wider and wider
scratch rings. This condition is known as scuf-
fing (mechanical scuffing).
The main cause of scuffing is the bumping
and rubbing together of the bottles during their
transport paths within the brewery. Particular-
ly critical zones thereby are:
the accumulation, pressure and discharge zo-
nes,
the curved and infeed belts and
the feeding zone of the bottle cleaning madune.
For descriptions of these see Sect. 5.7.1.
Nowadays, through the addition of suitable
additives to the caustic solution [333], largely
successful attempts are made to protect the
bottles from alkaline attack and to suppress
scuffing (see Sect. 5.1.2.3 - caustic solution).
5.1.1.7 Bottle aftercoating
It is possible to aftercoat the bottles between
cleaning and bottling or after filling. Two diffe-
rent processes can be used for this:
aftercoating using a wax film or
aftercoating with polyethylene film.
In the first case it is only a "cosmetic" proce-
dure. In the second case a new polyethylene
film is applied to the bottle before labelling by
means of contact coating (sponge coating). This
hides the view of the rubbing zones and is sup-
posed to re-establish the scratch resistance and
smootlmess of the bottle walls.
This aftercoating is applied by means of con-
tact coating. This also prevents the coating me-
dium from entering the bottle or getting onto
the mouth area .
5.1.1.8 Plastic coated light glass returnable
bottles
In recent times plastic coated light glass retur-
nable bottles have been used, above all for the
bottling of spring waters. The particular advan-
tage of tlus is that scuffing is practically exclu-
ded and that the bottles, whilst they may break,
cannot however smash because the plastic
coating continues to hold the bottle together.
Recently there are also processes whereby the
container walls are made of two layers: even if
the outer wall is damaged the imler wall still re-
mains intact.
This process, however, is not particularly
cheap.
5.1.1.9 Procedural steps in the filling of
re turnable glass bottles
During the preparation and follow-up treat-
ment in the filling of returnable glass bottles, a
number of procedural steps are necessary:
the separation of the firm's own bottles and
crates and foreign ones,
inspection of returnable bottles which have
been returned,
cleaning of returnable bottles,
inspection of the cleaned returnable bottles
for cleanliness and damage,
filling and sealing of the bottles,
inspection of the filling height of the filled
bottles,
if necessary, one run through the tunnel pa-
steuriser,
labelling and decorating of the bottles and fi-
nally
packing into crates or other containers and
palletising.
Tius process is accompanied by extensive
transport plants for bottles, crates and pallets
(see also Fig. 5.0).
5.1.2 Cleaning of returnable glass bottles
All returnable glass bottles have to be cleaned
before they can be refilled.
Bottle cleaning has the task of delivering bott-
les wluch are
clean,
germ-free and
residue-free.
Since bottles are sometimes returned with
considerable contamination and crusting by the
customer, the cleaning of returnable bottles is
difficult and expensive work and the bottle
washing machine is the largest machine in the
filling plant.
Before the bottles go to the bottle washing, care
must first be taken to ensure that foreign crates
and bottles do not succeed in entering the bott-
1
613
Ie washing machine. In many breweries this is
no longer such an easy task beca use frequently
the proportion of foreign crates and bottles has
ill creased considerably and manual sorting is
no longer possible.
More information can be found in Sect. 5.7.3.3
on means and ways of dealing with foreign
bottles, i.e. those which
do not have the correct height, shape and co-
lour or
do not have the correct mouth or
still have to be decorked or tUlscrewed.
5.1.2.1 Factors which influence bottle
washing
To obtain effective cleaning of the bottles, several
influential factors are used in combination [165]:
Effect of clemzillg agellt
The most important cleaning agent is without
doubt water, without which no bottle waslung
could be carried out. The cleaning effect of the
water on its own is small; the cleruung effect is in-
creased by the addition of cleruung agents, usu-
ally caustic soda. Cleruung agents are all<aline
ruld also partly act as a disinfectant, particularly
at lugher temperatures. They release ruld dissol-
ve dirt; this is the basis of dirt removal.
The c1eruling caustic is supplemented by ad-
ditives to improve the c1eanlllg effect and to
prevent the formation of tLIulecessa ry foam.
Furthermore the bottle is given a high gloss ap-
pearance.
Effect of higher treatlllellt telllpemtllres
Higher temperahues always have an accelera-
ting effect on the dissolution of dirt. To obtain a
good cleaning effect
cleaning temperatures of 80 to 85 °C for reh1l'-
nable glass bottles are used.
The bottles caml0t be immediately heated to
this tempera hIre, however, as stress occurs in
the glass and the bottles could break. Tempera-
 614
ture jlllllpS of more than 30 K on heating and 20 K
on cooling should therefore be avoided. In the
case of low external temperatures (ice formati-
on) particular care has to be taken to ensure a
s tep by step increase and decrease of the tempe-
rature. Frozen bottles have to thaw before ente-
ring the bottle washing machine.
5 5
Exposllre tillle
The longer the hot cleaning liquid acts, the
greater the cleaning effect. The caustic dipping
time is on average 6 to 7 min, but if n ecessa ry
considerably longer. It is determined with the
construction of the machine and can only be
changed later within low defined limits.
Mec1ulIlical effect of jettillg
The dissolution of the dirt substances requires
adequate dissolution and soaking times. This
also applies to the removal of labels, glue and
foilings. Bottle washing machines are equipped
with extensive soaking tanks for this purpose.
Once a considerable amOlUlt of the dirt has
dissolved, washing is then supported by the
mechanical effect of jetting. As a result of jetting
the cleaning agent is rinsed from the bottle.
5.1.2.2 Bottle washing machines
To achieve a complete cleaning effect in the
bottle washing machines, the following opera-
ting steps are performed:
draining of remaining beer,
pre-soaking,
caustic bath,
caustic spray,
intermediate spray,
warm water spray,
cold water spray,
fresh water spray.
5.1.2.2.1 Designs of bottle washing machines
There are several ways to perform these opera-
ting steps. Basically two different types of bott-
615
Ie washing machines are used:
single end machines and
double end machines .
Corresponding to the size of the total filling line,
0>
C
bottl e washing machines are d esigned for '2
throughputs of below 10,000 to 100,000 bott- 3
E 3 =3
-0
les/hour. 8 1: &
Sillgle el/{f wnshing IIInc1,illes
In the case of normal single end machines the
bottle loading and discharge sections are fOlUld
at the same end of the machine. A single end
washing machine (Fig. 5.2) operates according
to the following principle:
After loading the bottles are first drained of
any residual beer. Since returned bottles very
frequently still contain acidic residues of beve-
rages or of liquid which the consumer has in
the meantime been storing in them, it is good if .t:
the residual draining of the bottles takes place
before treatment of the interior of the bottle.
The drained drink residues are biologically
very heavily contaminated and, where possi- 0>
C
ble, should undergo a special anaerobic treat-
lO'
ment. "'-
Following this the bottles pass through two
<> <>
'f'
f
=0> y
consecutive immersion baths, in which the dirt i: lO'
"'- 'I: J:
is pre-dissolved. Furthermore they me pre-hea-
ted inside and out to about 40 °C and, following
a rotation, rinsed with water at 40 to 50 0c.
In the following pre-caustic bath a fmther
heating to about 60°C occurs as well as a furt-
her partial dissolution of the dirt particles. For
the pre-washing only overflows from the warm
jets of the washed bottles are used . The water
in the immersion baths increasingly cools
down - particularly in the cold season. In this
way as well as pre-soaking, pre-hea ting of the
bottles also occurs, and by gentle increasing of
the temperature, stress in the glass bottles is
prevented .
The longest and most intensive treatment of
the bottles both inside and outside now occurs

616
in the form of a multiply passage through a cau-
stic bath for returnable glass bottles
for 6 to 8 (to 10) min at 80 °C.
During tl-us time all dirt and every form of
ilnpurity has to be dissolved. This also applies
to the labels and label glue.
If the washillg machine has two caustic baths,
the second caustic is often held at a somewhat
lower temperature (65 to 70 °C) and also at a lo-
wer caustic concentration (0.6 to 0.8% NaOH),
because hot caustic is already being continually
dragged in.
SillCe the cleaning caustic is cooled down by
the newly incoming bottles, it is circulated
using a powerful circulating pump (displace-
ment 100 to 150 m /h), and permanently main-
3
tained at the desired temperature by means of a
flow heater.
The labels are expected to completely dissol-
ve and not to shred because they will otherwise
increase the amount of sludge and make was-
hing more difficult. The labels are removed
using suitable equipment (see Section: Label
and Glass Splinter Removal) and specially trea-
ted. Nevertheless, sludge forms ill the bottom
of the machille, wl-uch has to be isolated (see
Section: Treatment of Cleaning Caustic), becau-
se it illcreasmgly hinders the effectiveness of
the caustic.
The bottles wl-uch are filled with caustic are
then diverted, cleansed and any remaining la-
bels washed off. The bottles nm back empty
and the caustic back to the caustic bath.
In a second caustic immersion bath, the bott-
les are once agaill washed from the outside,
then rmsed out at 50 to 55 °C and thereby coo-
led down somewhat. The run off and the sur-
plus heat from the caustic sprayillg are fed back
to the pre-caustic bath.
In the following stations, the bottles are rill-
sed out with water which decreases ill tempera-
ture - firstly both illside and outside and then
only on the illside - ill order to remove the re-
mains of the cau stic and the caus tic additives
and to cool the bottles down step by step, fmal-
ly using fresh water of 10 to 12 °C. It can be as-
sumed that only a drop residue of about 1
m1/bottle or less remains.
Whilst the bottles are running through, the
used cleaning water is fed back to the pre-soa-
king tanks and thus works to counteract any
concentration and carryillg over of the cleanillg
agent.
It can be assumed that no micro-organisms
will survive the long and hot caustic bath. Ho-
wever, the bottles being discharged from the
bottle discharge zone can only be classified as
bacteria-free if no micro-organisms pass back
into the inside of the bottle through the illjecti-
on water. However, long-term s tudies have
shown that reusing water which has been con-
veyed from or held in breweries' own wells can
lead to the presence of micro-organisms, illclu-
ding bacteria as well as yeast and mould spores,
ill the rinsmg water. These can then no longer
be removed (assuming that hmnel pasteurisati-
on does not occur). This can cause biological
problems in the finished beer.
Of particular danger here are also the basins
and pipes of the hot water spraymg sections,
which at temperatures of 30 to 50 °C, provide
the bacteria with optimal growth conditions,
and which therefore have to be regularly
cleaned. Tl-us applies above all to the entire spa-
ce next to and above the spray jets, which at the-
se temperatures provide the basis for the for-
mation of microbe nests.
If micro-organisms filld their way into the
bottle in this phase (contamillations), they can
no longer be completely removed by the subse-
quent fresh water spraying. Porous n-uneral sca-
le deposits are also often fOlmd ill the plants,
wl-uch serve as breeding grolmds for contami-
nants.
Biologically flawless rinsing water (warm
and cold) is of particular importance. As a re-
Fig. S.2n
Flow of wnler liI/'Ol/gillile vallie wnsilillg IIIncilill e
suit, a permissible amOlmt of chlorille dioxide
(C10,) is frequently added to the final rinsing
water so as not to take any risks. The perma-
nently damp and warm headroom above the
bottle washillg macl-une must likewise be vie-
wed as a reservoir for germs.
The amowlt of water remailling illside the
bottle falls within half a millute to below 0.5 m1/
0.5-1 bottle. This time is, however, not available .
The bottles are then passed on to the inspec-
tion plant.
Single end machines are frequently found in
Germany. The advantages are:
good use of space as well as low surface area
and machine height,
economical operation, particularly in the case
of small plants and
a lower price.
The disadvantage is considered to be that:
uncleaned bottles are fed in near to the
617
D Fresh water
D Warm water 1
Warm water 2
D 2nd caustic bath
Caustic bath 1
Pre-soaking tank 3
D Pre-soaking tank 2 5
D Pre-soaking tank 1
p
•
cleaned bottles, which can lead to biological
problems if nothing is done about tl-us.
Double e/l(f bottle washing machilles
A different type of construction of bottle was-
hing plants are double end machilles, where
bottle loading and removal occur at opposite
ends of the machine . In most cases an equally
intensive treatment of the bottles is obtained by
means of large caustic baths with vertically ar-
ranged immersion loops (Fig. 5.3). Machines
are built with up to six caustic immersion loops;
the caustic immersion time in the case of this
machine is also 6 to 8 min, and if necessary con-
siderably longer (up to 25 mill).
Following loading, the bottles are conveyed
upwards and their residues are emptied . This
residue emptying is very important because in
the returning bottles there can frequently be
found

618
spoiled drink residues, often in large quanti-
ties, but also
residues of other liquid which was kept in the
bottle.
co
;;; If these enter the first steeping water, it means
wmecessary pollution. The residues present
a h eavy waste water load and are fed directly
to the waste water treatment.
In the case of the double end machine illu-
strated (Fig. 5.3), residual emptying occurs first
with separate draining, then comes pre-rinsing
with warm water followed by pre-soaking in
the caustic immersion bath and a further war-
ming of the bottles to 50 to 60 °C. In the follo-
wing two or three caustic immersion baths the
bottles are soaked intensively at different tem-
pera tures and then rinsed out. The long and in-
tensive caustic treatment guarantees thorough
cleaning, which is supported by constant move-
ment of the cleaning caustic and removal of la-
bels.
The first caustic bath has the above mentio-
ned temperature of 80 to 85 °C.
The second caustic bath sometimes has a lo-
wer temperature of 65 to 70 0C.
The inevitably high construction of this dou-
ble end machine necessitates a reverse loop at
the end of the machine, which is first used for a
warm water immersion bath, before here too,
al! remains of the caustic and additives are re-
moved in further jetting zones by water at de-
creasing temperatures and finally by fresh wa-
ter, and the bottles are cooled down in stages.
The discharge occurs well away from the
bottle infeed and can also be visibly separated
from the dirty area by a separating partition.
This can be of particular in terest in tropical are-
as. The advantage is however diminished by
the necessity of supervision at the discharge
end, although this is no longer required in the
case of modern machines. Nowadays, supervi-
sion is only required at the infeed end.
In double end machines the conveying of the
619
bottle carrier does not occur vertically but, for
two reasons, at a slight angle:
a horizontally lying bottle would not comple-
tely fill, and air cushions would form which
hjnder the cleaning effect, and
a horizontally lying bottle cannot completely
empty and would thus transport unnecessa-
rily large amounts of caustic.
5
With all double end machines, the chain al-
ways runs back empty in the lower part of the
machine to the bottle infeed.
Double elU!lIlacltilles with a flat desig1l
It is possible to partly reverse the vertical loop
so as to avoid the unusually high design of the
regular double end machines and so obtain a
flatter design. The basic construction and mode
of action of this double end machine corre-
sponds to the machines described previously.
By means of multi-loop transport of the bottles
in the caustic bath, the same effect is obtained
(Fig. 5.4).
Fig. 5.4a provides information on step by step
heating and cooling of the bottles in the was-
lung process; at the same time it becomes clear
that very large amounts of caustic and water are
necessary in such a machine.
5.1.2.2.2 Main components
of a bottle washing machine
All bottle washing machines have a number of
common main components which will be des-
cribed in the following. These include
the heat distribution and recovery sys tems in
the machine,
the bottle transport through the machine,
bottle loading and discharge,
bottle spraying,
the machine drive,
label and splinter removal,
sllctioning off of vapours and hydrogen gas,
sterilisation of the head part as well as
operation of the machine .
 0'<
N
o

I CD I Residual draining Post-caustic Submerge bath,

warm water 2
[ 0) [ Pre-soak Warm water 1
[ @ [ Fresh water
ITiIJ Pre-jetting 1 [@] Warm water 2

Main caustic [0 [ Cold water

Fig. 5.4
Construction and mode of action of a double end bottle washing machine, flat design (Type "Lavatec KD-2 -9. .. 3,4", Kl'ol1es Company, Neutraublil1g)

pre-heatiDg 3 (relml) tllumc (roku J)

C3.58-64"C ca. 6-I-70'C
C3. l.Om' 3

Fig. 5.40
Heat effect and water usage in a bottle washing machine
(Type "lnl1ocleal1 OM 52187", KHS, Dortmund) 0'<
N
(ca. = approx.J >-'

CJl

.-:J

622
Particular attention should also be paid to the
cleaning ca usti c in the machine, the constant
maintaining of its concentration and its trea t-
ment.
Heat riistrilJlltioll (wri recovery systell1
By means of a comprehensive pipe and container
system the spray water flow off is collected and
fed back using plU11pS. A p art of the flow off is
used to heat up the soaking tank in which the dir-
ty bottles are soaked prior to caustic trea tment.
The contents of the caustic baths are also vi-
gorou sly circulated by m eans of circulating
pumps with a flow rate of 100 to 150 m 3/h and
the desired temperature maintained by using a
radiator.
It is, however, frequently necessary to reuse
the spray water because no contamination is
present. If, however, constant h eating up occurs
because of the previous caustic bath, hea t also
has to be given up . This can occur as a result of
the transfer of the surplus heat from the caustic
spray zone to the pre-caustic immersion bath
by mean s of a plate heat exchanger. Since in the
following stations spraying with water at a d e-
creasing temperature occurs, the caustic which
runs off can be reused.
Bottle tmllsport
The bottles are conveyed in rows through the
machine in bottle cell carriers. The feeding of
the bottle cell carriers occurs either
in cycles from one spray head to the next or -
as is always the case with large machines :
continually. In order to optimise the end
spraying time in this case, some machines
now slow down their speed in the end spray-
ing zone.
In both cases one speaks of cycle time. This is
the tin1e
from one s tation to the next,
for the bottle infeed of a row as well as
the bottle removal of a row.
This is genera lly abo ut 3 to 4 seconds and de-
termines the throughflow of the bottle washing
machine.
A bottle washing m achine has, depending on
its throughflow, 200 to 600 bottle cell carriers,
each with 16 (in the case of very small plants) to
40 bottles (in the case of large plants) p er row.
These bottle cell carriers are made of steel and
very stable and so designed that they do not
bend even in the areas of
loading and discharge
jetting and
label removal.
Fig. 5.5
Bottle cell carrier witll illsertable plastic bottle cells
In the bottle cell carriers, bottle cells made of
plastic or a combination of steel and plastic
(Fig. 5.5) are fi xed, in which the bottles are
transported. This is necessary because the bott-
les would otherwise scour against the hard me-
tal of the cell carrier, which could lead to their
being damaged. Furthermore, the bottles auto-
matically centre themselves in these cells,
which is very important for spraying.
The bottle cell carriers and bottle cells are
heated and then cooled on each circuit. In the
case of plastic cells the temperature difference
is very small, but the metal carriers experience
tem perature variations between 30 and 80 °C.
This costs energy and effo rt is therefore made
to arrange these bottle cell carriers economical-
ly (Fig. 5.5a).
Fig. 5.5a
Ellerglj savillg carrier
(Piloto Krolles, Nell tmllblillg)
The bottles are conveyed in rows tluough all
the stations of ilie bottle washing maclune in tl1eir
bottle cells by means of the bottle cell carriers and
Fig. 5.6
Bottle illfeed
623
onl y leave the bottle cells again on discharge.
If a cycle time of 4 seconds is ass umed, then
for one bottle per row
3600 s/h : 4 s/bottles = 900 bottles/h are to be
cleaned.
This means that one needs, for example, for
an hourly throughput of
30,000 bottlesllz = 30,000 : 900 = at least 33 bott-
5
les/ceil carrier
50,000 bottlesllz = 50,000: 900 = at least 55 bott-
les/ceil ca rrier.
The cycle time can be adjusted and depends
on the size of the bottle. The follo wing basically
ap plies:
The larger the bottle, the slower the maclune
cycle.
An increased carry-over of the amount of
caustic mu st otherwise be reckoned with.
Bottle illfeeri nllri riisclwrge
Bottle infeed occurs by means of a combined sy-
stem of rotating and oscillating sets of move-
ments (Fig. 5.6). ll1e accLUTIulated bottles cue the-
reby gently tilted and fed into the horizontally
lying bottle cell by means of a rotating conveyor.
624
Advantages
- Low falling rate on bottle discharge
- High level of operating safety
- Noise minimisation
_ Gentle treatment of bottles
Fig. 5.7
Bottle discllnrge
Bottle discharge occurs after washing in the which the bottle interiors are rinsed out at de-
same way by means of a slowly rotating con- creasing temperatures in order to completely re-
veyor (Fig. 5.7), which places the bottles so that move all caustic residue and other components.
they do not fall onto the discharge conveyor The attempt is made to include the side walls
and then leads them away. A low fall rate disch- and the bottle bottom, the edge of which is par-
arge with high operational safety and noise mi- ticularly at risk. Th.is occurs by means of spray-
nimisation is important here. ing with a powerful jet. Rinsing out, however, is
Following the cleaning immersion baths the associated with several basic premises and re-
bottles in all machines pass through jet zones in quirements:
Fig.5.B
Bottle jeffillg
(KHS, Dorf/lllllld)
the bottle mouth has a small inner diameter,
whicll for most bottles is only about 16 mm;
this limits the amount that can be injected,
if a reliable ilmer washing is to be achieved, a
powerful jet must be directed at different
parts of the bottle bottom. This is not, howe-
ver, completely possible since the edge of the
bottle bottom is rolmd and the jet stream can
only be directed in a straight line,
the volume flow in the bottle has to be measu-
red such that the bottle does not gurgle in the
mouth region if more water is injected than
can flow out. In the opposite case, the rinsing
water flowing out can obstruct the jet stream
so that it CatUl0t be totally effective.
Despite the limitations, jetting is very impor-
tant atld supports the cleaning effect of the soa-
king tatlks effectively.
This is performed in that a rotating jet shaft is
moved synchronously with each row of bottles
(Fig.5.S).
Fig. 5.9
/eflillg wifll rofafillg jef sllaffs
(1) collveyOl; (2) calliS, (3) disfrib/lfioll pipe, (4) jef sllaft, (5) drive disc
625
The jet shaft has perforations to allow the jet
stream to flow tlu'ough; it is directed precisely ac-
cording to tlle slow bottle path and impinges on
the bottle walls atld the bottle bottom from vario-
us directions atld atlgles of incidence (Fig. 5.9 and
5.9a). The jet streatn, only impinges on
a limited area of the bottle bottom with full pres-
sure; it is then broken and from then on only has
5
a rinsing fLmction. It is only tlu-ough repeated
dipping atld jetting, as with multiple-batll double
end maclunes, that the mechalucal effect of tl1e
rinsing can be intensified.
The jets in the rotating jet shaft are attached
displaced by 90° with no axial displacement. As
a result of rotation of the jet shafts in the same
direction, liquid streams through the jets in
constantly changing directions and they are
therefore also constatltly cleaned so that no la-
bel residues can stick to them.
The spray pressure is about 2.0 to 2.5 bar
overpressure; the hole diameter is, in the case of

626
continuous spraying, 2.0 to 4.0 mm. This hole
diameter must be kept clear, because the cleaning
effect of the jet stream depends on it. The
cleaning sh'earn must be directed in such a way
that the water can nonetheless easily flow out of
the bottle; otherwise gurgling takes place inside
the bottle, and tl1e cleaning effect is low. Advan-
tageously, therefore, interval jetting is used, since
tl11.s allows tl1e water to flow off better.
At the high temperatures in the bottle was-
hing machine, however, decarbonisation of the
water begins. Tl11.s eventually leads to blocking of
the jets if coun ter measu res are not taken. A sca-
le prevention additive is therefore added to the
cleaning caustic, to prevent the building up of
scales i.n the jets and on the bottles - as well as
on all other parts of the machinery.
In order to avoid transferring contaminati-
ons, a permitted amount of chlorine dioxide
« 0.4 mg ClO,!I) is often added to the cold rin-
sing water. The chlorine dioxide plant must be
installed outside the bottle washing machine.
Fig.5.9n Machille drive
Rillsillg ollilile wnll nlld bollol1l The bottle cell carriers are slowly and continu-
ously moved through tl1e machine by means of a
Fig.5.9b
Drive slnliolls of Iile bailie cell cnrriers
(bille) jreqlle/lcy redireclO/; (yellow) servo redireclO/; (red) genrillg 1110101'5
Fig. 5.10
Drive slnlioll sprockels L
rotary current brake motor with an electronic fre-
quency regulator or a mech3111.cal regulating ge-
3l'ing m11.t. The drive stations are driven synchro-
nously over joint shafts 3l1d slip-on worm drives.
In tl1e case of larger macl11.nes, the drive tal<es
place at every station using a separate gearing
motor, which is synclu'0l11.sed by a cenh'al fre-
quency adaptor, in order to ensure that all drive
elements run uniformly and to supervise the
electricity uptake of each gearing motor. The
drive stations are always situated at tl1e 111.ghest
parts of the arches, because that is where the
stress of the chains is at its 111.ghest (Fig. 5.9b). 1£
the heavy bottle cell carriers were only driven on
one side, they could very quickly become jagged
and stretched. In order to avoid tl11.s, the sproc-
kets of the drive stations, positioned opposite, are
COlU1ected with each other by torsionally stiff hol-
low shafts, wl11.ch are driven centrally (Fig. 5.10).
At the same time, the cle3111.ng pl311t is protected
from the grease on tl1e bearings by leakage ci1am-
bel'S at the drive stations, 3l1d the bearings are
protected from the caustic.
The bottle cell carriers are intercOlmected by
upright chain links.
627
5
Label removal
In the hot caustic bath, all labels and pieces of
foil come off. They should come off whole and
the labels must not come apart. However, the
longer the labels remain in the hot causti.c bath,
the bigger the danger that they may come apart
and disintegrate (turn into pulp) . One is there-
fore interested in removing the labels as quick-
ly as possible.
The main precondition for this is that the cau-
stic solution is strongly circulated, using a well-
sized pump which takes the removed labels
away and separates them using a plug-in strai-
ner (Fig. 5.11). With larger cleaning machines,
sieve band filters made of plastic or niro-wire
material (Fig. 5.12) are often used, wl11.ch enab-
le continuous removal.
In the case of double end machines, propellor
pumps with a large circulation capacity (up to
3000 m 3/h) are used.
The removed labels still contain a lot of caustic
solution, which can be reused . Moreover, wet la-
bels cannot be disposed of. The wet labels are the-
refore treated in an external, additional label
press, positioned tmder the label discharge.
I
628
In the label press, the labels are about 80%
d ehydrated by a hydraulic cylinder with a pres-
sure of 12 - 15 bar and thereby reduced to 50 to
75% of their soa ked volume (Fig. 5.13). The
pressed labels dry further whilst ascending the
slightly tapered pipe and are emptied, drained,
into the awaiting container wagon. There can
be problems with the disposal of label residues.
Removnl of glnss splillters
It is always possible that individual glass bott-
les can break before or during treatment and
that glass splinters collect in the lower part of
the machine . Since glass splinters are very hard
Fig. 5.11 and can cause damage to the machines if they
Lnbel removnl //sillg n sievillg co/lUe//or
(1) Sievillg (2) shnker
Fig. 5. 12
Lnbel removnl Ilsillg sievillg eOllveyor
nlld direetioll of the wnterflow
629
Fig. 5.13
Old Inuel press
(1) colltrol enbillet
(2) enteh illg tllb
(3) press
5
are trapped, som e bottle cleaning machines ha-
ve a facility whereby the glass bottles are direc-
ted over a relatively large-meshed grate. The
broken bits of bottle fall through the wires and
are removed separately.
Vapollr sllctioll
In the head part of the macllines, cooling takes pla- Fig. 5.14
ce. Because the temperature falls below condensa- Vnpollr slletioll at bottle delivery stnge
tion point, the vapolll' of the cleaning maclline sett-
les and can drip into the cleaned bottle material as ce aluminium has an amphoteric i.e.
dripping water and condensate. 111is can cause can react as a metal or as a non-metal, when it
contaminators to appear, whicll one can remove meets the caustic soda, sodilUll aluminate is for-
using vapolU' suction at the bottle delivery stage med, whereby hydrogen is released. Combined
(Fig. 5.14). Cold outer surfaces can be prevented with the oxygen of the air, this can lead to the
by heating the criticalmad'line surfaces. formation of explosive gas:
Hydl'Ogell gas sllctioll 2 Al + 6 NaOH + 6 H 20 -+ 2 Na,[Al(OH).l + 3 H,
If a lot of bottles with aluminium foil come into The hydrogen which form s must be sucked
the bottle washing machine for cleaning, there off and directed out into the open, so that the
is a danger of explosive gas formation and, con- feared explosive gas formation CalUlOt happen
sequently, of going "pop" or of explosions. Sin- within the machine (Fig. 5.15).
A-A
I/JIIJUW¥lIlVt-L!:S
I
Bottle
inspection
for alumini um
Fig. 5. 15
Hydragell extmetioll to prevellt the fOl'lllntioll of explosive gns
 630
In many countries, aluminium foils are no
longer used, removing this danger. It is there fo-
re necessary to pay close attention to the foils
used in the respective country.
Read space disillfectioll
It is also possible to incorporate a facility for the
cleaning and disinfection of the whole proble-
5 5
matic head area, and thus to achieve effective
disinfection even of the parts of the head area
which are hard to reach (Fig. 5.16).
The head area can be disinfected cold or using
steam.
Fig. 5.16
Hearl space rlisilljeclioll /l sillg slealll
COlltrollillg the machille
As with other machines, bottle cleaning machi-
nes are nowadays equipped with a freely pro-
grammable control, which shows and localises,
on a partly rotating display, the current state of
the machine, characteristic parameters and
faults, if there are any.
If desired,. further information systems can
also be installed.
5.1.2.3 Caustic solution
The caustic solution must
fulfil particular requirements,
the caustic solution must retain its concentrate
on and
the caustic solution must be treated.
5.1.2.3.1 Requirements of the caustic solution
Important requirements of the caustic solution
are:
it has to have a high cleaning effect, which in-
cludes
- the ability to remove dirt,
- an inhibiting or lethal effect on bacteria,
- good wetting power,
rapid penetration of the label paper.
It must not be poisonous or introduce toxic
substances into the waste water,
it should not form sca le deposits,
it should not foam,
it should be easy to dose in, and
it should be as inexpensive as possible.
5.1.2.3.2 Components of the caustic solution
The cleaning caustic used is
1.5 to 2.0% sodillm hydroxide (NaOR)
to which additives are added to achieve the
above mentioned requirements.
It should be assumed that for one part additi-
ves, there are 3 to 5 parts NaOH.
Due to the effect of the carbon dioxide in the
air, an increasingly large proportion of the Na-
OH is converted to Na,C0 3 and NaHC03,
which has a considerably lower cleaning effect.
The proportions of NaOH and Na,C03 therefo-
re have to be monitored in order to retain the ef-
fectiveness of the caustic solution. An NaOH
concentration of 1.6 % has proved to be optimal.
Additives are frequently sold combined as
active ingredient concentrates and added in the
order of magnitude of 0.3 to 0.5 % of the caustic
soda.
The additives are added by means of an auto-
matic dosing device proportionally to the Na-
OH dosage in a fixed ratio, which is controlled
by the conductance. The dosing device is situa-
ted near to the bottle washing machine, usually
in the next room. In order to avoid envirolUnen-
tal damage in the case of a leak of the caustic or
additive containers, these containers should be
installed in protective tanks or on caustic-proof,
non-draining floor tanks.
If aluminium foils are used, the proportion of
caustic alkalinity has to be increased, because
otherwise the aluminate precipitates and sett-
les. One can reckon with three times the fracti-
on of caustic to alumillate (0.7% aluminate re-
quires 2.1 % caustic). The concentration is then
so high that the entire aluminium is decompo-
sed in the time available.
If a second caustic solu tion is used, this is pre-
pared with a reduced concentration (0.5 to 0.8 %
NaOH), and no additives are apportioned be-
cause these are continually added through the
constant carry-over.
The additives contain or are supplemented
by:
AI/ti-foalllillg agel/t:
This is an agent which prevents an irritating
foaming of the caustic in the bottle washing ma-
chine. Foaming occurs mainly because of the
dissolving label glue. The anti-foaming agents
are mostly treated separately and not as a com-
ponent of the additive.
Smfactants are frequently u sed as anti-foa-
ming agents. Surfactants have very good dirt
removing properties and prevent an tmdesira-
ble foanling of the cleaning caustic. One there-
by differentiates between four tenside com-
pOtU1ds:
non-ionic surfactants (n-tenside),
cationic surfactants (k-tenside); these include,
for example, the qua ternary ammonia com-
pounds (QAC),
anionic surfactants (a-tenside) and
amphoteric surfactants, which play no role in
bottle washing.
Non-ionic and cationic surfactants in particular
are used as additives to the cleaning agent for
defoaming. Whilst these surfactants have a
good cleaning effect, they do, however, tend to
631
attach themselves to solid surfaces thereby dis-
playing poor rinsing qualities. The surfactant
residues adhering to the walls go into solution
again, however, within a few days after refil-
ling . The disadvantage of this is the strong foam
dam aging effect of the surfactants; even
amounts from 100 mg/llead to foam problems,
whereby non-ionic surfactants have the
greatest negative effect.
To keep foam damage as low as possible, sur-
factant addition should occur by means of an
individual dosing tec\uuque separate from the
cleaning solution and the surfactant concentra-
tion should be constantly monitored by means
of secure analytical chemistry [194] . It has to be
said, however, that the c\emung caustic, the la-
bels, the dissolving glue and residues from the
previous soak tank cml have an equally harm-
ful effect on the foam.
Sca le prevel/til/g agel/ts (seqllesteril/g agel/ts)
These are agents which cOtmteract the precipi-
tation of insoluble CaC0 3 in the washer. Scale
preventing agents are mostly added to warm
water tmlks because it is there that a considera-
ble part of the carbonate is precipitated.
On their passage through the machule the
bottle carriers are continually heated to above
80°C and later cooled down agaul; the same oc-
curs with the bottles. On heating the Ca ions Ul
particular are precipitated by the alkali. In ad-
dition, as a result of heatulg, hydrogen carbona-
tes are precipitated as carbonates and conse-
quently produce deposits of limescale on the
bottles and bottle carriers, wluch in turn ulcrea-
ses the caustic carry-over:
Ca, +2HC03 -+2Na++20H- -+
CaC03 + 2 Na+ + CO/- + 2 H 20
l °dH thereby corresponds to a precipitation
of about 18 g CaCOJm 3 of water. It is therefore
advantageous to use water with a low hardness
for the cleaniJlg caustic. Furthermore, because
the hardness formulg compounds are deposi-
 632
ted on the spray nozzles over time and the
cleaning effect is thereby reduced, scale preven-
ting agents (pH value adjustment < 8.5) are ad-
ded to the rinsing zones (intermediate spray-
ing) to prevent scale formation.
Another environmentally friendly method
consists of converting the carbonates to water-
soluble hydrogen carbonates in a reactor by ad-
5 5
ding carbon dioxide under pressure, thus pre-
venting scale formation.
SlIlface active substances
These are substances which have good dirt re-
moving properties and which ensure that the
dirt is bOlmd and the water rLms off the bottle
walls easily. These substances frequently con-
tain surfactants which have to be carefully mo-
nitored.
Complexation agellts for dissolved a iUlIlilliu1n
As a rule these are organic acids which form a
complex with the dissolved aluminium from
the labels and foils thus preventing an otherwi-
se possible oxyhydrogen gas formation. There
are also complexation agents to dissolve mine-
ral impurities.
Scuffillg reducing agellts
Since the coating of the glass is washed off after
several circuits, the glass is then increasingly at-
tacked by the caustic. At a sufficiently high pH
the glass is increasingly dissolved, since it conti-
nually h"ies to form new stable interfaces with its
surroundings. This occurs in particular at the
scuffing zones (rubbing rings, abrasion points).
This dissolution can be reduced by means of
certain ions, e.g. dispersive agents . On the other
hand, carbonates and in particular phosphates
have a strongly aggressive effect on the glass
thus increasing the chemical scuffing effect
[166]. New additives (e.g. Foodpro) are effecti-
ve in slowing down the formation of rubbing
rings [320] and have a protective effect on the
hot end and cold end coa ting. The Phosphana-
te Additive (GE Betz, Willich) has proven to be
particularly effective [333] as the only additive
which provides a high level of protection to the
hot and cold end coating of the bottles.
5.1.2.3.3 Retaining concentration in the
cleaning caustic
When the bottles are rinsed they do not imme-
diately drain completely. It can be asslU11ed that
a 0.5-1 bottle, even 10 s after emptying, contains
about 2 to 3 g of liquid - equivalent to 0.5 % of
the amount when full. Only after about 30 s
drip time have the contents fallen to about 1 g.
There is also the caustic or water whid1 re-
mains on the bottle carrier and bottle cells, mea-
rung that one can reckon that about 10 to 20 ml of
liquid per bottle are carried over to the next zone.
This is known as caustic or agent carry-over.
Thus, if a plant with 30,000 bottles/h has been
rLU1l1ing for 10 hours, then around 300,000 bott-
les have passed through the plant during this ti-
me. If 10 ml (= 0.01011) agent carry-over/bottle
is calculated, then 300,000 x 0.D11 = 3000 I = 30 hI
are "hauled" from one section to the next. If the
carry-over is lower, the concentration of dirt in
the caustic increases, because dirt discharge in-
creases with lower carry-over, whilst the dirt in-
troduction remains constant. There is scarcely a
loss of liquid thereby, because to the same ex-
tent, the same amOlUlt of liquid is introduced
from the adjacent steeper.
The steeper, which is set up in front of the
caustic bath, is, however, supplied with warm
water or warm caustic. As a result of the pre-
steeping, therefore, in every case
the caustic bath is cooled down,
the caustic is watered down, and
pollutants are introduced.
It is therefore advantageous to optimise the
carry-over volume to 12 to 15 mllbottle using
different measures. This also includes a suitab-
le construction of the bottle carriers, which also
transport the caust ic. Washers already ex ist
which have a cau stic carry-ove r of under 8
ml/bottle.
It is different with the water re maining in the
bottle at the end of the draining time followin g
cold water rinsing. Values of 0.5 ml /bo ttle (opti-
mal 0.3 mllbottle) are required h ere. Thi s is on-
ly achieved by
long draining times,
only using internal spraying at the end of
sprayin g zon es .
This can, however, result in drying out and thus
in "grey bottles" in the case of very long draining
times, because owing to the heat content of the
glass, tl1e temperature of the bottles is higher than
that of the tempera ture of the spray water.
Because of the lost caustic, its concentration
sinks. In order to be able to guarantee a total
cleaning effect, the caustic mus t be continuous-
ly repleted : it is "sharpened". In order to do
this, the conductivity of the caustic is continu-
ously controlled using a dirt-insensitive probe,
and the missing caustic is added from larger
storage containers.
The conductivity is, at a constant temperatu-
re, proportional to the caustic concentration,
which CCU1l10t be measured directly (or only by
titration against an acid).
The storage containers used are plastic ves-
sels, which should stand in collecting tubs in or-
der to prevent undesired drainage in the case of
leakages (damage to the ground and surface
water). These storage containers stand, if possi-
ble, in a separate room (chemicals plant) near
the bottle clecuung machine and are connected
to the machine through supply pipes, dosing
units, regulating machines and pumps.
5.1.2.3.4 Treatment of the cleaning caustic
In spite of sharpening, the state of the cl eaning
caustic d e teriorates, because an increasing
amount of sludge is released, cu1d soluble, inso-
lubl e or colloidally soluble components are
633
contained in the caustic. Among these are
paper shred s from shredded labels,
coloured pig ments (titanoxide, caolin, calci-
um carbona te, heavy-m e tal-containing co-
lours),
label binders (starch, cellulose),
wet s trengtheners (melamin resins, carbami-
de resins),
adhesives (resin adhesives),
precipitated sludge from lime components,
dirt sticking to bottles,
almost the entire label adhesive, etc.
One must try to remove this sludge, because
otherwise the caustic may have to be replaced
after only 6 to 8 weeks. There are several ways
to remove sludge:
Allow it to settle Ollt
The simplest and most common solution is to
pump the entire caustic into a separate, heat in-
sulated settling out tank and allow it to settle
out there. When the caustic is drawn off from
the top it is then clean. with this pro-
cedure, only the particles contained in the cau-
stic are removed, but not the dissolved dirt.
Therefore, the dirt content of the cleaning cau-
stic is constantly raised and the dirt is increa-
singly dragged into the post-rinsing zone.
Settling out produces a highly loaded res i-
due, which must be disposed of.
Celltrifllgi ng
It is possible to set up a sell-emptying separator
in a bypass in the bottle washing machine, to di-
rect a constant flow of clecuung caustic through
the separator and thus to free the ca ustic of haze
substances continually, practically without loss
of caustic. The expenditure for the sepcu'a tor soon
pays off because of the mculY advantages.
Membmlle filtmtioll
A widespread way of treating the cleculing cau-
stic is by by-pass filtration using membrane fil-
 634
tel'S, with which we are familiar from yeast beer
filtration. When such filters are used, the cau-
stic can be rLU, for an almost lmlimited period.
Depending on the membranes used and on
their retention rate, there is a reduction of dirt
carriage of up to 80%; still, not all dirt particles
are removed, especially as dissolved substances
remain dissolved. Through this method of
5 5
cleaning caustic filtration, the consumption of
cleaning chemicals, water / waste water and he-
at energy is considerably reduced, so that the
filter plant can pay for itself, in most cases, wit-
hin two to three years.
Filtration is - especially considering the con-
stantly rising prices of dirty waste water - the
most modern form of cleaning.
If one treats the caustic in the appropriate
way and continuously sharpens it, it can be
used practically limitlessly without changing
the caustic, since, owing to the dragging of cau-
stic and the continuous resharpening, there is
very soon nothing left of the original caustic
anyway. The constant removal of sludge sub-
stances, however, remains important.
One must, however, constantly control the
composition of the caustic, in order to obtain
full effectiveness. This is very important for the
cleanliness and sterility of the bottles.
5.1.2.3.5 Water consumption during bottle
cleaning
One has to reckon with about 200 to 250 ml wa-
ter consumption per bottle (150 to 350 ml/Fl) =
0.3 - 0.7 hi per hi of beer (0.5-1 bottles). Con-
sumption is principally dependent on the num-
ber of jet sprays, because not all the water can
be won back (recuperated) in this process . The
more often and more intensive the follow-up
sprays, the colder are the bottles when they are
handed over, but also the greater the water con-
sumption.
If one wishes to save water, the handing-over
temperature of the bottles is increased . If one
wishes to get by with a water consumption of
about 150 ml/bottle, the handing-over tempera-
ture is raised to about 30 °C! The value should
not, however, fall under 150 ml/bottle, since
then the dirt carriage can increase considerably
through less rinsing and the removal of possi-
ble surface-active residues can no longer be
guaranteed.
A real potential for saving water [271] is pro-
vided by
- lU1iformity of the jet pausing times,
- conformity of the fresh water inflow with the
current throughput of the machine and
- water recycling, for example reuse of the h'ea-
ted water in the fresh water zone etc.
A water consumption of 180 to 200 ml/bottle
can be regarded as good.
The heat consumption of the cleaning machi-
ne is 30 to 40 kJ/bottle; a value of LU,der 35
kJ/bottle is required; optimal values are 25
kJ/bottle (double end machines).
5.1.2.4 Cleaning and maintenance work on
the bottle cleaning machine
The internal cleaning of the bottle cleaning ma-
chine is carried out by fitted jet heads (Fig.
5.18). These are located
in the area of the warm and cold water jet zo-
nes and collecting basins,
in the bottle input and output area,
in the pre-soaking area and
in the intermediate jetting area for destoning
(acidic medium).
As well as this, apart from regular removal of
haze substances from the cleaning caustic, furt-
her tasks must be carried out at the end of pro-
duction:
after the cleaning caustic has been flowed off,
the caustic baths have to be rinsed out;
the warm and cold water zones have to be
emptied, freed of dirt and thoroughly rinsed
out. Care has to be taken that no limestone
builds up, because microbes quickly settle in
its porous surface and find ideal conditions in
the warm surroundings. The micro-organisms
then enter the bottles through the jet water.
It is recommended to disinfect the water zo-
nes with peracetic acid or froth them out with a
disinfectant cleaning agent.
Par ticular attention must be paid to the head
area of the machine and the drop formation
in this area. Regular cleaning and disinfecti-
on is necessary here, unless an automatic
cleaner (see "Cleaning of the head area") is
built in. The same is true of the cleaning and
disinfection of the bottle in- and output.
The lmderside of the bottle carrier becomes
coa ted, in time, with a thick film of dirt,
which must be regularly removed. Older
bottle carriers become completely covered
with sludge if they are not cleaned, and ab-
sorb the caustic sludge like a sponge.
5.1.2.5 Clearing away new glass bottles and
cans
While recyclable bottles run the same course
again and again, non-recyclable bottles and
new recyclable bottles and cans are newly in-
troduced into the bottling process and after a
short rinse are directly taken to the filler.
The feeding in of these containers, however,
is done differently, since they are not delivered
in crates or boxes, but in pallets with flat divi-
ders or hooded lids or bases.
With the lift-off depalletisers, the glass or
PET bottles are lifted off; the lifting off principle
means that they are bound to a particular pac-
king order. Different packing orders can be ma-
de possible by conversion in the load head.
Clearers using shifters LUuoad in layers by shif-
ting the containers (bottles or cans); the transfer is
thereby kept level so that no container falls over.
If containers - particularly cans - do fall over in
large quantities, dents and losses are incurred.
One is therefore very interested in clearing away
all the containers closely packed together.
635
5.1.3 Control of the cleaned recy clable glas
bottles
We can assume that all bottles leave the bottle
washing machine cleaned . There is nonetheless
a danger that, in spite of the thorough rinsing,
not all cleaning agents, particularly non-ionic
tenside, have been completely removed . Resi-
dues of such tenside can have a noticeable ne-
gative influence on the foam stability because
of their large surface tension.
Therefore, a spot-check is made in which in-
dividual cleaned bottles are rinsed out after the
bottle delivery with a rinsing liquid and tested
for non-ionic tenside, CSB, alkalinity and, abo-
ve all, surface tension. Required values are:
- Surface tension (VLB-Meth.) > 55 mN/m
- Non-ionic tenside (VLB-Meth.) < 0.5 mg/l
- CSB in the bottle < 15 mg/l
In general, one aSSlU1,es a good to very good
cleaning effectiveness of the machine, especial-
ly since contaminants should generally not sur-
vive the procedure in the machine. It is, howe-
ver, necessary to check whether all adherent
dirt has been thoroughly removed. Everyone
knows that very dirty so-called "mason bottles"
cam,ot be sufficiently cleaned in the machine.
Between these visibly very dirty bottles and
new glass bottles, however, there are many in-
termediate stages. The number of sorted out
bottles provides a certain clue as to the efficien-
cy of the cleaning process. For an objective com-
parison, a "standard dirtied" bottle was develo-
ped [281] . This is made by rolling out and
drying on suspensions of water, yeast, starch
and kieselguhr in an exactly prescribed amount
in a bottle. The amount and type of dirt still pre-
sent after the bottle cleaning allows conclusions
to be made about the comprehensiveness of the
cleaning process in the machine. I
As we have just seen, in spite of thorough
cleaning, bottles can still remain (Fig. 5.18a) which
are damaged or have height differences in the
mouth region (12, 13, 14),
 637

have strongly adhesive pieces of dirt (10) or 2 3 4

contain foreign bodies or foreign substances Inlrared a high frequency b
in the bottle (4, 5, 6, 7). LEO
coolinuo
In order to exclude this, all bottles are con- us

5
Fig.5.18n: Wnys to illspeet glass bottles
(1) Sine 1II0lltil illspeetioll, (2) foil neteetioll: sinewall, (3) ab-
rnsioll neteetioll, (4) foil neteetioll: bOttOIlI, (5) bOtt01l1 illspee-
tiOIl, (6) glass splillter neteetioll, (7) bottolll breakage neteeti-
011, (8) Cflllsticlresinllalliqllin neteetioll, (10) sinewall illspee-
tiOIl, (11) eOlltOl/r deteetioll, (12) threan illspeetioll, (1 3) COII-
tailler Ileight neteetioll, (14) sealillg sillfaee illspeetioll
have irregularities or signs of wear, e.g. scuf-
fing rings (3),
still contain liquid residues, and possibly
even caustic residues (8),
trolled after bottle cl eaning and before filling
with the aid of an empty bottle inspector. The
empty bottle inspection must guarantee the
operator and the consumer that only bottles
which fulfil the legal requirements of the re-
spective country or the prescriptions of the in-
dustry to the full extent are filled . The presup-
position here is that, before bottle cleaning,
still closed bottles have been decorked,
foreign bottles have been filtered out and
wrap-aroLUld labels have been removed.
Empty bottle iI/spector
Today, bottle inspection is carried out exclusi-
vely electronically, by means of several CCO
matrix cameras. These empty bottle inspectors
are built and sold as
rotary type or
thl'Ough type machines.
Although the expendihlre involved in l'l1l1-
rung the machines and their surface require-
ment are more or less the same for both types of
machine, there are a number of differences:
Rotary types rlU1 the empty bottles on a circll-
lar path dming inspection (Fig. 5.19). They carry
out
exactly defined guidance of the bottles inclu-
ding complete rotation,
a sidewall control with higher resolution, par-
ticularly if a line camera is used.
For different bottle forms, however, additio-
nal format parts are necessary, which necessi-
tates longer adjustment times, extra costs and
storage space.
Moreover, cleaning and maintenance are mo-
re costly with these machines.
Through type machines guide the bottles for
inspection past the individual stations on the
Lamp
Fig. 5.19
EII/pty bottle illspeetioll
(1) bottolll illspeetioll, (2) senlillg slllfaee illspectioll, (3) nOllble resinl/alliql/in netectioll: a = illfraren, b = higll freql/elley,
(4) sidewall illspeetioll
conveyor belt. This, too, has advantages and
disad vantages:
the investment costs are less, but
the bottles must be presorted for size recogni-
tion and
the bottles have to be treated individually, as
with the rotary machine.
The weary human eye of course no longer
suffices for an objective assessment of the many
points and areas of inspection. In order to fulfil
these tasks, the empty bottle inspector posses-
ses several CCD matrix cameras, which dissect
the recorded pichue of the inspected bottle part
into pixels. According to certain, variable calcu-
lation methods, the pixels are evaluated and the
bottle is deemed good or filtered out according
to the yes/no principle.
With a filler tlu-oughput of 50,000 bottles per
hour, the elech'onic device has all of 0.07 seconds
at its disposal for each individual bottle (3600 s =
50,000 bottles; i.e. 15 bottles/s), and a correspon-
dingly much shorter time for the bottle mouth. In
order to obtain a clear picture of the inspected
part as well as a resolution of the photo whicll is
as high as possible, the photo is "frozen" with the
aid of a stroboscope flash. In some systems, the
remaining haziness caused by movement is addi-
tionally corrected electronically.
n•
ceo
camem
5
Tlansmi\te! Reciever
Empty bottle inspectors for glass bottles are
built as rotary or straight rLUming machilles
and contain
one or two cameras with a mirror alld/or ro-
tation system to capture the outer sidewall,
a camera to inspect the bottom,
a camera to control the mouth,
a high frequency caustic detector,
an infrared residual liquid
a camera to control the imler sidewall and
for screw tops: a camera to control the thread.
Control of the individual inspection modules
is carried out according to the following princi-
ples:
Olltel' sidewall cOlltrol
When controlling the outer sidewall, all irregu-
lar feahlres which should not be on the bottle
are to be recorded, such as label or foil residues
still sticking on, other impurities or scratches on
the su rface.
In this context, mutual abrasion, known as
scuffing, plays a special role. Particularly at pla-
ces where bottles are brought together, corner
stations and belts with several tracks with diffe-
rent speeds, it can happen that bottles rub to-
resulting in increasing scratching of the
surface. In order to protect the labels and to Ji-
 638 639

mit the scratch es, bottles are in many countri es
equipped with a barely visible thickening in the
top and bottom area. This reduces the scra t-
ching in these cases to two rubbing rings, w hich
with increasing rubbing become ever broader
and narrow the appearan ce of the bottle. In so-
me countries, the broadening scuffing ring is
regarded as being in direct relationship to the
J
breakage danger of the bottles and filtering out
is required . Detection of the scuffing rings is
difficult with we t bottles.
In order to control the outer sidewall proper-
ly, the bottle is rotated by 360° in front of a light
source, in the case of a rotating machine, and in
this time a digitalised photo of the bottle surfa-
ce, in 256 shades of grey, is taken by the CCD
matrix camera u sin g 9 photos.
The evalu ation of these photos takes place at
a maximum of 10 insp ection windows; fo r
every window, a separate algorithm with diffe-
rent sensitivity can be chosen. Bottles with noti-
ceabl e scuffing, for example, are rejected here .
With tlu'ough type machines, two CCD line
cameras each take 6 views of the bottle surface,
displaced at 30°. The bottle is hereby rotated by
180°.
In all cases, the exposure time is adjusted to
Also particularly important here is the con- shelly fractures at the mouth,
trol of stress cracks in PET bottles. Bottles with cracks and fissures in the glass.
CCO
1 a relatively large number of stress cracks are re- This observa tion does not detect,
jected . the state of the bottle undernea th the holding
camera
ring of the crown cork bottle, where e.g. rust
Mouth cOlltrol rings from crown corks can often form.
The bottle mouths are the most complicated
and, at the same time, the m ost vulnerable parts
of the bottles. Here there mus t be above all a 5
control of breakages, cracks, fissures or conta-
minations, which can s top the bottle from being
completely sea led up when it is closed again, or
can ha rm the e.g. through glass d a-
mage or splinters.
The following are therefore controlled:
the closure tlu'ead on bottles with screw- or
twist-off tops and
the mouth sealing surface.
COll t rol of the closllre thrend
The light source used fo r controlling the closu-
re thread is eith er a s troboscope with light
transmitters or a side lamp. Evalu a tion is made
in each case llsing a CCD matrix ca mera.
::"- If a stroboscope is used, light from rad iation
.
sources located opposite is di rected tangential-
Su.. c.. "" PfHW/EIY
Fig. 5.19n ly onto the thread, is reflected there by the brea- cop tork PEII.NYIIHV

the transparency of the bottle glass, whereby in
several zones, different levels of sensitivity and
evaluation algoritlul1s can be set up. The b ottles
are evaluated according to particular threshold
values.
Bottom cOl/trol
The bottom is controlled using a CCD m atrix
camera with illw11ination by a halogen lamp or
stroboscope lamp, combined with a polarisa ti-
on filter (Fig. 19a).
For the bottom control, the bottle bottom is
subdivided into zones, which can be equipped
with different algorithms and levels of sensiti-
vity. The ca mera sys tem is equipped with
brightness compensa tion, which evens out the
BOttOl1l ill specl iOIl
colour differences of the individual bottles. The
evaluation of the bottom can be m ade in zones
of different inten sity:
ring evaluation, e.g. contamination of the ed-
ge zon e, glass damage
block evaluation, p ar ticularly of the edge zo-
nes
radial evaluation, p articularly of beverage re-
sidues
brightness evaluation, e.g. for blocked bottle
necks, completely covered bottoms
foil d etec tion for transparent foils or glass
splinters.
kage edges and diverted into the receiver op-
tics, wh ereby the errors are detected .
If a surface illumination or a sidewall lamp is
used, the bottle is rotated and photos are taken
at the same time:
in the case of rotary machines, 8 photos with
a rotation of 360° and
in the case of through ty pe machines, 4 pho-
tos using 4 mirrors displ aced by 45° and a
bottle rotation of 90°.
COl/ tro l of the mOllth sealillg slIIfnce
As part of mouth contro\, the sealing surface,
which sea ls the bottle, is tested for intach1ess.
Above all, the following things are d etected :
broken parts of the sealing surfaces,
Fig. 5.1%
MOll th illspectioll
The control of the mouth sealing su rface (Fig.
5.19b) takes place using either
a CCD matrix camera with IR light diodes as
a light source or
a rotating scalmer with 2 to 3 pho to cells and
light shafts via light transmitters from a halo-
gen lamp.
The digitalised photo of the bottle mouth
from the IR light diodes is assessed for
ring inter ruptions and
reflections outside the rings.

640
The pho to ex posed by the photo di odes is as-
sessed according to light differences:
damaged sm-face evaluation (sealing surface,
thread damage)
brighhless evaluation (sealed bottles, bottles
without a neck)
Residllalliqllid detectioll (always dOllble)
5 The possibility, in particularly unfavourable
circumstances, of residues of cleaning cau stic
remaining in a bottle after cleaning, cannot be
excluded: for example, if a label residue has got
into a bottle and prevents residual emptying.
This caustic must be detected and the bottle
must be filtered out.
The possibility of still remaining residual li-
quid is therefore always con trolled doubly,
with the aid of two different procedures, name-
ly
High frequency radiation (HF) and
Infrared radiation (IR) .
COl/troll/sil/g high freqllel/cy radiatioll
With HF (high frequency) caustic de tection, use
is made of the fact that the di-electricity con-
stant for these liquids is about 2 to 3 times hig-
her thilll that of glass. If caustic is present, the
sensor receives more energy. If even the smal-
lest change of capacity is detected, the objectio-
nable bottle is filtered out.
For better detection, the bottle is slightly til-
ted, so that the liquid accumulates.
COl/ troll/sillg illfrared radiatiol/
To complement the HF residual caustic detecti-
on, infrared (IR) residual liquid detection is
used, which contrary to HF caustic detection
makes use of the infrared parts of the strobosco-
pe illumination of the camera bottom control.
The IR control unit consists of a lamp casing,
an infrared sensor with zoom objective and a
computer, which displays any residual liquid
on the bottom .
II/terior sidewall cOlltrol
The control of the exterior sidewall only PaTtly
detects faults and inadequacies in the interior si-
dewall, which mean s that an additional conh'ol
of the interior sidewall is necessaly. This also pro-
vides the opporh.mity to subject bottles with a
burnt-on label to illl additional inside inspection.
The interior sidewall is controlled with the
aid of a CCO matrix camera and illuminated by
a lamp on the bottom . On the sensor of the CCO
camera, a reflection of the visible bottle wall
illld of the bottle bottom is created. Of course,
the closer they are to the camera, the larger the
parts or faults are reproduced .
The control of the interior sidewall causes dif-
ficulties with some types of bottle, because the
transitions in the neck area sometimes do not
allow a 100 % control. The security associated
with a 100 % control of empty bottles, however,
is increasingly leading to the introduction of
more easily controllable bottle material.
Faults behind inscriptions or very strong
scuffing can be detected with the aid of interior
sidewall control.
Possible aririitio l/ ai cOJ/trois
If a bottle has not already been rejected, one can
now use additional procedures to reject bottles
which
are too tall or too short,
have a different colour,
have a different diameter or contour or
have particular characteristics marking them
out as foreign bottles.
It must be guaranteed that from now on only
bottles which are absolutely clean and which
comply with the requirements 100% in all posi-
tions are passed on to the filler.
Rejected bottles
The reasons for rejecting bottles are various;
they extend from impurities to damage to the
glass body. It must now be decided what hap-
pens w ith the rejected bottles. The re is the pos-
sibilityof
assigning the bottles to broken glass or
cleaning the s till dirty bottles in anoth e r
rOlmd of cleaning or
differentiating and dividing them up (broken
glass, another cleaning cycle).
COl/tro l of tlie iI/spector
Agreat deal d epends on the reliable work of the
inspector. If it allows damaged, dirty bottles or
bottles contaminated with harmful substances
to pass through, there is no control system af-
terwill'ds which can protect the customer from
the damage.
The work of the inspector therefore has to be
controlled. This ought ideally to happen conti-
nuously, but no brewery can afford a second ex-
pensive (control) inspector after the first one, to
control its work.
One makes do, therefore, with rlUU1ing test
bottles through the plilllt according to a prescri-
bed programme. The test result is then compa-
red w ith a pre-prepared result matrix. If all the
requirements are met, the test has been passed .
The system responsible for the test bottle must
give an appropriate signal.
The test bottle control programme should be
nm every 30 minutes or after a number of bott-
les which normally corresponds to a 30-minute
filwlg time.
It must also be tested whether all bottles de-
tected as being faulty really have been rejected.
This testing equipment (reject verification)
must be constructed in such a way that it camlot
be rendered unusable by misalignment, dirt or
other influences. On the other hand, however, it
must also be checked that no faultless bottles
were rejected, because although this incurs no
damage, bottles wrongly rejected have a nega-
tive influence on the plant productivity.
In spite of the relatively high costs that the in-
spection technology definitely entails, it must
641
be realised that a continuously excellent pro-
duct qua lity can only be achieved throu gh the
use of high quality inspection technology. This
a lso affects the protection of the customer as
well as of the brewery from d a ma ge of all
kiJlds. Given the high hourly throughput which
is normal today in the filling plants, it is no lon-
ge r possible to use human workforce in this
5
a rea.
5.1.4 Bottle filling
5.1.4.1 Principles of filling
Bottle filling must be carried out in such a way
tha t the quality characteristics remain comple-
tely and lastingly intact. Beer is, however, diffe-
rent from other beverages in many of its quali-
ty characteristics.
For example, beer, soft drinks containing
CO" alcohol-free beverages and of course
sparkling wine are characterised by a high CO2
content which must remain intact until it rea-
ches the consumer. Many beverages, such as
beer or non-sparkling alcohol-free beverages,
are vulnerable to micro-organisms, while no
microbes can develop in spirits. While most
drinks can be filled as a thin liquid, the normal
difference in pressure is not sufficient for a
practicable filling of highly viscous emulsion li-
que urs. It is clear from this overview that there
camlot be a lmiform filler for all beverages.
According to the filling principles, four
groups of fillers Cilll be distinguished :
1. According to the filling pressure,
2. according to the dosage of the beverage
quantity,
3. according to the filling temperah.1l'e and
4. according to the pre-treatment of the bottles.
1. Fillillg pressllre
One a ttempts to fill the beverage into the bott-
les as rapidly as possible and without illly da-
mage to it - tlle efficiency of the plant is depen-

642
dent on this. Here, one must distingu ish b et-
ween filling pressure and the difference in pres-
sure, the driving force.
The "difference in pressure" is dependent on
the difference in height between the beverage
level in the storage container and in the bottle.
This difference in pressure can be increased by
additional pressure (filling pressure) .
5 5
According to the pressure which occurs du-
ring filling, one distinguishes between
vacuum fillers and high vacuum fillers,
normal pressure fillers and
overpressure fillers.
VacllLilll filling/high vacuum filling: the dri-
ving force is the difference in pressure compared
with the ahnosphere. This conh·ols, at the same
time, the opening of the liquid path (no bottle -
no vacmilll). With these fillers, a slight tmder-
pressme of about 0.93 to 0.98 bar (absolute) is
produced in the bottle and the liquid is thereby
sucked in. Such vacumn fillers are used for low
viscosity still beverages such as wine, milk, juices
or spirits, and they accelerate a process which
would proceed more slowly at normal pressme.
High vacuum fillers are used for the filling of
beverages with a higher viscosity such as li-
queurs, syrups, oil and tomato pulp. Filling of
these highly viscous liquids would take a very
long time at normal pressure . Because of the
underpressure (0.6 to 0.9 bar absolute), a
greater vacuum is created in the bottle, because
of which the highly viscous liquid is sucked/
pressed more quickly into the bottle.
Normal pressure filling: with these fillers, the
static liquid pressure alone determines the fil-
ling speed. The flow path of the liquid to be fil-
led must be controlled. Normal pressure fillers
are seldom encountered.
Overpressure filler: the liquid pressure alone
determines the filling speed. The beverage inlet
is only opened when the pressure is the same in
the bottle and the gas above the liquid (isobaro-
meh·ic principle). The filling pressure must be
greater than the equilibrium pressme of the CO,
in the beverage (sahu·ation pressure). It is depen-
dent on the CO, content and the temperahlre.
Counterpressure fillers are used to fill all be-
verages containing CO,. If one were to fill beve-
rages containing CO, tmder normal pressure,
they would immediately begin to foam and one
would not obtain a full bottle. Beer fillers are al-
ways und erpressure fillers.
2. Dosage oftTle amOl/llt of bevernge
The dosage of the amount of beverage may be
carried out according to
height (level),
volume or
mass.
Dosage accordillg to height or level
With level filling, the bottle is filled to a preset
height - calculated from the mouth. The mar-
king is fixed through the entrance of the retmn
gas hlbe or using an electronic sensor. This is
possible because all glass bottles are nonned
absolutely, and plastic bottles within the tole-
rance limit, and thus a specific volume is filled.
Level filling is the usual method of filling .
Dosage accordillg to vollime
It is possible to measure the filling volume for
the bottle before the filling procedure and thus
to achieve a particularly rapid exact filling. For
this, the volume flow measurement by means
of IDM or mass flow through measurement is
now increasingly used.
But dosing by volume also plays an impor-
tant role in the filling of containers which are
not normed, of plastic bottles with thumer
walls and of open vending machines.
Volume dosing must be coupled with com-
pensation of the fillulg amount temperahtre.
Dosage accordillg to mass
Dosage by mass can only be used for a few li-
quj ds and can be ignored here. The advantage
of mass fillulg is that temperahlre differences of
the fillulg amount are tmimportant. We will re-
fer to tlus again in the section on keg fi lling,
specifically the weighing of filled kegs.
3. Fillillg tell1perntl/re
During bottle cleaning, the bottles reach very
hjgh temperahlres. If the beverage is also filled
while hot, afte r a hot rinse of the hot bottles, no
micro-organ isms can develop. Then one has a
sterile beverage wluch no longer needs to be
pasteurised. Tlus is known as
hot filling at temperatures above 60 °C.
Apart from this, there is a distinction bet-
ween
warm fillulg at temperatures of 18 to 25 °C,
i.e. at room tempera hire, and the usual
cold filling at 5 to 10 °C.
Hot filling is particularly ulteresting for bevera-
ges where the heat effect does not have a negative
influence on the content substances of the bevera-
ge. Hot fillulg has not prevailed with becau-
se subsequent taste unpairments are caused by the
effect of the heat, as well as a lugh abrasion, condi-
tioned by filling pressures of more than 6 > bar.
After hot filling, the bottles are cooled down
to storage temperahlre by recooling.
With warm filling, one goes without a tho-
rough cooling Ul the las t part of the bottle was-
hing maclune and fills at 20 to 25°C. This has
advantages for saving water.
Cold filling is by far the most common way of
filling beer. Here, the fresh water temperature is
of grea t importance. With fresh water at 12 to
13 °C, one can cool the bottles down to about
15 °C before filling. The only way to aclueve lo-
wer temperatures is by cooling the water (e.g.
with beer). But the cooled bottle now comes in-
to contact with the cold beverage. The lower the
temperahll"e difference between the two, the lo-
wer the danger of foaming Ul beverages contai-
nmg CO, - a feared occurrence.
643
4. P retreatm ell t of the bottles
Bee r is extremely sen siti ve to the slightest trace
of oxygen. The remauling oxygen makes a con-
siderable contribution to the oxidation of con-
tent substances, so that an agulg flavour can oc-
cur in the bottled beer in a short time, as a result
of the formation of agulg carbonyls. One makes
a grea t effort, therefore, to remove the air which
is normal and present in every empty bottle as
thoroughly as possible. This is, however, not at
a ll easy.
By pre-rinsi ng with CO, tmder ah110spheric
pressure and pretensing with CO, under over-
pressure of 2 bar (wi th a CO, percentage of
98.5%), one can considerably reduce the pro-
portion of air in the bottle, whereby because of
mixing of air and CO, proportions, optimal va-
lues cannot be reached. For an optimal effect,
today one also carries out a double evacuation
of the bottles w ith a 90% vacuttm (more would
entail too high teclmical costs) and a double
prefillulg of the bottle with CO,. This makes it
possible to reduce the air content in the bottle to
about 1 % of the origulal arHOtmt.
Fig. 5.19c shows clearly the different reducti-
on of the air content USUlg different pretrea t-
ments: the red bottle coming out of the bottle
washer is s till completely filled with air and is
(green) subjected to a doubl e evacuation,
through whjch the air content of over 52 ml is fi-
nally reduced to almost 0 ml. If, however, the
same bottle (blue) is prerulsed with a CO,/air
mixture from the ring bowl with a CO, propor-
tion of 99%, the air content first sulks, because
of the prerulse, to 56.68 ml and aiter the pre ten-
sUlg to aroul1d 5.67 ml air. Recently, Ul some
plants, even a triple pre-evacuation is applied,
whereby the air content is reduced s till further.
The 0 , uptake in modern filling machines is <
0.02 mg 0,/1.
Tlus repeated pre-evacuation, however, can-
not be carried out with thin-walled and therefo-
re vacuum-sensitive packages and containers
644
(cans and PET bottles), Slnce they are compres-
sed by underpressure. In this case, therefore,
one must pretense with CO 2 or use long filling
tube valves to displace the air from the bottle
and achieve an O 2 uptake of < 0.02 m g/l (see
Sect. 5.3.4). Today, bottle filling ma chines with
which both glass and plastic bottles can be fil-
led are increasingly ava ilable.
All bottle filling machines today (with a few
exceptions) are built as rotating m achines with
up to 200 filling valves. We are interested in
the prmciples of construction of the bottle fil-
ling machines,
important components and parts of the ma-
chines and particularly
the filling valves and how they work when fil-
ling beverages.
5.1.4.2 Principles of bottle filling machine
design
All bottle fillers (Fig. 5.20) have the same basic
construction :
The basis is the machine frame with the drive
from which all rotating parts are driven syn-
chronously over a cog mechanism .
Example: 500 ml boll/e, COi air mixture ring container
total volume 520 ml C02 1raction 99.0%
/illing pressure 2.0 bar
I. Evacuation
Vacuum 100 mbar
Air conlelll Air contenl
520ml 52mt
Fig. 5. 19c
Redllclioll of Ihe nil' proporlioll ill ti,e bailie by lIIenllS of dOllble eunwntioll or prerillsillg with CO2
645
The filling goods and the n ecessa ry pressure If there are 200 filling positions, there is a di-
111 . (blocked) and must therefore be considered to-
gases including the evacuati on pipes are di - vision of about 100 mm. The larger the bottle gether with these.
rected via a distributor (11) to the ring chan- the larger the sp ace required by the Among the component elemen ts of the fillin g
nel (8), to which the filling organs are fitted individual bottle, and the smaller the number machine, the fo llow ing are of particular interest:
(beverage from below, gases and ClP return of filling valves with the same diameter. the machine drive,
from above). the infeed of the media to the filler,
The bottles enter the machine individually, 5.1.4.3 Component elements of the bottle insertion, treatment and discharge of the bott-
are separa ted by an infeed screw and are cen- filling machines les,
tred onto the plates of the hub cylinder (3) lU1- It is necessary to fill the bottles as quickly as 5
the construction and mode of operation of the
derneath the filling organs (loading star wheel). possible and subsequently to seal them imme- lifting elemen ts,
After circulation and fillin g, they are directed to di ately. For this reason, all fillin g machines height alte ration and adaption to different
the crown corker (5-6) (transfer star wh eel) and today are unified with the sealing machines bottle sizes and sh apes,
sealed. Then the bottles are put onto a sla t con-
veyor individually by a discharge star wheel.
The filling process itself only las ts about 5 to 6
seconds today, but the pre- and post-treatment
77
of the bottles also takes some time. Larger hour-
ly throu ghputs of the machines can therefore
only be achieved with a larger number of filling
heads and therefore wi th a larger filling diame-
ter. The diameter of this "carousel" can today
be 1.40 to 6.5 m, and throughputs of over
100,000 bottles/h are achieved.
Since the fillers h ave to be transported, their
diameter is limited to a maximum of around 6.5
Intermediate purging 2. Evacualion Pretensing Filling
468 ml Vacuum 100 mbar Overpressure 2.0 bar Return gas (1500 ml)
CCk 463.32 mt (1560 - 52ml =) 1508ml C02 Iraction 98.67 %
Air 4.68111t C02 1492.92 ml C02 1480.05 mt
Air 15.081111 Air 19.95 mt
Air content Air content 5.67 ml Air conlent 20.75 ml
56.68ml C02 conlenl 46.331111 C02 conlent 1539.25 ml
(lolal52 ml) (tola11560 ml)
Fig. 5.20: Bailie Jillillg IIInchille (w i opell )
(1) illfeed screw, (2) londillg stnr wheel, (3) liftillg elelllcllt, (4) celltrillS tlllip, (5) lIIiddle stnr wheel, (6) closllre slnr wheel, (7)
dlsclll1lge stnr wheel, (8) nlllllllnr Inllk, (9) unW lI1II clll1ll11el, (10) JillillS unlue, (11) rotntillg distrilm tor
 646
the construction and mode of functioning of
the filling organs,
the sealing of the filled bottles,
the cleaning of the machine and
the operating instructions.
Bottle fillillg l/1ac/,ille drive
The filling and sealing machines are driven no-
5 5
wadays by a frequency regulated rotary current
motor, whose drive momentum is distributed
from the machine onto two paths:
via a parallel cm'dan shaft to the ball turning
attachment of the filler carousel,
via a further drive level to the sealer, the loa-
ding and discharge star wheels and the drive
of the infeed screw at the entrance.
The cogs are now partly constructed from
seal-proof plastic and are therefore extremely
quiet. The gearings and an optimal lubrication
guarantee a very advantageous quiet operation.
Feeding the media ill to the filler
While the upper part of the filler continuously
rotates, it is necessary to feed in or let ou t all
media continuously as well. This includes:
feeding in the filling goods: beer or other be-
verages, from below,
pumping in the tension gas COy
feeding in compressed air,
feeding in stealn (if necessary),
letting out air to create a vacuum (if necessa-
ry),
the Clr infeed alld return path etc.
These media must be fed into the rotor coaxi-
ally through rigid pipes via rotary distributors,
because a flexible hose cOlmection is not possi-
ble owing to the rotation.
The media are fed in by a media distributor
(Fig. 5.21) which is fixed centrally to the tank.
The height of the beverage in the filling tal1k is
regulated by a pair of floats. In order to avoid a
metabolic exchal1ge between the media in the
distributor,
647
nously rotating loading star wheel (Figs. 5.22
and 5.22a). Since the bottles, because of the ra-
dial force which occurs, have a tendency to mo-
ve outwards, they are transported with low
friction and abrasion in plastic cells. The noto-
rious scuffing only occurs when the bottles rub
together with the rubbing rings, not when they
are transported individually.
The discharge of the glass bottles is also to a
large ex tent unproblematic. For sealing, the
bottles are fed from the tral1sfer star wheel to
the synchronously rotating closure star wheel
and sealed. If all the transfers are exactly coor-
dinated, all the preconditions for a gentle glass
Fig. 5.22 bottle infeed al1d discharge are met.
Loadillg/discharge star wheel
COl1structiOIl alld mode of operation of tbe lif-
tillg elemellts
2---- - - - -- 2
The bottles, centred underneath the filling val-
ves, must now be quickly al1d securely lifted
and pressed gastight against the filling valve.
After the filling process, the bottles which are
Fixed parts still open must be lowered in such a way that no
Rotating parts bumps occur and also that no CO, can escape.
_ Seals The lifting elements operate according to the
pneumatic-mechal1ical principle:
Fig. 5.21: Distriblltor (prillciple) the bottles are raised by meal1S of compressed
(1) vaClIlI1II olltlet pipe air and
(2) vaClIlI1II ill let pipe mechal1ically lowered in a curve after filling.
(3) CO, sllpply pipe
With most lifting elements, the lifting move-
(4) CO, disc!wrge pipe Fig.5.22a
(5) call II terpress lI re air sllpply pipe ment is as short as possible, to allow the bottles
Loarlillg/rlisc!wrge star wheel with straits
(6) cOllllterpressllre air discharge pipe to be quickly positioned on the filling valves.
After the lifting orgall has been pressed onto
Illsertioll, treatmeJtt mId dischmge of the bott- the filling valve, the filling processes are started
the sealing surfaces have a particularly low- les (Fig. 5.23) (see Section: Consh'uction and mode
abrasion, hard surface and It is necessary to tral1Sport all the bottles lmi- of operation of the bottle filling orgal1s).
special seals with long life cycles are used, in £onnly, quietly and safely to the filling ele- After the filling process is over, the bottles are
order to prevent media mixing reliably even ments. The same is true of the discharge of the lowered in the discharge area in a curve which
under extreme filling conditions . filled bottles to the sealer and finally onto a lowers a gliding roller on the lifting element
In the case of computer controlled fillers, the discharging slat conveyor. first of all quickly, and then increasingly slowly
computer is also installed revolvably above the The incoming bottles are separated by the in- thereby forcing the compressed air back into
filler and controls all the processes in the filling feed screw into distallCeS which guarantee all the pipe, so that the compressed air consumpti-
organs from here. lmproblematic exact transfer into the synchro- on can be minimised.
 9 £
648
J course the mos t importan t
a b
Fig. 5.23
Liftillg elelllellts
(1) IIpper Iwldillg device, (2) lower lIoldillg device, (3) Internl gllide, (4) coillpressed
nil' pipe, (5) f ixed pistoll rod, (6) liftillg plnte, (7) liftillg pistOIl, (8) lIIovnble roller ns-
socinted wit II tile liftillg plnte, (9) COlli pressed nil' ill let nlld olltiet, (10) cOlllpressed
nil' fo r rnisillg tile baffle
(n) lifted, (b) lowered
H eigllt anjllstl/lellt a/ln anaptioll to nijjere/lt
bottle sizes
It is normal today to fill bottles of different si-
zes and shapes using the same plant. The mar-
ket very often requires a rapid transition from
one bottle size and shape to another. Long con-
version times hinder and reduce the efficiency
of the plant. Modern bottle filling plants, with
which different bottle sizes can be fil1ed, are
equipped with a height adjustor.
With a height adjustor, the upper p ar t of the
filler, with the annular tank and the filling val-
ves, is raised to the necessary h eight u sing
spindles and a gear rim. For this purpose, the
bottle height for different bottle types is entered
into the computer, so that the conversion to the
other bottle size call happen in the shortest pos-
sibl e time. An alterna ti ve is
manual adjus tment and con-
trol of the fi lling organs.
5.1.4.4 Construction and
mode of operation of the
bottle filling organs
The filling of the bottles is of
procedure. Here, all the quali-
ty parameters of the filling be-
verage mus t remain unalte-
red . In order to achieve this,
the filling organs, which de-
pend on the different require-
ments of the beverages, are al-
so very different in their
construction and hmction.
The fi lling heads h ave a
very complicated s tructure
consisting of a number of dif-
ferent components which are
described individually in the
following. They include
the centring tulip,
filling valves with a long fil-
ling htbe (long hlbe fillers),
filling valves w ith a short return air tube
(short htbe fillers),
filling valves with a filling sensor (short hlbe
fillers),
the valve control and
the volumetric filling d evice .
Basically a distinction is made today between
- mechanically controlled and
- computer control1ed valves.
Control is carried out u sing sensors or induc-
tive flow measurers (IDM) .
Ti,e celltrillg tlllip
Basicall y there are two possible methods of
bringing the bottle and the filling valve toget-
her:
db
either the bottle is raised and pressed against
the valve, or
the valve is lowered onto the bottle.
As is shown later, the second method is em-
pl oyed in can filling. In bottle filling, the bottle
is always raised. But in order to obtain correct
centring of the bottle on the fil1ing head, an in-
tennediate centring element, shaped like a tu-
lip, is fitted w hich is ca rried upward s by the
bottle being raised (Fig . 5.24). The centring tulip
centres the bottle in the middle of the filling
head aIld seals it aga ins t the filling head.
Fig. 5.24
Celltrillg fillip witll gllide
Fillillg systel/ls with a IOllg jillillg tllbe
When filling valves with filling tubes are u sed,
the air is first rinsed au t of the bottle through
the long filling tube and then the beer is fil1ed
into the bottle just above its bottom. ill this way,
the bottle is slowly filled from the bottom up-
649
wa rds, without there being an y s ubs tantial con-
tac t between the beer aIl d the gas in the bottle.
There is consequently ve ry little oxygen uptake
with this filling method.
The flow through cross-section of the filling
tube is, however, limited by:
the umer bottle mouth 0::; 17 mm.
ex ternal filling tube diameter 14 mm .
5
for drink inflow 0::; 10-12 mm.
The 11m a fill DRF-B (KHS Dortmund) is ci ted
here as an example of a filler with a long filling
tube (Fig. 5.25). 111 the filling process, the bottle
is firs tly not pressed quite up to the fillulg head,
so that the CO, introduced from the tanl< can
rinse out the bottle, whereby the oxygen is al-
most completely removed (Pas. 1). Subsequent-
ly, the bottle is pressed firmly onto the filling
head aIld CO, is introduced thl'ough the retlU'-
ning gas va lve and the bottle is pretensed (Pas. 2).
Sh ortl y afterwards, the bottle is brought to the
sa me pressure as in the tank, using CO2 (tensed)
(Pas. 3), and the beer is introduced to the bottle
bottom throu gh the filling tube (Pas. 4). Since
firs tly only the relief gas htbe is open, the beer
firstly only flows in slowly and thu s foaming is
prevented. Through the addition al open ulg of
the la rge r rehlrning gas tube, the beer now
flows rapidly into the bottle (Pas. 5) until the
beer flow is slowed down by closing the retur-
ning gas tube aga in (6). This phase is known as
the brake or correction phase. It is ended wh en
the inductive flow measurer (IDM), which is
only ind ica ted in the diagram as a double wall,
has established the exactly set amount. At this
m oment, the beer valve closes (Pas. 7). TIU'ough
initial relief and easing off, the pressure in the
bottle is made to sink only slowly, preventing
fOaIning (Pas. 8). By lowering the filling valve
aIld opening a lateral chaImel, air is let under the
filling valve and the beer remauling Ul the filling
tube then flows into the bottle. At the end, the ex-
actly set amOtmt is in the bottle (Pas. 9).
 651
650

)
5

.'1Jb
 653
652

5
5
654 655

Fillillg systems witilollt filling tllbes on above the beer level. Consequently the beer
The narrow mouth of the bottle sets a limit to could no longer come into contact with ex ter-
the d iameter of the filling tube and consequent- nally moved parts, but it was in continual con-
t t ly to filling speed and filling performance. tact with various springs and other built-in fit-
Attempts are therefore made to speed up the tings, which was not good from a contamina-
process by using filter valves without filling tu- tion point of view.
bes. For this, however, the beer must be led on- It was therefore desirable to move away as far
to the bottle wall, and inevitably this involves as possible from the use of springs and otl1er in- 5
an increased risk of oxygen uptake . built fittings and to use other means of conh·ol.
These fillers are also frequently known as An important step in this direction was the repla-
"Short filling tube fillers" in conh'ast to the long cement of valves moved mecl1anically from out-
filling tube types. This description is, however, side by pneLm1atically moved membrane valves
incorrect since the short hlbe which can be seen is (Fig. 5.27), with which the cOtmterpressure gas is
always the air pipe, and the beer is led onto the only guided against the sealing membrane.
internal wall of the bottle. Introduction tlu-ough a
short filling tube would inevitably cause foaming
of the beer and a very large uptake of oxygen.
One attempts to remove the air beforehand
using a repeated vacuum and to replace it with
CO,. We have seen that one can reduce the air
content in the bottle to arOlmd 4 mI/0.33-1 bottle
using double evacuation. These procedures have
largely prevailed today in the bottling of beer.
Short filling tube fillers have a relatively high
perfOlmance, since for the infeed of the beverage
they can use almost the whole mouth surface of
the bottle mouth, which is only reduced by the
cross-section of the air pipe. Gurgling, such as
can occm during bottle jetting, is excluded here.

Control of tI,e filling process

Control of the filling process was subject to
great changes in the past. Until well into the
1950s cock fillers were used, so named after the
cock which was turned by stationary catches
and which released, one after the other,
the air initially present,
beer and return air
and at the next filling operation allowed the
beer above the cock to be sprayed back into the
tank and thus into the next bottles.
Later valves were developed which permit-
ted actuation from outside only in the gas regi-
Fig. 5.27
Pll ellllwticnlly lIIoved lIIelllurnll e valves
(1) cOlltmllllelllurnlle, (2) deaerntioll, (3) sealillg lIIelllumll e
The membrane valve is moved by control air
(pneumatically) from the compressed air mains
(Fig. 5.28). With this type of control there is no
need for any springs or other internal fittings in
the filling element.

db IJ
656 657

pneumatic membrane valve

membrane valve 5
product channel

Probe _--1+-tl

product inflow
with spin insut

centring be:ll

Fig. 5.28 1 Control cylinder

rubber stal liquid valve
Pllwlllalic cOlllrol of Ille lIIelllurnlle valves 2 Pressu ri zing
valve return gas
valve (fast)
3 Pressurizing
Some types of filler possess a beer outlet with rises to the lower end of the air pipe, because valve return gas
A Snifting channel valve (slow)
a spin insert. This is a specially shaped cone the air situated above it can no longer escape of the gas channel 4 Snifting valve of
BVacuum - and CIP
which, as a result of its shape, causes the beer to (mechanically controlled filling valves), and return cha nnel
the gas channels
5 Vacuum- and
be led in so that it rotates arollnd the wall of the those where it CSni ft channel ClP-valve
Bottieheadspace
bottle and nms downwards along the wall.
TI1e filling height is nowadays, in many models,
rises to a sensor, which finishes the entry
(computer guided filling valves).
6 Snifting valve
Bottleheadspace J
elech·onically controlled by sensors or inductive Both systems can be found in breweries.
flow measurers. A filling height sensor scans the The filling valve of the type VP-VI (Krones
height of the liquid in the bottle by means of sen- company, Neutraubling) (Fig. 5.26) will now be
sitive sensors and finishes the beer entry by me- presented as an example of the mode of opera-
ans of a "slow filling" phase when a particular fil- tion of a computer guided valve:
ling height has been reached . TI1e final and exact Pha se 1: Basic positioll Phase 2: First evacllatioll
ending of the entry is also achieved using the sen- The bottle is not yet raised, all pipes are closed. The bottle is pressed, air-tight, against the filler
which has a very sensitive mechanism and is head by the centring tulip, and the vacuum val-
therefore housed in a protective tube (air hlbe). ve (5) is opened pneumatically; the air is fed in-
In the case of inductive flow measurement, to the vacuum ch31U1el (B) 311d within a very
only an exactly defined amount is filled. short time 90 % evacuation of the bottle is achie-
According to the bottle filling control, there- ved. A vacuum protection device which is rai-
fore, one distinguishes between systems in Fig. 5.26/1 - 10 sed by the centring tulip prevents collapse of
which the beer in the bottle COlllp"ler gllided shorlillue bollie filler the vacuum when no bottle is raised.
 658 659

) 5

o o o
o

Phase 3: Intermediate pllrging with CO,
he gas valve (3) is opened and CO, passes into
the bottle from the filler bowl and purges the
bottle. This process lasts only a very brief time
and is ended shortly. The pressure in the bottle
increases to about atmospheric pressure.
Phase 4: Seco ll d evaclIatioll
The process described for phase 1 is repeated
and again an approximately 90% evacuation is
produced. This vacuum sucks out the still pre-
sent air with the CO, from the bottle. The air
fraction in the bottle sinks to about 1%.
Pllase 5: COllnterpressHrising
The process used in phase 2 is repeated, but
now the counterpressure valves (2 + 3) are ope-
ned and the process lasts longer. The CO, flo-
wing in produces a high CO, concentration in
the bottle after the twofold evacuation. Simulta-
neously the pressure in the bottle is raised to
the same pressure as that in the annular tank.
Phase 6: Filling phase: rapid
After the pressure equalisation be tween the
bottle and filler bowl, the relief valves (2 + 3) re-
main open. The beer can now - isobarom etical-
ly - flow downwards and is deflected by the de-
flecting cone (9) against the bottle wall and
flows down the wall in a thin film. The dis-
placed CO, flows back into the bowl through
the air pipe and the return air valves (2 +3).
 660
------------------------------------------------------------------- :I

) 5

o o

Phase 7: Fillillg plwse: slow
Towards the end of the filling process, the fil-
ling speed slows down, in order to achieve an
exactly controlled filling level. To do this, the
return gas ' valve (2) closes, and the return gas
valve (3) lets less gas return through a smaller
cross-section; thus the flow is slowed down.
Phase 8: Emf of fillillg
The sensor ends the filling process and causes
all valves to close. The bottle can now be lowe-
red. It has the required filling level.
The exact filling height is an important crite-
rion for the quality of our bottled beer: wlderfil-
ling is a fraud on Cllstomers and taxation, over-
filling reduces our profit: 1 ml difference per
0.5-1 bottle amounts to 200 hI with a bottled beer
output of 100,000 hi (= 20 mio. bottles)! Even
small quantities add up.
Pha se 9: Pressure release
By opening the valve (4), the bottle interior is
connected with the relief channel, which lowers
the pressure in the bottle slowly by means of a
tapered connection and thus prevents a large
overfoaming of the beer after lowering.
Phase 10: elP cleallillg phase
Once a week, the bottle interior is elr cleaned.
For this, specially shaped containers are placed
under the filling elements and all valves are
opened for a thorough rinsing with cleaning
and disinfectant agents. Next, the cleaning
agent residue is thoroughly rinsed again with
water.
 662 663

bJ)

) 5
r..L:
V)

Fig.5.26n
Comp"ler collirolled sillgle chnmberfiller willI hollow sell sor !1l1l1ofill ORS-ZiVlS/S, KH S, Oor/llll1l1d)
Explnllnliolls ill Ih e lexl

Th e sensor can also be a hollow sensor (Fig.
5.26a) and in this case has two functions: " rin-
se" after pre-evacuation and "return air" during
filling . The computer controlled single chamber
filler lImofill DRS-ZMS/S operates with a triple
pre-evacuation and a double CO, rinsing using
the hollow sensor, which also sets the filling
height.
Many breweries prefer mechanically control-
led fillers. A mechanically controlled single
ch amber filler with pre-evacuation and CO, rin-
sing is, fo r example, the Innofill DMG-SVF
(KHS Dortmund) (Fig. 5.26b).
The filling process proceed s as follows: the
bottle is pressed against the filling head and the
evacuation valve (arrow) is opened. The bottle
is evacuated (Pos. 1). By additional opening of
the prepara tory air valve, CO, is fed into the
bottle and purges it (Pos. 2). Thro ugh a second
evacuation, the residual air is removed from the
bottle (Pos. 3) and subsequently, CO, is fed into
the bottle from the bowl by opening the prepa-
ratory air valve and thus equal pressure is pro-
duced (Pos. 4). Now the beer valve opens and
the beer fl ows along the wall into the bottle,
while the CO, is fed back into the bowl (Pas. 5).
The filling end (Pos. 6) is reached when the beer
has reach ed the re turn air pipe. The beer and re-
turn air valves close (Pas. 7) . By opening the
pressure release valve (arrow), the beer present
in the return ai r va lve can flo w back into the
bottle (Pos. 8) and thus determines the height of
the beer level in the bottle.
Fig. 5.26b
iVlechnllicnlly COli/roiled filler type OiVIG-SVF (KHS Oor/-
1I11111d )
664
5.1.4.5 High pressure jetting
Resid u al air in the bottle neck is extremel y
harmful to the beer.
Becau se of air in the bottle neck
aerobic microbes in the beer start growing,
bu t above all
the aging process in the beer is accelerated.
The more oxygen the beer contains and the
more oxygen gets into the beer during filling or
bJ)
gets stuck in the bottle neck, the more quickly one
.S
¢:: can expect flavour deterioration in the form of
r:/)
aging of the beer flavour. One must therefore ma-
00
ke every attempt to displace still remaining oxy-
gen residues from the bottle neck. This is done
using a high pressure injection system (HPIS).
In the high pressure injection system, a very
fine water jet is injected from above into the
path of the bottle mouth at up to 40 bar. Every
filled bottle which comes by receives a few hun-
dredths of a millilitre of hot water at 80 °C from
.-<
this fine jet as it goes by. As a result of this, the
'i§ beer foams up immediately in the bottle neck
Q)
;>
Q)
and thereby displaces the air remaining in the
rfJ
o bottle neck upwards and out of the bottle. One
o must, however, be careful that not too much
I,vater is injected, because a quantity of oxygen
is dragged along with the water jet and shoots
into the beer; the exploding CO 2 has to purge
this oxygen out again before the air can be dis-
placed from the bottle neck; and that the bottle
does not foam up too much, because beer is lost
with the foam ,
The correct setting of the high pressure jetting is
therefore velY important, The earlier jetting oc-
cms and the more time there is available for foa-
ming, the more oxygen is removed out of the neck
of the bottle [296], Thus the following oxygen
amOLUlts were measured in the neck of the bottle
Oil jettillg
at th e start of the discharge star wheel
0.21111g/l
ill the middle of the dischmge star wheel
0.26mg/l
665
at the elld of the discharge star wheel
0.35 mg/l
beer without high pressure jetting
0.43 1I1g/l.
In other studies [272], it has been pro-
ven that without high pressure injection, conside-
rably more strecker aldehydes were formed than
with the use of high pressure jetting, This speal<s 5
in favour of using high pressure jetting.
In order to optimise this process, the water jet
is controlled, in modern filling machines, by
computer-supported proportional injection,
The necessary jet pressure, and to a certain ex-
tent the position of the injection, is regulated ac-
cording to the filling throughput, and the tech-
nological values in the bottle neck are kept
constant even in deceleration and acceleration
phases,
Generally, the necessary injection pressure ri-
ses with increasing output, but after attaining a
maximum value, sinks again when the output
increases even more, Indication lines for the re-
levant injection pressure are allocated to the
different throughputs of the filling machine;
these can, however, can be altered at the brewe-
ry's discretion.
The timillg of the HPIS is very importallt.
The filled bottle is now immediately sent to the
closer.
5.1.5 Closing the bottles
The glass bottles are now equipped with a
crown cork.
It is also increasingly common to use swing
stoppers for beer bottles.
To a small extent, and only for special purpo-
ses, beer bottles may be corked and equipped
with a wire handle (as with sparkling wine; Bel-
gian and French special beers),
The more sensitive the beverage is to oxygen
influences, the more rapidly the stopper must
be applied .
666
If the beverage is not subsequently pasteuri-
sed, one must prevent air and micro-organisms
from getting into the beverage on the way to the
stopper or through the stopper itself, thus en-
dangering its stability.
I ___
l
r d,
L,l
Fig. 5.30: Crow II cork stopper
5.1.5.1 Closing with crown corks
CroWIl corks
Crown corks (Fig. 5.30) are the most commonly
used stoppers. They consist of lacquered steel
plate with a standard sheet density of 0.235 mm
+ 0.020 mm and a sealing insert.
Crown corks have an internal diameter (d,) of
26.75 mm and 21 teeth. Their indication is 26
mm; the external diameter (d,) is 32.1 mm + 0.2
mm and their height (h) 6.00 mm + 0.15 mm .
Crown corks for sparkling wine and similar
beverages have an internal diameter of 29 mm
and a height of 6.80 mm + 0.15 mm.
The steel sheets used for crown corks are ma-
de of
electrolytically tituled steel plate (tinplate)
with 2.8 g Sn/m 2,
electrolytically chromed steel plate (ECCS)
with min. 60 mg Cr/m 2 on each side
stainless steel plate (INOX).
The crown corks are lacquered itlside and
outside.
The outer lacquering is produced, according
to the wishes of the customer, by digitally con-
trolled computer systems using lithographic
setting copies. Today, high quality lacquer and
highest quality pritlted colours can be gUal'an-
teed. The outer lacquering also protects the
cork from corrosion and abrasion .
For the imler lacquering, various adhesive
lacquers are used for the sealing insert; either
for PVC or for PVC-free material.
To encourage sales, crown corks are someti-
mes used which have a removable sealitlg in-
sert with the company logo . Special adhesive
lacquers are used for this. The sealitlg materi-
als used are
itljected sealing inserts using PVC,
cold embossed sealing inserts without PVC
or even
compressed cork discs w ith an alumitnum or
vitlyl spot.
Most sealing inserts are made from PVC com-
powld and are injected into the crown corks and
embossed Lmder heat. They have a neuh'al fla-
vom and are also suitable for hot filling, pasteuri-
sation and sterilisation. They seal very well and
many filling compalnes prefer them for this rea-
son, although this causes PVC disposal problems.
PVC-free sealing inserts are extracted from a
granulate on a PVC-free basis and are embos-
sed in different forms for the different bottle
mouths. They too have a neutral flavom alld
Cm". CIJ(/( - standard
CroitlI cOfk - /JJ.rrier
'/i,is/-()f(" Cfo'Ntlcork
Ptaslic cJOSIJre - standard
PtasliccJOSIJre-barrier _ with a Twist-off crown cork.
C/oSl1r8 Itilh a stopper
C/o&JIe with actile scavenger _
PlJrmeahiffty in
CtOSlJre d· O.2t bar
Fig. 5.30n
are just as suitable for hot fillitlg and pasteuri-
sation.
Crown corks made from titlplate or chromi-
um steel sheet with compressed cork discs and
spot are used for alcoholic aperitifs and sterili-
sed milk.
Crown corks are increasitlgly often equipped
with a sCalwanger compound, which can bind
2-4 m g of oxygen by means of settled reducing
agents and can thus counteract oxygen uptake
on a long-term basis .
Even with the crown cork, oxygen
uptal<e tlU'ough the compolmd Call generally be
expected, just as surrounding smells Call be itll-
parted Witll time into the beer flavour duritlg sto-
rage of bottled beer - despite the difference itl
pressure between bottle interior alld SUlTOLU1-
cling air. The different closmes vary considerably
in tlleir permeability to oxygen (Fig. 5.30a).
Twi st -off crown corks
Twist-off closures are closures winch attach the
cork firmly to the vessel by a quarter rotation
and winch can be opened again by a short anti-
clockw ise rotation. These closures are common
with bottles alld jars with a broader mouth. Ori-
ginatitlg in North America, the Twist-off crown
667
cork closure has b een itltro-
duced for the closing of beer
bottles itl mallY cOLmtries. For
this, the non-recyclable bott-
les used must possess a pseu-
do-thread, which is closed
The consumer can then open
the bottle again without an
110
opener, by an anti-clockwise
quarter rotation. Since the
crown cork, however, has
18 19
very sharp edges, many con-
sumers use a tissue or a cloth,
itl order to avoid itljury to the
ball of the hand. Others still
open the bottle with an opener, which Call, ho-
cause damage to the pseudo-thread. The
breweries winch employ such twist-off closures
often form the bottle bottom as a crown cork ne-
gative, so that the underside of the bottle Call
function as an opener.
Sortillg the croWl! corks
For untroubled closure, all the crown corks
must have the same position, so that they can be
set on the bottle mouth without problems, with
the compound facitlg downwards.
This positioning takes place in the sorting de-
parhllent using a tunnng tube (Fig. 5.31). Use is
made of the fact that the jagged side of the crown
cork is significalltly larger thall the closed side.
If a crown cork enters the turning tube with
the open side facitlg the observer (Fig. 5.31,
right), it is turned a quarter-turn to the left by
the mechalnsms in the tube and leaves the tube
with the open side (to the right) .
The left crown cork enters the turnitlg tube itl
exactly the opposite position (Fig. 5.31, left) .
The mechanisms force it to turn to the right, so
that it fitlally comes out in the same direction as
its partner on the right - with the open side (to
the right).
668
In this way all the crown
corks, whatever direction
they arrive in, are sorted into
the sa me direction.
Subsequ en tl y th e crOWn
corks - packed very close to-
ge ther - are guid ed Over a
feeding groove to the transfer
and finally put on the bottles.
In the course of the
many millions of crown corks
pass throu gh these sorting
d epa rtments, turning tubes
and feeding grooves. Because
of the sharp edges of the mil-
lions of closures, all the pas-
sageways become broader
with time; this leads to wed-
ging and blockages. In order
to avoid this, these machine
parts should be m eticulously
Fig. 5.3 1 inspected and refitted or re-
TlIl'llillg tllbe to till'll tire CroWII corks to tire correct positioll placed in good time.
The tran sfer of the crown
corks takes place mechanically
and magnetically (Fig. 5.32).
The crown cork is fed into the
h'cU1sfer segment (1) and direc-
ted by a towing loop, over a
ramp (2), to the magnet (3),
which holds the crown cork
firmly in this position.
The closing procedure is re-
latively complicated, since
one must attempt to even out
very slight h eight differences
(Fig. 5.32a). The closing ele-
m ent lowers itself until the
2 3 closing ring of the crown cork
meets the bottle and is held
by it (1) . Then the closing ring
Fig. 5.32 alone m oves further down-
CroWII cork trnllsfer ill tile closllre plnllt wards. In the first phase, only
669
5
2 4
Omm 3.7mm
7.7mrn 4mm
Fig. 5.32n
Pnllr of tIle closillg e/ell/ellt dllrillg closure
Explnlwtiolls ill tire text
the force of the leading spring ac ts on the crown
cork (2). In a second closure phase, the ejection
spring is pressed and the pressure on the bottle
increases. The closure procedure is over when
the crown cork has moved 7.7 mm into the clo-
sing ring (3). Thus the crown cork is 1mm with-
in the cylindrical part of the closing ring, and
the necessary closure diameter of 28.6 to 28.7
mm is exactly reached (Fig. 5.35). This ends the
closing procedure, and the closure force d ecrea-
ses again (4).
Through the delayed effect of the ejection
spring, a high closure quality with low pressu-
re on the bottle is guaranteed. When the closing
ring moves further downwards over the crown
cork, the pressure piston blocks this. This also
evens out the bottl e h eight, w hereby bottles Fig. 5.33
which are too hig h press th e bottle pl ate Crow II cork closillg nwe/lille
(1) CroWII cork sortillg plnllt, (2) Sortillg plnllt drive,
dow nwa rds until the lowest p art of the closing (3) CroWII cork e/wllllel witlr tUl'lling tube, (4) Closillg ele-
elem ent is reached. Controlled by the lifting Illellt, (5) Bottle cnrriel; (6) Drive
 670
cu I've, the closing element now moves upwards
again and the leading spring presses the ejecti-
on stamp back into the starting position.
a.
5 a porcelain head, which usually has an adver-
Fig . 5.35
Prillciple of the crowlI cork closllre
(1) CI'OWII cork
(2) I ll sert
(3) Teeth
(4) Cllrves bet wee/! the teeth
(5) Bottle 1Il0llth
(6) Rillg to hold the closllre
n = III1c1osed b = closed
After closure, the bottle is sprayed with wa-
ter, in order to free it from adhesive beverage
residues (danger of corrosion, growth of micro-
organisms). Water from small jets is directed at
the space between the crown cork and the bott-
le mouth.
Even after closure, the unprotected sharp
steel edges of the crown cork remain intact. In
combination with water which collects under
the teeth, rust is formed by an electrochemical
reaction between tin or chrome and iron, and
this rust develops, if stored wet for a longer pe-
riod, into an ugly rus t ring underneath the sup-
port ring of the bottle. It is therefore necessary
to rinse out the space underneath the teeth
edge of the crown cork with water and then
to blow it out with air, and
to avoid condensate wa ter on closed bottles
by airing the storage rooms well.
The correct pressing of the crown corks onto
the bottles is tested with a stencil. The stencil
has a row of openings which the pressed-on
crown cork ei ther passes through, does not pass
through or just goes over. This test Inust be car-
ried out with all elements of the closure pro-
cess, in order to control the uniformity of their
activity. If the opening which the diameter of
the crown cork occupies
is too small, there can be difficulties opening
the bottle;
if it is too large, this can lead to leakage or the
crown cork can jump off.
Newly applied crown corks can be turned
using a bit of force. As studies show, this mobi-
lity has nothing to do with the firm positioning
of the crown corks. The corks only "stabilise
themselves" with time.
Trallsport amI storage
Crown corks consist of sheet steel and are the-
refore magnetic. The transport of the crown
corks is therefore usually carried out usi.ng ma-
gnetic tapes, by means of which ver ti cal trans-
port can also be achieved unproblematically.
Because of the transportation on magnetic ta-
pes, the crown corks also cannot rub against
each other.
Crown corks have sharp edges, with which
they rub agains t each other and against the ca-
sing. They should always be transported and
stored in a s table plastic casing. If they are
transported freely in boxes, they always rub
against the box when moved. The abrasion,
which also contains a relatively small amount
of colour abrasion from the crown corks, can la-
ter be found swimming in the bottle on top of
the filled beverage, since it is virtua lly impossi-
ble to remove it again.
The same applies to the abrasion which occurs
because of the movement of the crown corks in
the sorting plant (hopper), which should there-
fore not be constantly filled with crown corks.
The height level indicator of the fwmel should
tl1erefore be set as low as possible.
t
5.1.5.2 Closure with a swing stopper
Swillg stoppers
Swing stoppers were still the normal closures
for beer bottles fifty years ago. In a number of
breweries, swing stoppers have been reintrodu-
ced to characterise individual types of beer.
Swing stoppers consist of
tising logo on it,
a rubber sea ling and
the two-part wire handle made of galvanised
steel wire or stainless steel wire.
Clo sllre procedure witTl swil/g stoppers
When the porcelain head and rubber sealing
are placed on the bottle mouth, they can be
firmly pressed on by pressing down the tensing
handle, and the bottle contents is thus sealed
off. This procedure can be repeated as often as
required. A significant resistance must be over-
come when pressing the handle down.
For mechanical closure, therefore, there are
several necessary intermediate steps:
setting up the handles in one direction,
putting the porcelain heads and the sealing
on the bottle and
pressing down the h and les.
This means that swing stopper closure ma-
chines have a relatively complicated structure.
They are therefore only used for sorts of beer
with which one can balance out the higher costs
for the bottles and the closure by demanding a
higher price.
Problems with swillg stoppers
ProtectiOI/ of the CO l/tellts
Swing stoppers are usually sealed by a handle
label, which is attached to the bottle neck and
which bridges the handle. This label provides,
however, insufficient protection, since it can ea-
sily be removed.
671
TellsiOIl of the wire hal/dles
It is sensible to control the tension of the wire
handles, since their tension is reduced with ti-
me and the porcelain heads then can no longer
be adequately pressed on .
5
b
a
Fig . 5.36
Swillg stoppel' with rllbber disc
(n) III1c1osed (b) closed
Contamil/atiolls ill t he 1'IIbber sea l
The rubber seals lie very close to the porcelain
head when the bottle is open (Fig. 5.36). If the
bottle is closed, the rubber is pressed upwards
and it removes itself slightly from the porcelain
head at the lower end (b). There contamination
nests can build up, which then, when the bottle
is open, are protected between the porcelain
head and the rubber and generally survive all
the procedures. As soon as the bottle is closed,
they are active again.
But it is not only because of this that the rub-
ber seals are a source of contamination: old rub-
ber and bad quality rubber tend to form tears,
in which contamination nests build up and cau-
se hazing. Moreover, bad quality rubber and
 672
old rubber emit flavour s ubs tan ces into the
beer, which can considerably harm the quality
of the beverage.
The potential problems and higher costs have
had the result that the swing stopper for beer
bottles is now largely confined to particular,
usually higher priced beer types.
5 a potential source of danger, particularly becau-
5.1.6 Cleaning the filler and the closer
The cleaning of the filler and closer is always an
urgent hygienic necessity. In plants in which ea-
sily spoilable beverages, such as beer, alcohol-
free beverages, lemonades, fruit and vegetable
juices are filled, the thorough cleaning of the fil-
ler and closer can even become crucial to the
survival of the plant, since very many contami-
nants can find their way into the beverage on
the filling journey.
If the beverage is then not pasteurised in the
bottle, micro-organisms can breed in the beve-
rage, haze it and spoil its flavour.
The causes of secondary infections in beer in-
clude [317]:
- inadequate hygienic conditions at the filling
plant,
- rapid formation of biofilms, caused by high
degree of plant complexity with a lot of cor-
ners and seams,
- ideal environmental conditions for micro-or-
ganisms, such as beer harming bacteria and
foreign yeasts (humidity, warmth, nutrients),
- formation of aerosols (fog) in high perfor-
mance plants,
- reduced mechanical cleaning in favour of
chemical cleaning and costs,
- poor aeration and ventilation in the filling
and labelling areas.
Main causes of contamination were fOlmd to
be:
Closer . Closure stamp
Non-removable covers
Star wheels
673
Filler Star wheels and bic bacteria such as Pectinatus and Megasphae- Everything possible must therefore be under-
centring tulips ra can establish themselves and reproduce. Lac- taken to prevent the formation of biofilms. If
Casings in the tic acid, formed from la ctic acid bacteria, is par- su ch germ beds are formed, the dangerous
conveyor area ticularly favoured by these two anaerobic germs can reproduce more and more and are
Conveyor belts contaminants and thus its reproduction is en- dragged into all sorts of areas of the plant by air
Infeed screw couraged. movement, injection s, bottle conveyors and
II/spector Star wheels personnel. Thus the widespread germs become
Conveyor belts
5
(high humidity) se they get more and more used to the beverage
Was/liug lIIachille Dripping water at the milieu and thus become real contaminators.
toothed sheet above the It is therefore extremely necessary to be meti-
bottle exit culous in taking all m easures to remo ve the
COl/ve!f0r belts Dripping noses germ beds on and in the filler and closer as well
Collecting sheets as in the whole filling plant area, and always to
Troughs, belt chains keep these areas m eticulously clean. The follo-
Filler SIllTOlIlUfil/gs Fouling of machine wing measures are used:
parts CIP cleaning systems for the filler and the clo-
Open tile gaps
Congested gullies Drenching particularly vulnerable parts of
Vapour formation Grooves above the bottle the plant with water and
exit Fig. 5.36n
Automatic chemical foam cleaning of the en-
FOrlllnlioll ofbiofi lllls Ih rollgh Ih e excrelioll of polylller SlIb-
tire filling plant.
slnllces nllli sigllnl 1II0leCllIes
Although most pests are sensitive to hea t and
above all to dry surroundings, they can usually ClP cleallil/g s!fstellls for the filler aun the
only survive and breed in the protection of ot- Biofilms are symbioses of micro-organisms in closer
her robust micro-organisms. varying compositions. They form in all areas of Regularly cleaning and sterilising all parts
Such robust micro-organisms are mainly ace- life wh ere it is wet or at least damp and become which come into contact with the beverage is a
tic acid bacteria, which appear everywhere and noti ceable as a thin layer of slime which CaIU10t basic prerequisite for biologically secure filling.
cover themselves with a slimy capsule, colJecti- simply be washed away. Biofilms form everyw- With modern fillers, all parts which come into
vely known as biofilms. These slimy capsules here - even in our clean toothbrush mugs, a bio- contact with the beverage, including the cent-
form an excellent protection against drying out, film layer forms after a period of time, which ring tulips and the returning gas tube, are
but also against heat or disinfectants. Bacteria can and mus t be m echanically removed wit- cleaned by a closed CIP circuit system. In order
of the strain Acinetobacter as well as Pseudo- hout difficulty. The type of colonised micro-or- to achieve this, special cleaning caps are atta-
monas have been identified as pioneer organ- ganisms depends on the situation. Thus the ched to the filling elements, enabling thorough
isms [315] which colonise even on smooth most varied strains come into contact as a result rinsing out using the cleaning agent.
cleaned surfaces within a few hours and start of the excretion of polymer substances and si- With modern crown cork closing elements,
forming biofilms. If such omnipresent acetic gnal molecules (Fig. 5.36a) , and form a sort of too (Fig. 5.37), a rinsing cap (5) is attached,
acid colonies establish themselves in corners symbiotic commlmity in which they can com- which allows the cleaning agent (drawn in red)
and germ beds, other germs can also arrive he- plemen t each other and thrive. Biofilms create access everywhere. There are also good oppor-
re, which also take advantage of the protection the basis of life for beer spoiling organisms, tunities for a targeted drenching of the closing
of the slimy capsules. Since the acetic acid bac- which have a considerably higher resistance to elements with hot water.
teria love oxygen, they use up the oxygen sup- biocides and cleaning agents within these bio- Also especially important, however, is regu-
ply of the capsules very quickly, so that anaero- film s (see Sect. 7.4.2). lar cleaning of the crown cork sorting plant,
 f
674
675
which is achieved using integrated jet sprays.
With screw closure plants, an analogous proce-
d u re must be used .

6- --..rti:=1
7 Water rlrel/cllillg
I
2 It is sensible to drench particularly vulnerable
5
parts of the filling and closing plants with wa-
Schmiermittelfreier
ter at regular intervals, in order to prevent con- VerschlieBkopf
LubricaUon·(ree
taminants from establishing themselves. crowning head 5
The following parts have proved to be suitab-
Stationare
le (Fig. 5.38): Abschwallung
on the filler at the height of the controlling Offenliegender
valves, lifting cylinders and tulips (1), -!+--+--- Druckslempel
Open design of
on the closer to drench the closure stamp (2) plunger

and
VerschlieBring
between and above the loading and discharge Crowning throat
Solenoid
stars (3) including the conveyor belt. valve

4 Cold water with a chlorine dioxide additive is

3 usually used for water drenching. The dren-
clung should take place everyone to two homs,
Gefederter
if possible during an interruption for the time
- - Flaschenleller
of 2 to 3 filler rotations after removing the bott-

Fig. 5.37
les at half speed. The drenching should be in Fig.5.38a
CroWIl cork closillg elelllel lt Witil 011 tel'
AnschluB fUr Wasser /
Oesinfektionsmitlel i3 g Spring-loaded
bottle platform

the form of a broad water jet, not a dispersing rillsillg Water/disinfectant supply
Crow II cork closillg elelllellt (illtemal cleallillg)
(1) closllre COile, (2) lIIagllet, (3) crOWIl closllre, (4) closllre spray and also not in the form of finely disper-
hend, (5) rillsillg cap, (6) CIP illfeed, (7) CIP retllm pipe, sing jets.
(8) colllpellsatioll sprillg, (9) ejectioll sprillg Particular attention must be paid here to the
thorough rinsing of the crown cork closing ele-
ment (Fig. 5.38a).

Foam cleal/ing the ell tire fillillg plal/t

We have seen that the first contaminants can al-
ready enter the bottle on the drip plates of the
cleaning maclune. It is therefore imperative to
take regularly all measures which contribute
towards keeping the entire plant clean.

The maill lIIeasures are:

automatic external foaming according to a fi-
xed time plan (after approx. 10 to 12 homs),
regular cleaning of all machines and machine
Fig. 5.38 Fig.5.38bl
Drellc/lillg with hot water parts, use of foaming cleaners for the inacces-
Strollglll adhesive/oalll
(1) fillel ; (2) closllre star wheels, (3) trnllsfer star wheels sible parts after thorough rinsing; the foam cleallillg

zrtn
 677
676

cleaner has to be viscous and adhesive if it is

to be effec ti ve (Fig. 5.38b1),
front table to substantia lly prevent the accu-
mulation of contam i.nants.
digital cameras.
Infrared recognition occurs in a defin ed area . .1 _·'.........
_·_ -
... StWwMill· ... An.
M · Clfllr,,-*....tft

Plate ch ains, plas ti c rails and distributing star
pa rticular attention mus t be paid to the co-
wheels are popular weak p oints w ith many
ve rs, bottom plates and machine dri ves,
boreholes and em pty spaces;
which are difficult to reach; modern fillin g
m achines h ave an open d esign with out a the floors are often p opular contamination
sources because of missing and loose tiles;
dirty corners, llllJleCessary things or machine
5 5
p arts lying around .
measuring head
In order to make jet shadows visible, it is advi-
sable to spray, or better grease and then dry out,
w ith kieselguhr powder first! After water d ren-
clling, the lmh'ea ted areas are easily recogn.isable.
in the label free zone of the tran sparent bottle
i 36 IE 00
(Fig. 5.38b2).
In the case of x-ray or radiom etric recogniti on L s,o
(gamma ra ys), the fillin g level is controlled ex-
!=
l
\--$OO ml
actly irrelevant of w hether the control a rea is '-
covered w ith a label or fo il. For can filling, y-
rays and x-rays are also preferred .
In x- ray (b) or y-ray fi lling height control, the
transmitter with the ray source is located on
one side of the measuring bridge, and on the
opposite side is a scintillation tube used as a re-

1.-
5.1.7 Control of the filled and closed bottles
After closing, the bottles are controlled
2 for the correct filling level (filling level con-
trol),
3 for missing or badly positioned closures and
if possible, also fo r oxygen residues in the
bottle n eck.
5.1.7.1 Filling level control
After closure, the prescribed filling height in
the bottle is controlled . This is necessary, in or-
der to
protect the consumers fr om lmderfilling and
thus to p rotect the brewery from a loss of
image,
to protect the brewery from losses caused by
r--- 7
overfilling and from bottles breaking during
6e--- rN-- . .. subsequent pasteurisation.
Moreover, it can happen that a bottle is only
half filled or n ot filled at all.
At the sam e time, the filling height control sy-
stem must register missing or crookedl y po-
sitioned closures and reject these bottles.
Fig.5.38b2 Faulty bottles must be filtered out.
Fillillg level cOllt rol llsillg illf rared mid x-ray recogllitioll
Filling height control can be carried out
(n) illf rared recogll itioll
(1) ovelfillillg trallslll illel; (2) ovelfill illg receivel; (3) IIlIder- using:
fillillg trallslllittel; (4) IIl1delf illillg receivel; (5) lIIeasll rillg infrared rays,
ilead x-rays,
(b) x-ray recogll itioll
(6) x-ray SOll rce, (7) set-poill t fillillg level, (8) receiver gamma rays and
ceiver. Because of the necessary protection mea-
sures for galllJn a and x-rays, one gladly d oes
without this m ean s of control. Nowadays high
defini tion cameras (640 * 480 pixels) are m ainly
used for measu ring the filling level control of
bottles and the area to be controlled is illumina-
ted with LEDs (light-emitting diodes).
Each bottle w hich p asses the sensor is registe-
red according to the prescribed characteristics
and either di rected onwa rds o r rejected.
Since the filling height control machine is
electronically coupled to the filler and closer,
one can always, unconnected with actual filling
sta tistics, prove
how many under- or overfillings happen ed at
each filling element,
which fillin g elements are working fa ultil y
and also
which, if any, closin g s tamps are working
faultily.
Apart from this, regular inspection of the
work of the control ins trument is necessary. For
this, one uses measu ring gau ges which are ad-
apted to the bottle fo rm and attached to the up-
per bottle ed ge. The distance between the cl osu-
re and the liquid level is measured (Fig. 5.38b) .
This is basically unp roblem atic in the case of
bottles w ith crown cork closures, while screw
closures present p robl ems beca use of their non-
stan dard point of reference.
Fig. 5.38b
Stellcil Jor lIIeasllrillg
filli llg ileigill ill 1111
wi til a closed 0.5-1
10llg lIeck bollie
5.1.7.2 Oxygen in the bottle n eck
We h ave seen that the oxygen content at the end
of s torage in the tank is n early 0% (0.0 to 0.01
m g oxygen/I), since the yeas t h as consumed all
the available oxygen . On the filtration journey,
the oxygen content in the beer rises somewhat
(air addition in the kieselguhr, the wa ter, the fil-
ter etc. ), so that one can expect
0.02 to 0.03 m g 0 ,/1
at the filler inlet.
During filling, too, there is a slight addition of
air, but p ar ticularly important apar t fro m this is
the oxygen rem aining in the bottle neck after
filling, since it gets into the beer th rou gh gas ex-
ch ange and causes d amage w hi ch has already
been described. We h ave seen that attempts are
made to eliminate this oxygen by foa ming up
678
679
the beer in the bottle neck by means of high We have seen that the very finely bubbled fo- The drum shown in the diagram represents a 5.1.8 Pasteurising in bottles
pressure injection . am produced by high pressure injection rises comparison with the electromagnetic impulse
The gas found in the head space of the bottle up to the mouth aJl.d di splaces the air oxygen on the crown cork.
5.1.8.1 Principles of pasteurisation in bottles
consists of CO, and air. We will see (Section upwards. Oxygen is thereby whirled in during
If a beverage is p as teurised in the bottle, no mo-
7.4.3.4) that one can easily remove the CO, gas high pressure jetting aJ1d is only partly remo- By conti.nually controlling all filled and clo-
re microbes CaJl. develop in the beverage. Pa-
during analysis using caustic soda. Air consists ved again. As it does so, the foam bubbles in- sed bottles and by rejecting incorrectly filled
s teurisation is therefore the best m ethod of se-
of around 21 % oxygen - but volume here is not creasingly take up air and thus become larger. bottles,
curi.ng the shelf life of a beverage, especially if it
the same as mass, and this plays a role in the da- From the larger bubble volumes, one CaJ1 deduce consis tent product quality on the market is
contains dissolved subs tan ces which are still
ta. Air contains the following fractions: a higher fraction of dissolved oxygen. guaraJl.teed, fermentable. 5
But not all bottles are filled so ideally: the prescribed shelf life of the beer is secured
The precondition for the pasteurisation effect
N, 0, Ar CO, H, in some bottles, the foam does not rise to the and missing or badly sitting closures are im-
is, that the required pastemisa tion
Volume-% 78.08 20.95 0.93 0.03 0.01 top, with the result that air remains in the mediately detected.
units (PU; see Sect. 4.6.1.2.2) are adhered to _
Mass-% 75.51 23.01 1.286 0.04 0.001 mouth;
even in the coldest part of the bottle. When a fil-
in some bottles, the foam crown comes out of 1 led bottle is warmed, the warmed beverage ri-
This results in the following conversion fac- the opening; the foam crown is dras tically al-
ses upwards at the outer interior side, while the
tors for air and oxygen at 20°C and 1013 hPa: tered by the centrifugal force in the star
still cold beverage in the middl e flow s
1 ml air 1.2 mg air wheel area and thus enables air to enter;
downwards (Fig. 5.39). The coldest part of the
1 ml 0 , 1.33 mg 0 , when the filler is slowed down, comes to a
beverage is therefore to be found directly above
1 ml air contains 0.21 ml 0 , = 0.28 mg 0 , standstill aJ1d is restarted after malfunctions,
the middle of the bottom. Mixing through and
1 mg air 0.83 ml air = 0.232 mg 0 , such phenomena occur particularly often aJ1d
equalising of the temperature only takes place
1 mg 0 , 0.75 ml 0 , = 3.6 ml air encourage air entraJ1ce into the beer.
slowly. The heat transfer is also slowed by the
The volume ratio of air to oxygen is 1 : 0.209 The result is that inequalities in the quaHty of bad conductivity of the glass.
the beer and thus loss of image occur.
Conversion factor for oxygen and air at 0 °C It is possible to control this air entraJ1Ce conti-
and 1013 hPa: nually, i.e. with every bottle, and to push out
1 ml air 1.293 mg air objectionable bottles. For this purpose, an elec-
1 mlO, 1.429 mg 0 , tromagnetic impulse is created above every
crown cork in the process, by means of which Fig. 5.38e
The air in the head space (residual resi- aJl. electromagnetic field is created. This causes COllirol of boltle fillillg nlld of Ihe closllre IIsillg eleelroll/nglle-
lie ill/plilse
dual gas, head space) is given the crown cork to be very briefly raised aJl.d let
(Hellf l Syslellllecllllik COlllpnllY, BllIgbriihl)
in ml/bottle or can go of again . As this happens, its free middle (1) good baffle
ill. ml 0 , per bottle or can or part vibrates briefly. One can record aJl.d eva- (2) nil' ill Ihe baffle lIeck
in mg 0 , per bottle or can. luate these vibrations using an audio frequency (3) crookedly plnced closure
(4) II/issillg closllre
It should not exceed receiver (Fig. 5.38c). One can conclude from the
0.06 mg 0 , in 0.33-1 bottles and vibrations (frequency, amplitude) whether
0.08 mg 0 , in 0.5-1 bottles. 1. the bottle is filled correctly up to the top with
In order to evaluate how endangered the finely pored foam, The bottles are subsequently
bottled or caJul.ed beer is, one calculates the to- 2. the missing or very largely pored foam indi- either immediately labelled or
tal oxygen content. The total oxygen dissolved cates a higher proportion of oxygen, firs t pasteurised aJl.d then labelled.
in the beer (including the oxygen in the hea d 3. the crown cork was put on crookedly and is Labelling of comse only takes place after pa-
room) is given in mgll (see Section 7.4.3.4). The therefore not airtight (so-called sleeping cap) steurisation, because otherwise the newly ap- Fig. 5.39
total oxygen content in the filled beer should or plied label would be soaked again and washed COll veelioll 1I10Vell/elli ill Ihe f illed bOltle
(left! whell wnrll/illg
not exceed 0.10 to 0.15 mg 0 ,/1. 4. no closure was put on. away.
(right) whell coolillg

e
 681
680

ser by far the larges t plant in the entire bottling stainless s teel rails and bottle is set down by lowering the bars and the
When pasteurising, one warm s the entire
plant. Larger tlmnel pasteurisers are therefore stainless s teel slat-band ch ains on low-abrasi- bars are moved back again. The mechan.ism for
bottle contents up to the desired pasteurisation
often se t up across two storeys, in order to save on plastic rails, and increasingly toda y this is compli cated and ca n only be Lmderstood
temperature, which one maintains long enough
space. two-pa rt belt modules with s ta inless s teel by keeping the reference line in mind.
to provide the beverage with the necessa ry pa-
chai n links with polypropylene ribbed upper In Fig. 5.40, the fi xed (black) bars face the mo-
s teurisation lUlits (PU) to destroy all contami-
5.1.8.2. Important components of the tunnel parts, so-ca ll ed "marathon belts" (Sand e r ving (red) bars. In order to understand the me-
nators. The following must be observed:
pasteuriser Hansen A/S, DK). chanism, one must always have in mind the re-
Liquids and gases expand more and more as
The ttmnel pasteuriser consists of The na rrow-meshed belts g uarantee sa fe lationship between the fixed black bars and the
the temperature increases. If only a limited vo- 5
a machine casing with a drive, work and faultless transport and a safe transfer moving red bars. One can see that the mov ing
lume is available, the volume of the gas com-
a slat-band for the bottle transport, of the bottles at the inlet and outlet. bars are lifted with the bottle, moved forwards
presses itself when warmed, increasing the
a spray system with Since the belts, which are several meters wi- and set down again a little bit further on the fi-
pressure . Liquids, however, are not compres-
a facility to regulate the hea t and water balan- de, are put under a lot of stress, two belts are so- xed grid. The moving grid then goes back to the
sed (they are incompressible); they expand furt-
ce, metimes used per level. left into its original positi on.
her - independently of the resulting pressure.
a comprehensive pump and ttlbe system and Since the belts run tlu'ough the machine with In thi s procedure,
This means, with regard to the bottle contents:
a recooling system. the bottles, they warm up with the bottles and the vertical movemen ts are carried out by
If a bottle to be pasteurised is completely fil-
Apart from this, twu1el pasteurisers can have re-coo l as well; this puts more s tress on the me- hardened rollers over the slanting level and
led with beverage (without a gas cushion), the
a system to regulate the PU when the machine tallic stainless steel bands than the less reactive the horizontal movements are carried out by
contents expands increasingly when warmed.
is standing still. plastic bands. Nonetheless, a lot of energy is horizontal rumung surfaces .
The resulting overpressure of several bar inevi-
lost here. In order to save energy, the walking For this, two hydraulic cylinders respectively
tably causes the bottle to explode at some point.
Machille casillg beam procedure was developed. are built in at the end of the pasteuriser.
Even a very small gas cushion cannot prevent
The crate-shaped machine casing is a self-sup- The distance between the bars must be cho-
the breaking of the glass, since the closure, too,
porting welded construction up to 30 m in Wal1d ng beam proced1lre sen in such a way that the bottles calU10t fall
normally endures a higher pressure.
length, in which the individual temperattlre zo- In the walking beam proced ure, the bottles over. The special advantage of the proced ure is
This means:
nes are housed with a roof, sidewalls and water stand on fixed p arallel bars of a grid. By means that the moving elements remain in the same
When pastel/rising, a sl/fficiently large gas
collectors. The interior can be observed using of a very original mechanism, they are lifted, temperature zone, and thus constant warming
cl/shion 11111St be provided, ill order to prevellt
large-scale inspection windows. The water col- moved forward in (small) cyclical steps and put up and cooling down, with the energy losses
the forwatioll of too large all overpressl/ re wit-
lectors are equipped with pitch for clean.ing dow n again by intermediate moving bars. that this entails, is avoided.
llill tile bottle.
purposes; narrowly m eshed plug-in strainers The forward movement results from lifting
The necessary headspace is calculated at
hold back contaminations which could block and moving the intermediate bars. Then the Sprayillg device
arolmd 4 % of the bottle volume; for a 500 ml
the spray jets. The water is pumped round wit- The object of the spraying device is that all the
bottle, that is about 20 ml, if the fixed bursting
hin the section by circulation pumps. bottles in this section are sprayed with water at
pressure value is not to be exceeded (for beer
The bottle transport is driven by a frequ ency a particular temperattll'e, uniformly and frol11
bottles> 10 bar) . The gross filling volume,
regulated drive motor. A spring loaded torque all sides.
which is marked on every bottle, is 520 ml in
support with a limit switch secures the motor TIle spray system consists of removable square
0.5-1 bottles.
against overloading. The running time and spray ttlbes. On the LU1derside of the spray ttlbe
During pasteurisation, the bottles, standing
temperatures are set automatically by the selec- are lmge, square openings, tlU'ough wh.ich tlw
on conveyor belts, are fed slowly through the
ted programme. water is sprayed out. The water is churned up in
tlmnel pasteuriser and at the same time war-
the interior area by deflecting plates, to achieve
med up by spraying with warm and hot water, • 0 <
Trllllsport belt jetting over a large surface. Thus and tlu'ough an
pasteurised and subsequently cooled down
The bottles are conveyed through the tempera- alternating arrangement of the jet ttlbe openings,
again.
ttne zones of the machine by a continually nU1- optimal spraying of the bottles is aclueved.
This process lasts about an hour. This means
ning transport belt. Most commonly used are Fig. 5.40 The water is collected as it flows off and, after
that the surface required is 3 to 3.5 m2/(1000
heat-proof plastic belts, e.g. intralox bands on Wn/killg benm procedllre filtration with pumps, fed into circulation
bottles· hour). This makes the tlll'tnel pasteuri-

I,
682
again . The water is heated by means of heat
transferers which are built into the piping . The
temperature is regulated, since the exact tempe-
rature is a decisive factor for carrying out the
pas teurisation process correctly.
Heat al/d water ma1lagemellt. Willllillg back
heat
In order to warm the bottle contents, the jet
temperature must of course be higher than the
temperature of the beverage. The temperature
of the jet water and of the bottle contents can
only be the same when the desired pasteurisati-
on tempera hue is reached .
Usually, one wants to process the beverage
flUther in a re-cooled s tate after pas teurisation .
One must, therefore,
warm the bottles up in severa l stages to bring
them to p asteurisation temperature,
p as teurise them (keep them hot) and then
re-cool them.
The quantity of heat w hich is released w hen
the hot and warm bottles are cooled down can be
used to warm up the next bottles. In this way, one
can redu ce the energy and water conslU11ption to
a minll11llI11 through heat transfer between the
warming up and cooling dow n zones (Fig. 5.42).
Multiple heat regeneration is possible:
the coldest water, fl owing out of Zone C3, is
fed back ll1to Zone H I to be warmed up,
the somew hat warmer water fro m Zone C2 is
fed back ll1to Zone H2 and
the s till warmer water fr om Zone CI is fed
back into Zone H3.
683
In this way, most of the consluned wa ter is won
After the fa ult has been removed, the tempe-
back. The overflow water from the first zones can
rature mus t be raised back to the set-poi nt va-
be caught separately and cooled using a coolll1g
lues before the bottle tran sport is turned on,
tower. Thus the consumpti on of cool wa ter can be
so that the prescribed PU va lu es can be rea-
considerably decreased in the w inter. ched .
In the way described here, beverages can be
Th e lowerll1g and raising of the temp erature
pas te urised faultlessly, unless a malftmcti on oc-
mu st be supervised by a contro l.
curs beca use a machine com es to a s tandstill _
An important precon di tion for a low sensory
for wh atever reason. If nothing is d one about it,
influence on the beer is that the oxygen con -
5
overpas teurisation Occurs w hi ch CaIUlOt be rec-
tent in the beer is as low as possible.
tified, beca use the hot bottles calU10t be moved
Th rough the regulated feeding in of cold wa-
on aI1d recooled . The flavour of the beverage
ter into these zones aI1d th ro ugh regula ted con-
suffers fro m this, and this can affec t m any thou-
trols, overpas teurisation mus t be largely pre-
san ds of bottles if the pasteuriser is full.
vented . By a step -by-s tep tem pera hire adj us t-
A PU ftl se mus t therefo re be built in.
ment - corresp onding to the m achine stoppage
time - jus t enough cool water is fed in as is ne-
5.1.8.3 PU fu se
cessary given the duration of the back-up and
If malftU1 ctions occur in the p roduction flow,
the p u. Here, the temperatures and PU w hen
measu res must be taken to avoid a PU increase
the m ach ine is continu ally flmctioning normal-
completely or at leas t to keep it at an accep table
ly are compared with the situation wh en the
level. This means that there mu st be the possi-
machine stops and a back-up occurs with in-
bility of
creasll1g s toppage time.
accurately reducing the temperature in the
A computer is coupled to the pasteurisation
pas te uri sa tion zones through the addition of process; this computer
cold water.
calculates the p roduct temperature and the

Fig. 5.43

.... -_ .... ......... -

The II/ollitor ill/nge sliows tlie jet
temperatllres (frn ll/ed ill bllle), the
prodllcltemperatll re (red bars),
Fig. 5.42 the set-poillt vnlile (yellow lille)
Hent nlld wnter II/nllngell/ellt dllrillg pnstellrisntioll of bottles or enlls flI/d the ndded pnstell risntioll III/its
(H1) Hentillg zOlle 1 (lient trallsfer witli coolillg zOlle C3); (H2) Hentillg zOlle 2 (lient trnl lsfer witli coolillg zOlle C2); (H3) Hen- (PU) (grew bnrs).
tillg ZOlle 3 (lient trnl lsfe r witli coolillg zOlle C1); (5) overlientillg zOlle; (P) pnstellrisntioll zOlle (Pnstelll' PLI Regllintioll)

•
684
added PU from the jet temperatures in the in-
dividual zones and from the h'eahllent time
for all parts of the pas teuriser.
The course of pasteurisation is recorded by
the computer as a process simu lation. The
computer can therefore reproduce the pro-
cess in ad vance and introdu ce suitable con-
trol measures if faults occur.
The setting of the output of the pas teuriser
can be changed and it can make the appro-
priate alterations.
Since, however, machine stoppage can only
be brought about by the pasteuriser itself or by
the subsequent machines and plants (labelling),
all measures should be taken to ensure an LUl-
disturbed continua l run, in the interes ts of
maintaining the quality of the beverage.
The course of pasteurisa tion, with all the im-
portant information about the process, can be
record ed by a monitor (Fig. 5.43).
The monitor records
the jet water temperature,
the course of the temperature in the bottle as
a fLUlCtion of time,
the com se of the set-point value temperature.
The PU to be aimed at is calculated from this.
The current batch can no longer be corrected,
but the set-point values for the nex t batch can
be altered (Fig. 5.43a).
5.1.9 Labelling and foiling the bottles
Nowadays it no longer suffices to produ ce a
good beverage: the bottle must also present it-
self to the consumer in an a ttractive form . This
includes
being decorated with at least one label and
sometimes also being decorated with a closu-
re foil.
The re levant information here is about
the labels and foils,
the labelli.ng glue and
the labelling process .
5.1.9.1 Labels and foils
The design of the label, its shape, colour and ef-
fect is of tre mendous importance, and this must
not be lU1d erestimated . Many consumers buy
with the eyes and, given the same content, pre-
fer bottles which attract them more by thei r at-
Fig. 5.43n
After n IIlne/Ii/le stoppnge, tile
IIIDllitor illlnge silows n regllinted
pnstellrisntioll cOll rse.
(Pns tellr PU Regl lintioll)
tractive presentation, the ir brilliant colouring
and their overa ll effec t.
Labels can be applied as
body labels,
back labels,
chest labels and
neck labels.
Other labellings are also possibl e.
Recently, wrap-around labelling has been
gaining importance.
The label paper contains the important and
effective imprints used to decorate the bottle. In
order to do this, the label paper must have the
foll ow ing properti es:
It must be good for printing on. In the case of
labels with gold or silver in the graphic de-
sign, it must be possible to apply a lacquer
and metallisation. For this the label paper is
coated and smoothed on one side.
Labels must not develop a hole or a llow the
background to show throu g h iJl either the
wet o r dry condition. To prevent this, titani-
um dioxid e is added as a fill e r durlllg m anu-
facture and the raw paper is fully g lued. The
glue and bottle co lour must not be visible.
Labels must be resis tant to caustic. The for-
mation of condensation water in itse lf n eces-
sita tes a water-resistant adhesive; but resi-
stance of the labels to the cleaning caustic in
the bottle cleaner is p a rticularly important to
prevent disllltegration of the labels.
Paper labels are fundamentally small works
of art. This pertains to both the composition of
the label and its gra phic design. The compositi-
on of a normal paper label consists of raw paper
(Fig. 5.43b) with a paper coatlllg and a thin re-
verse coa ting. In the case of m e tallised labels,
an additional coating is applied, which consists
of a priming varnish, an aluminium layer, the
prim er and the printing ink This additional
coating, however, causes 3Jl increase in the re-
moval time of the label during bottle cleaning
[365].
685
Metallisalion
- [gJ"
-
-
PrimeI ilk
i1AJminimIlayei
- " vamish
-
5
Fig.5.43b
COlllpositioll oln lIIetnllisen lnbei pnper
In many cOlUltries (e.g. USA, UK, OK, etc.) a l-
kali-soluble papers are used and the labels form
a pulp . This C3Jl only be done when the cleanlllg
plant is d esigned to cope with pulp and there
are no objections to the load III the waste water.
Labels must not become curl ed or form crea-
ses. Because only the front sid e is coated,
prlllted and lacquered, labels tend to roll up
Lmless the reverse side is a lso treated or pre-
pared with a light pigm ent appHcation. This
also lllhibits the absorp tion of water.
Water uptake is measured b y the Cobb value
(16 - 20 g/m 2), but this by itself is not sufficient
for quality evaluation.
For rapid 3Jld complete release of labels in
the cle3Jl.ing plant the fo llowmg properties
are llll port3Jlt:
- caus tic penetration time,
- prlllt colou r resis t3J1Ce to caustic,
- resis t3JlCe to caustic and
- water resis tance.
The orientation of the fibres III the paper plays
3Jl import3Jlt role in labelling . The imprlllt
should always be d esig ned so that the fibres of
the label nUl at rig ht angles to the longi tudinal
axis of the bottle (Fig. 5.44) (improvement of
the rlllsabiHty of the label off the bottle).

686
Fig . 5.44
Fibre directioll 011 Inbels
(top correct; bOttOll1 illcorrect)
Labels are supplied and stored in storable
stacks. Storage should be at 60 to 70% relative
air humidi ty and at 20 to 25 DC to ensure the la-
bels remain flat.
A special type of labels are wrap-arOlUld labels,
with which bottles can be labelled without adhe-
sive, i.e. the adhesive is not applied to the bottle
but only as a sh'ip onto the label, so that the label
can be removed again before the bottle is cleaned.
Wrap-arolUld labels are processed continuously
from the roll (see Section: Wrap-arolUld label-
ling). Above all, plastic foils made from
polyprophyls,
polyethyls, or
polystyres, but also
labels made from label paper are used .
The foils have the advantage that
they are imprintable and the printing colours
come out shiny and
they are somewhat stretchable when applied
and later attach themselves more closely to
the bottle.
Apart from the foils used for wrap-around la-
belling, one also often uses metallic (gold or sil-
ver) looking foils to fold rolmd the head of bott-
les (see Section: Foiling bottles) .
Some new ways of decorating bottles are e.g.:
687
glitter effects on the labels, reminiscent of ice Casein is a lactic protein. The adhesive is pro- Adhesive Advantages Disad vantages
crystals, duced by breaking down the casein in an alkali
thermo labels, which show optimal drinking environment at temperatures of 50 to 90 DC. Casein Suitable for cold Less adhesive
temperature when the temperature changes, Characteristic of caseUl adhesives is the great based or wet bottles power than
labels with holes in, which show the umer si- dependence of their viscosity on temperature Rapidly sets on dextrin glue
de of the back label, and thixotropic behaviour (this means that the cooling Thermostattulg
labels with a "no-label-look", which are p31"ti- adhesive becomes thilmer the longer it is stirred). Condensation is necessary
cularly effective on colourless bottles. In order to be able to work without problems, the water resistant Frost sensitive 5
The colour pigments used to inscribe the la- temperahu'e of the glue must be kept at the pre- Dries less quickly
bels are free of heavy metals, with the excepti- scribed level (between 25 DC and 38 DC) for a fair Plant Suitable for hot Longer bonding
on of the colour blue. A complex copper com- amolmt of time before processulg and during based and cold time
pound is contained in blue. If slight colour processing. A viscous-medium pump brings bottles Longer soaking
variation is taken into account, blue colours can back unused adhesive and keeps the temperatu- time
also be printed without copper. The varnishes re constant. Casein adhesives are used today for Very condensation Frost sensitive
(lacquers) used contain no heavy metals. throughputs of up to 80,000 bottles/h. water resistant
Silver is printed without heavy metals on the A viscous-medium pump provides constant
basis of alwninilU11. Gold colours are also pro- transportation; gravity is used to return the sur-
duced on an aluminium basis for deep prulting, plus amount. The temperature is kept constant Adhesive is applied either all over the label
whereas for offset prulting, gold colours on the usulg electric heating and thermostats. surface, in stripes or as a grid.
basis of a copper-zink alloy, containing heavy Starch and dextrin based adhesives are less According to Kremkow the following relati-
metals, are used. dependent on temperature than casein adhesi- onships exist between the requirements and the
ve. For this reason, they are particularly suitab- properties of the adhesive:
5.1.9.2 Label adhesive le for labelling warm and hot bottles. They, too, the higher the viscosity of the adhesive, the
The task of the label adhesive is to attach the la- are thermostatted and constantly transported more rapidly the initial stability of label ad-
bel or labels firmly and securely Ul the right pla- in circulation. hesion is achieved,
ce. Since the labels are put on by labelling ma- The mdividual adhesive types have the follo- the greater the casein content, the more firm-
chines with a high throughput, other properties wing characteristics: ly the labels adhere after 5 min,
of the adhesive are also important: the thinner the adhesive application, the bet-
short bonding times, Adhesive Advantages Disad vantages ter the resistance to condensation water,
thin layer thickness and thus low operatiIlg the thinner the adhesive application and the
costs, Starch Condensation Long threads are lower the pH, the more rapidly the labels are
condensation water resistance, to avoid later based water resistant pulled released in the caustic bath.
SlippUlg, Suitable for The aim of glue application is the uniform
does not form threads when applied. labelling hot coating of the label with glue. The thickness of
The adhesive also ends up, however, in the bottles the layer should be optimal:
bottle washing machule, where it must ensure a Dextrin High surface Not condensation if too thick - longer removal time, danger of
rapid removal of the label. Nonetheless, the la- based adhesion water resistant soiling.
bel adhesive must be able to be dissolved biolo- Sets rapidly if too thin - insufficient label adhesion, sme-
gically later, before it is fed Ulto the ulterceptor. Insensitive to Dries quickly aring.
Most glues in the beverage industry are frost To keep the costs as low as possible, as little
casein adhesives (about 90%), or Also suitable for Problems with glue as possible should be applied. Costs are in-
starch adhesives (about 9.5%) and hot bottles surface coated curred not just by the glue itself but also by the
alternative glues on a synthetic basis. bottles necessary additives and anti foams in the
688
689
cleaning caustic and the higher waste wa ter lo- der (5) and, with the glued back side faci ng out-
ad caused by these. ward s, in the fo llowing bottle carousel (6) it is 2 3 4
For economic use a figure of 8 to 15 g of adhe- transferred w ith the glued back side onto the
sive p er 111 2 can be assumed . bottle and brushed on.
The problematic p art is the gripper cylinder
5.1.9.3 Basic principle of labelling (Fig. 5.47), which mus t be set exac tly for the ta-
The basic principl e of labelling is: the label keover and p assing on of the labels. The most Fig 5.46
should be stuck firmly and completely s traight important p art is the g rippe r finger, w hich Labellillg statioll
at the predetermined p osition on the bottle. holds the labels on the anvil rail by p arts of the (1) labellllagazille 5
(2 ) gill illg pallet
This is achieved by the following s teps (Fig. label w hich are not glued . There are lmglued
(3) gll/illg roller
5.45): parts because of gaps on the glue pallets. (4) gripper cljlillder
The gluing p allets (2) roll against the gluing The opening and closing of the gripper finger (5) celltrillg bell
roller (1) and are equipped there w ith a thin ad- is ca rried out by a control curve, guiding the (6) datillg device
(7) pnllet enrol/sel operatillg
hesive film . Each gluing p allet rolls agains t the curve roll and roller lever, opening and closing
ill all oil bntil
label magazine (3) and picks up one label by its the g ripper fin ger at the predetermined time. (8) colltrol en/ II
back. The filling d ate is printed onto the label The entire labelling process is depicted again (9) oil-cirClilatioll Il/brientioll
by the d ating device (4) and the label is then in Fig. 5.46. of bo ffle table
(10) bmsll-oll device
cau ght by gripping fin gers at the gripper cylin- 6
(11) batfle plate 7 8 9 10 11 12
(1 2) bat fle table

Restore spring

,,-------- Polygon hub

Air blast
r-.._---- Lubricant line

Roller lever - - ---'"

Air supply
Camfollower- --../'

Control cam Pressuresponge

6 Anvil bar Gripper finger

Fig. 5.45
Labellillg process Fig. 5.47
(1) gll/ illg rollel; (2) gll/illg pallets, (3) label lllagazille, (4) datillg device, (5) gripper cljlilldel; (6) bm sllillg Gripper cljlillder

+
 690
5.1.9.4 Design of labelling machines
Depending on the size of the filling pl ant and
the required number of labels to be applied, a
distinction is m ade
according to the throughput:
lab elling machines with a straight through-
put and
rotary machines;
5 5
according to the number of labelling stations:
labelling m achines with one labelling station,
labelling m achines with two labelling stations
and
labelling m achines with more than two label-
ling stations;
accord ing to the supplying of the labels:
m agazine dispatch,
roll dispatch of wrap-arOLmd labels.
The essential components of the labelling ma-
chine are:
the adhesive machinery, consisting of adhesi-
ve applicator rollers, adhesive roller and ad-
h esive kn.ife (blade),
the adhesive pa llet cylinder; the adhesive pal-
lets ro tate aro und their axis unifor mly or
non-lmiformly or only ro tate to a limited ex-
tent,
the label magazine and the label container,
the gripper cylinder,
the drive,
the machine control and
the d ating device.
The control of the m achine must ensure:
no bottle - no label is removed,
if the bottles run out, the d rive switches to mi-
nimal speed after a predeterminable time,
when bottles are present, the machine is swit-
ched back to the normal throu ghput speed.
The brewery is frequently forced to mak e mo-
difications to the typ e or form of labelling. In
order to be able to achieve this task, labelling
machines are now built using modular teclmo-
logy. The machine (Fig. 4.47a) consists of the
front table with the the infeed and
discharge star wheels, and the machine carOll-
Fig. 5.47a
Mod llie tec/ll lOlogy illiabel/illg
(1) sepamtioll, (2) illfeed star
wheel, (3) label/illg aggregates,
(4) lIlachille enrollsel, (5) diSc/l-
arge star wheel, (6) cOlltrol desk
a
sell through w hich the bottles pass. Depending
on requirements, one or more m oveable label-
ling aggrega tes are attached, each with its own
synchron ous drive, w hich can then ap ply the
desired labels.
5.1.9.5 H ead folding with foil s
In the case of head folding, gold or silve r co lou-
red aluminium foils with the co mpany logo are
applied as
round foils (Fig. 5.48) or
pointed fo ils.
The cut fo ils are taken from a foil m agazine
and, analago usly to labelling, glued and ap -
plied, with the foil tip in the direction of the la-
bel.
Head folding takes place immediately after
labelling. The foiling machinery is situated di-
rectly at the h ead of the machine, which is cou-
Head folding: round foils
Head folding: pointed foils
Fig. 5.48
(n) Hend foldillg: rOlllld fo ils
(b) Hend fold illg: poillted foils
691
p led to the d isch arge star wheel, in ord er to
guarantee a synchronous p rocess.
5.1.10 Dating the labels
Las tly, the bottle must be provid ed with the ne-
cessary dates, which depend on the regulations
of the resp ecti ve nation and the p rescriptions of
the fi lling plant. Normally, these are:
the fillin g or sell-by d ate and
a company code, from which it is possible to
trace back the bottle.
In Germ an y it is also necessary to label w ith
the shelf-life d ate, w hi ch guarantees the good
quality of the beverage lmtil this d ate. Howe-
ve r, since the flavo ur quality of the beer
changes for the worse with time, more and m o-
re breweries abroad are going over to printing
the filling d ate (born-on d ate) and giving a qu a-
lity recommendation (fresh est tas te) of con-
sumption within 90 to 110 da ys.
For the reference marking, the da te bar on the
label edge can be used and the info rmation en-
tered there. This can be done using
stamping devices for plants up to 60,000 bott-
les per h ou r,
by sawing in the information onto the im-
printed label edge border,
embossing d evices or perforation devices for
papers with a lacquered surface (for lesser ca-
p acities),
ink jet printers; these apply the inform ati on
without contac t by using a jet of ink (see Sect.
5.5.12),
laser coders.
Laser printers are very often employed for
the m arking of labels. With these a high energy
(up to 6 J) infra red light pul se lasting about 2 ps
is directed using a tightly sealed radiation gu i-
ding system (Fig. 5.49) to the appropriate p osi-
tion on the label. In the radiation p ath there is a
metal mask w ith the shelf-life d ate and batch
info rm ation cut out. This information is m ar-
ked onto the appropriate place on the label by

692
means of the laser beam in about 0.2 Either
a coloured layer is evaporated and a back-
grOlU1d of a different colour becomes visible, or
the colour or structure of the surface changes .
In any case the very brief but effective laser be-
am marks the label very cleanly and appropria-
tely at the correct position.
The ozone produced by the laser must be ex-
)
tracted.
7 5.2.2 Rinsing
Fig. 5.49
Loser prill tel'
(1) Revcrsillg lIIirrol; (2) bcolII pot", (3) cylillder lells, (4) 011-
tOllloticolly call trolled p"oto 1II0sk, (5) gillilig pollet wit" 10-
uel, (6) joclissillg IIllit, (7) divertillg IIlin"Ol; (8) "eigllt odjllst-
IIICllt, (9) LeT disploy
5.1.11 Controlling the labels
Perfect positioning of the label is very impor-
tant for the reputation of the brewery. To meet
these high demands the correct position of the
label and the absence of defects are controlled
using a sensor or camera, as is the presence of a
barcode . This final inspection is often carried
out together with a control of the correct closu-
re of the bo ttle.
5.2 Special features when filling
into non-returnable glass bottles
Non-returnable glass bottles are supplied by
the pallet from the glassworks. The bottles are
arranged in layers on pallets and protected
with foil. Since the bottles come directly from
the works, they are clean and can only contain
some works and transport dust. The treatment
of these bottles before filling is limited to
pushing or lifting from the pallet layer and
rinsing off in the rinser to remove dust parti-
cles, a process which is sometimes omitted.
A precondition is, however, that the protecti-
ve foil of the pallet is not damaged and the pal-
let formation is not disturbed.
5.2.1 Clearing of new glass bottles
For clearing away the pallets are lifted in layers
and the new glass bottles lifted off layer by lay-
er (see Fig. 5.72). This has to happen very care-
fully so that no bottles fall over which could ea-
sily lead to a mass fall (see Sect. 5.5.2).
As an alternative the layers can also be lifted
using clamping grippers. The intermediate lay-
ers are collected and recycled.
New bottles come from the manufacturer and
contain no drink residues and are more or less
sterile owing to the manufacturing process. The
small amount of dust contained in them from
the glassworks can be removed by means of
spraying in a rinser.
Bottle rillsers
Bottle rinsers are usually constructed as rota-
ting machines. In order to be able to rinse out
the bottles coming in on the belt, they have to be
rotated so that the mouth is pointing down-
wards. For this purpose the rinsers are equip-
ped with plastic grippers which gently grip the
0
bottles, lift them, turn them 180 and fi x them
directly above the spray heads. The lifting and
693
later the lowering of the bottles is achieved by ned off the bottles, by means of the drainage
means of a curved path, through which the fin- tub (11), into the drain (12).
ger of the bottle gripper is led. The addition of 0.2 to 0.3 mg chlorine dioxi-
During transport through the rinser, the bott- de/I (CIO,) is recommended for the biological
les ar e rinsed out; the rinsing can occur using purification of the fresh water, which improves
cold water, but in the case of rinsers with seve- the biological quality of the water without for-
ral compartments, one can use separate feed-pi - ming chlorophenols . Measurement and regula-
pes to the jets to spray in cold water and/or tion occurs using a Redox measuring device, by 5
war111 water and blow in air, thus removing the means of which the chlorine dioxide content
residual liquid more rapidly. The total treat- can be set exactly in mg/l.
ment time of the bottles is between 8 and 10 se-
conds. The process is controlled by means of a 5.3 Filling into PET bottles
sliding window. The water running off is collec- Drinks are increasingly being filled in plastic
ted in collector tubs and drained off. bottles. In recent times, this applies particularly
Fig. 5.50 shows a mechanically controlled rin- to the filling of beer. Especially bottles made
ser w ith its main components. The throughflow from polyethelene terephthalate (PET) are used
of the bottles occurs clockwise in this case. The in this case.
spray water is introduced in (9) and distributed Plastic bottles offer numerous advantages:
by the distributor (6) to the spray heads (7), they are very light - a 0.5 litre bottle weighs
which are not all illustrated. The water is drai- less than 30 g,
6
Fig. 5.50
iYlec"ollicnlllj COli trolled rillscr
(1) tll l"lltoule drive
(2) cordoll s"o ft
(3) drive IllataI'
5-
(4) "eig"t OdjllstlllCllt - 4
(5) gripper 9
(6) dis triblltor 10 -
(7) spmy "eod
(8) protective cover
(9) rillsillg lIIedilllll ellt mll ce 3 -
(10) porticle/iltcr
(11 ) dmi ll oge tllU
(1 2) rills illg IIICdillll1 exit
694
they do not shatter and as a result cause no
damage, and are unbreakable,
they can be dyed any desired colour,
breweries can produce the bottles themselves,
the brewery can design bottles with indivi-
dual shapes,
the bottles can be recycled .
PET bottles also have disadvantages:
they are only temperature resistant to 60 °C
and therefore not suitable for hot filling or
pasteurisation.
Recent developments, however, are delive-
ring a higher temperature stability than with
pure PET (e.g. Polyclear 2201 PET copolymer to
92 °C, Polyclear 2203 from PET and PEN copo-
lymer to 95 °C).
5.3.1 PET bottles
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a polyester,
which is polycondensed in a melt from ethyle-
ne glycol and terephthalic acid.
5.3.1.1 Structural properties of PET
The inner structme of PET depends greatly on
the temperahtre (Fig. 5.51). Below arOlmd 80 °C
60 100 120 140 160
Tg Tc
Fig. 5.51
Stl'llctllrnl properties oj PET
(Tg) trnllsitioll to tile glnss-like stnte, (Tc) crystn/lisntioll
poillt
the chains of molecules are loosely connected to
each other; it is only above 80 °C that a glass-like
state (Tg) occms. This minimum temperature has
to be reached to obtain a suitable forming of the
material. Above 120 °C, on the other hand, a se-
mi-crystalline state occms characterised by the
formation and growth of spherical structures in
the material, which reaches its climax at about
160 °C (Tc) resulting in the material changing to a
milky-white opaque structure. As a result there is
a temperature window for the shaping of PET
bottles of 90 to 125 °C. As a rule temperatures of
about 110 to 115 °C are used for shaping. The
structure formed at the highest temperature is
not reversible dming cooling.
Fig.5.51n
!V[nss trnllsJer tllrollgll
PETwn/ls
5.3.1.2 Barrier properties of PET
PET is problematic as a bottle material because
it displays considerable solubility and permea-
bility to gases. The blocking ability of a separa-
ting wall regarding exchange of gases is refer-
red to as barrier properties, the exchange of gas
180 200
itself as permeation. Furthermore, exchange of
materials between the contents of the bottle and
the walls occurs which is known as migration
(Fig. 5.51a). All of these exchange processes are
important factors in the case of PET.
The most important factor is of course oxy-
gen which can have a considerable effect on the
flavour s tability of the beer. The first thing to re-
mark on here is that under atmospheric condi-
tions and at normal room temperature, about
0.012 mg 0 , is released per 1 mg PET [277], or in
other words [278]: 150 ppb/O.5 1 bottle. This is
not insubstantial and the content further increa-
ses corresponding to the age of the bottle. As a
result of the partial pressure difference between
the b eer and the surrounding atmosphere, a
high oxygen transfer occurs which can lead to
oxidation of the beer within a few weeks, parti-
cularly at higher storage temperatures. An ef-
fort is therefore made to improve the barrier
properties by means of interlining. In the case
of 0.5 1 PET bottles permeability is [277]:
multilayer bottles 8 - 15
vacuum steamed bottles 4 -10
bottles with 0 , scavenger 0- 2
(figures in at 23 °C) .
In addition to the oxygen which not
only occms in tl1e gaseous area of the bottle neck
but also along the entire bottle walls, CO, transfer
plays an equally large role as far as quantity is
concerned, although it is less significant.
Filling into untreated PET bottles therefore
only comes into consideration in the case of still
water. Such plants have been and are being
built and operated in large munbers.
To be able to fill beer in PET bottles, every ef-
fort must therefore be made to exclude oxygen
transfer in the bottle or to reduce it to an accep-
table amOlmt. For this purpose, interlining (lay-
ers) or coating is used.
5.3.1.3 Barrier technology
To prevent the exchange of gases through the
bottle walls, barrier layers are applied. This can
occur by means of:
layers within the mono/multi layer,
internal layers or
external layers.
695
All three methods are used and being suc-
cessfully expanded.
Mllltilayer
The multilayer method, often featuring an addi-
tional surface layer, has the largest market share
(about 70 %). Multilayers have three or five layers
as well as developments of hybrid systems with 5
six to nine layers. There are numerous suppliers
(Owens-Illinois, Constar International, Amcor,
Honeywell, Evalca, M&G a.o.).
The technology of Amcor PET Packing Ger-
many, Mendig, is used here as an example . Am-
cor works with various oxygen barriers, e.g.
AmGuard™ with nylon or AmGuard™ with
Bind-Ox+TM (Fig. 5.52a). The insertion of the
multilayers occurs during the manufacture of
the preform (Fig. 5.52b). Using special teclmo-
logy, the layer is embedded in the PET (Fig.
5.52c) and lmiformly distributed over the bottle
wall during blowing of the bottle.
Product
--
-co,
-
PET PET
Fig.5.52n
Bnrrier lnyer elllbedded ill tile IIIl1ltilnyer bottle
II/tenlal coatillg
The application of an internal coating is more
difficult as it requires an expensive coating
technique with additional machines . Since the
coating material has to applied in an explosive
 697
696

c
PET
5
BARRIER
Introduction 01the The::!:reT B:!:hamber
POLYMER bottle into the treat- is inlroduced inlo aches Ihe plasma reach almospheric
ment chamber Ihe boille slage air pressure again

Vacuum inside and Energy inpul using Deposil 01 amor- Removal ollhe Irea-
oulside Ihe botlle microwaves phous carbon on the ted bottle Irom the
Fig.5.52d intemal side 01the chamber
Illtel'llal coatillg usillg the Actis bottle
Hot Runner process, Sidel, \liel'llheilll

5.52e) . The procedure prevents migration of coating is tight and leak-proof and does not
dissolved gases and substances into the pro- quickly come off or is damaged by mechanical
duct and represents an effective barrier against load.
oxygen, CO, and chemicals. The BestPET Technology by Krones, Neu-
traubling, has for example an extern al barrier
layer beset with scavengers which is protected
with a n ano-thin but highly scratch-resistant si-
licon oxide barrier on the outside. The protecti-
Fig. 5.52v alld c on of the external coat is very important with
(v) cOllstfllctioll of ti,e multilayer prefonll (Otto Hofstetter AG, LlZllachICH) this procedure because rubbing reduces the
(c) illsertioll of the barrier material durillg the prefonll Ilwllufa cture (A lll cor PET Packagillg)
barrier qualities considerably. Only non-retur-
nable PET bottles are used for beer, however for
supply gas
pure PET. The Actis material is suitable for re- the filling of water, returnable bottles have esta-
manner, it is necessary in advance to create a
cycling. blished themselves.
vacuum in the bottle and in the treatment
chamber arolmd the bottle. With the Plasmax Internal Coating by SIC
Corpoplast, Ham.burg, PICVD coating teclmo- 5.3.1.4 The importance of Scavengers
In the case of the Actis method by Sidel
logy (Plasma Impulse Chemical Vapour Depo- It has already been shown in the case of crown
GmbH, Viernheim, a vacuum of < 0.1 mbar is
sition) is used. A compOlUld (hexamethyl disio- corks that by means of the integration of a sca-
created inside and outside the bottle. Acetylene
loxane) is used to prepare a reaction which venger in the insert, good oxygen binding can
gas (C,H ,) is then introduced and as a result of
forms a glass layer on the inner side of the PET be obtained. 0 , scavengers are substances on
microwave radiation of 2.25 GHz, a huge sup-
bottle. A gas mixture from this compolUld and Fig. 5.52e the basis of N a,SOy which bind oxygen in such
ply of energy is created, which, for 1.2 to 2.5 sec,
oxygen is introduced (in a similar way to that of Plnsllwx Illtemal Coatillg (S IG Corpoplast, Hamburg) a way that the latter is no longer available for a
creates a plasma . Within 2.5 sec, the internal
the Actis method) into a bottle lmder vaCUlun reaction with the filled beer. The scavenger do-
layer of the bottle is coated with a permanent
conditions and by means of pulsed energy from es, however, only have a limited oxygen ab-
layer of amorphous carbon (Fig. 5.52d). The lay-
er prevents the exchange of flavour between a microwave, a plasma is ignited, the reaction Exte/'/wl coatillg sorption capacity.
products of which are deposited "with a hint of It is easier to apply external layers than internal For the closure of PET bottles, screw-cap clo-
beer and PET and demonstrates a 7-fold better
glass"on the internal side of the bottle (Fig. ones. However, this only makes sense if the sures usually (but not inevitably) come into
CO, barrier and 3D-fold better 0 , barrier than
698
consideration (see Sect. 5.3.5), through which
an increased access of air into the head space is
possible. By means of a sealing compound with
an inserted 0 , scavenger, 2 - 4 mg of 0 , can be
chemically bonded with the result that permea-
tion in the interior of the bottle can be effective-
ly prevented.
This is not the case with the oxygen transfer
via the outer wall, the prevention of which is at-
tempted using layers. It is worthwhile instal-
ling the scavenger itself as an active barrier in
the container wall and protecting against the
oxygen in the atmosphere by means of an oxy-
gen barrier facing outwards.
F/l rth er characteristics of plastic
Plastic is in the position to bind certain aroma
components such as acetaldehydes and to re-
lease them later. This excludes the use of PET
bottles as rehlrnable bottles for certain pOUl'a-
ble products (beer, soft drinks, water).
The macro-molecules in plastic are subject to
ageing through mechanical and thermal s tress.
Ageing occurs in the form of "greying" of the
polymer, the appearance of scratching and ten-
sion cracks with increasing use, so-called stress
cracks, which lead to elimination during in-
spection of returnable bottles. It is no longer
possible to completely clean the tension cracks
thus giving rise to the risk of contamination.
This effect, however, does not (yet) occur in the
case of non-rehlrnable bottles described here.
Co!ol/ri1lg of PET bottles
For filling with beer, the preforms are to be dy-
ed "beer brown" to prevent the development of
a light struck flavour. Very stringent require-
ments are made on the dye which represents
only 0.08 % mass of the bottle: high temperatu-
re resistance, low tendency towards sublimati-
on, physiologically without risks. Additives are
also often added to improve particular proper-
ties, such as, for example, acetaldehyde-blocke
699
to inhibit the development of acetaldehydes, or 5.3.2.2 Stretching and blow-moulding of PET down to keep its sh ape. Figure 5.54 once again
UV-blocker to prevent the penetration of UV bottles shows the single stages of moulding a PET bott-
rays. Today s tretching and blow- moulding of PET le sta rting with the preforms.
bottles is usually performed directly at the bott-
5.3.2 Production of PET bottles ling plant (Fig. 5.53); sm all er breweries receive
The production of PET bottles occurs in two sta- preformed PET bottles from a (common) blow-
ges: mou lding station.
the production of the preforms and Preforms are delivered in large quantities, 5
the stretching and blowing of the PET bottles. stored in large containers (2) and sorted mouth-
side up by a roller-type sorting m achine (4). The
5.3.2.1 Production of the preforms preform s are fed into a long stretched-out line-
The production of the preforms from ethylene ar stove (7) via a feeding rail (5) or a similar fee-
glycol and therephthalate acid is carried out by ding device, where they are slowly preheated
specialist companies using the injection moul- by heater boxes. Then the preforms pass
ding process. The complete shaping out of the tlU'ough a transfer sta r to the blow-moulding
mouth with the thread and the neck ring there- station where th ey are enclosed in a blow-
by occur, which meet the demands of the super- moulding form (Fig. 5.53a) in the blowing
light bottle. This part undergoes no further wheel, with the neck ring and its thread staying
change in the following processes. The "lower" outside and being cooled . Now the process of
part of the preform is designed both in size and stretching and blow-moulding starts with the
the amount of materials so that the finished insertion of the blowing tube which at first cau-
bottle has the necessa ry wall strength in every ses a stretching of the preform body (Fig. 5.53b).
position. During the shaping of the multilayer As soon as the bottom is reached, a bubble is
preform, the barrier polymers also have to be formed in the upper part which moves steadily
poured in . downward until it fills out the whole form. The
Preforms are produced in large numbers by new bottle is ready, but it still has to be cooled
the manufacturers and sold unorganized in lar- Fig.5.53n
Blowillg lIlollld
ge containers.
Fig. 5.53
Mnchille overview of n stretcll-
blow-IIl01lldillg IIlnchille COllli-
foml S (Krolles)
(1) preforlll lillillg device, (2)
preforlll slorage (3) 2
preforlll (4) preforlll rol-
ler-type (5) preforlll fee-
dillg rail, (6) illfeed stnr wheel,
"lIP 3
(7) lillenr oven, (8) hentillg
cilnill, (9) henlillg boxes, (10)
Il'nllsfer stnr wheel, (11) blow-
11101lid stntioll, (12) blow-lIlollld
Fig. 5.52 wheel, (13) nil' (14)
Preforllls; the tlll'end wilh Ihe ben reI' rillg (lleck rillg) is flllly (15) colltrol enbillel, (16) 5 4
fOrllled wnler sllpply, (17) nil' slIpply
700
701

If the PET bottles are to be

filled w ith beer, the inside or
outside must be coated with a
block ing layer llsing one of a
number of m ethods. As this
layer must be d ry before the
bottles are filled, these have to
be stacked and s tored for so-
me time. This costs tim e and 5
money! That is w hy it is ad-
Fig.5.53b van tageous to de velop me-
Slwpillg of file baffle ill fil e blowillg thod s tha t all ow an uninter-
lIIollld (Sidel)
rupted process sequ ence from
the blowing-w heel to the fil-
Fig. 5.54n: Coolillg of tile bnse of tile baffle IISillg iced wnfer
ler, for beer filling, too.
6
5.3.2.3 Monitoring of the m anufactured PET
bottles
Infeedand It can easily h appen that the m achine produces
1 inspection .""
..,
Streching and pre-blowing rejects. The foll owing can be p roduced :

i
E
.g 2 wrinkle formation in the case of uneven m a-
£ 7 terial di stributi on in the neck area
cloudiness in the case of Lmeven cooling of the
Blowind to final shape,

0- Inversion
in infeed starwheel
3
retraction of strechingrod,
cooling
ma terial
stress w hitening in the case of too little mate-
rial

en
c
Heating
::.
I g= 8
Unlocking and opening
of mould,
lowering base mould
distorted contour in the case of incompletely
blown bottles
ova lity of the seal fa ce in the case of an in suf-
ficiently cooled thread
It is therefore necessary to p erform a check Fig.5.54b
::I: 4 9 direc tly follow ing the s tre tch -blow process to Rillsillg of fil e lIew baffles

be able to immedia tely recogni se and elim ina te

()

0-
Dischargestarwheel,
vertical starwheel,
U """,'", botll,
irregularities and hence supply the filling stati-
on w ith only fl awless bottle material. Th e in-

_____________ !
pitch modification
starwheel
5
g' via pitch modification
________
specti on con sis ts of checking the base, sea l fa ce
and side wa lls.
5.3.2.4 Rinsing of the new bottles
The n ew bottles sh ould be rinsed to remove ad-

I
En route to the filler the PET b ottles can recei- h ering d irt par ticles an d to cool dow n the bott-
ve an addition al cooling in the base region (Fig. le completely (Fig . 5.54b).

l' iT
§ Raising base mould, 5.54a) using iced wa ter in order to p revent foa- Rinsing the freshl y blown bottle is llsually
closing of mould, Discharge into ming of the filled liquid in the subsequent fil-
Fig. 5.54 avoided because each drop of wa ter brin gs ad -
locking mould "-_ _-=
r--Jl
=_IJ_ _ , air conveyor ling process .
Pmdllcfioll of plnsfic baff- ditional oxygen into the beer.
les (Krolles)
 702
5.3.3 Transportation of the PET bottles
Th e problem begins w ith the transport of the
light PET bottles (0 .5 1< 30 g). On the conveyor
belt the bottles quickly fall over and cause cha-
os w ithin seconds. They a re therefore tra nsp or-
ted by m ean s of compressed air, whereby the
bottles hang by the neck rin g (Fig. 5.55). The air
is filtered before hand to minimise the risk of
)
contamination. On transfer to the inlet star
wheel, the bottles are passed on individually. In
Fig. 5.55
Air collveyor
modern plants the bottles are alternately held
above and below the neck rin g by spr ing pres-
sure or switch and transferred synchronously
from star w heel to s tar w heel (Fig. 5.55a).
The use of mag ne ts prevents the breakage of
sprin gs; modern plants are therefore equipped
wi th magnet systems.
5.3.4 Filling of PET bottles
The thin walled non-returnable PET bottles are
sensitive to vacuums and therefore cann ot be
pre-evacuated. Two possibilities therefore exist
for the fi lling of PET bottl es:
a. Short-tube fillers are u sed and the air contai-
ned in the bottle is blown out usin g CO,; the
air escapes into the atmosphere (example
pre-condensa tion polymer VKP-PET). Since
CO, has to be blown into the bottl e, the com-
pressed air in the lower par t of the bottle is
not immediately rinsed out of the bottle (Fig.
5.55b). For its removal a considerably higher
CO, use must therefore be accep ted (about
600 g/hl in contras t to about 250 g/hl with
Fig. 5.55a
Trallsfer of the hnugillg PET
_....... _... vottles vy IlIeallS of a c1mllp stnr
. . ..&...1_11.1 wheel
pre-evacuation). The oxygen uptake is about
0.08 mg/l in the case of PET.
b. Long-tube fillers are used which, due to their
length, make pretensing with CO, with lower
uptake of oxygen (0.02 mg/l) possible (exam-
ple I1Ulofill DRF).
To also enable the fi lling of beer into glass
bottles u sing the same plant, co mbined fillers
- for glass a nd plastic - are increasingly offered
nowadays.
Fig. 5.55v
Purgillg of PET vottles with CO,
Fillillg systelll witlt a sltort tube (Fig. 5.56)
Mecafill VKP-PET (Krones, Neutraubling)
Pas. 1 Basic positioll
Before the bottle is lifted, all valves are closed,
the bottle is held by the neck rin g.
703
Pas. 2 CO, purgillg
The bottle is raised almost to the fill ing valve
and the gas is admitted by m ean s of a needle
va lve. The CO, flo ws out of the ring bowl into
the return air pipe and from there into the bott-
le and rinses it. The CO, - air mixture escapes
into the atmosphere.
5
Pos. 3 Pretell sillg
The bottle is now pressed tightly to the filler
and under the sam e pressure as in the ring bowl
(isobarometric) filled w ith CO,. This process ta-
kes only a very short time .
Pos. 4 Filling pltase
The filling valve is raised and the beer flows
along the wa lls into the bottle and increasingly
fills it. The CO, flo ws throu gh the return air pi-
p e past the gas n eedle back into the bowl. This
process takes the most time.
Pos. 5 Ella of filling
The filling process is finished when the beer h as
reach ed the bottom end of the return air pipe.
The filling va lve and the gas valve are closed.
The bottle is now still under pressure but it is,
h owever, completely separa ted from the bowl.
Pos. 6 Relief
The valve to the relief ch 31Ulel is opened; h owe-
ver, the pressure in the bottle can only sink
slowly because the relief channel is tapered. As
a result an inappropriate foaming of the beer is
preven ted. The bottle is now lowered 3l1d clo-
sed.
Pos. 7 CIP pha se
In the CIP phase dummi es, m e311 t to represent
the bottles, are placed und er all the valves, the
valves are opened and the CIP solution circula-
ted. This guarantees that all plant p arts coming
into contact wi th the beer can be cle311ed and
disinfected .
 VI

.,.
'-J
o

2 I Ill-II

1 2

Fig. 5.56
Short-tube filler Mecafill VPK-PET, Krones, Neutraublil1g
(1) control Cl)lil1der for the liquid valve and pretel1si11g, (2) gas 11eedle to open and close the CO, gas l11ain, (3) gas barriel;filling valve, (4) relief chm111el

3 4
'-J
o
U1

c.n

706
LOllg t ube fillillg systems
Filling process u sing filling valves with a long
filling tube, Ilm ofill DVF-B, KHS DorhTILUld
In the case of the fillin g process using a long
fi ll ing tube (Fig. 5.57), the bottle is firs tly raised
but no t pressed onto the filler, and CO, is intro-
duced, which forces most of the air out of the
bottle and into the at mosphere (Pos. 1). The
5 bottle is then pressed onto the filler and is the-
reby sealed. In the following Pas. 2 the pressu-
re is in creased through the introduction of CO,
th rough the returning gas valve, the bottle is
pretensed and then immediately tensed with
CO, from the fillillg tube at the sam e pressure
as in the ring bowl (Pos. 3). The beer valve is
then opened and the beer flows throu gh the
long filling tube lUltil it reaches the bottom of
the bo ttle - slowly a t first because only the
small relief valve is open (Pos. 4). The larger re-
turning gas valve is then also opened and the
beer flows faster and fills the bottle almost to
the desired level (Pos. 5). The returning gas val-
ve is then closed agaill, the beer inflow stagna-
tes (Pos . 6) and is then s topped completely by
closing it (Pas. 7). The fillin g height is control-
led by an inductive flow measurer (IDM, the
thicker part in the diagram).
707
At the same time the pressure ill the bottle is
lowered somewhat by opening the pre relief to
prevent foam ing of the beer. The pressure is
then reduced to atmospheric level by means of
a separate chatmel (Pos. 8). The bottle is then lo-
wered somewhat from the filler and, by means
of a relief va lve, air is given access to the filling 5
tube under the filling valve. As a result the beer
still present in the filling tube ca n n ow fl ow in-
to the bottle (Pos. 9). This amOlUlt has of course
to be taken illto accOlUlt w hen calculating the
filling height at the end of filling. The bottle is
then lowered further and closed.
Pas. 10 shows how by placing bottle dum-
mies underneath, all pipes of the filler can be
cleaned u sing the CIP procedure. This is an im-
portant prerequisite in m aintaining the requi-
red standard of the filling process.
A new feature of modern plants is the con-
struction without a front table, which permits a
h ygienic mode of operation. All the aggregates
are synchronously driven which all ows a pro-
blem free transfer from s tar w h eel to star wheel,
with the aid of a neck ring in the case of PET
bottles (Fig. 5.58a).
 709
708

5
710 711

I.

II
712 713

7
5

Fig. 5.58
Bottle fillillg with a IOllgfillil1g tllbe (type \fa-OM for PE T, Kl'OlIes, NC/ltrnllblillg)

(]) gas valve forfast fillillg alld bottle rillsillg, (2) gas valve for slow fillillg, (3) relief valve, (4) pretellsillg valve for pllre co"
(5) cOlltrol valve for pipe vClltilatioll alld rillsillg, (6) colltrol valve for pipe rillsillg, (7) aile stage plIWlllatic colltrol (8)
illrillc/ive flow /lleaSllrer (10M), (9) relief clWIIIICI, (10) cOllllectillg c!lmlllel to rillg bowl, (11) CO, pllre ciWllllei

714
5.3.5 Closing of PET bottles
PET bottles are as a rule sealed with a screw
cap.
Screw caps are retail friendly because they
can be opened tmaided and if necessary closed
again. This is a considerable advantage which
contributes to their increased popularity. Screw
caps of varying types have therefore, with the
exception of beer in glass bottles, nowadays lar-
gely taken over the beverage bottle market.
The screw cap enjoys considerable advan-
tages:
it preserves the original quality of the drink,
it secures the contents of the bottle against
manipulation,
the bottle and its contents can be reclosed and
the consumer is protected from injury on ope-
rung and reclosing.
There are two basic types of screw caps:
aluminimTI roll-on caps and
plastic screw caps.
Both types of closures are used for glass bott-
les as well as PET bottles.
5.3.5.1 Plastic screw cap closures
PET bottles are usually closed with two piece
plastic closures with a 28, 35 or 38 !TIm thread
diameter. Plastic screw cap closures are made
•
715
Cl osillg procedllre /l s i/lg plastic screw cap bottle Lmtil tl1e sea ling disc whid1 is cOlu1ected to
cloS/lres
the closure is lying on t11e bottle. The tlu'ead is
The closures are fed to the closer from the sor- then sprayed and the closure screwed on .
ter. The closer has, depending on requirements,
10 to 25 closing heads, each of which ca n per-
form up to 2500 closures an hour.
The closing heads ha ve a continuously elech'i-
cally adjus table torque which is ad ap ted to closu-
re requirements and guarantees a constant closu- 5
re torque. For the cl osing of plastic bottles it is
recommended to give precedence to the Pick and
Place procedure. In this process, the plastic screw
Fig.5.58n
caps are fed through a slide ohto a carousel set up
COllstl'llctioll withollt frallt tnble
in front of the so that the closures me ar-
ranged mouth downwards and put onto the bott-
les. By using this procedure the possible torsion
from polypropylene and have high shape stabi- and jarring of closures when putting them onto Fig.5.64n
lity even at high temperatures. The sealing in- bottles, which can occur when this process is not Plnstic screw cnp closure witll pre-closllre
(n) pre-closure ill plnce, (b) complete closure
sert consists either of PVC or a PVC-free sealing used, is prevented.
mass with a scavenger insert. The reduction On filling with beer it is im- Integrated sealing tip Sealing disc
medium inserted in the cap sealing compOlmd portant that the foam rising out
can chemically bind 2 to 4 mg O, and thus pre- of the bottle rises as high as the
vent p ermeation in the bottle interior. A tight mouth, thus forcing the air
sea ling from above as well as from the sides from the bottle neck. The high
guarantees complete retention of the inner pressure injection is for this
pressure (Fig. 5.64). To allow the overpressure pLU'pose. TI1e foam can now ri-
to escape from the bottle quickly on opening, se higher and lodge itself in the
there are vertical gaps in the thread. The closu- t1u'ead where it can give rise to
res are usually ribbed for better grip. On their mou ld formation. As a result
upper side as well as insid e on the tab - below there are procedures to initially
the sealing insert - the closures can be imprin- close the bottle using only a
ted with numbers, graphics or pictures. The simple pre-closure (Fig. 5.64a) ptastic Barrier Crown cork
possibilities h ere are practically unlimited . and before screwing on the clo- 0, 0,
Since the legislation pertaining to food and SLU'e cap, to blow or spray the
drink in most countries prescribes that the con- t11read. At the same time it has
tents of bottles have to be secured against un- to be checked whether a pre-
authorised access, the closures have a safety closlll'e has actually been pla- Bailie
co,
ring, which separates away on opening. One ty- ced on the bottle.
pe is an already broken safety ring, with 26 There is a second process
hooks providing resistance to a left turn, which where the pre-closure is inte- I I
is separated away on opening. The separated grated in the screw cap closure. One- and two-piece plastic screw cap ctosures Crown corks or aluminium rOil-on closures
seal shows that the bottle has already been ope- In this case the closure is Fig. 5.64
ned, even if has been closed again. brought down so fm onto the PInstic screw cnp c10sllre
 •
717
716
to remain on the closure, so that problems do
CloSllre techlliq /l e not occur on renewed cleaning and refilling .
Plastic cap closures can not be put on like crown
corks and h ave to be screwed tightly to the
mouth. Therefore the closer has closing heads
(Fig. 5.64b) equipped with stron g magnets sur- closing head
rOlll,ding the closing mechanism. A ring of non-
magnetized permanent magnetic material is
positioned arolll,d the strong magnets acting as Compensation 5
spring
a hysteresis brake (Fig. 5.64c). During the closu-
re process the magnets turn synchronously
with the outer non-magnetized material to
screw the caps on (A) . As soon as the cap is fa-
Fig. 5.62
stened completely, the closure mechanism and Control and Allllllillilllli rolled-all closllre
its solidly com,ected permanent magnets stop ejection bar - - -

tlll'ning, though not suddenly, as the non-ma-

closing element For non-returnable bottles there is no pro-
gnetized permanent magnets of the surroun-
ding hysteresis ring slow down the process.
Thus the closure mechanism slips and comes to
Fig. 5.64b
Closillg fI ead for plastic clos llres Roller
o blem in using closures where the safety ring
completely separates from the rest of the closu-
re and remains on the neck of the bottle.
a fu ll stop (B). In this way all bottles can be clo-
Closures also exist which ensure that the vacu-
sed tightly. Sometimes they are so tight that ol-
um which arises when the drink cools down fol-
der people have problems reopening them!
5.3.5.2 Aluminium rolled-on closure Oecapping segment lowing filling when hot remains constant, and
(all 4 edges
Altll,inium rolled-on caps are used for the clo- by turning) that the volume only equilibrates on opening.
U/lscrewiltg techllique
sing of glass and plastic bottles with a closure A special feature is the aluminium rolled-on
When tmscrewing the returned bottles (in the
tluead, in particular bottles used for alcohol- Fig. 5.64d closure with a red plastic safety ring, w hi ch can
case of the returnable bottle system) such care is
free drinks, but also for other drinks. They are Ullscrewer also be used in the case of carbonated drinks,
not necessary. In this case it is sufficient to tms-
not common for beer bottles. hot filling and pasteurisation.
crew the closures mechanically (Fig. 5.64d).
These closures are supplied pre-formed and
. Hys teresis ling 01non-
printed. The tlueads are only provided when Sealillg process IIsillg alllll1i1lillm rolleri-oll
magnetIzed permanenUy
magneUc material
the bottles are closed by rolling and pressing closllres
Hys tcfesis material is manipulated
bymagnels on clrcumlerence onto the tluead on the mouth of the bottle. To Altuninitill1 rolled-on closures are placed on the
head rotation Is stopped genUy
safeguard the contents of the bottle: bottle without a tlu-ead. The tlu'ead is provided
• from a drop in external pressure, an insert dming the sealin g process by means of tvl'O or
made from PVC or a PVC-free sealing com- tlu'ee tlu'ead rollers, which shape the thread and
pound is placed in the closure, ensure a safe and airtight closure. A further roller
• from unauthorised opening, a safety ring can will flange the guard ring if required (Fig. 5.63).
be introduced at the bottom end of the closu-
re (Fig. 5.62), which tears open or off on ope- Dissolvillg of oxygell rillrillg fillillg nllri clo-
ning. sllre of PET bottles
When the bottle is opened for the first time, The oxygen is very much dependent on the pro-
, Torque exeeded the closure opens with a clear clicking thus pro- cess used. In the case of long-tube fillers, oxy-
ClOsing process Q uniform dIsengaging 01
closing element ving that it was intact. This is the usual method gen absorption is 0.02 - 0.03 mg O 2/1 and there-
Fig. 5. 64c
ClOSlIre process for plastic closlIres of closing returnable bottles; the safety ring has by lower than with short-tube fillers wh ich
718 719

a
2
absorb 0.08 mg 0,/1. The proportion of air in the
heads pace following high pressure injection is
0.35 mill with both systems. The screw cap clo-
sure introduces a considerable volume of air -
about 3.15 ml in the case of aluminium screw
caps and 5.25 ml in the case of plastic screw cap
closures [279]. Bearing this is mind the use of a
pre-closure in the case of plastic screw cap clo-
sures should not be foregone. In tests with 0.5
litre glass bottles with crown corks and PET
bottles with plastic screw caps, the loading in
mgO,ll was:
Glass bottles PET bottles
(crown co rks) (screw closures)
Content in
filtered beer 0.05 0.05
Fig. 5.63
Sealillg process IIsillg aill/Ilillilllli roiled-oil closu-
res
(a) closure placed 011 boltle, (b) closure process, (1)
bottle 1II0uth with thread, (2) sealillg COIllPOUlld,
(3) roil-Oil closllre, (4) (5) (6)
tllI'ead (7) flallge roller
role in the chemical binding of these large
amOlUlts of oxygen.
Problems with mOllld forlllatioll
In contrast to the crown cork, which tightly clo-
ses the bottle circularly, the screw closure is
characterised by screw paths which allow inter-
mediate spaces. If the beer foams over, beer re-
sidue enters the screw paths and is difficult to
remove. Mildews and their spores, which are
attracted by static charging of the plastic, deve-
lop and can thus badly damage the firm's repu-
tation. It is therefore necessary to let the beer fo-
am up but not foam over after filling. Strict
attention must be paid to this.
5.3.6 Labelling of PET bottles
glue usage. In particular, metallic foil labels are
optically very effective.
The main point of wrap-around labelling is
to use the whole cylindrical surface of the
bottle for advertising purposes,
that the bottle no longer comes into contact
with glue.
As a result it is also possible:
to remove the label before the bottl e is
cleaned (in the case of returnable bottles),
the labels can thus be recycled according to
brand and in a dry s tate,
use of glue is considerably reduced,
cleaning caustic and energy are saved and
the cleaning caustic is no longer contamina-
ted by label pulp.
Labelling is performed with pre-printed la-
bels fed continuously from a reel. The label-car-
rying band is guided by a label aligner (web-
tracker) to the intended height.
Fig. 5.65
Wrap-arolllld labellillg, T1fPc
COlltiroll (Krolles, Nelltrallb-
liug)
(1) hot gille appliallce, (2) pres-
A rotating cu tter cuts the labels off the reel at
the point where a photocell recognizes the in-
dex mark, always providing a clear cut. The
cleanly cut label is then passed on thl'Ough a va-
cuum drum to the glueing process.
This size-adjustable transfer drum features a
projecting area corresponding to the trailing
edge of the overlapping strip, approximately 1
5
cm wide, of the label. This overlapping s trip,
when passing the glueing cylinder, is coated
with a very fine hot-melt film. The glueing cy-
linder is sprayed with hot glue through the jets
of a hot-melt appliance. Compared to cold glue,
hot g lue dries faster and sticks better, too.
The vacuum drum holds the label until it is
taken by the rotating bottle and wrapped
around it synchronously. Shortly afterwards
the front and back end of the overlapping
strip meet and are glued together within se-
conds.

Absorption PET bottles are labelled in the same way as sure (3) tmll sport
(4) statiollary kllife, (5) step-
during filling 0.03 0.08 glass bottles. There is the tendency, however, to pillg (6) optical sel/sor
Absorption use wrap-arolU1d labelling on PET bottles (Fig. for step-lIIark cOlltrol, (7) 01'-
tlu'ough headspace 0.15 2.90 5.65), which can be more effective from an ad- toelectroll ic path coll trol, (8)
Total oxygen 0.23 3.03 vertising point of view. The most varied types nlltolllatic glueillg device for
reel challgillg, (9) VaCl/lI111
of foils are used for labelling, which can be ree- (10) rotatillg
Seen from this point of view, scavengers in led off from the roller and due to being glued at kllife, (11) fille-adjustlllellt for
the compOlmd take on an extremely important the start and end, have a considerably lower statiollnry kllife

,I
720
TIle labet now forming a loop, is glued to itself
but not to the bottle. For secme label positioning
the label is slightly stretched before being ap-
plied to the bottle and
the bottle is sprayed with an air - water mix-
tme before the label is applied .
The applied label contracts again and sits
tight on the bottle, supported by a thin film of
water.
A speCial type of wraparotmd labelling are
stretch sleeves and shrink sleeves. They are
produced in the form of a tube on rollers, un-
wound and stretched individually over the
bottles during processing and then shrunk to
fit the contours of the bottle in the subsequent
heat ttuulel without the use of glue. For this,
however, a special machine to apply the label
to the bottle and a shrinking tUlUlel are requi-
red .
As PET bottles are non-rettunable articles it is
possible, beside hot glue labelling, to use self-
adhesive labels. In this case the stickers are fa-
stened to a label-carrying band and transferred
and glued precisely to the bottle by a label dis-
penser (Fig. 5.65a). This relatively expensive
method of labelling is economical only for the
higher-priced small variety of bottles.
Fig. 5.65a
Label/illg wilil seiFadilesive la-
bels
(1) dispell ser edge, (2) ligilt bar-
rier starl alld 5101', (3) dale lIol-
Sln/llpillg, (4) label-carryillg
valid, (5) pllsilillg (6) 1'111-
/illg (7) reel-lip ior ell/ply
lavel-carryillg valid
5.4 Filling of plastic returnable
bottles
Beer is always filled into PET bottles which are
non-returnable, since recycling treatment of the
economically produced PET bottles is not
worthwhile. For beer in returnable bottles, only
PEN comes into consideration.
5.4.1 PEN
PEN (polyethylene naphthalate) is closely rela-
ted to PET; however, it has a considerably lug-
her gas barrier than PET, is substantially more
temperature resistant and can be pasteurised.
The price for PEN is however five times as high
as for PET, so that it does not come into consi-
deration for non-rettunables. PEN is therefore
the only solution at present for plastic returna-
ble beer bottles.
PEN can be used for about 20 cycles.
The price for the rettunable bottle solution is
however very lugh:
the inspection of returnable bottles has to be
much more intensive than with glass bottles
because the plastic wall absorbs and releases
aroma substances, and
additional demands have to be made on bott-
le washing.
5.4.2 Cleanin g of returnable plastic
bottles
Plastic bottles are very light and float on the
surface. If no additional measures are taken in
the bottle washing machine, chaos very soon
occurs due to bottles floating around. This not
only occurs at the spraying stations, where the
bottles can shoot out like missiles through the
pressure of the spray jet if no protection measu-
res in the form of downholder sheets are taken
(Fig. 5.66; next page). It also has to be taken in-
to aCCOLmt that during washing, lmder no cir-
cums tances should the temperature exceed
60 °C because the material slowly softens and
loses its shape. An exception to this are bottles
made of HC-PET or PEN which are not sensiti-
ve to temperature and can be treated at tempe-
ratures of 75 - 80 °C. PEN can survive tempera-
tures above 80 °C so that there is no great
danger during washing, in particular in the
area of the stress cracks which are biologically
at risk.
A particular solution for the washing of rettlr-
nab Ie plastic bottles is the model "Spiragrip"
(Krones) (Fig. 5.67) . It is useful to follow the
bottle's journey in tlus tUlusual machine.
Discharge
Inked secti on
Imme rsion ba t h I
Imme rsion ba th II
Irmlle f sian ba th III
Dri p-off and
d isc harge sect ion
721
5.4.3 Ins pection of foreign substances
(returnable bottles)
Following washing, the cleaned bottles (Fig.
5.67a) lmdergo the u sual inspection for
removal of all impurities,
complete emptying of the container and
the intactness of the thread.
Furthermore plastic bottles also have to be
5
checked to see if
the bottle is still completely impermeable,
large numbers of stress cracks point towards
a reduced shelf life and increased risk of con-
tamination.
Such checks alone, however, are not suffi-
cient for returnable bottles. Since aroma sub-
stances easily dissolve in the plastic and can on-
ly be washed out with considerable difficulty
and can thus affect the flavour of a subsequent
filling, the contents have to mO!utored for fo-
reign smells.
In addition, some people are inclined to keep
other drinks or even petrot solvents or similar
substances in bottles with screw cap closures.
Moreover, one also has to reckon with malicio-
us behaviour in the case of some people. If such
a bottle finds its way into the bottle washing
Fig. 5.67
Bottle wasilillg lIIacilillCfor plaslic
bottles, II/Odel "S pirngrip "
722 723
machine, it ca n conta minate tho usands of bott-
les. Foreign substance inspectors (which are ex-
pensive) are therefore in stall ed before the bott-
le washer to remove any such bottles.
B,
The foreign subs tance in sp ectors (sniffers)
I
opera te m ain ly as rotary machines but some ti- Fig. 5.67n !
mes also as s traight machines. To enable s mell Possibililies of illspee-
samples from bottles to be taken even at speed s lioll of rell/mnble pln-
of more than 50,000 samples have slie boilies 5
(1) Senl il/g slllfnee ill-
to be taken from about 15 bottles every second. speelioll, (2) side
This occurs by means of quickly bl owing a je t of IIIOI/ Ih illspeeliol/, (3)
air into the bottle, as a result of which a gas lenknge leslillg, (4) nb-
sample of the contents of the bottl e is forced out rasioll delee lioll, (5)
residllnlliql/id de leeli-
for inspection (Fig. 5.67b). The air jet has be di-
all, (6) illspeelioll of
rected very sha rply in order to force the air out bollolll, (7) IIInl/l/fne-
of the bottle in a fra ction of a second (Fig. II/rer's code deleeliol/,
5.67d). (S) illl/er side wnll il/-
speeliol/, (9) side wnll
Since these for eign substa n ce in sp ec tors illspeeliol/ iI/side nlld
"sniff out" the foreign material, they are known ol/Iside, (10) colliollr
as "sniffers". Particularly since the introduction det eetioll, colltniller
of plastic re turnable bottles, m ore and more COIO IIl; (11) Ihrend ill-
speelioll, (12) colltni-
highly sens itive high speed foreign substance
lIer heighI deleetioll
inspectors are being used so as to maintain the (sllrillknge)
b c
Fig.5.67b Fig. 5.67e : Liqllid nllnlysis
Gns nllnlysis SOllie residllnlliql/id nlthe bollol/l of
The nil' ill Ih e bailie is rill sed ol/Iwitholll eOlllnc! by lIIen llS of shnrply illjeeled fresh nil' the bailie is saeelled while the bailie
nlld en ll be nllnlysed. Deseriplioll ill lext. is tilled ill nl nllgle nlld nllnlysed.

724
Drill1c residlle alia lysis (USM)
1 A beam of light with spectral parts in the ultra-
violet, v isible and infrared area scree ns the
drink residue in the slightly tilted b ottle (Fig.
5.67c). For m easuring purposes a small amOlmt
of diluted sodium hydroxid e solution is added
immediately after the bottle has been unscre-
wed in order to obtain a minimum level and to
release the NH3present. Throu gh a light collec-
tor, the bea m of light enters an optoelectro nic
spectromete r, which captures the light reducti-
on w ith 512 sen sors in the form of " fin ger-
prints" . Vi a a sign al processor abl e to carry out
about 200 million calculations per second, the
drink residues are analysed according to the
substances they contain and classified as good
or bad. During this process the spectra of the
drinks and their fermentation products are de-
p osited in a substan ce library and drawn on du-
ring the analysis for comparati ve purposes.
The wavelen gths of different compounds can
vary considerably and can therefore be drawn
on for differentiation.
HydrocarboJl recogJlitioll (SOX)
It is p ossible that hydrocarbons such as petrol,
diesel, aceton e, paint thitUlers, benzol etc. have
Fig. 5.67rl been stored in the bottle sit1Ce the last fillitlg.
A slimp jet of air elilll illates ti,e gas f rolll tile bottle
Even th e smallest traces of these substances
(1) IIozzle fo r tile sllarp jet of air
(2) gas colltellt escnpillg fro lll tile bot tle spoil the drink and render the bottle lU1usable.
This h as to be detected and removed.
quality of the filled drink in every asp ect and to In the d etection of these carbohydrogen com-
prevent or minimise customer complaints. pOlUlds, use is m ade of the fact that they cause
Since both volatile foreign substan ces and wavelen gth-dependent light reductions within
h eavy substances fOlU1d mainly in residual li- the infrared spectral area. As well as substance
quid in returnable bottles have to be detected, detection, these also p ermit a determination of
both the gas phase and drink residues in the the concentration of the substance (Fig. 5.67b).
bottle are examined by means of four sensory As a result it is possible, itl dritlks - and thus
systems: itl returned bottles - to recognise normal ly oc-
drink residue analysis (USM), curring compounds, such as for example
hydrocarbon detection (SOX), flavour substances, such as lemon or
aroma tic detection (pulse fluorescen ce) and fermentation products, su ch as ethanol or
ammonia detection (NOX) . ethyl acetate
and to d is tinguish them fro m lU1d esirable h y-
drocarbons.
In the case of ethan ol (alcohol) a further con-
centration de terni nation has be carried out, sin-
ce, for example
ferm ented soft drinks ca n b e classified as
"good" due to the low concentrati on of alco-
hol, and
spiri ts can be classified as "bad " due to their
high alcohol con centra tion.
Aro matic det ectioll
Particu larly important is the total identification
of ring-sh ap ed a roma ti c h yd rocar bon CO I11-
pOlU1ds, which are m ainly characterised by a
very low threshold odour number. These itlclu-
de compOlUlds such as naphthalene, phenan-
threne and other polycyclical arom atics, which
are con tained in many substances in everyday
use. This group of substances is identified by
means of the pulse fluorescen ce p rocedure. The
sensitivity is so high that even one fo reign sub-
stan ce molecule amongst more than 100 million
air molecules ca n be detected .
In this process the foreign subs tan ce molecu-
le is made to glow by an ultraviolet li ght impul-
se an d the light impulse emitted is regis tered by
a highly sen sitive sensor. This results itl the re-
jection of the bottle before bottle washitlg.
Alii III 0 IIi a d etectioll (NO X)
An important group are the ammonia-contai-
ning subs tances which are found, for exam ple,
in cleaning agents, colour rem overs, washitlg
agents, everyd ay chemicals, as well as in the de-
ad tissue of d ecomposing itlsects.
The identifica tion of ammonia-containitlg sub-
stances occurs by mean s of the weakenitlg of
high frequency microwave radiation (Fig. 5.67b).
A small amount of caus tic soda is added to the
bottle which is to be tested resultitlg in the re-
lease of NH3" A frequency in the range between
20 and 25 GHz specially adjusted to the ammo-
725
ni a molecule is then tran sm itted . By means of a
refin ed selection method, the highly sensiti ve
selecti on of ammonia with detection limits far
below the human sense of smell is possible.
Further trea tment (filling, closure, labellitlg
etc.) occurs in the san1e way as w ith n on-retur-
nable bottles.
5
5.5 Filling of cans
The filling of can s differs from the fillitlg of
b ottles in a number of p ositions. This applies in
p articular to:
cans and ca n closures, material and special
fea tures,
s torage, d epalletisa tion and remova l of cans,
rinsitlg of can s,
inspection of empty cans,
fillitlg of can s,
closing of can s,
wid gets and their special fea tures,
itlspection of filled can s,
p as teurisation,
labelling and
d ating of can s.
5.5.1 Cans and can closures
Fillitlg in cans has become w idesp read for ma-
n y varieties of drillk in recent years. In particu-
lar for beer, refreshment and sports dritlks, ice
tea etc., cans varying in size from 250 ml to 500
ml, seldom to 11, are in use. The content details
are given itl either ml and /or ounces (fl. oz.),
whereby one h as to remember to differentiate
between the U.S. and u.K. (= imp) oz (see in for-
ma tion on volumes at the end of the book) . The
increasitlg p opularity of cans is maitlly based
on the follow ing advantages:
can s are unbreakable,
they are dissitnilarly lighter than glass bottles of
the same vol tune, only weighing a few grams,
itl most cOlUltries empty cans are disposed of,
awkward and heavy bottle crates are elimina-
ted,
 727
726

they can be easily stacked, 0.09 mm for steel cans,

2 3 4
they provide good use of space in a fr id ge and 0.11 mm for aluminium ca ns.
cool rapidly, In addition, to guara ntee a sufficiently tight
they ca n be opened without a tool and the clo- seam in the area of the flange, a stren gth of
sure remains on the can (SOT, sta y on tab), 0.15 mm for steel cans,
they are opaque so the contents are not at risk 0.18 mm for aluminium ca ns
through light, is used.
they can be a very effective means of adver ti- As a result, it becomes clear that the can ac- 5
)
sing tlU'ough printing or labelling, quires its stability through interna l pressure. It Rolling Ihe melal slleel Deep drawing of Ihe bowls Wall ironing of Il1e bowls Trimming of IIle blanks
off Ille roll
it is very easy to pasteuri se the drink in the is easy to crush all empty ca n with a han d . To
can, obtain sufficient internal pressure in the case of

'w
5 6 7 8
following closure, cans absorb no further oxy- s till drinks, the pressure h as to be artifiCially
gen, produced by the addition of inert gas, e.g. by / , \

cans are easy to recycle. using a drop of liquid nitrogen. The cans are
Cans are produced in two par ts (can and lid) provid ed with a neutral interior coating. i--iAJ
,6
from steel or aluminium sheets; the lid is al-
ways made of aluminilU1l. TIle can lid is produced as a pull-tab lid made
The decision whether to use steel or alumini- of allUllinium sheet (Fig. 5.70) . A lid weighs about
um is far less a question of quality and d epends 3.8 g. Nowadays only SOT lid s (stay-an-tab) are Washing willi water Application of Drying of Ihe while base coal Application of decoration
used, whereby the complete opening system re- wlJile base coat
much more on the normal practice of the COLU1-
try or of the fillin g company. Both materials ha- mains on the lid after opening, thus preventing
9 10 11 12
ve a nlunber of advantages and disadvantages, pollution of the environment. The width of the
lid opening is usually 15 I1Ull; in the case of mo- I = 1=1
whicll are not however decisive with regard to
quality. The technology of can production is the dern systems this i.ncreases to 25 mm .
7 ' I , '""-
same:
The can is produced b y drawing and redra- Rega rding the size and shape of drink cans,
wing or by deep drawing (Fig. 5.69). The crite- there is a variety and d evelopment which is
rion of deep drawing is that a change in shape mainly projected towards a fu rther reduction of
""ill occur whilst the thickness of the material mass, more profitable processes and the satis- Baking of the printing ink Flanging and drawing in Application 01 bollom
exlerior laquering
Inlernal jelling
remains the same. In the case of the drawing faction of customer requirements. This also i.n-
and redrawing process, on the other hand, the cludes the lid size which has been reduced from
13 14
thickness of the material is reduced. the previously com mon 2.06 lids to 2.02 lids,
The can , which has to ha ve an internal pres- and in the case of small cans there are now on-
sure resistance of at least 6 bar (overpressure), ly 2.00 lid s. The m aterial thickness is
I
is produced from basic material of approx. in the case of 2.06 lids, 0.27 to 0.28 mm and for I
I
0.27 mm strength in the case of steel cans, 2.02 lids, 0.22 to 0.23 mm . I
0.30 mm in the case of alum inium cans. The m ass of a can is approx. ( , )
'L--, _ ,..J./
This material s trength is more or less retained f'v\/V'JI""\:.
in the bottom area: 2.06 a/1I1Ilillillll/ 330/ll1 12 g 5001111 16 g Drying of Il1e In-line conlrol
inlernal jelling
0.25 mm strength in the case of steel cans, 2.06 steel call 3301111 27 g 5001111 37 g
0.29 mm in the case of aluminium cans, The main dimensions of 0.33 and 0.5 I cans
however, ill tI,e dl'mvlI (JIld redrmvlI walls tile with a 2.06 lid are listed in the following and Fig. 5.69
thiclwess of the material is redllced to abollt clearly illustrated in Fig. 5. Pl'Orill cfioll of veer cnlls
 729
728

0.33 I Figures 0.5 I rable improvement in s tability. Despite their

1 2 3 can in mm can higher price sh aped ca ns have a very good
A chance du e to their lUlmistakable brand im age.
closed can h eight 115.2 ± 0.4 163 ± 0.4 The innovatio ns in cans are num erous (e.g. il-
B luminated cans, cans w ith temperatu re indica-
head space h eight 12.2 ± 0.5 14 ± 0.5 tors, a.o.). These special fea tu res, however, are
C not cheap and are only used if the appropriate
internal diameter sales potentia l ex ists.
5
of mouth 57.4 ± 0.3 It shou ld be pointed out that
L j' D Steel can s react magnetically and so used cans
Blank lid forms from 11m sileel metal roll external diameter can be easily separated and introdu ced to the
Blank liel "sI7el/" Rolling 017 //Ie sl7e1l
of can 66.1 ± 0.4 recycling process.
E Alum inium cans can be immediately remel-
bottom standing ted and reprocessed.
9 11 12
ring dia meter 53.6 ± 0.2 52.8 ± 0.2
F 5.5.2 Storing, depalletising and removal
depth of bottom 11 .2 ± 0.3 of empty cans
Cans are supplied in pa liets in the form of so-
ca lled tali-packs. Every pallet of cans (tall-pa l-
As well as the usual d esign of drink cans, in let, sp ecial pallet) consists of 15 to 23 layers;
recent times further possibilities for can d esign each layer consists of a thin intermediate layer
have developed . Some of these are described of cardboard or plas tic on which, depending on
I
Formation of tile tear tab Connection of //7e tear lab below: the size of the p allet, up to 360 cans are accom-
will7 culling line witilthe rivet Packing and pallelising of //Ie lids
By means of labelling the can lid, the top side modated. Th e pallets are stabilised by means of
of the can ca n be covered in such a way that it angle s teel fram es, a covering layer and plastic
provides a very effective form of adve rtising. bands so that it is possi ble to s tack the pallets.
Fig. 5.70
Prodl/ctioll of call tids (shortel1cd illl/strntioll) TIle top end label can be removed again relati- Unloading the lorry and storage occurs main-
velyeasily. ly by m ean s of fork lift trucks, in some countries
"G li.icksdosen" (Lucky can s) are ca ns wh ich using automatic pick-up systems of specia l ve-
have a do uble lid . Wh en the w ilU1er tea rs off the hicles directly onto pallet back-up conveyors.
LIpper dummy lid, w hich ca nnot be recogni sed Since the cans have very thin walls, they are
as such, the prize hidden below is immediately very sensitive w hen empty to any jolt which
recognisable. As a result participants in prize can deform the can . Such deformations transfer
compe titions can receive their pri ze immediate- very quickly to neighbouring can s and wh ole
II ly. The lid to the actu al can can be found below rows. This m eans great care has to be taken of
Fig. 5.71
Beer cal/ the pull-off d umm y lid. the pallets of cans from p icking up to removal.
A call height "Shaped cans" are s teel sheet can s of an lU1- This includes the follow ing:
B lleadspace height believably large variety. By means of a special fork li ft trucks have to drive into the pallets
C il/tem at diallleter of
1Il0l/tiI
high pressu re process, the s teel sheet cans can gentl y and w ithout hi tting them,
D extemal diallleter of be elongated initiall y to 20 to 30 %, and later spacer rails are helpful against jolt damage,
call 80 %, of their basic fo rm. Although the can wall on stacking distance has to be maintained to
E bottolll stalldillg ril/g
is th inner th an a h air following elongation, the the side stack and behind,
j dialll eter
F deptll of bottOll1
Fig. 5.71a
Ca ll tid witll allti-rotatioll eielllCllt reshaping and embossin g can lead to a conside- before the entry of the pallet into the lift shaft,

730
all cans recognisably damaged during trans-
port are to be removed since they lead to in-
terruptions in the can flow.
Dents in cans must never be pressed out!
By means of the remover (Fig. 5.72) the pallets
are lifted in layers, the intermediate layer is lifted
and the layer of cans pushed onto a conveyor ta-
ble. The angle frame is placed on the empty pal-
let and both are stacked and returned.
The conveyor table consists of slat-band
chains, steel belts or plastic belts.
Delivery must be lminterrupted as cans are
not very stable when standing and have a ten-
dency to topple. After having been pushed from
the pallet the cans stand tightly togetl1er so that
their stability is improved. The wide-band con-
veyor has to have lateral rails and guides.
At the end of the conveyor platform cans are
singled out by conveyor segments of graduated
velocities (see Sect. 5.7.1). In facilities of high
operational capacity (over 1200 cans/min) the
sorting process can. be supported by com pres-
sed air. The following transport of single cans
over longer di stances is preferably carried out
by cable belt conveyors.
Now the cans are turned upside down, fed
into the rinser where they are sprayed and later
turned back again. After that they are turned on
to the empty cans inspection.
Often cans are encoded at the bottom before
being put into the rinser (best-before date).
Delivery and trea tmen t of lids is far less com-
plicated than that of the cans. When delivered
the lids have a pre-rolling diameter that is 8 mm
larger than the diameter of the closed lid. They
are packed in paper bags, each containing
about 600 lids, delivered on pallets that carry
up to 246,000 lids (2.06). The bags are fixed with
strong paper tape.
5.5.3 Inspection of the empty cans
As a result of their very low wall strength, emp-
ty cans are sensitive to deformations whid1 can
very easily occur during transportation, as well
Fig. 5.72
COlltniller Slidel; IIlOdei "Pnlmmnstcr"
(Krolles Co., Nell trallblillg)
(1) gravity roller COllvcyor
(2) pnllet lift (liftillg slwf!)
(3) illterl/ledinte Inyer IIwgnzille
(4) COll tniller oll tflow
(5) mil-alit for elllptil pnllets
(6) calli rol pnllel
(7) operatillg plntfaf/II
Fig.5. 72n
Illspeclioll of Iile emply call
(1) illspectioll of Iile bend
(2 ) side wnll illspectioll
(3) illspectioll of tile call bollolll Fig. 5.73
(4) illspeetioll of Iile slnlldillg slllfnce Cnll rillser
as on storage and removal from s torage. If the
top edge of the can is not perfec tly rolmd, the
closer will crash.
Damage leads to a loss of production, the ma-
nufacture of waste goods and a loss of image
with the customer.
Before filling the empty cans therefore have
to be checked (Fig. 5.72a) for
roundness of the cans,
deformation of the flange at the top of the can,
deformation of the can walls and bottom of
the can,
faults in the interior coating, and
foreign bodies in the inside of the can.
The objectionable cans have to be removed
because they will cause faulty quality and lffi-
necessary follow-up costs.
The inspection of the empty cans occurs by
means of an empty can inspector which is in-
stalled between the clearer and the rinser. It
consists of a photoelectri c cell, a camera which
can inspect up to 140,000 can s/hour, and a pus-
her which immediately rejects faulty cans. The
lise of empty can insp ectors is (for cost reasons)
not ye t generally common. The cans which ha-
ve not been rejected are passed to the can rinser.
731
5
5.5.4 Rinsing of the cans
When rinsing the light cans, one refrains from
touching them and turning them in the rinser as
for bottles, since touching them would imme-
diately lead to deformations of the sensitive can
neck. Since removal involves lifting anyway,
the individual cans moving at a grea ter height
can be turned and then rinsed off without pro-
blem while they are slowly sliding downwards
(Fig. 5.73). Rinsers are nowadays constructed
with an angle of tilt of 30°.
The turners can be changed quickly corre-
sponding to the can size.
Following drying off, the cans are turned
mouth upwards in a second turner and trans-
ferred to the can filler.
5.5.5 Filling of the cans
Several problems occur on filling the thin-wai-
led cans:
If a can is filled with the same plug pressure
as bottles, it will inevitably be compressed
beca use it tolerates dissimilarly less axial
pressure.
If a can is (pre-)evacuated as a bottle is, it will
inev itably contract, since it is thin-wa lled and
thus vacuum sensitive.

732
height fillers (level fill ers) ends as soon as the li-
Sep arate fillers are therefore required fo r the
quid has reached the bottom end of the return
filling of cans. The filling of ca ns the refor e initi-
gas pipe.
ally occurred by m eans of a long tube, la ter -
In the case of volume fill ers there are two op-
and in the case of m any plants even toda y - by
tions:
a number of short filling tubes. With all m odern
the desired volume is collected in a separate
can fillers the drink to be filled is introduced to
dosing container, w hilst the previous filling
the can wa lls in a cl osed liquid film.
process is jus t endiDg. If the am ount is mea-
Can fillers are ca tegorised into tw o groups
sured exactly, the fillin g process can occur
with respect to the filling:
very quickly, because at the end of the filling
heigh t fill ers (level fi llers) and
process one no longer needs to throttle the fil-
volume fill ers.
ling speed owing to the exact volume of the
As is the case w ith bottle fill ers, which are
flow of liquid .
m ainly h eight fillers, the filling process for can
Fig. 5.76
Call fi ller ill fi ll illg tallk
(1) Tilt illg lever fo r valve colltrol
(2) CO, alld ClP valve
(3) release valve
(4) fillillg tllbe
(5) adjllstable retll rll air pipe witll ball lock
(6) differelltial press ll re cila111ber/celltrillg
bell
(7) CO, allli Cl P Ciln/llle!
(8) beer feed
(9) rillg coll taillerfor beer alld CO,
(11) roller for lifti llg tile fillillg valve
(1 2) storage of tile fillillg valve ill tile rillg
cOlltniller
Fig. 5.75
Drillk valve witll f illillg tllbe
(PllO to KH S, Dortlll ll lld)
the exact volume is determined, for exam ple,
by mean s of a m agne tic-inducti ve flow mea-
surer (IDM).
Altho ugh the basic principles of ca n fillin g
are the same as fo r bottle fillin g, n amely
riDsin g with CO, and pre ten sing w ith CO"
fi lling and rapid fillin g,
reduction of the filling s peed and adjustment
of the exact filling height,
slow release of pressure to prevent foa ming,
there are addition al sp ecial fea tures with re-
gard to cans:
The empty cans h ave a very low m ass, the re-
fore it is necessary to guide them gently and
safely. Empty cans can be completely th rown
off track by grea t radial accelera tion in very
large fillers.
The empty cans are not ra ised fo r filling, but
parts of the filler are lowe red to the can to fill
them in o rd er to create a gas tight cOlmection
between the can and filler.
Crea ting the connection between can and fil-
ler is problem a tic becau se the can , due to its
extrem ely low w all s treng th, has a very poor
stability and can easily be compressed (see
diffe rential pressure chamber).
Un til very recently the fille rs of can fillers we-
re built so tha t the drink to be filled ran down
into the can along the ume r w alls from 14 to 16
small filling tubes a t an an gle of 30 to 45° (Figs.
S.75 and 5.76) . Such fillers are still frequ ently
used nowad ays. With m odern can fille rs the
drink flows Ul the form of a closed liquid film
into the can.
5.5.5.1 Mechanical can fillers
In the case of the can filler l1mofill DMD (KHS
Co., Dorhnwld) (Fig. 5.77), firstly the can s are pla-
ced Lmder the filler (Pos. 1) and immediately clo-
sed hermetically to the outside world by the filler
as it is lowered . The CO, flu shulg valve (Pos. 2) is
released by mean s of activating the valve (arrow).
When the fill ing d evice is lowered, Ulert gas,
733
mos tly CO" immedi ately starts flowing from
the gas tank through the re tu rn gas pi pe UltO
the can . With this action the air Ul the can is
pressed out through a valve UltO the exha ust
channel. It is Lmderstood tha t an evacua ti on of
the thin fo iled can is no t considered because of
its vac uum sensitivity!
For p re tensing, the exhau s t valve is now clo- 5
sed and throug h the pre ten sulg valve CO, flows
into the can keeping the contents Lmder pressu-
re from CO, until full pressure equality with the
tank is achieved (Pos. 3).
Afte r the pressure equalisa tion a roller lever
low e rs the re turn gas pipe, the liquid valve is
opened and the filling procedure beguls. The li-
quid runs through an ammlar p assage and ea-
sily flows down the umer w all of the can for-
mUlg an unulterrupted fluid film w hile CO, is
pressed back tlU'ough the re turn gas p a th ulto
the tank (Pos. 4). Filling is finished as soon as
the charge closes the return gas pipe by lifting a
(red) ball (Pos. 5). The complete fillulg process
only takes about 5 seconds.
The liquid valve is closed by a roller lever and
the return gas pipe is raised again (Pos. 6). For re-
lief (Pos. 7) the p ressm e Ul the upper p art of the
can is released through a relief valve mto the re-
lief chaImei. There is very li ttle foam forma tion
durUlg pressure relief. Afterwards the fillirlg val-
ve is raised aIld the CaIl is released (Pos. 8).
Height adjll stllt ellt
As the empty CaI1S are not raised for the filling
process, there is need fo r a height adjus hllent
when CaI1S of different heights are introduced.
The comple te upper fillin g mechanism plus
rin g-shap ed tank and fillin g valves can be posi-
tioned a t the exa ct required height with the
help of several spindles and a gear rin g. For mi-
nimal change-over time th e res p ec ti ve ca n
heights are registered in the computer.
N owad ays even the fillulg height in the can
can be chaIlged at the press of a button . The fil-
 '-J
v:>
,po

3. Vorspannen
2. lnertga ss pulung Pressurization
inelt gas nf/smg
Spi/lmg r.illl

Fig. 5.77
Fillil1g stages IIsing a mechan ical em1 filler
Model DMD (KHS Co., Dortl1llll1d) . Explanations of the fillillg stages il1 text

5 Fl,ill en de 6. Venti l schlieGen 4. Ruckgasrohr absenken I Fullen

End of filling Ruckgas rohr anheben Lou'enng Ille return gas
Close valve and 1If! the lube. Idling
retum gas tube

IV I>:::;

g u
'-J
v:>
Ul

CJ1

736
ling h eight in the can can be regulated by ± 1.5
)11111 upward s and downward s. Alternatively
the return gas tubes have to be changed.
Thus the headspace height of a 0.33 1 and a 0.5
I can differs by 1.8 mm. The exact adjustment of
the filling height is also necessa ry if the follo-
wing is considered: with a can diameter of 66
111111, every millimetre of height difference cor-
responds to a volume of
V = r2 x n x h
r =33 mmn =3 .14h=lmm
V =33 mm x 33 mm x 3.14x 1 mm = 3419.46 mm 3
= 3.42 cm 3
Le.: 1 mm height difference means 3.4 cm 3 •
This is about
1 % in the case of a 0.33 I can and
0.7% in the case of a 0.5 1 can.
Therefore the filling height and complete
contents of the can must also be checked after
filling.
5.5.5.2 Can filler with volumetric filling
Bottles are always filled to a predetermined
height which is determined by the return gas
pipe or by an electronic sensor. To obtain an ex-
737
act filling height, however, the filling process
must be slowed down towards the end of fil-
ling. This means that time is lost and the filler
output is less .
To circumvent this problem a filling process
has been developed in which
the exact filling volume is determined before-
hand,
5
the measured volume can flow in quickly, and
the next filling volume can a lready be measu-
red whilst the previous bottle is lowered and
released and the next bottle is introduced.
This is called volLU11etric filling.
An exact measurement is preferably made in
a narrow vessel since the difference in height
corresponds to a lower volume.
In the volumetric can filling system VOC
(Krones AG, Neutraubling) (Fig. 5.78) the volu-
me is measured in a thin measuring chamber by
using a floating high resolution ultrasonic sen-
sor with a filling volume accuracy of less than
1.5 ml. The measuring chamber is filled without
turbulence from below (C) through an inlet val-
ve (5) and is ready to deliver the filling volume
at the beginning of the filling process.
 739
738

Fig. 5.78
lVIecllnllicni enll jiller wilil voill",etric jillillg, (\IOc, Krolles AG, Nelllrnllviillg)
(1) press llrisillg nlld reillm gns vnive, (2) 511ifl vnive reillm gns eilnllllei, (3) sIIift vnive cnll ilend spnce, (4) CO, fl" Silillg nlld CfP
retllm vnive, (5) colltroi c!fiillder prodllct sIIppilf vnive, (6) colltroi c!fiillder iiqllid vnive, (7) colltroi c!fiillder iijtillg II11it
(A) SIIif t cllnllllei, (B) press llrisillg eilnllllei, (C) prodll et cilnllllel. )11 stnges two to eight, ollilf tile vnives wilicil nre opell nrc silowII

Phase 2: CO , pllrgillg
From the upper part of the measuring cham-
ber CO, is fed into the can via the valve (1) and
purges it. Since the can is not yet pressed onto
Phase 1: Basic positioll the filler, the air in the can can escape; for this
The can is raised tmtil it is almost at the fill er; in purpose the valve (4) is opened through which
this position all valves are closed. the gas can escape .
Pha se 3: CO, plll'gillg
The purging is now continued with the can
pressed up to the filler and the escaping remai-
ning air led off via the valve (4). Plznse 4: Pretellsillg
It can now be assumed that all the oxygen has The valve (4) is closed thus obtaining the neces-
been driven out of the can and replaced by CO,. sary pre tensing pressure in the can.
 740
5 5
{]
Phase 5: Fillillg
The exactly measured amolU1t to be filled is now
available at the beginning of the fillin g process
and there is n o need to be concerned about over-
or tU1der-filling. On opening the filling valve the
pre-measured amow1t fl ows quickly along the
can walls into th e pretensed can.
I{]
Phase 6: Emf of fillillg
The measuring chamber d oes not empty com-
ple tely, only to a pred etermined residual
amount. As a result it is possible to prevent los-
ses th rough foa m and CO, by mean s of an lU1-
d erlaye r refill of the chamber.
Pllns e 7: R elief
Two release valves w ith fine jets (2 and 3) cause
a slow fall in pressure in the can . As soon as the
fill ing va lve is closed, refilling of the measuring
chamber begins for the new filling p rocess, in
other words use is m ade of the time required
for the remova l of the filled can , the entry of the
new can, CO, flushing and pre tensing of the
next can .
741
Pllflse 8: e lP pha se
For cleanin g and disinfection the filler is closed
and all interior valves opened, so that a com ple-
te CO, circul ation within the elements of the fil -
ler is gu aranteed .
 '.J
>l>-
N

1. Dose abdichten 2. Dose mit C02 spulen

Rinse can with C02

C="

Fig. 5.78a
Computer COli trolled can fill er witiJ inductive volume meas urement (/l1IlOfill DVD, KHS Dortmund)
Explanations in text

3. Vorspannen mit C02 4. Fullen

Counter-pressurization with C02 Filling

(Jl
 744 745

5 5

D..Q
00
00

c
Q)
.0
Q)
en

Q)
<f)
o
o
r-..:
746
The advantages of this form of filling are seen
as being:
the exact measurement of the volume filling,
the filling valve without interior parts,
the introduction of the beer in a thin veil
along the walls,
the pneumatic lowering of the valve.
An alternative exists in volumetric filling by
means of inductive flow measurement (rOM)
(see Sect. 7.5.2). It is important that no gas bub-
bles rise in the measuring area which falsify the
measurement result.
This is illustrated by the vollU11etric can filler
llmofill DVD, KHS Dortmund (Fig. 5.78a).
The procedme of the filling phases is si milar
to that of other can fillers . The can is placed un-
der the filler and raised (Pos. 1). It is then flus-
h ed with CO2 (Pos. 2) and in Pos. 3 pretensed
with CO2 , As soon as equ al pressure has been
obtained, the beer flows in alon g the can walls
(Pos. 4) and fills the can. The end of the filling
process (Pos. 5) is determined here, however, in
that the inductive flow measuring instrument
(illustrated in the figme symbolically by the
coating of the beer flow underneath the tank)
gives the computer the order to close the filling
and reuun gas valve on reaching the predeter-
mined amOlmt of beer, and frees the beer passa-
ge for the next filling process.
Low oxygen closure
By already flushing the empty cans with CO2 in
the inlet star, the oxygen which still remain s
should be completely removed. A total oxygen
content of only - 0.02 m g 0 ,/1 is thereby obtai-
ned (with 0.6 to 0.8 kg CO,/hl) . This can be vie-
wed positively in view of current teclul010gy.
Since air still has to be removed from the
headspace of the can in the area of the closure
machine before closing, gassing under the lid is
applied for this purpose.
747
5.5.6 Closing the cans the lid is kept in the ri ght posi- Can Iransfer Conveyor bell
tion and
Closure procedure the mo uth of the can and the lid
When closing the cans the lid, after being pla- are not deformed ri ght up to
ced on, is so tightly flanged by means of two the closing rim.
successive operations w ith the can edge that the
can has a gas tight seal. The cOl1J1ection must be
made without any wrinkles or overlaps in or- Lid infeed
der to achieve a permanent gas tight connection
from above 5
between can and can lid (Fig. 5.80) .
Fig. 5.81
• Can wilhoutlid o Can with loose lid
Lid delivery ill tllefiller cnrol/sse/
o Lid • Sealed can
Fig. 5.80
Correctly rolled all lid
3
Th e closing process starts with the lid being
Fig. 5.82 Covel' before pressillg all
placed upon the can, if possible, when the can is (1)C/osillg Ilend, (2) C/osillg rollel;
still in the filling machine (Fig. 5.81). The can (3)lid, (4) cnll
with its lid is lifted up by a centre sleeve plate
running on spring mOlU1ted bearings and then
;!Id operation
it is pressed against the closing head.
A can closer consists of the closing h ead and
both closing rollers. The closing process is car-
ried out in two consecutive operations.
The closing head ro tating synchronously
with the can (Fig. 5.82; 1) keeps the lid positio-
Fig. 5.83
ned . A closing roller numing in the opposite di- c/osillg of tlie lid ill two operatiolls
rec tion (preparatory roller) (2) is pressed (1) first roller
against the closing head where the outer part of (2) colllpressillg roller
(3) C/osillg liend
the lid is bent down and around the closed top 4
(4) liftillg plnte
of the can (Fig. 5.83 1" operation). The closing (5) cnll
head makes sure that (6) lid
748
749

In a second op eration the closu re between the
can and lid is made gas tight by the pressure of
the closing ro ller. Improper closing inevitably
leads to pressure d rop an d loss of quality.
The closing of can s is carried out in a very
short time and therefore all involved par ts have
to be absolutely accurate to measurement.
It is necessary to control every can closing
s tation for w rinkle-free operation and correctly
overlapping seams. Wrink les n ear the lever ring
inside of the can rim are a sure indica tion that a
second operation h as been adju s ted too loosely.
If this is observed, the fill ing sh ould be s topped
to readjust the seamer. There is n o sense, howe-
ver, in adjus ting the second operation tighter
than n ecessary. To a certa in ex tent, the closure
machine is con structed in a way to compen sa te
for a varying thickn ess of m a terials with out
CIP cleaning systems for fillers and closers,
a wa ter dre nchin g for parts which are at risk,
an d
clea ning of the fi ll in g plant with foca l p oin ts.
For CIP cleanin g there are two possible solu-
tion s:
a CIP rinsin g cap is attached to every filling
valve, the cleaning agent is continu ally pum-
ped th rough the entire fillin g va lve and the
rinsing ca ps are tak en off again afterwa rds,
in the case of autom atic feeding the ri nsing
containers are autom atically added and auto-
m atically rem oved aga in afterward s.
A number of other m achine p arts and plants
should nevertheless be clean ed regularly. This
includ es the following:
ned, the ni h'ogen empties in to
the beer and gives it an attracti-
ve head. The effect of nitrogen
has long been used in gastro-
nomy which uses a gas mixtu -
re of CO, and N, as a prop ellant
gas for dis pensing. Th is is
mainly to prevent ca rbon isa ti-
on of the keg beer if it rem ains 5
standing under pressure for a
longer time. With w idgets (Fig.
5.84) w hich we re introduced in
Englan d and enjoy considera-
ble popularity there - despite
Fig. 5.84
the higher p rice fo r can s with Widgels
widge ts - this foa m fo rming
proper ty of ni trogen is made use of.
The problem is: h ow d oes on e induce the ni-

squeezing the closure. As soon as the limits of
fl exibility are exceeded because of an adju st-
ment w h ich is too tight, the shee ts at the seam
are rolled out and side-effects occur (e.g. wea-
kening of the closure - bursting of the closures
all sources of dripping mus t be eliminated
from which d ro ps can fa ll into open can s,
transport of cans which are s till open h as to
be closely moni tored to ensure that contami-
n ants d o n ot get into the beer alon g this path,
Iii
trogen to enter the wid get - and h ow does it get
ou t aga in?
For the uptake of the nitrogen gas every widget
has a lip va lve which initially faces inward s,
which lets the gas in but does n ot let it out again.

under thermal trea tment). This especially hap-
pens to aluminimn can s w hose seamed rims are
0.02 mm thicker than those of steel cans.
Grea t attention has to be p aid to ensure the
can is thoroughly closed since it is only the
compound of the cover w h ich h as to pro tect the
contents of the can against an y losses.
When closure is complete the fill ed can s are
insp ected . Before this, h owever, cleaning of the
filler and closer h as to be considered .
5.5.7 Cleaning of the can filler and closer
As is the case w ith bottle cleaning, great signifi-
cance is given to cleaning the can filler and clo-
ser. In particular, if the d rink is to be filled follo-
wing short-time p asteurisation or cold s terile
filtration, special safety measures are necessary.
BaSically every thing written in Section 5.1.6
- Cleaning of the filler and closer - applies he-
re. H ere, too, there are
the filling tubes m ust not be blown empty bet-
ween the disch arge an d inlet p oints of the fil-
ler so that no beer or foam residues are spray-
ed around,
in the case of open transfer of the lids, they
should be fed in a steam s teriliser between
feeding and closing of the can and trea ted in-
di vidually with steam,
the sealing h eads are to be regularly rinsed
with h ot water,
at least once a day the entire filler is to be used
for at least an hom for thorough cleanin g (filler
sterilisation p rogranune). For this gel or foam
cleaning should also be used . During this time
the folding rollers in p ar ticular lUldergo a tho-
rough cUld long cleaning with hot wa ter.
5.5.8 Widgets
Wid gets are hollow bodies in the can w hich are
filled w ith nitrogen gas; wh en the can is ope-
On the opposite side there is often a similarly for-
med outlet valve or at least fine openings p resent.
Exnmple 1:
In the s till empty ca n the w idget is jammed on-
to the bottom of the can w ith the entran ce ope-
nin g facing d ownwards and the can is fill ed .
Shortly before closure a thin jet of liquid nitro-
gen is added to the contents of the can w hich,
due to the enormous drop in tem perature, only
evaporates after closure and then increases the
inner pressm e in the can (Fig. 5.85).
If the can is no w tu rned 180°, the en trance
openin g of the w idget faces upwards and the
nitrogen gas can with overpressure fl ow into
the widget (w hich is still fi lled w ith ahnosphe-
ric pressure).
If the can is turned back again n othing h ap -
pens because the pressure in the interior of the
can is the same throughout and the sm all ope-
Iii
Fig. 5.85
iVlethod of opernlioll of widgets
Expinllnliolls ill lext
n ings in the w idge t hold back the gas.
If the can is now opened, the overpressure es-
cap es and the ni trogen can now flow out lmhin-
dered due to the higher pressure.
Th e foam w hi ch is form ed is very fin e-pored
but n ot very s table. Its form ation is heavily de-
p endent on the temperature and it is advisable
to onl y open well-cooled ca ns and then to em p-
ty them quickl y - otherwise there w ill be tro u-
ble with the h ousewife!

draught beer with an object detector for wid-
gets. Empty cans w hleh contaul no widget are
rejected. The ca mera with picture evaluation
described for the empty can inspector can, in
addition, easily ca rry out the object detection
for the widget.
5.5.9 Inspection of the filled cans
5 5
As is the case with bottles, it is also necessary in
the case of cans to monjtor the filled and closed
can with regard to its correct filling level.
Thjs normally occurs by means of an ulspector
which works on the basis of y-rays. SU1Ce the mo-
vement of liquid and the presence of foam have
to be accOlmted for, the y-ray is directed at a sin-
gle relatively deep point and thereby offers an ex-
act conh'ol Ul the case of lmderfillillg of the can.
The disadvantages of this process are
that it works with radioactive rays and
it does not work precisely enough for some
Fig.5.85n companies.
Cnll willI widget Newer equipment monitors the filling height
and leakage usulg x-rays. With this equipment
the drutk contents ca n be read both vertically
Example 2:
Some widgets are added in the form of pon- and horizontally and as a result provides an ex-
toons and the filled can is likewise sealed follo- tensive picture of the upper part of the can .
wing the addition of a drop of nitrogen gas, e.g. With a monitoring speed of 2400 cans a mUlute
in the case of Guumess stout. (= 144,000 cans/hour), a fillulg height precision
In this case the widget immediately fills with of ± 0.5 mm can be checked.
the higher pressure gas Ul the can . In addition it is also possible to obtam a pre-
On openulg the pressure above the liquid al- cise determination of the net contents of the can
so immediately escapes; however, the lip valve Ul m1. Altogether the following values are esta-
prevents the escape of the nitrogen gas up- blished:
wards . On the other hand, the nitrogen gas, precise fiDing height check,
which is under pressure, can escape on the basis of the curve of the lid, determina-
downwards from the widget into the liquid, tion of over- or underpressure,
thus obtauling the same effect. too much foam and/or wrong lid (underpres-
The spread of widgets shows the growing Ul- sure) = leakuless,
terest of the consumer; at the same time it illu- foam density measurement,
strates that the widget teclmology can also be of missing lid, closures or tear rings are deter-
interest analogously for other sectors. mmed.
At the same time it is also necessary to equip Leaky cans leak Ul the pasteuriser and are de-
the empty can ulspector in the case of so-called tected durulg the fillulg height control.
All ulspection systems are of course equip-
ped with an integra ted elimination system.
Faulty cans a re disca rd ed by means of a pusher.
The elimination is monitored via special scan-
ners and feedba ck chains.
The filling height inspectors are also regularly
monitored using test cans which are weighed.
5.5.10 Pasteurisation of cans
CaImed drutks such as beer or new-age pro-
ducts are usu ally pasteurised. The same applies
for can pas teurisa tion as for bottle pasteurisa ti-
on; however it has to be assumed here that heat
transfer (metal, low wall s trength) occurs dissi-
milarly better and faster than with bottles.
In the case of pasteurisation of CaI1S, the pasteu-
risation tempera hire should not exceed 62°C be-
cause the inner pressure resis tance of the can is
only 6 bar and a higher temperahlre leads to a
higher umer pressure dependant on the CO,
content, which can easily result m bulges Ul the
lid (swells).
Values of 18 to 20 PU are aimed for in the pa-
steurisation of canned beer.
In the case of heavy bacterial contamination
up to 30 PU are necessary.
5.5.11 Wraparound labelling of cans
As a rule the cans are printed USUlg several co-
lours at the manufacturer's according to the
wishes of the filler and are an effective means of
advertismg. They are produced and supplied in
large quantities. This method has fOlU1d broad
acceptance and will continue to remain the
best-value method for the identification of
drink cans which are filled in large numbers.
Nevertheless there are a number of points
which make the labellulg of cans ulteresting. By
meaI1S of labellulg cans it is possible to
unmediately adjust to a change from one sort
to another,
in a company with a large production range,
save considerable warehousmg,
751
ac hieve the highest decoration quality USUlg
brilliant prultulg quality and
achieve a cost adVaIltage by meaI1S of econo-
micalunprinted can material.
Besides the reduced warehollsulg for prulted
cans and the concern about unused remaining
amounts, there is a further advantage in the
great fle xibility in the lead tune, whjch is 3 to 4
days for new labels whilst being 6 or more
weeks for newly prmted cans. A further advan-
tage results from the munerous design possibi-
lities when printing the label Ul brilliant colours
using the abrasion resistant Flexoprint process.
Photo-like illustrations, nUU1lllg colours, hjgh
gloss effects etc. are no problem when USUlg
this process. High flexibility using short lead ti-
mes and low costs guarantee quick market ac-
cess.
Smce the can is a non-rehlrnable form of pac-
kaging, it is equipped with
ulitial gluing of the label on the can and a
an approx. 1 cm wide end gluing of the label
to secu re it.
The labels made of polyehylene (HDPE) or
polypropylene (OPP or CPP) are cut off from
the label roll (wrap-around process), as is the
case Ul the wrap-around labelling of bottles,
and put onto the can by the labelling machine.
The can labelling macl1llle has a labellulg ag-
gregate. The labelling aggregate (Fig. 5.86) con-
sists of
a label cutting lU1it, the cutter,
a vacuum drum and
the glue drum.
The label is cut from the bruld with the aid of
a rotating knife in the cutter. By means of a re-
gistration mark on the bruld which is detected
by a sensor, every label is identified in the pre-
determmed place and cut off.
The label is now - as is the case with the
wrap-arow1d labellulg of PET bottles - taken
over by the vacuum drum . The beguuling and
end of the label are thereby laid on small raised
 752
1 Leading-edge gluing
2 Trailing-edge gluing
3 Label wrapping
2 also Sect. 5.1.2.9) and
Label reel
5
Cutting
station
- ---;.- --1i;!IWliil ']1
Infeed
Fig. 5.86
Cnll Inbellillgfrolll tile roll
rails on a higher level, made from special pla-
stic material, called pads. The hot glue is ap-
plied to the begimnng and end of the label from
the rotating glue drum. When the beguming of
the label comes into contact with the can, the
vacuum is reduced and the label is easily blown
against the can during the continued rolling.
The label is rolled against the can rotating in the
opposite direction and firmly glued by means
of the overlap.
Can labelling occurs with a throughput of
45,000 cans/hour, and for stability reasons only
filled and closed cans are labelled.
Recently labelling of the lid of the can using
advertising-effective printed aluminium foil
has sometimes been applied, which makes use
of the upper side of the can, winch is otherwise
of little interest, for advertisulg purposes.
5.5.12 Dating of the cans
The cans are to be furnished with the
prescribed and lor company data; this
includes:
the filling- and/or sell-by date (see
internal company information re-
garding batch tracing (batch code).
The inwardly curved bottom of the
can lends itself to the dating of the
cans. Since the bottom of the can also
gets repeated ly wet by turning du-
ring further processing resulting in
difficulties in printing, many filling
companies already take advantage of
the dry state of the can following re-
moval for dating.
The usual form of printing occurs
by means of an ink jet printer (Fig.
5.87). Special ink is thereby pressed
via a control valve (1) through a cry-
stalline special jet (2) which has the
diameter of a human hair, and the ink
is separated into drops by means of
66,000 possible impulses/s; the drops are sepa-
rated in a subsequent batch tunnel (3). The
drops are directed by a deflector plate (4) onto
the intended position on the bottom of the can,
which has been previously set using a cartrid-
ge, and dry there immediately.
The distance between the deflector jet and the
bottom of the can is only a few centimetres. The
size of the print depends on the distance and
becomes larger as the distance increases, but al-
so less clear.
The performance of this printer is very high.
In the case of a throughput of a filling line of
60,000 cans/h, 16.7 cans pass by in a second wit-
hout stopping to be marked. If 120 to 150 points
are calculated for the printing per can, the prul-
ter has to place 2000 to 2500 points every second
(times 16.7 cans per second). However, SUlce it
can only mark the middle part of the can bot-
753
1 2 .3
• 5
Fig. 5.87
IlIk jet prillter (operatillg prillciple)
(1) illk colltrol vnlve, (2) crystnllille specinl jet, (3) sepnratioll of tile drops, (4) deflector plnte for plncillg tile drops
tom, only about a third of the time is available to calibration plate showing the capacity and the
it. In individual cases laser is also used which a p- name of the brewery, and the barrel number is
plies the coding onto highly contrasted coloured also branded on this end. Many wooden barrels
areas of the can (evaporation of the paint). also have a further tappi ng hole, the Bavarian
Anstich (Fig. 5.88), by means of which the bar-
5.6 Filling of casks, kegs, party casks, rel can be tapped in an upright position.
and large cans Wooden barrels are li.ned with a special pitch
(pitched) . TIns pitch, which consists of colopho-
5.6.1 Filling of wooden barrels and casks
Wooden barrels have determined the transport
of beer for centuries. The classical wooden bar-
rel is made of oak and consists of barrel staves,
the top (front end), the bottom (rear end) and 1
the barrel hoops. The staves are curved so that
the hoops can be forced on . This was necessary 2
because the staves of the empty barrel increa-
sUlgly dried out and had to be forced on agaul.
This very work intensive task was formerly do-
ne by a barrel maker, also known as a cooper 3
("Schwager") in the German brewing langua-
ge, in the cask department using special ham-
mers (see Fig. 0.8). Larger breweries also em-
ployed a powerful hoop fitting machine.
5
Previously, also, the water tighhless of the bar-
rel was tes ted by immersion in a testing bath
Fig. 5.88
and observing if air bubbles rose to the top.
Cllrollle lIickel steel cnsk witll plnstic cover
Barrels also have a bung hole in the middle of (1) stnilliess steel cnsk, (2) plnstic IIIn1llle /llnde of PU, (3)
one stave. On the top is the tap hole bush, the bllllg IIDle, (4) tnp 1I01e, (5) tnp 1I0ie (Bnvnrinll Allsticll)
 754
nium, paraffin and resin oil, is sprayed in at
about 180 °C and spread over the surface by roI-
ling the barrel. Every time a barrel is cleaned
the condition of the barrel is examined by an in-
spection lamp and if necessary is repitched.
This was very labour intensive work (Fig. 0.8).
The walls of wooden barrels are more than 3
cm thick in order to withstand the internal pres-
5 5
sure and survive transport. This means that the
empty barrel itself has a considerable weight
which must always be transported with the
beer as packaging. For instance the weight of an
empty wooden barrel of
30 1 contents is 25 kg
50 I contents is 32 kg.
These numbers show why the high packa-
ging weight is not justifiable with modern dis-
tribution systems. Moreover, barrel filling, even
with very experienced operators, requires a lar-
ge number of manual workers. It is particularly
disadvantageous that the processes of barrel
cleaning and filling cannot be automated.
This brief description shows the problems
and the high labour requirement associated
with barrel filling without mentioning the bio-
logical risks (max. cleaning temperahlre 40 to
45°C). Of course the wooden barrel also has ad-
vantages, e.g. its very stable shape, its heat insu-
lation properties and its long lifespan, but the
advantages do not compensate for the disad-
vantages.
Nevertheless, when used for advertising pur-
poses the wooden barrel is even today highly
satisfactory. When a fully laden and decorated
brewery dray drawn by 10 horses passes
through the town, people immediately feel a
terrible dryness in the throat. The same applies
when the mayor of the town broaches a wooden
barrel containing Bockbier with skilful blows.
As a side note it should be pointed out that
just a htmdred years ago, the storage casks as
well as the transport casks in the brewery were
hand made by the coopers. The work was extre-
mely labour intensive and was responsible for
the coopers being the second largest occupatio-
nal group in the brewery after the brewers (Fig.
4.23a).
Metn 1 casks
As an alternative to wooden barrels, metal
casks were developed which eliminated a l1Llln-
bel' of disa dvantages of wooden barrels.
Metal casks are made either bellied or cylin-
drical. Casks with a belly are often provided
with two rubber rolling rings so that they can
be rolled more easily.
Metal casks are made of aluminium or dU'o-
me nickel steel. For corrosion stability, alumini-
um casks have an internal lacquer coating or
are passivated. Untreated aluminium casks can
be used for only 5 to 7 years.
Cylindrical metal casks are made of chrome
nickel steel and equipped with two reinforcing
rings. A disadvantage is the low buckling resi-
stance and the inability to automate filling.
They are not widely used.
Every cask has a bung screw which after fil-
ling the cask is turned in the bung hole and clo-
ses it. The bung screw and a sealing bung cloth
must be thoroughly cleaned and sterilised and
the operator's hands must be clean when seal-
ing the bung hole. It is obvious that under such
circumstances at most one can only speak of re-
latively germ-free filling.
Cnslcs fillillg processes
Apart from the described "special treatment"
every cask passes through
the cask cleaning machine and
the cask fi lIer.
In the cask cleaning machine the casks are
conveyed by a rocker ann mechanism through
various stations and thereby
soaked and brushed clean on the outside by
rotation,
rinsed with hot water from below, and
755
then rinsed with cold water and inspected.
Clean ing ma chines for corrosion resis tant
metal casks also permit rinsing with caustic at
90 to 95 °C and with acid at 60 to 70 0c.
During cask filling the cask must be manu a l-
ly positioned beneath the fill er head. The filler
head is then lowered, also manually, onto the
cask which is then filled in two s tages, in which
the cask is first pretensed with compressed air
or CO2, and
the beer flow s in isobarometrica lly after pres-
sure equalisation is completed.
The cask filling head is relati ve ly complicated
and there a re many different designs. Never-
theless, in all cases the same operating steps are
perfor med (Fi g. 5.89):
The contact cone (8) of the filling head is pres-
sed against the bung hole of the cask and
seals it from the outside.
TIlen the beer pipe (15) is brought into the lo-
west position by rotating the control lever
(28). At the same time the purge air valve is
opened and the inside of the cask is pretensed
with compressed air or CO, in a few seconds.
TIlen the bottom valve (19), which until then
had been held in the upper (closed) position, Fig. 5.89
Cnsk fillillg !rend
is opened and the beer can flow into the cask
Expinllntiolls ill text
and fill it.
TIle air present in the cask escapes through the
return air pipe (11). The almost full state of the
cask is shown by the presence of foam in the Apart from the large amount of labour requi-
sight glass in the return air pipe. The cask is full red and other disadvantages, the large amoLmt
when beer is seen in the sight glass. of oxyge n picked up during filling is a great
o If the control lever is now turned in the oppo- disadvantage with this type of filling system.
site direction, the beer and compressed air It has been shown that there are a great many
supply is closed by a complicated mechanism reasons why cask filling should be discontinued.
and the filling head is raised. The cask can The traditional cask form will, however, not
now be closed. Beer present in the return air disappear and will be retained for certain pur-
pipe is displaced into a foam pot during the poses. For the customer the sight of a wooden
nex t filling operation. cask is associated with tradition, nature and re-
Cask filling plants were for many years built gional identity. It is therefore understandable
o with filler buffer tanks and later that some breweries use similarly formed pla-
o without filler buffer tanks. stic casks with a chrome nickel steel imler part,
 756
w hi ch can be easily cleaned, in place of the o ld
wooden casks. It is also possible to a utomate
virtually the entire processing of these casks
from receiving the empty cask to palletisation
of the filled casks [280].
5.6.2 Kegs and fittings
Kegs h ave replaced the traditional wooden
5 5
casks for almost half a century. Dealing with
casks was very problematic:
the wooden casks were heavy and could only
be moved by rolling,
thorough cleeming was only partly possible,
the pitch layer and their tighhless had to be
regularly inspected,
they had to be regularly de- and rep itched and
automisation of the treatment and filling was
not possible.
Some of these problems did indeed improve
with the introduction of aluminilUll casks and
later chrome nickel steel casks which rendered
Fig. 5.90
Keg
a pitch coating supe rfluou s; however, a total
transition and in pa rticular an automisation of
the processes could only be achieved following
the introduction of kegs.
Kegs are cylindrical metal barrels with a her-
metically sealed imler part which are cleaned,
filled and emptied by means of fittings (Fig.
5.90). The fitting is COlU1ected to a riser pipe
which reaches to the bottom of the keg thus en-
abling the filling and emptying of the keg. The
keg is always unde r pressure; loss of pressure is
therefore an important indicator for leakiness
or manipulation of the keg.
5.6.2.1 Material, shape and size of the keg
The material for the production of kegs must
fulfil the following conditions:
it must not affect the flavour of the beer,
it must be robust and not be easily deformed,
it has to be pressure resistant,
it should be easy to process,
the mass should be as small as possible and
the price should be appropriate.
Nowadays chrome nickel steel is almost ex-
clusively used.
Alumilli 11111 kegs
Aluminium kegs are produced with wall
strengths of 2.5 to 3. 0 mm and provided with an
inner lining to prevent corrosion which make
the kegs lmusable after a few years. Synthetic-
resin varnish or epoxide resin coating is used
for the imler lining. It is also possible to line the
inside with an oxide layer.
Chrome lIickel steelleegs
In general chrome nickel steels are used, e.g.
with qualities 1.4301 or 1.4306 according to DIN
17007 with a wall strength of 1.3 to 2.0 mm, and
in the case of coated kegs with a wall strength of
1.0 to 1.5 mm.
Metal body coats (combined kegs) consist of
polyurethane. As a result the keg is more robust
and the noise volum e durin g handling is so-
mewhat reduced. Furthermore, the surface can
better be used for adver tis ing purposes and bet-
ter heat insulation is obtained.
Size al/rimass
The content of the kegs varies . In Europe 50 I
and 30 I kegs are usua l, but other sizes are also
in use.
The mass of a keg is ap prox.:
Aluminium Stainless Coated
steel stainless steel
30 I lceg 6 to 7 leg 8 to 12 leg 9 to 11 leg
50 I leeg 8 to 9 kg 10 to 15 leg 13 to 14 kg
Proriuction of kegs
Kegs are produced eithe r by rolling or deep
drawing.
In the case of a rolled (three part) keg, the cy-
linder is bent from a sheet and welded together
by means of a welding sea m . The two deep
dra wn ends are then welded on so that there
are three welding seam s.
Deep drawn (two part) kegs are produced
from two deep drawn half shells which are then
welded together using one welding seam. As a
result there is a lower risk of corrosion since
welding seams in particular provide a starting
point for erosion . The mechanical strength of a
deep drawn keg is thus greater.
5.6.2.2 Keg fittings
Every keg possesses a threaded bushing at the
upper end into which the keg fitting is screwed .
The keg fitting consists of a valve casing with an
external thread and the attached riser pipe. The
valve casing contains the beverage and pressu-
rised gas valves. The dispense head is attached
to the valve casing. This keg fitting is formed as
a so-called
757
flat-top fitting,
well type fitting and
combi-fitting.
Flnt boriy valve or flnt-top fittillg
(Fig. 5.91)
The flat-top fitting has a flat surface and a valve
which has the double flU1ction as a beer and
pressuri sed gas valve. The flat fitting consists of
only a few individual parts and is the refore
cheaper and easier to maintain .
Hollow boriy vnlve or well type fittillg
(Fig. 5.92)
The well type fitting has two sepa rate indivi-
dually operating valves for the beer and pressu-
rised gas. The robushless of the fittings and its
small mass are of advantage. Both valve sy-
stems have proven themselves in practice.
Co III bi-fittillg
(Fig. 5.93)
The combi-fitting is not a new system but con-
n ects the two-valve system of the well type fit-
ting with the flat-top fitting and makes the
handling of this easier.
Riser pipe
The riser pipe is a smooth pipe without restric-
tions and baffles; its mouth is just above the bot-
tom of the keg, which is deepest at this point,
the reby enabling a complete emptying of the
keg. On the other h and the riser pipe enables
flushing of the lower and p eriphary parts of the
keg surface during cleaning.
Dispellse henri
By means of the dispense head a link is made
between the cask fitting and tapping unit. The
dispense head, which is easy to operate, has a
hose COlU1ection for the transport of beer and
the introduction of pressurised gas, and it is via
this that the cone valves are operated.
 758
5 5
;, I Fig. 5.91
OJ''. Well type jillillg
5.6.3 Cleaning and filling the keg
Due to their standardisation and because they
are transported when standing, it is possible to
automate keg cleaning and filling processes.
Depending on the company size and the
amount of kegs, varying sized plants are built.
In the case of very small plants only cleaning
and the actual filling occur mechanically, all ot-
her procedural stages have to be implemented
manually. Large plants perform all procedural
stages automatically in one or more lines in the
following way:
Depo lletisillg
From the depalletiser the kegs are placed on the
conveyor belt (chain or roller conveyors) and
Fig. 5.92 transported to the in verting device.
Flnt-top jillillg
II/versioll
For fur ther processing the keg has to be inver-
ted so that the fitting is at the bottom. To achie-
759
Fig. 5.93
COII/Vi-fittillg
ve this the keg is picked up by grippers and in-
verted .
Decnppiug
It is possible and frequently the case that the
polyethylene protective cap has been placed
back on the fitting to prevent contamination.
Before inversion the cap has to be removed sin-
ce otherwise no connection to the fitting and
hence to the inside of the keg can be made.
Pressure testing
The keg retains the internal pressure which it
has a t the end of tapping. Since there is a drop
in pressure from the inside to the outside, not-
hing can enter the cask. Before starting to clean
the cask the internal pressure therefore has to
be inspected. If the internal pressure has drop-
ped sharply or is no longer existent, then
the keg is leaky,
the fitting is defective or
 760
the keg has been manipulated by wl authori-
sed persons.
In all cases the cause has to be investiga ted.
Following this pressure tes ting, the remai-
ning beer and CO, is driven off by mean s of
compressed air (residual emptying).
5.6.3.1 Cleaning of the keg
5 Station 4
(see also Fig. 5.94)
Extemal deallillg
Before starting to clean the interior, the kegs are
generally soaked with water and caustic on the
outside, cleaned u sing hot water and rinsed
with clear water. This is necessary because the
kegs - depending on weather conditions, the lo-
cation and duration of storage - frequently ha-
ve a very unattractive appearance and could
thereby damage the reputation of the brewery
if they were to reappear for sale - filled - in a
dirty condition. The external cleaning is sup-
ported by means of high pressure spraying
and/or rotating brushes. Any remaining labels
or coding must also be removed.
Iilte1'llai deallillg
Internal cleaning is of course the most impor-
tant process, particularly as it is not known for
how long and at which temperature the keg has
been lying around. Since it is not possible to see
or smell inside the keg, it has to be assumed that
a rich microflora has developed in the beer resi-
due of the keg, which now has to be complete-
ly eliminated. This now occurs in several
cleaning and sterilisation stations, the extent of
which differs from machine to machine.
5.6.3.2 Filling the keg
Filling of the keg occurs at a filling station . For
this purpose, firstly the keg is
pretensed to the desired end pressure with
CO, and then
the beer is filled with a slow begitming and
761
end filling phase and a fa st main filling phase. Sta tion 2 Station 3
Dming the pre-filling phase the beer inflow is
relatively slow to prevent foaming and to keep
oxygen absorption as low as possible. The oxygen
absorption should not exceed O.1mg per litre.
In the fas t fillin g phase the pressure diffe-
rence is increased and the flow of beer let in
quickly. As soon as the beer flow s out of the
Station 5
5
standpipe, the filling process is ended.
It is also possibl e to equip the filling station
with a volumetric filling device which can be
calibrated.
At the end of filling, the filler head is blown
out and rinsed and the keg is taken out.
8
MOllitorillg tlte fillillg 1teigltt
Station 7
Kegs which are not properly filled ha ve, of
course, to be prevented from leaving the brewe-
ry. For this purpose, a filling height check is ne-
cessary, since the kegs are not transparent.
Weighing the kegs is possible but only makes
sense if all the kegs ha ve exactly the same emp-
ty mass. Weighing the empty kegs is normal it 15 16
practice with a number of breweries and saves
Fig. 5.94
the regular follow-up calibration of the volume.
TrenlllleJ/1 slnliolls ill keg c/en llillg, slerilisnlioll nllri fillillg (K HS Co., Dorllllllilri)
The same applies to volumetric filling using
Hn villg veell pili all Ih e eelltrillg slnlioll, Ihe relllnillillg pressllre is f irstly testeri (1), the resirille elllplieri nllri CO, expelleri.
IDM.
Can tactless filling height checks using "{-rays III the fo llowillg siniioll (2), n plllsnlillg wnter rillse OCClIrs, nllri ill slntioll (3) the resirillnl wnter is vlowlI 0111 wit/I sterile nil'.
This is fo llowed vy n plllsntillg cnllstic-l rillse of the wnlls nllri stnllripipe. The cnllstic-l is Ihell ngnill vlowlI Ollt IIsillg slerile nil'
are usual but, d epending on the safety regulati-
(5), flIIri tllell n plllsntillg cnllstic-2 rillse of Ihe wnlls nlld stnllripipe is pelforl lleri (6) .
ons of the country in question, require a radia-
The keg is thell Jilleriwilh cnlls tic-2 (7) nllrithe cnllstic is leflto tnke effect (8). The cnllslic-2 is t/lell rirnilleri off nllri n relleweri
tion protection officer or other expert.
p"lsntillg rillse of the wnlls nllri stnllripipe is pelforllleri (9), wh ich is wderi witll vlowillg olltlhe cn llslic vy lIIenllS of slerile nil'
The followin g applies to use in small brewe- (10).
ries:
A plllsntillg nciri sprnyillg lIelltrnlises Ihe cn llstic residlle (11) nllri is likewise expellerillsillg slerile nil' (1 2). A plllsn tillg 1101 wn-
when beer flow s out of the dispense pipe, the ter rillse (13) lIelltrnlises Ihe keg cOlltellls nllri expels nlly resirilles.
keg has to be full,
No w the wnter is expelleri vy lIIenllS of stenlll (14) nllri throllgh the vllilri-llp of press llre Ihe lenk tigfltll ess of the keg is IIlOlIitared
when the top end is basically cold as far as the (15 ). Stenlllillg VI/ lIIenllS of sleriliseri stemll nlso pnrtly pretellses (16). The relllnillillg stemll is Ihell vlowlI alit willi CO, (17), the
imler circle, the keg is full. keg prelellserito its Jillnl pressllre level (18) nllrithell fi lleri (19) .
Illversioll
The last but one station prior to palletising is Cappillg
the inverting device where the keg is again ro- In most countries the keg fitting is provided fication of the contents, company, filling date
tated through 180 0 so that the fitting is at the with a cap which protects the closure mechani- and other details, the cap secures the contents
top . cally and hygienically. With its coloured identi- and provides the batch registration .
 762
5.6.4 Keg plants as a whole
The kegs are conveyed cyclically fr om s tation to
station and trea ted there. Treatment of the kegs
occurs either
with a rotary machine or
with a straight (linear) machine.
Both types of machine are common and in use.
Linea r keg cleaning and filling plants are gene-
5 5
rally equipped for up to 300 kegs/h; larger keg fil-
ling plants for up to 1000 kegslh are mainly in
operation as rotary machines (with one to three
cycles). It should be mentioned, however, that
very small plants are also in operation with only
one keg head for very small filling plants.
Thorough pre and post trea tment and moni-
toring is also necessary in the case of keg plants
to guarantee that only correctly fill ed and clean
kegs leave the plant.
5.6.5 Filling of small and party kegs
In many cOlmtries special small kegs are also in
use. By thi s is generally meant small containers
with contents between 10 and 15 litres, which
are equipped with easy-to-handle fittin gs, are
lent out by breweries or other beverage compa-
nies and serve to provide keg produ cts in do-
mestic circles.
A typical example of such a small keg is the
"Keggy" container (Fig. 5.95) shown here, with
a keg content of 12 litres. As well as a s tainless
steel beer keg, it also consists of a built-in CO,
tank with an integrated pressure regula tor. A
rectangular, elastic outer coating protects the
Keggy from collisions, blows and hea ting, thus
making it easy to transport.
By mea ns of an easily attachable fitting, dis-
pensin g beer at home becomes a clean pleasure
even for the amateur, beca use all ex tra tasks
(tapping, adjusting the compressed gas etc.) are
eliminated. Sp ecial safety fittings ensure the
optimum safe ty of the customer.
The cleaning and filling of the "Keggy" oc-
curs in the keg plant with the aid of special fi x-
Fig. 5.95
"KegglJ" coll tniller
(Keggy drillk systelll GIIIV H, Netl llkircitell, Sieger/nlld)
tures, in order to guarantee a proper cOlUlecti-
on . The CO, is weighed in .
Self-coolillg bee r lceg "CooIKeg"
Another speciality is the self-cooling beer keg
"CooIKeg" (Fig . 5.95a). The CoolKeg, offered in
sizes of 5 to 20 litres contents, consists of tlu'ee
shells: th e inner shell is formed by the keg
(beer) bubble (2). In the middle shell an absor-
bent flow, which contains water, is applied un-
der vacuum. Th e flow is s urrounded by a perfo-
rated wall, the evaporator (5). In the third shell
there is a layer of zeolith (4), also under vaCUUlll
and separated by a shell with a valve (3).
Zeoliths are characterised as a group of alka-
line and alkaline-earth aluminium silica tes
with changing water content. Zeoliths are very
strongly hygroscopic. On heating zeoliths can
release bonded water and take up other ch emi-
cals or ions instead . As a result zeoliths are in
the position to ex tract wa ter from liquid s or ga-
ses. This is mad e use of here.
Through opening the valve (1), the cOlUlecti-
on between the eva porato r (5) and the zeolith is
opened. The zeo lith imm ediately begins to take
up wa ter which is located in the absorbent flow
of the evaporator. The evaporation hea t neces-
sary for evapora ti on ex tracts the water from the
adjacent beer bubble (2), w hich as a result cools
down. After approx . 30 min the contents of the
keg have coo led d ow n sufficientl y that they can
be dispensed . Th e temperature of the keg con -
tents of 6 - 9 °c is maintained for about 12
hours.
2 fitted into the can which only needs to be pul-
3
4
5
Fig. 5.95a
Self-coolillg veer keg "Cool Keg"
(1) valve activatioll, (2) veer vllvvle, (3) valve, (4) zeolilll, (5)
evaporator
For regenera tion purposes, the covering sur-
fa ce of the keg is hea ted to about 250 °C for a
short time from outside resulting in the tran sfer
of water from the zeolith back to the flow in the
evaporator, wh ere it again conden ses. The va l-
ve, however, then h as to be closed again other-
wise the process imm ediately restarts. For the
cleaning when empty and the filling of the
763
CoolKeg a special plant is necessa ry. The filled
keg is then labelled with a wrap-a round label
(as w ith cans). Printing the profi led keg cover is
not suitable since the keg walls have to be hea-
ted to 250 °C with each regeneration.
5.6.6 Filling of large cans
Ma ny breweries offer large cans w ith 5 litre
contents. They are mainly intended for fam ily
and ga rden parties, when an in creased joint
beer consumption in a small circle is expected
and one wish es to enjoy keg beer from a com-
mon ca n (keg). The cans a re filled and sealed in
specia l filling plants. With the aid of a simpl e
purchaseable d evice, the beer ca n be pressed
out. In the simples t case a flowing off device is
led, whereby one should not forget to make an
opening in the upper part to prevent the forma-
tion of a vacuum and thu s a stagna tion in the
fl ow. More expensive dev ices are preferable
w hich through the introduction of air or CO, re-
tain the internal pressure to the very end, so
that a flattening of the residual beer is preven-
ted sh ould the drinkin g speed d ecrease to-
wards the end. Large cans are likewi se enjoying
increasing popularity and h ave become a per-
maJlent fea ture at summer garden par ties.
Large CaJ1S also ha ve to be marked with the
best-before da te.
5.7 Transport and packaging
Bottles aJld cans are purchased indi vidually by
th e cons umer in only a very few cases. For
tran sport and sale they are p ac ked and trans-
p o rted in p ackagin g units su ch as crates,
ca rton s, trays or sixpacks. For transport bet-
ween the brewery and the retail outlet these
packaging units are stored on pallets and trans-
ported. This results in a considerable number of
individual functions for the brewery:
depalletising, i.e. the removal of cra tes with
empty b ottles from the pallet,
 764
the unpacking and sorting of empty bottles
from the packaging,
transportation of the bottles and can s up to
closure and labelling,
packing of filled bottles and can s in cra tes,
cartons, trays etc. and
pall e tising of crates, tra ys, six pa cks or
cartons.
5 5
Since the pallets and packaging also have to
be checked and transported, a number of pro-
blems and tasks arise, which will be described
in more detail in the followin g:
transportation of bottles and cans (container
tran sport),
transportation of crates, cartons, trays, etc.,
transportation of pallets,
the feeding in of new glass and cans,
packing and unpacking of bottles and cans,
palletisin g and depalletising, and
checking the packaging.
5.7.1 Transport containers
Transport containers for bottles are plas tic cra-
tes, cartons, sixpacks and other sm all packages.
Nex t to the label on the bottle or can they are
the important link from the producer to the
consumer. Layout, colour, shape, d esign and
condition of the package or container convey to
the conSluner an important individual impres-
sion, which h as a great impact. It is therefore
unders tandable that most drinks compani es
pay a great d eal of attention to the design of the
p ackaging .
Plas tic crates playa special role amongst the
transport containers because they are the only
form of packaging used for returnable bottles.
Plastic crates
Earlier there we re only flat wooden cra tes with
compa rtments; in the side wall of the cra te the
name of the brewery was clearly burnt on. With
the emergence of plas tic teclmology, the plas tic
crate with compartments d eveloped, which
h ad an impressive appearance and a clearly vi-
sible company logo.
Plastic crates are in use in very varied sizes,
shapes, colours and designs. They are used for
packaging from 6 to 24 bottles with contents of
0.25 to 11. The cra tes are always equipped with
compartments to prevent the bottles banging
into and rubbing aga inst each other. The height
of the crate exceeds the height of the bottle to
protect the bottles, and an appropriate crate de-
sign makes a safe and lU1problematic stacking
of the crates possible.
One can distinguish between individual cra-
tes which clearly mark the company and beer
type by means of colour d esign, company logo
and other features. The individual crate which
has a powerful advertising effect has on the ot-
her hand the di sadvantage that the crate always
has to be returned to this company. This is so-
metimes difficult and above all causes costs.
Group crates forego the advertising effect;
the group can, however, use the pool of cra tes
in their joint association. Using windows and
openings, in connection with labels turned in
the right direction, a certain advertising effect
can nevertheless be achieved.
Plastic crates are the usual means of transport
for returnable bottles. Large crates (20 - 24 bott-
les) are however becoming increasingly less po-
pular because they are much too heavy for the
shopper, in particular for women and old people.
The crate with empty glass bottles weighs almost
as mud1 as the entire contents. As a result smal-
ler crates are also offered by many breweries, e.g.
EIfel' (eleven-bottle) crates.
Cal'tolls
Folding ca rton s are used as non-returnable
packaging . If returnable bottles are packed in
folding cartons, the cartons can be used for the
return transport bu t not for renewed p acking.
Folding cartons are offered in varying designs
and formed in the desired way with the aid of
Fig.5.95b
A vn riet lf of pnckngillg is offered 011
todny's IIlnrket
carton folding machines and quickly sea led
using hot glue and /or staples. Folding cartons
are offered with or without compartm ents,
whereby the inclusion of compartments some-
times causes problems. On the other hand com-
partments prevent the bottles or cans rubbing
against each other. Nowadays comparhnents
are p refabricated.
Trn ys
By trays are mea nt flat cardboard trays which
are used for picking up and packaging cans or
small bottles. To achieve better stability, trays
are frequently covered with foil. As is the case
with crates and cartons, trays can also be stack-
ed on pallets; in this case, however, the weight
lies directly on the cans or bottle mouths. Even
if the weight is equ ally dis tributed, the h eight
of the stack is limited.
Sixpac/cs, wrapal'ollllrfllHlIltipaclcs
By sixpacks is meant easy to handle and sui tab-
ly designed p ackaging of 6 bottl es or cans,
which are packed in foil or offered as wrapa-
rolU1d/multipacks and effective from an adver-
tising point of view. Other formations (4 to 8)
are, however, also common . Since sixpacks or
765
other similar small-si ze p ackages are not suit-
able for transport in large qu an tities, they are
usu ally p acked together in trays in larger pak-
kaging lUutS (Fig. 5.95b).
Pallets
Pallets are the larges t form of packaging in the
brewery. In filling compa ni es and between
companies and the trade the packaging units,
that is the crates, cartons and trays, are stacke
on pallets, transported and s tored. By p allet is
meant a base on wluch to put stackable goods,
the bottom surface of which is regulated at
company, n ational or interna tional (i.e. EU) le-
vel. There is a great range of different pallets of
w hich mainly two typ es are in use in filling
compan ies:
box or crate p allets, e.g. for the transport of
small-sized goods, such as crown corks and
flat pallets for the storage and transport of
packaging W1itS.
Flat p allets (Fig. 5.109) consist of a standardi-
sed surface made from knot-free boa rds, wluch
are held at such a height by s table wooden gus-
sets that the fork lift truck h as enough space. To
provide further strength there are boards posi-
ti oned underneath the gussets (or squared tim-
 766
bers). Depending on the arrangement of boards
and timbers one distinguishes between
two-way skid pallets (A), which can only be
lifted from two sides,
four-way skid pallets (B), which can be lifted
from all sides, and
four-way window pallets (C), which can also
be lifted from all sides.
5 5
Fig. 5.109
Flnl pnllels
(A) Iwo-wnlj skid pnllel
(8) !ollr-wn!! skid pnllel
(C)!ollr-wn!! wiJldow pnllel
The size and shape of the pallets has to corre-
spond to the size and shape of the packaging
units to obtain optimum use of the surfaces. For
improved stability of the structure - particular-
ly in the case of cartons and trays - the packa-
ging layers often alternate between lengthways
and widthways. Each level of containers is re-
ferred to as a layer.
At present within the EU Form B dominates
as the Euro-pallet with dimensions of 800 x
1200 mm (brewer-pallet).
5.7.2 Treatment of plastic crates
Plastic crates are the only returnable form of
packaging. Their treatment therefore requires
special attention. This applies to
the elimination of foreign and damaged cra-
tes (bad crates),
washing of the crates and
intermediate storage in the crate magazine.
5.7.2.1 Elimination of foreign and damaged
crates and bottles
The empties which are returned have to be
checked because any irregularity will inevita-
bly lead to problems in the further course of
production, which will have a negative impact
on the result. This check occurs separately for
empty bottles and crates.
The returned empty bottles are checked in an
electronic empty goods monitoring device
equipped with a CCD camera with regard to
bottles with incorrect height or shape (too tall
or too short, wrong shape),
bottles with incorrect colour,
closures still on the bottle.
Bottles which are detected as being incorrect
are rejected by the pusher.
The same factors apply to monitoring the emp-
ty crates. TIley represent the brewelY to an equal
extent and may only leave the brewery again in a
clean and lUufonn condition. For tlus pm pose fo-
reign crates or ones which are not in accordance
with the regulations are checked for elimination
according to the following parameters:
company logo,
crate colour,
cracks on the grip hole,
coarse objects in or on the crate,
bottle breakage or other irregularities.
Following detection, "bad crates" are filtered
out by a pusher and then treated separately.
When - particularly in the case of small brewe-
ries - no checking device is available, this check
has to be carried out visually. Since this special
treatment always takes up working time, the
most frequent causes are to be established and
consequences drawn for future work with trade
or other customers.
The sorting of foreign crates and bottles can
prove to be very costly if there is a large variety
of containers and bottles.
In the same way the packed containers (full
packs) which are leaving the plant are to be in-
spected by means of a full pack inspection devi-
ce with regard to
completeness of the container (no missing
bottles or cans),
filling in accordance with regulations (no un-
derfilling),
proper closing (no missing or poorly fitted
closures),
no broken or leaking containers.
TIle bad crates here also have to be pneumati-
cally pushed out and brought into an orderly
condition. In these cases the mistake is,
always to be fOLmd within the company itself.
5.7.2.2 Washing of the crates
TIle crates are returned by the customer in a mo-
re or less clean condition. TIle reputation of the
Crate turner I
Collecting tray
Fig. 5.102: Crnle wnsiler
767
company depends to a great extent on the appea-
rance of the crate. The crates therefore pass
through a crate washer before being filled with
the bottles. Crate washers are usually simple Ml-
nels which the crates pass through upside down
(so as to remove mechanical impurities such as
splinters, etc.) in one or sometimes two lanes (Fig.
5.102). They are thereby sprayed either using
high pressme spraying with caustic or at least
with hot water and cold rinsing in SUdl a way
that all surfaces are treated effectively and
cleaned. The crates then dry off, are turned rOLmd
and are now available for renewed filling.
5.7.2.3 Crate magazine
When a new sort enters, the crates which have
been relieved of the empty bottles remain lmused
for the space of time between bottle cleaning and
labelling, and sometimes even pasteurisation.
They would completely block the crate
tlu'oughput if they were not housed for this leng-
thy period of time, whidl can be half an hour or
more, in a crate magazine, from which it is possi-
ble to remove them again at any time.
There are different ways of stacking the cra-
tes. A popular solution is the empty crate line
Col lecting tray
 768
-
I ning straight or in curves - (Fig. 5.97), which are
r run along smooth guiding rails . In order to re-
5 duce the rubbing coefficient,
: n;;JIi
lZ :\ = .
magazine, which provides a large storage capaci-
ty with a minimal space requirement. This emp-
ty crate line magazine is a narrow (only as wide
as a crate) but very tall plant (Fig. 5.101) into
which the empty crates are introduced lUltil a li-
ne is full. Then the line is raised and the next line
is filled. The process carries on until the first bott-
les come out of the plant to be packed. The crates
which are numing through then are filled with
the filled bottles, willie the full magazine stands
still, for the moment. When the first crates have
nUl through, the magazine is emptied again in
the same way so that at the end all the crates of
this type are filled again with full bottles.
5.7.3 Transport technology
The bottles and cans must be transported in
bulk without causing any problems and as noi-
selessly as possible from one station to the next,
the crates must complete particular paths in or-
der to be filled again at the right time, and final-
ly the pallets must transport the large milts to
the predetermined places.
Fig. 5.101
emte IIIngnzille
(1) drive
(2)fmllle
(3) lever nllgle
(4) slide wny with p" elll"ntie stoppers
(5 ) protective bnrs
5.7.3.1 Bottle and can transport
The transport of the bottles and cans usually ta-
kes place by means of slat-band chains made of
chrome-nickel steel, on which the containers
are transported gently and securely. In accor-
dance with the requirements, the slat-band
chains are laid out in one or in several lanes.
Each slat-band chain transporter (Fig. 5.96) is
made up of a securely positioned support (8),
which can also even out lmevelmesses of the
floor, and one or more drive gear chain wheels
(7), which move the slat-band chain (3) evenly on
smooth guiding rails, and are driven by a drive
motor with a shaft. Side railings (1) gtilde the
bottles and cans and prevent the transport con-
tainers from falling out. The side railings have
particular importance here, since they have to be
designed differently in accordance with the ty-
pe, shape and size of the containers being used
(glass bottles, PET bottles, cans), in order to
avoid LUu1ecessary abrasion or damage.
Sometimes a 90° change of direction is neces-
sary at several points on the container trans-
Fig. 5.96
Sint-bnlld chnill drive
(1) Adjllstnble milillg holder
(2) Slip-ill gllides
(3 ) 11mlsport clwill
(4) Stntiollnry jettillg systelll to cleml the chnill
(5) Drive 1II0to/; adjllstable
(6) Balf bearillg
(7) Drive gear chaill wlleef
(8) Leveller (spheriCIII ClIp feet)
port. In the case of single container transport
with single lane and multiple lane plants, slat-
band chains rLUu1ing in curves are preferred .
When travelling in curves on the multiple-Ia-
ned conveyors, the bottles jostle and turn each
other and rub against each other. This creates
the scratches on the surfaces of the containers,
which one can reduce to two rubbing rings by
shaping the bottles appropriately but which
nonetheless worsen the appearance of the bott-
les increasingly with every run.
The throughput of the entire plant is depen-
dent on the quality of the slat-band chains. The-
769
refore high demands are made of the chains in
relation to the pulling forces, undesired chain
lengthening, the surface hardness and the accll-
racy of their measurements . Mos t s lat-band
chains are made of stainless steel sheets - run-
band lu -
5
bricant must also be used.
,,- •• •
\.---- ....
• -- •• 1
"
"
M
Fig. 5.97
Slat-balld chaills for stmight tmllsport or tmllsport ill cllrves
Balld lubricant
The simplest kind of band lubricant is pieces of
washing soap which gradually get used up. So-
metimes there is also immersion bath lubricati-
on, in which the lower belt of the chain runs
through a vessel in which there is a mixture of
soap and water. This is all suitable as a lubri-
cant; on the other hand, the soap foams up and
in combination with hard water creates insolu-
 770
ble co mpounds, which h as a negati ve effect.
Agents to bind the water h ardness are therefo-
re added to the soap y lubrica nt. These agents,
however, often ca use the release of heavy me-
tals fro m the waste water dregs, w hich has led
in many cOlUltries to the prohibition of the use
of these agents.
Tod ay, conunercially p roduced lubricants con-
5 but do not need band lubrica nts. They can eit-
taining aminos are offered, and recently also ami-
no-free lubricants which consist of non-ionic SUl'-
factants and the use of which has considerable
advantages. In p articular, de-hardening of the
water is no longer necessary and the dan ger of
precipitation is low. They must, however, be bio-
logically degradable.
The chain lubricants are added autom atically,
since a LUliform application is very important
for the firm. The am ount required dep ends on
the length of the chain, the speed of the ch ain,
the type of container, the level of hmnidity and
the drying off, the entraitUnent ratio and the
water quality. For obviou s reasons, one is inter-
ested in adding as little band lubricant as possi-
ble, since the lubricants otherwise tend to cause
undesirable foa ming under the b ands and can
also be fO LUld aga in in the was te water.
Th e bands, however, also inexorably attract
contaminating bac teria into the cycle and are
Fig. 5.98
Tm llsfe r statioll with plastic ballds
thus a source of contamin ati on w hich should
not be underestim ated . It is therefore ad visable
to add a disinfecting component to the lubri-
cant, e.g. chlorine dioxide (7 mg/l) .
P/n stic bnuris
In recent times pl as tic bands have been in crea-
singly used, w hich fulfil the same requirements
her nUl in a dry condition, or a constant d ampe-
ning wi th water is all that is required . This of
course saves resources considerably and does
n ot load the waste water.
Plastic bands today are made out of poly pro-
pyls, polyethyls, acetal thermoplastics, non-flam-
mable thermoplastic polyester, shock-resistant or
heat-resistant nylon. The acetal thermoplastics in
particular have a good combination of mechani-
cal, thermal and chemical properties. Th ey are
very du rable, resistant to material fatigue and ha-
ve a low abrasion coefficient.
Breweries prefer to use plas ti c bands for the
transport of cans, PET bottles and filled glass
bottles. The reserva tions w hi ch are sometimes
still held against using plas tic bands for empty
gla ss b o ttles are based on the concern that
sharp and h ard glass splinters could damage
the chain or could get jammed in it.
Plas tic band s are also increaSingly used fo r
crate tra nspor t an d as tra ns port ma ts in
th rough p as teurisers.
Plastic cha ins are offered tod ay as straight run-
ners or in curves; they can be produced in any
width, w ith closed or p erforated ch ain links,
sh'aight or jutting out at an angle (Fig. 5.98).
It is clea r that the transfer on the band s run-
ning at an an gle of 90° to each other is ca rried
ou t without problems. Plasti c bands of diffe-
rent w idths and di fferently design ed surfaces
are alread y very wid esp read.
The significant ad vanta ge of using plas tic
bands is that the use of band lubricants is no
longer required . Thus there is no foamin g on
the flo ors, and the loading of the waste water is
reduced .
Bllffe r stretches nllri isolntors
The working rhythm of the individu al machi-
nes and plants in a bottling plant is inevitably
very different. While the p allet unloading takes
place on a larger timescale, in a bottling plant
with e.g. 50,000 bottles per h our, 14 bottles must
be insp ected, filled and closed each second
(50,000 : 3600 s). This area - fr om inspection via
fill ing to the immediately following closure of
the bottles or cans - must be p assed tlU'ough
without problems or interruptions. This means
that the bottles or cans must b e continually fed
Fig.5.98a
Illfeed glidelillers, sepamtioll
Fig.5.98b
Discharge glidelillcrs, IIl ll lt iple-row
distribtttioll
771
into this area. Any in terruptio n of the filli ng
and closure procedure res ults in a reduction of
the turnover and of the quality. Such a continu-
al suppl y is, however, only p ossible if sufficient
"buffe rs" are formed beforehan d, in which a
pool is built up out of which enou gh b ottles can
be continu ally supplied to the fi ller. One aclu e-
ves this by laying multi-Ia ned chains on which 5
the b ottles are pushed "forwa rd" . A t the sam e
tim e, one is often working w ith d iffe rent band
sp eed s in order to achieve a sp ecific movement.
For these container tra nsports, man y tra nsport
elements are available in order to aclueve a de-
sired form ation or change of direction of the
containers. The p arallel slufting is applied abo-
ve all in areas where, fo r example, containers
with a critica l stability, such as PET bottles or
bottles with a bottom surface diameter of under
60 mm, must be tran s ported .
An important factor are isolators (container
jLUlctions). Th eir job is to ensure that a continu-
al supply of individual containers from the lar-
ge pool of bottles or ca ns is gu ara nteed . This is
aclu eved using
Glirielilzers
Glideliners (Fig. 5.98a) en able the isolation of
b ottles arriving on several lan es according to
the sloping level princi ple. The containers p ass
over bands rutUling at different speeds and get

772
into line without back-up pressure. Since the
band speeds are only slightly different, the gli-
deliner works noiselessly and is gentle to the
containers.
Discharge glidelillers
At the machine discharge, the glideliners have
the opposite function as distribu tors (Fig.
5 5.98b): the containers come in one row out of
the machine at a high speed and pass onto a slo-
ping transporter, on which the speed is redu-
ced. Here the flow of containers is spread out,
since the individual containers skid to different
degrees.
111lillers
The inliner is used to isolate plastic bottles. It
has a horizontal transport surface and a pat"abo-
lically shaped railing along which the contai-
ners glide. The bottles are brought together wit-
hout back-up pressure using bands running at
different speeds.
Gas distriblltors
Containers arriving in one lane are distributed
onto two parallel flllming bands by a pneuma-
tically controlled switch. The bands positioned
after the switch are slightly tilted outwards in
order to lead the containers easily onto the se-
lected band.
Noiseless distriblltioll (Blls!} Compact)
For the distribution of masses of bottles, the dis-
tributing slide sheet is applied in good time, in
order to distribute the stream of containers noi-
selessly and calmly - without falls .
Cleallillg ti,e slat-baud cllaills
If the slat-band chains are not cleaned suffi-
ciently, contamination nests establish themsel-
ves in this area, which increasingly and conti-
nually spread contaminations in the direction
of the filler. Transportation plants today are the-
refore designed to be as cleaner-friendly as pos-
sible, and the traJ1Sport interior cleaning is au-
tomated . For this purpose, all critical areas, e.g.
deflection and drive wheels, spacer pieces and
transport chains (Fig. 5.96a) are cleaned from
the insid e to the outside with optimally selected
jetting systems located within the transport fra-
mework, and thus the formation of contamina-
tion nests is counteracted.
The following general rules therefore apply
to slat-band chains:
Allow no dirt nests:
avoid screw COlUlections; weld on guiding
rails, railing holders, feet, keep contact surfa-
ces small
Guarantee good access for cleaning purposes:
no mudguards, large refuse glass discharge
Guarantee the draining of liquids (med ium for
growth of contaminants):
sloping drainage surfaces, no horizontal sur-
faces
a Non-recyclable packaging such as shrink
b
Fig.5.96a
Exlerior alld illierior c/eallillg of slal-balld cilnill s
(a) exlerior c/eallillg - illlegmied ililo Iile milillg, (b) illierior
c/eallillg
5.73.2 Container transport
Conta iner transport takes place by m eans of
slat-band chain transporters made of plastic or
stainless steel, using roller conveyors, reel con-
veyors, conveyor belts and flush-grid belt con-
veyors with plastic bands.
The s tainless steel chains are predominantly
used for plastic and run on particularly low-ab-
rasion plastic slide rails. For curves, Magnetflex
systems with strong permanent magnets are
used.
Roller conveyors have many different appli-
cations as
roller conveyors with a drive,
back-up roller conveyors with a drive,
gravity roller conveyors and
aligmnent roller conveyors.
By means of rotating equipment, crates or
cardboard boxes lying lengthways can be put
crossways or rotated in the other direction . Slat-
band chains mostly work with a speed diffe-
rence between the coated and uncoated chain,
which is made of stainless steel in the case of
plas tic crates and plastic in the case of cartons.
Plastic chains nm without band lubricant on
plas tic rails and are above all used for empty
cartons or trays.
packs can be securely and gently transported
on reel conveyors.
Conveyor belts are often employed as "stop"
separation bands to create gaps between the
containers; because of this, they can also be
used effectively as control bands for full and
empty goods control. For cartons and trays the
conveyor belts can be used as ascending and
descending conveyors at up to 20° descent or
ascent. Conveyor belts are preferably used as
ascending conveyors with or without a prelimi-
nary band, in order to achieve, by means of the
motor-driven band, an excess height from
which the crates can roll onto a further plant by
means of their own gradient.
773
Flush -grid belt conveyors are particularly
suited to the transport of non-recyclable conta i-
ners, since the containers lie on the entire floor
surface. Ascending stretches, too, ca n be mas te-
red well with rubber-coated flush-grid belt con-
veyors.
5.7.4 Packaging technology 5
The unpacking and packing of the bottles and
cans places high demands on the machines and
plants. After all, in a plant with 50,000 bottles/h,
2500 crates with 20 bottles each mus t be unpak-
ked or packed each hour; in other words (60
min/h) 42 crates every minute or (60 s/min) 0.7
crates per second. With such a turnover, the
highest precision and accuracy is necessary in
order for everything to rWl smoothly. Packing
teclmology is therefore of the greatest impor-
tance today. Moreover, it is not only the packer
for crates but also increasingly the packers for
the various types of small packaging who de-
mand high standards.
5.7.4.1 Packing head and packing tulips
At least one packaging unit is always being
packed or unpacked, i.e. one or more
plastic crates,
wrap-around cases (with or without compart-
ments),
trays or other packaging lUlitS.
To pack or lUlpack the bottles, the packer or
unpacker is equipped with one or more pac-
king heads with the sa me number and order of
packing tulips, corresponding to the number
and order of the bottles in the packing unit (cra-
te, carton, tray). If, therefore, 20 bottles (4 x 5)
are in the crate, the packing head must possess
20 packing tulips (4 x 5). Thi s also means that
each packer is only equipped for a particular ty-
pe of packing lmit. Other types of packaging
therefore require the conversion of the packer.
The procedures for unpacking the empty
bottles are in principle the same as for packing

774
the full bottles. Packers are therefore usually con-
sh'ucted today as both packers and lU1packers.
_ J
5 transport th e bottles or cans reli ably, but also
Fig. 5.103
Packerlllll packel;
Basic ilIOlkillS pl illciples
(1) Basic jrnl/lewolk
(2) Pockillg Ilend sll spellsiall
(3) Pnckillg !rend Fig. 5.104
Meclwll icnlly opernted pnckillg tlllip !rends
(4) Switclluanld
(5) Cln te pnt!r
(6) Bottle tnule
The prin ciple m ode of opera tion of a packer
is expl ained using the exampl e in Fig. 5.103.
The bottl es are fed into the pac ker via a bottle
table (6). So that there is always a sufficient sup-
t ply of bottl es, the bottles are collected before-
hand and g uided into di vided lan es. The bottles
now stand in line in rows. An electronic bottle
num ber control is ca rried out to check that the-
re are no mi ssing bottles.
The p acking head (3) lowers itself and picks
Li p 24 bottles or cans with its 3 x 8 = 24 p acking
tuli ps, goes back and places them in the waiting
crates or cartons, w hich are then immedi a tely
led aw ay. Mean w hil e the n ex t bottles or can s
and the n ext crates h ave appeared and the pro-
cess can begin again .
With the lLl1packer, the p rocedure takes p lace
in the opposite direction : the cra tes are stopped
and placed in a pa rticula r p ositi on . The unpac-
ked bottl es are put d own securely onto th e run-
off table, w hich then d oes not of course possess
Fig.5.104n any distribLi tion lan es .
Pllellllln tically opernted pnckil/g
The lLl1pac king procedu re can of course onl y
tll lip
(aperntillg pl illciple) take place smoothly if
775
no larger, sm aller or di ffere ntl y designed
bottles are contained in the cra te and
the re are no cro wn corks on individu al bott-
les.
In the case of bo ttles with a screw closure,
unscrew ers must always be a pplied.
Th e central elem ent of the packers a re the
gripper p ac king tuli ps w hich have to hold and
5
sa fely. They are the connecting elem ent be t-
ween the machine an d the pack ing goods. A di-
s tinction is mad e between m echanical and m e-
chanical/pneumatic grippe r p acking tulips.
Mechanical g rippe r packing tu lips grip the
bottle directly at the bottle m outh (Fig. 5.104).
Additional decorations, such as foils, tamper-evi-
dent labels, tapes etc., must not be dam aged in
the process. There are therefore different gripper
systems for glass bottles, PET bottles, tw ist-off
wide neck closlU'es and other closure systems.
Mechanical/pne uma ti c g rippe r packin g tu-
lips (Fig . 5.104a) p ossess a pneuma tically ope-
rated bottle g ripper. Here, only insensiti ve fin-
gers are p ressed pne uma ti ca lly agains t the
bottles, w hi ch are thus held in place. The pro-
tected bello ws in the top section of the gri pp er
d oes not com e into contac t w ith the bottle cl o-
sure and the glass of the bottle. The pneum a tic
bottl e gripper consists only of a few individual
pa rts. Ope ra tion, m ainten an ce and repa ir are
therefore simple an d cost-effecti ve.
5.7.4.2 Types of p acker
Corresponding to their design and their mode of
operation (Fig. 105a), one distinguishes between:
packers with a cyclical opera tion and
packers with continual opera ti on .
Increasu1g importan ce is being given to pak-
ke rs for sm all p ackage units (sixp acks, w ra pa-
ro lLl1d/multiple p ackages).
There a re also multi packers wh ich are ad di-
tion ally ca pable of p ackin g sm alle r p ackages,
s uch as sixpacks, into larger ones.

776
a b
5.7.4.2.1 Cyclical packers
Cyclical packers (Fig. 5.105) possess stable dri-
ving mechanisms which move the packing
head suspension with the packing head (4) and
4
Fig.lOSa
Differellf desigll s for packillg lIlachilles
(a) cyclicaill/Ode of opern tioll, (b) cOllf illll -
OilS 1Il0de of operntioll
the packing gripper tulips in the required way.
According to its size, the packin g head picks up
or deposits up to 10 package units in a row at
once. By means of an electromotive dri ve, a
continual, uniform rotational
movement of the crank is pro-
duced, which is the basis for
the uniform operation of the
gripper girder.
Depending on the type and
size of the packaging and on
the possible single or double
row packing head d esign,
very large turnovers are possi-
ble. In most cases, only the sa-
me type and size of bottle is
packed or unpacked using this
packer. If a format change is
Fig. 5.105
Cyclical packel; 1Il0dei Lillapac /I, Kro-
lies Neu trnblillg
(1) Liftillg COI IlIlIlI
(2) I/Orizolltal axis
(3) gripper hend cnrrier
(4) packillg head
(5) cOllfniller table
(6) safety device
Fig. 5.107
COll tillllalll llpncker "Cirkle-
pack" with I/Orizolltally cirCIIln-
tillg gripper heads
nonetheless necessary, many packers possess a
format change facility in the profile framework
above the packer. A lifting device lifts an remo-
vable frame upwards, takes off the fittings and
puts different fittings on, so that the packer is
ready for operation again within a short time .
5.7.4.2.2 Packers for continuous operation
In all packing systems d escribed so far, the
packaging mu st stand still at the moment of
the removal or addition of the containers so
th at correct transfer can take place. However,
the larger the turnover, the less time is left for
stopping and aligning the crates and bottles.
The result of this is that rotary typ e packers
(Fig. 5. 107) have been developed, which carry
out the packing procedure in a continuous cir-
culation. This, however, involves a very com-
plica ted m echanism since several packing
head s are continually in use, the movements of
777
which must be controlled and mu st run preci-
sely at all times.
To do this, the gripper head s are led in an el-
liptical or long oval orbit and raised or lowered
as necessary. Meanwhile, the incoming bottle
s tream is divided up practically without pres-
sure, and the alrea dy separa ted-out individual
s treams are removed by a rapid chain rlllUling
in a curve alld distributed into severa l lanes.
Thus they arrive in closed rows in the grouping
station, where they are divided up into packing
formations . This packing formation (in Fig.
5.107 it is 6 x 8 bottles) is moved lU1iformly on
the bottle table and there caught and picked up
by the packing tulips which lower themselves
synchl'onously.
On the other side of the packer, the crates run
in the opposite direction, as necessitated by the
movement of the packing tulips. The packing
tulips are lowered, the centring frame catches
778
the crate (in ollr case there are four crates) and
lowers the bottles into the crates as they conti-
nue to move. Then the packing head rises again
and begins the process afresh.
While in the case of the rotary type packer
described here the gripper h eads with the bott-
les are guided horizontally in an elliptical mo-
vement, the continually rUlUling packing/un-
packing machine "Round pack II 464" (Krones
company, Neutraubling) (Fig. 5.108) has a verti-
cal gripper circulation, in which the in- and out-
put of bottles and crates are arra nged under
each other. This guarantees low space require-
ments and good access to the plant.
These rotary packers present the most com-
plicated packer system and also make great d e-
mands on the material. Also, the gripper h eads
must move without jolts and jerks and mus t
guarantee the synclu-onous movement of the
packing heads and packages. At the same time,
there must also of course be a guarantee that if
779
faults occur, the packing head will be removed
from the location of the fault.
Rotary ty pe packers are built for one- or two-
lane cra te tran sport so that they can also d o ju-
Ca rton d ischarge - -+-_ .,...::'"
stice to higher filling turnovers.
The
empty crates are fed into the crate washing
machine, and Ca rton formation
unit
5
the full crates nm into the palletiser.
Pack conveyor
5.7.4.2.3 Packers for multiple packages
In many countries, packers for multiple packa-
ges - mostly for four or six containers - are
playing an increasingly large role. The main
reason for this is likely to be the cumbersome-
ness and weight of the hea vy beer crates, which Operator pa nel _ _ _ _40--_
one can avoid in handling by using the conside-
rably lighter multiple packages. not
everybody wishes always to have a whole cra te Fig. 109n
lying around. Small multiple packages, whet- Pnckerfor III II It iple pnckngillg (lIIodei Wmpnpnc T, WT, Krollcs Neu tmblillg)
her these are foiled sixpacks with an inscription
Fig. 5 .108
COlltillllnlly rullllillg
pnckillglllllpn ckillg IIIncilill e,
lIIodel " Rolllldpnck 11 464"
(Krolles colllpnllY, Nell tmllb- Fig. 10%
lillg) Pnckerfor IIIl1ltiple pnckngillg (lIIodel W 30, Krolles Ne lltmllblillg)
780
Fig.109c
Compnrlmeul feeder
Container
infeed
Film cutting
Fig. 109d
Pncknge willi Imy nJld si1riuk foil (model Ifnriopnc TFS, Kl'Oues Ne l1lml1blil1g)
or wrap-arolU1d blank cartons with the compa-
ny logo, are introduced in formation on a band
and first of all divided according to package ty-
pe. The problem lies in the introduction of the
exactly designed and pre-perforated cartons.
Fig. 109a clarifies the teclmological processes
with a smaller turnover, Fig. 109b does the sa-
me for a larger turnover.
In the case of larger cartons, the application of
compartments is recommended to prevent the
Film feed
bottles from knocking together and the conti-
nual noise that this entails during transport.
The mechanical application of a compartment
made of corrugated cardboard is very work-
intensive. Using a side maga zine, prefabrica-
ted compartments can be unfolded and pus-
hed between the bottles during the nUl (Fig.
109c).
Shrink packages are becoming increasingly
important today. Advantages:
781
The production of PE requi-
res 3 times less energy than
the production of paper,
PE foil only requires 25% of
the m aterial required for
cardboard,
Shrink packages are stable
when packed, so that no di-
5
viders are necessary,
PE foil can be imprinted
with the company logo.
Slu-ink packages are produ-
ced with or without a tray. Fig.
109d gives information about
the manufacture. The prepac-
ked sixpack is steamed with Fig. 5.106
hot air in the adjacent shrink Ml1llipncker
twmel. This makes the foil go
soft, and it shrinks on cooling.
The foil grips the package tightly and gives it crate washing whidl normally comes between
good stability. lmpacking and packing is of course omitted.
Multipackers are packers with which small
5.7.4.2.4 Sorting packers containers can be packed into larger ones.
In the bottling plants, the bottle types me segre-
gated when they enter the plant after labelling 5.7.4.2.5 Bottle alignment
and are packed into the crates or cartons. There Filled individual crates are unmistakeably
are, however, also plants in which bottles come identified by the crate colour and the company
together from different filling plants to be pac- logo. In the case of group crates, the identifica-
ked and then have to be divided into types and tion on the crate itself is omitted. In these cases,
packed away in the predetermined crates. This however, the crates usually have windows and
requires very complicated plants with transla- perforations through which one can see the la-
tors and division facilities, in order to complete- bels and therefore recognise the firm. The pre-
ly guarantee that only crates with the preselec- condition for this, however, is that the labels are
ted bottle type enter the corresponding level of actually recognisable through the windows,
the plant or palletisation. Repackers are packer since correct product presentation is an impor-
that repack bottles from small crates into large tant success factor when selling. For this purpo-
ones or vice versa. The packing and lmpacking se, one can turn the bottles in the same label di-
of the bottles is carried out in the space of one rection using a bottle aligmnent machine.
working cycle of the joint packing girder. With the bottle aligner, as with the packers,
Combipackers are machines with a joint gir- the bottles in the crate are held by pneumatic
der with which one can lmpack and pack crates rotating grippers. These bottle grippers are sto-
in one working cycle. Since the crate is, in this ca- red so that they can be individually rotated and
se, immediately filled with full packs again, the are rotated at the top end by a motor. At the bot-
782
/ mined curves in its path and
Fig. 10ge
Lillenr operated robot witll two nxes
tom there is a slanting reflective light sensor.
This sensor shows the position of the label end
when the bottle is rotated . When the bottle is ro-
tated by 360°, the position of the label is first ex-
actly measured and then the bottle is turned in-
to the p resc ribed position by a step motor
control.
In this way, all bottles are positioned with the
label towards the window.
If two labels are used (body and back label),
the light sensor must first detect which is the
body and which the back label on the basis of
the different label sizes; only then can the bott-
le be aligned ill the desired way.
5.7.5 Palletiser and depalletiser
equipment
The packages are stored on the p alletising plant
or removed from it in layers. For this purpose,
Fig.109!
Robot witll rotntillg nnlls nlld tillu nxes
however, one must first form the individu ally
incoming p ackage units into layers or, in the ca-
se of dep alletisa tion, take the layers apart again
withou t malhmction .
In the work of the palletiser and depalletiser,
robot technology is gaining increasing impor-
tance today.
5.7.5.1 Robot technology
In recent years, robot teclmology has entered
the brewery. The arrival of robots is at the same
time a clear example of how computer teclmo-
logy is becoming increasingly strongly integra-
ted into the m ac hine itself. It is now hardly pos-
sible to imagine a modern brewery without
robots.
Robots ex tend the machine programme in the
area of sm aller tasks, e.g. as combined pack
and p alletiser centres,
783
They carry ou t comp lex ma-
chine function s, e .g . pac-
k ing, palletisin g, sor ti ng,
commissioning
They save space in compari-
son with conventiona l sy-
stems; tran sport systems are
redu ced.
5
By means of the axis con trol,
the robo t can fo llow predeter-
d rive exac tl y to each point
within its working area. It is
therefore very flexible with re-
gard to the tasks it can p er-
form and the uses to whi ch it
can be put. Fig. l 09g
There is a dis tin ction bet- Robot witll collnpsible nl"lliS nlld six nxes
ween
Linear operated robots w ith
two axes (Fig . 10ge),
Robots with rotating arms and three axes (Fig. led on - today, usually by a multi -axis robot -
109f) and and removes one layer after 31l other 31ld puts
Robots with collapsible arms and six axes them down on the b31ld, w hich now passes the
(Fig. 109g). packing lUutS onto the package outlet exactl y
Robots are used tod ay in many areas of the row by row. In this way, the pallet is empti ed
brewery, but particularly in the bottle cellar for layer by layer and can be transpor ted on to the
palletising and depaUetising. pallet magazine.
This workin g model, however, onl y works li-
5.7.5.2 Design and function of the palletisers ke this in principle. The demands made of the
and depalletisers different companies are so va rious that one C31l-
The individu al palle tiser and depalletiser not set a llluform norm . For example, the lifting
pl31ltS differ in many details. The basic con - device with the lifting framework and lifting
struction of a de palletiser is shown in Fig. 5.110: drive C31l be designed very d ifferently 31ld the
The heart of the pl ant is a machine frame horizontal lmdercarriage with the rotary and
which can be designed with a single column or sliding device - with or withol! t telescope - can
as a gantry. On it si ts a lifti.ng device with a ro- be driven by a crank drive .
tating device for the loading head, which holds The slufting platforms to shift the package
the layer clamp head. The layer clamp head, Lmits are formed either as a plate or as a roller
which will b e described in more detail shortly, ca rpet. The loading plate is suitable for the
holds the layer of containers. treatment of non-recyclable and recyclable con-
The full pallet is led onto the rolling convey- tainers and h as a structured, removable wea ra-
or and brought to a halt. The packing head is ble surface. A special aspect of the palletisers
784
_ Mach ine frame
lifting mechanism/vertical trolley
_
_
loading head
layer preparation table
Pallet holding area
D Package and container
_ infeed/discharge
are the loading h eads. The loading heads are
joined to the lifting device and are either
rotated or
pushed out.
Dep ending on the package lll1its which are to
be gripped, the loading h eads are con stru cted
for this purpose (Fig. 5.111):
Hookea grippillg heaas
Hooked gripping heads are equipped with pneu-
matically driven rotatable hooks. For gripping,
the hooks are rotated inwards and grip the loa-
ding goods. The hook rows are arranged so that
different formations can be gripped. Exact stack-
ing is achieved by means of centring frames.
Fig. 5.110
Lnljer pnlfeliser (Overview of
colI/pollellls)
Layer clalllpillg heaas
Layer clamping heads clamp the layer together
with parallel guided short lift cylinders over
rubber-covered clamps and thus prevent fal-
ling. The head can be set d ouble-sided or fo m-
sided according to the formation, in order to
grip the loading goods securely.
Pacldllg tlllip fIeaa s
If bottles are to be laid on top of each other in
layers, p acking tulip heads are used. These are
equipped with so m any packing tulips that
they can remove the whole layer and work like
an oversized packer. In this case, no cra tes or
cartons are present.
785
Tube gripper Il eaas
Tube gripper heads are used,
like the packing tulip heads,
for s tacking bottles in laye rs,
but here the bottle necks are
clam ped by blowing up the gripping head magnetic head
cl amp ing tubes and can be
stacked in thi s way. The tube
division can be set to the requi-
5
red bottle fo rm ation by sten-
cils, if the bottle diameter, bott-
le shape and the arran gement
of the bottles allows them to be clam ping head vacuum suction head
gripped row by row.
Sucti oll lleaas
Suction h eads are often used
for the s tacking and tUls tack-
ing of layers of ca rtons.
Through suction with the aid tube gripper head pusher plate
of a number of suction discs,
one can lift closed containers,
e.g. carton layers and also ot- L ]
her large containers, layer by
layer.
Magnetic lI eaas packi ng tul ip head roller carpet head
Magn etic heads are used to lift
and h"cll1sfer containers made of Fig. 5.111
Londillg " ends for pnlfelisillgldepnlfelisillg
steel; this is also possible for the
h'ansfer of steel can s, which are
protected in this way, particularly as empty steel with lying kegs. Depending on the working
cans are eXh'emely sensitive owing to the thin- method, suitable gripper sys tems are available
ness of their walls. for the unloading and loading of kegs.
Keg loaaillg lIeaas 5.7.5.3 Stacking plants for full pack pallets
Kegs, too, mus t be palletised and depalletised. The pallets w ith full packs are picked up by
In the case of the keg loading h ead, the layer is fork lift trucks, transported into the full pack
positioned and gripped in positive locking by warehouse and stacked there. The transport of
rota table sid e gripping b ars. The ca rrying plate the returned empty packs l"LIl1S in the other di-
can be carried with the layers by means of sep a- rection. It is also possible to stack the loaded
rately controlled gripping fingers. This wor- pallets in double or triple layers using an auto-
king method is possible both with standing and matic pallet stacking machine.
786
The loaded pallet enters the stacker at gro1md
level via a roll or chain conveyor segment. A lif-
ting frame with pick-up handles on both sides
lowers itself and grips the pallet. Then the pal-
let is raised by a lifting element and lowered on-
to the nex t pallet, which has in the meantime
been tran sported into the stacker. In the case of
triple layered stacking, the process is repeated.
The pallet s tack leaves the stacker via a roll or
chain conveyor segment.
In the case of the de-stacker, the procedures are
repeated analogously in the opposite direction.
5.7.5.4 Transport plants for pallets
The full pack and empty pack pallets are trans-
ported by fork lift trucks and put down on or
collected from set positions for further trea t-
ment. From there, the pallets are brought into
the desired position by means of infeed and
output equipment.
5.7.5.5 Pallet set positions
The pallets are put down on the set position by
the fork lift truck and transported to the wor-
king height of the process equipment. To meet
the very different conditions and requirements,
a large number of different pallet lifting and
transport plants are available.
The pallets are stacked in the stores in such a
way that
the available magazine space is used as com-
pletely as possible,
the "first in - first out" principle is adhered to
and
there is good access to the pallets.
On the pallet stacking positions it is usual to
have
block stacking depots,
high shelf depots,
nm-through depots and others.
A detailed description of the construction of
these depots would go beyond the compass of
this book.
5.7.5.6 Infeed and output equipment
Great importance is given to the orderly and ra-
pid infeed and output of the containers to and
from the palleti sing equipment. Depending on
the hourly throughput, the infeed and output of
the containers takes place on one, two or three
tracks. Depending on the formation, integrated
or external container rotating devices or gap
parts and guiding units are controlled by the
programme. Within the processes, too, there
are many possible combinations. In container
transport, plastic bands have prevailed to an in-
creasing degree.
5.7.5.7 Pallet magazines
As with crates, temporary s torage of the pallets
in a pallet magazine is also necessary 1mtil the
first crates appear again, having been filled,
and must be palletised .
In the pallet magazine, up to 15 empty pallets
are stacked on top of each other. In the stacking
process, the incoming empty pallets move onto
the pallet transport element, which can be rai-
sed and lowered. The empty pallets which are
there already are raised and put down again
onto the incoming empty pallet. This procedu-
re is repea ted 1mtil a sensor limits the maxi-
mum stacking height.
5.7.5.8 Pallet control
The flat surface of the pallets is an important
criterium for the stable position of the package
milts. The boards of the pallet surface, however,
are subjected to grea t stress, and is particularly
liable to be weakened by knotholes and hidden
faults, which can lea d to transport damage. The
boards and outer blocks of the pallets are there-
fore checked for their ability to function, their
full number and s trength. This test is carried
out either by rollers or by pressure stamps.
Pallet cOl/tro1 IIsillg rollers
With this control, rollers are led along the cove-
Fig. S.111a
Loarlillg of a pallet bYllleallS of a
collapsible arlll rabat; cOll tral by
lise of a scm Iller
ring boards and damage is ascertained by me-
ans of control levers. One also tests the outer
blocks, the pallet height and the pallet length
and can thus reject non-standard pallets.
Pallet pressure COl/troT
With pallet pressure control, d amage to the pal-
let is ascertained by means of pressure stamps,
which press on the pallet boards. One also tests
the outer blocks, the pallet h eight and the pallet
length.
5.7.5.9 Securing the pallets
With increasing height of the struchue, the sta-
bility is reduced, in particular if the packaging
milts are not pla ced on top of each other in a do-
vetailed fashion as frequently happens in the
case of cartons. And whilst crates are stabilised
tmderneath each other, in that the bottom of the
crate meshes into the opening of the crate be-
low it, this does n ot apply to the crates which
are next to it. As a result the columns standing
787
5
next to each other are not s tabili sed agains t
each other. Full pallets are secured in that
in the upper part a tight, stretch-free plastic
band or cord is pulled around a layer or
• the pallet is wrapped in foil or welded in.
Fo il wraparound is common particularly in
the case of new glass and empty can deliveries
as well as for pallets with trays and more easily
m ovable packaging units. Foil also protects
agains t dust, so that crates are also foiled if re-
quired .
Foil can be wrapped as s tretch foil or it is
wrapped and shlTmk to form fixed lmit loads.
Cardboard containers are partly fixed by me-
ans of an anti-slip agent which is sprayed on.
5.7.5.10 Palletising in keg filling
Robot teclmology has also arrived in the filling
of kegs. The increasing loading of the pallet
(Fig. 5.111a) is read by a laser scatmer and the
information passed on to the robot.
 Iti ,6- --- -£3- --- -Gl- - - - - - -f2I- - - - - - -£3 - - -
8_ --Er- -- -- -i3- --25
I-- -e --,·'----8-
11'·."-;...... . .----
-- '-
'-.J
(XJ
(XJ

Schaltwarte
1.Stock

Fig. 5.112: Bottle filling plant for 50,000 bpl7, 0.5 l (KHS, Dortmund)
(1) pallet adjusting device (9) decrownil1g machine (17) e1l1ph) bottle inspector
(2) disengagemel1 t of pallet safeh) device (10) bottle Impacking machine (18) filling al1d closure machine
(3) depalletising machine (11) crnte tuming device (19) area for pasteuriser and ClF system
(4) pallet cOl1trol (12) crnte washil1g machil1e (20) crown cork conveying system
(5) emph) pallet magazil1e (13) empty crnte magazine (21) bOltle flushing device
(6) pailetising machine (14) bottle packil1g machine (22) labelling machine
(7) pallet safety device (15) full crnte cOl1trol (23) fillillg height and closure conlrol, control of label positiol1il1g
(8) emph) crate cOl1trol with discharge system (16) boltle cleal1il1g maei!ine (24) belt lubrication system

---¢l-
Labelling ma·:h n? Fillirg ard cl.su o wach re nspec: en CI2En n, mcrire Gonl riJOJSsor.ing mach r:

'f' --\'
!-'act r, mcrine Jnpad ,n, mach ire

.
.. ""

I
I
II
I

,. • C,,'emagaz na .... Cral<lurrer n ""!: ;;g Crat:: 'j',asher

'- <=== _n :- __-_=--::-= __

L..... i_ __ -- l5si=======C== =3

, ((__ 4 4
I ! [ ;.-=+1= .
! - -
1
ti, I(-
,..-----
,-, - -, I

ii=i 5
=--'"
Ell' ' I"
m; ,-ull craie aLlpLi • . Palle.iS,ng machine
IlLJ f¥iiJJ;--
. 01
Palle: inspeCI'O;;==::::
Oepalle:,slng mach,ne
Nc'" bailie dep,II?lis2r

ta::le inleej

Fig. 5.113 '-.J

(XJ
Bottle filling plant for 45,000 bph, 0.51 bottles (TU Munich-Weihenslephan; Chair for Food Packaging Tech11010fS1))

CJ1
 790
5.8 The filling plant as a whole
The filling plant with its necessary transport
equipment and stack ing rooms is by far the lar-
gest, most expensive and mos t labour intensive
pl ant in the entire brewery (Figs. 5.112 and
5.113). The smooth running within the entire
plant depends on its structure, the design of the
plant and the trans port paths. The machines of
5 5
the filling plant have to be sensibly linked to
each other and throughput capacities tuned to
each other in order to ensure uninterrupted
operations in the case of problems.
,.....
...... Within the framework of this book of particu-
lar interest here are
possibilities rega rding arrangement of machi-
nes,
tlU'oughput grading of the machines in the fil-
ling plant and
information regarding regulations and re-
commendations on the setting up and opera-
...... ting of filling plants.
'"
Po ss ibilities regarrfillg armllgelllellt of 1//(/-
chilies
The processes of the filling plant are characteri-
sed by three cycles (Fig. 5.111b);
The pallets are prepared on the way to the
emtpies warehouse, depalletised, checked and
stored in the magazine, before they are reloa-
ded and supplied to the trade via the full bottle
warehouse.
Following depalletising the crates are unpac-
ked, washed and remain in the crate magazine
for renewed packing and inspection before they
are palletised again.
After being unpacked, the bottles are
cleaned, checked, filled and closed. Following
labelling, they are inspected and put back into
the crates.
The bottle cycle is by far the greatest because
the bottles have to undergo all the processes. In
..... comparison, the movements of the pallets can
be limited to a minimum between depalletising
791
and palletising. In this area everything remains
dry and one therefore sepal'a tes if possible thi s
area as the dry part and the larger we t part. The
guid ance of the trallsport paths for the crate
and bottle transportation depends mainly on
the arrangement of the machines in the plallt.
According to the 3lTallgement a difference is
made between
line arrangement: in this case all the machines
of the filling plant s tand in the order of their
use in a row. This arrallgement is seldom
seen,
comb arrangement: in this case the m achines
of the plant are next to each other in a comb
formation and are connected to each other
with far back-reaching buffer s tretches . This
type of arrangement is very common,
arena arrangement: in this case the machines
of the plant are arrallged in a circle as in an
arena and as far as possible in a space saving
formation .
Points to be taken into consideration for the
positioning of the machines in the plant in rela-
tion to each other are in particular that
the machines are arranged in such a way that
the service personnel retain the overview and
if necessary can act quickly, without first ha-
ving to pass under or over a number of trans-
porters,
the machines me accessible in the case of re-
pair or maintenalICe and
the transport paths between the machines are
so organised that a permallent problem-free
feeding of bottles to each machine is guaran-
teed.
This requires a grading in the throughput of
the machines.
Gmrfillg ill tIle tIl 1'0 IIghpllt of the lIlacllilles of
the plallt
The machines of the plant have to produce va-
rying throughputs to guarantee that the plant
operates at maximum capacity.

792
The core part of the filling plant is the filling
and closing machine. Its maXimUlTl tlU'oughput
always has to be ensured by means of smooth
feeding and discharge of the filled bottles and
cans. This means, that the machines
before and after the filling and closing machine
have to operate at a higher throughput to ensu-
re the feeding and discharge of the bottles or
5 5
cans even following temporary breakdowns.
For this purpose the following grading in the
throughputs of the machines has to be calcula-
ted (Berg Graph, named after Prof. Berg) :
Depalletising machine 135 - 140%
Unpacking machine 120-125%
Bottle washing machine 110 -115%
Inspection machine 110 -115%
Bottle filling machine 100%
Labelling machine 110 - 120%
Bottle packing machine 120 -125%
Palletising plant 135 - 140%
This does not mean, however, that the depal-
letising machine, for example, permanently has
to produce 135 to 140% of the performance of
the bottle filling machine - this would soon re-
sult in a jam - but means that it should be
equipped for such a throughput so as to fill out
the subsequent buffer stretch if necessary.
In order to operate without interruptions,
buffer stretches of several lanes (bottle stations)
with ensuing isolators have to be positioned
between the machines, in particular the filling
and closing machine, in order to guarantee con-
tinuous feeding of the bottles in the case of a
temporary failure.
The isolator is designed above all as a "pres-
sureless collector" .
The buffers operate with a filling level of
about 50% so that in the case of temporary fai-
lures, the uninterrupted running of the machi-
nes before and after filling is ensured .
The filling level of the buffer stretches can be
•
used for the automatic operation of the through-
put of the individual machines in the line.
One attempts to avoid movements which
lead to the bottles turning and producing the
dreaded scuffing rings as they rub against each
other.
Interesting examples of complete filling
plants are given.
An empties warehouse and full pack ware-
house are of course part of the complete plant.
The empties warehouse has to have adequate
dimensions and be so arranged that a perma-
nent problem-free supplying of the filling plant
with suitable empties (crates with the same lo-
go, the same bottle types etc.) is possible.
The full pack warehouse also has to meet the
following demands:
the full pack pallets, divided according to
brands, are to be stored so they are protected
from frost,
depending on requirements a full pack stock
should be sufficient for 2 to 3 days,
the pallets which are stored first also have to
be delivered first (first-in, first-out),
the space available should be optimally u sed
(stacking of several layers of crates on top of
each other).
The moving and stacking of the pallets is per-
formed using a fork lift truck. As a rule the pal-
let stocks me arranged in blocks. Since the fork
lift truck drivers require enough space for
transport and stacking processes, the surface
area available used for block stacking can only
be 50 to 60% .
In order to use the available surface area con-
siderably more efficiently, other storage forms
such as, for example, high shelf storage are set
up, which also have no problem dealing with
the principle of "first-in, first-out".
In this book, however, it is not possible to dis-
cuss in detail all aspects of this wide ranging
field.
Arivice regarriillg DIN stallrial'ris allri other
reco 1/11/1 ellri a tio 11 s
For the setting up and operating of a bottle fil-
ling plant, there are a number of standards, em-
piri cal values, considerations and observations.
These cam10t be discussed further within the
framework of this book. It should, be
pointed out that for the setting up and opera-
ting of beverage filling plants in Germany, the
following recommendations are given which
should be observed:
DIN 8782 Beverage filling technology
- terms for filling plants and individual
aggregates,
DIN 8783 Beverage filling teclmology
- tests on filling plants
DIN 8784 Beverage filling technology
- minimum information and informati-
on concerning orders
DIN 55405
- terms for packaging
Special Teclmical Delivery Conditions for
labels,
crown corks,
beer bottles,
beer cans,
beer cra tes.
Legal reqllirell1ellts are, amollgst others:
Federal Emission Protection Law,
Economic Recycling and Waste Law
Water Economy Law
Teclmical Standards Noise
Teclmical Standards Air
Pre-Packaging Regulation
Product Liability Law
Accident Prevention Regulations in force and
Safety at Work Information of the Trade As-
sociation for Food and Restaurants.
The legal requirements mentioned are of
course also important for other departments of
breweries and maltings. In cOlU1tries where the-
793
se la ws a nd regulations do not app ly, one
should observe their guideline jurisdiction.
5.9 Beer losses
At the end of the production and filling processes
the question of yield or losses during the entire
process mises. The first part - the yield - has al-
ready been obtained in the brewhouse. Subse-
quent losses, however, also of course occur. Nahl-
rally, 100 hI of beer is not obtained from 100 hI of
casting wort, but definitely less, because wort
and beer losses occur after casting.
By beer loss is meant the difference between
the amount of cas t wort and the amount of beer
for sale produced from it. The loss is quoted as
a percentage of the cast wort volume. It is an
important internal brewery control figure from
which it can be seen how good or bad the pro-
duction processes were.
Nobody can follow a brew quantatively from
the brewhouse until it is filled in bottles or kegs
because, as a result of the repeated blending
during production, the amounts of individual
brews cannot be followed separately.
Consequently the beer loss is calculated over
a fixed time, usually a month or even a day, and
different beer brands are treated separately.
In modern breweries the necessary data is re-
corded electronically and can be called up at any
time. The determining occurs on a daily basis ac-
cording to type. The basic principle, however, is
the same as in our example, which due to the hi-
storically monthly recording of information, oc-
curred over a considerably longer period of time.
The amounts of cast wort brewed in a month
in our brewery are recorded separately, accor-
ding to beer type, in a brewing report where
they can easily be fOlU1d . In larger breweries the
calculations are of course done by computer.
A few points must be considered with regard
to the calculation of the amount of sales beer be-
fore the calculation of the beer loss can be W1-
derstood .
 794 795

5.9.1 Calculation of the amount of sales the fermenters, The conversion can therefore be mad e using
Amount stock amount x (100 % - total loss)
beer produced in the lagering cellar, the following formula:
of sa les 100 % -loss from brew house amOlUlt
To d etermine the amOlUlt of sales beer produ- in the desp atch depa rtment (kegs, casks and Stock amount 2,430 hi x 89.7% = 2,384.8 hI
beer
ced in the month of the report - e.g. in May - it bottled beer). 91.4% beer for sale
can be assumed that From th e amounts of beer recorded, the This is illustrated in the following example:
the amount of beer sold in May (including amounts of beer for sale must be calculated Similarly the conversion of the beer in the fer- On stocktaking the followin g amounts of Vollbier
free beer consumed by the brewery workfor- from the losses established by previou s experi- mentation cellar to the amount of beer for sale were fOlll1d in the brewery considered above:
ence. can be calculated, using of course the figures for in the fermentation cellar 1,420 hi
5
ce) together with 5
the amollnt of beer present at the end of May The total loss can be subdivided into separa- losses obtained in the brewery for this partiClI- in the lager cellar 8,174 hI
was produced in May, provided that te parts. The losses are determined for each ty- lar sort of beer. in the keg s tore 210 hi
the amolUlt of beer already present at the end pe of beer individually. Thus, the following formula applies: in the full bottle store 32 hI
of April is subtracted because, obviously, this
was produced earlier. Exa11lple: For this particul ar type of beer the following processing losses were determined:
Consequently the amount of beer produced In a brewery the total loss and the loss during a
for sale in May is calculated as follows: particular s tage, for one brand of beer, is Volume concerned % loss from brewhouse Conversion to sa les beer volume
Beer sold in May (including free beer consu-
cast wort volum e x 89.7%
med by the workforce) total loss 10.3% Cast wort vollll11e o
100 %
+ beer stocks at the end of May (last day of the loss from brewhou se to lage ring cellar 8.6%
month) Stocktaking showed there was 2,430 hI of this
pitching wort volume x 89.7%
- beer s tocks at the end of April (last day of the beer brand in the lager cellar. To what amOlUlt PitC/lillg wort voillme 6.5
93.5 %
previous month). of sales beer does this correspond?
It would be mistaken to say that, from the
lager cellar volume x 89.7%
Exa mple: 2,430 hi of beer being lagered, 10.3% - 8.6 % = Lager cellar volllme 8.6
91 .4 %
Stocks (31st May) 9,478.55 hI 1.7% mu st be subtracted, since the 1.7% does
+ Beer sales in May not refer to the 2,430 hi as the basic value.
output volume x 89.7%
(report month) 21,240.00 hi It is necessary, on the contrary, to consider the Olltput volllllle 10.3
89.7%
30,718.55 hi situation as follows:
- Stocks at end of previous 100 hi of cast wort, with the losses mentioned
month (30th April) 8,640.55 hi above, produce The cOllversioll of the actllal all101lllts measllred is therefore:
91.4 hI of beer in the lager cellar,
AmolUlt of beer produced and from this Department AmOlmt measured (hi) Ca lculation Sales beer in hI
for sa le in the report month 22,078.00 hi 89.7 hi of beer for sale.
1,420 x 89.7%
The amolUlt of the beer in the lager cellar Fermentation 1,420 1,371.9 I,
93.5%
To be able to perform these calculations a (2,430 hI) has therefore been produced from
stock record must be made on the las t day of
8,174 x 89.7%
each month. 2,430 hi x 100'1'0 = 2,658.6 hi cast wort Lager cellar 8,174 8,021 .9
91.4%
91.4%
5.9.2 Stocktaking and calculation of beer From this amount of cast wort, with the total Cask/keg store 210 21 0.0
for sale loss mentioned,
Stocktaklng consists of recording the complete Bottle store 865 865.0
stocks of beer, separated into type. 2,658.6 hi x 89.7% = 2,384.8 hi beer for sa le
Records are made separately of the stocks 100'},0 are produced Stock calculated as beer for sale = 10,468.8 hi
in the fermentation cellar, in the case of CCVs in
 796 797

5.9.3 Calculation of the volume loss There is here a double monitoring which 6% is 9 kg malt (0.05 ml) per second is produced at any locati-
From the difference between the cast wort volu- shows not only that the total loss is greater than 11 % is 17 kg malt on, in the course of a year these drops add up to
me in the monthly report and the amowlt of normal, but that the difference between 16% is 26 kg malt 0.05 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 1,576,800 ml = 1,576 I
beer for sale produced the volume loss can be brewhouse and fermentation cellar is abnor- Stated differently, for emphasis: for quantita- = 15.76 hI. Therefore it is important to replace
calculated which now must be expressed as a mally high. tive control in the brewery the following con- leaking seals immediately and to eliminate all
percentage. Continuous monitoring of the loss is very im- trol systems, which are independent of one places where drops or streams can form .
For exall1ple: portant for internal brewery control since only another, can be used: Spent hops retain wort.
Amount of cast wort in April 11,692.0 hi in this way can faults be discovered and quick- Using hop sieves the extract is not recovered
5 5
- ill1l0Wlt of beer for sale produced 10,468.8 hi ly remedied. M alt grist Cast wort Sales beer completely. Loss is decreased if sparging is do-
= volume loss 1,223.2 hi On average beer loss is 8 to 10% [50]. ne with several small volumes. Nowadays hop
Total loss = 10.46% breW/lOl/se extract or pellets are therefore used. If whole
ill %

1
One mLlst expect that as a result of contraction of hops are also used, they are crushed and collec-
If it is already known that the usual loss with the hot wort about 4% ted together with the trub .
this sort of beer is 10.3 % and in this month of disappears without illly being lost • malt usage in kg/lll • Trub contains wort.
April the loss is 10.46 %, then something has go- Evaporation with The brewhouse yield controls the process Recovery of wort from trub in a recovery
ne wrong. A search must be made to find out open cooling is about 2.5 - 3.0% from milling to casting, the beer loss controls plilllt is incomplete. If the trub is added back to
where the fault lies. The loss in the the process from casting to sales beer. the wort nm off, the extract contained is almost
One possible approach is to calculate the loss fermentation cellar is 1.3 -1.7% Malt usage covers both control systems illld gi- completely recovered.
occurring from the brewhouse to t!le fermenta- in the lager cellar is 0.6 - 0.8% ves illl objective pichlre of the operations in the The foam from a fermentation contains extract.
tion cellar in the month in question from the during filtration 0.8 - 1.0 % brewery. If the fennenter is filled too full, and foam
difference between the cast wort amount and illld during filling 0.2 - 0.8% It is however not possible or reasonable to consequently overflows, illl avoidable loss oc-
the pitching wort amOlmt. This part of the loss add the percentages of the brew house yield illld curs. The foam cover removed from a fermenter
is also expressed as a percentage. 5.9.4 Calculation of malt usage in kg beer loss together. That does not make sense . also contains beer. If it is removed carelessly,
In April the figures were: malt/hi beer then for each 100 hi about 10 to 20 1 are lost. In
cast wort volume 11,692.0 hi and Beer loss recording is simply an internal brewe- 5.9.5 Importance of the loss and possible some breweries the foam cover removed is
pitching wort volume 10,468.8 hi ry control which can be easily altered by ways of reducing it transferred to a vessel and the beer in it is allo-
illld thus a changing the teclmological parameters. Beer loss means profit loss for the brewery. It is wed to settle out.
volume loss of 778.1 hi The sihlation is different when the starting therefore one of the most importilllt tasks of any The yeast remaining after beer trilllsfer con-
illld thus the part of material, the grist, is related to the amOlmt of brewer to ensure that within his field of respon- taillS beer. This loss is higher the less firmly the
the total loss occurring end product, the beer for sale. If the amOlmt of sibility he helps to keep losses as low as possi- yeast settles.
between brewhouse illld grist used is divided by the amolmt of sales ble. Even small sources of loss in time add up to If the yeast is added dry (not previously resus-
fermentation cellar was 6.65% beer the result is the malt usage in kg/hi for the large losses. pended ill water) to the next brew, the loss is
beer considered. smaller because the beer it contains is not lost. If
The following comparison Cilll then be made: Commoll sOllrces of loss possible the yeast should therefore be used again
Total loss Loss between For example: Losses occur on vessel walls. Small vessels give ill a dry state. The possibility of the recovelY of
brew house and AmOlmt of grist used in April 383,460 kg rise to relatively greater losses because of the beer from yeast is discussed ill Section 4.4.6.
fermentation cellar Sales beer produced in April 22,078 hi comparatively large surface area of their walls. During kieselguhr filtration with plate and
Usual vallie 10.30 % 6.5% Malt usage = 383,460 kg Moreover, wort remains in pipelines and the frame filters the beer loss is about 0.4 to 0.8 %.
Vallie ill April 10.46 % 6.65% 22,078 hi = 17.4 kg of malt/hi beer longer the pipeline is the greater the loss. With a pressure filter it is less (about 0.3%) sin-
Increased loss 0.16 % 0.15% This figure is important and Cilllll0t be mani- All places where there are leaks, whether ce it is possible to press these empty and fill
This shows that the fault is probably COlmec- pulated. drips or sprays, are sources of loss . them with CO2 ,
ted with the cooling which occurs between cast- It Cilll be assumed that the amount of malt re- There are places in a brewery at which drops The loss in modern bottlillg halls is less than
ing and pitching. quired for 1 hi of beer of strength of wort or beer are formed. If Ollly one drop in older ones illld is only about 0.2 to 0.4 %.

VLB Berlin
Testing Laboratory of Packaging
www.vlb-berlin.org/vp
weber@vlb-berlin.org
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CONTAINER SYSTEMS
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VLB Berlin
Research Institute for
Management and Beverage
Log istics (FIM)
www.vlb-berli n.org/ fim
@ heyer@vlb-berli n.org
6 Cleaning and disinfection
It is very important that the quality parameters
of a beer remain constant over a long period of
time. This applies to the tas te and smell of the
beer as well as its foam s tability and its clarity,
lmless it is a beer which is n a turally turbid.
The maintenance of these parameters CatU10t
be achieved, howeve r, by means of filtration it-
self; all factors which guarantee clean operati-
ons have to be observed. Keeping the producti-
on stations, vessels and pipes cleat1 at all times,
at1d the regular and complete removal of any
occurring impurities plays a vital role in all pro-
duction departments .
To lmderstand the tasks at1d problems con-
nected with cleat1ing and disinfecting, the follo-
wing have to be considered:
vessel and pipe materials and their proper-
ties,
cleat1ing and sterilising agents, and
the implementation of cleaning and disinfec-
tion u sing the CIP system and in other ways.
6.1 Materials and their behaviour
towards cleaning agents
Older vessels are frequently made of steel and
have a lining of pitch or plastic, which protects
the beer from them . These linings are neutral
and can usually be treated with the usual
cleatling agents. A disadvantage is that these li-
rungs have to be renewed from time to time, as
they Cat1 be damaged and give rise to contatlli-
nations.
Only aluminium vessels are used w ithout a
coating because they rapidly develop a penna-
nent oxide layer, which protects them.
Today, vessels, pipes at1d fittings are made
from chrome-nickel steel (stainless steel, V2A
steel) and thus rendered CIP-friendly.
801
Special attention has to be paid when dealing
with
aluminium vessels,
vessels at1d pipes made of V2A steel, and
vessels and pipes made of other materials. 6
6.1.1 Aluminium vessels
Aluminium is a relatively cheap mate rial for
tat11<s atld other vessels; it is neutral, does not
affect beer flavour at all and therefor e does not
require a protective lining. L1 that respect alu-
minium is ideal; however,
aluminilun is not resistant to alkaline agents
and is rapidly damaged. Aluminium is a so-
called earth metal (group 3 of the pe riodic ta-
ble) and as such is closely related to the alka-
li (Na, K) and alkaline earth (Ca, Mg) metals.
In an alkaline medium, the smooth surface of
the aluminium soon greatly changes; pitting
occurs (danger of contamination), and the
vessel walls are slowly des troyed .
Aluminium is at the end of the electro-chemi-
cal series of elements. If aluminium comes in-
to contact with other metals (e.g. copper coo-
ler with an aluminium vessel), a galvanic
element is formed atld in time the aluminium
becomes corroded away (isolation necessa-
ry).
Aluminium is not resistant to strong acids
atld is destroyed in a short time. Local ele-
ments are formed atld it can therefore only be
used in the case of extreme purity (> 99 .9 %
AI) .
Aluminium is very soft and therefore CatUlOt
withstat1d a vacuum . Even in the case of a
small underpressure in the lagering vessel,
there is the danger that the tank will collapse
inwards.
 802 803

The disadvantages outnumber the advan- denum steels (CrNiMo) also contain 2 - 3% mo- Clu-ome-nickel-molybden um steels (CrNiMo cms tlu'Ough contact Witll acids and sh'ong alkalis.
tages and therefore aluminium has increasing- lybdenum. The carbon content in all hi gh-grade steels) are highly corrosion resistant to strong A particularly negative effect is produced by
ly disappeared from breweries . steels is under 1 %. acids, all<aline solutions and chloride ions. They chloride ions which penetrate the passive layer
are therefore all-plli'P0se and can also accumula- locally. Pinprick-like indentations are created
6.1.2 Vessels, pipes and fittings made of There are many different types to correspond te active chlorine containing cleaning solutions. and as a result of their growth, pitted areas,
chrome-nickel steel to the varied demands made on the material. Chrome-nickel-molybdenum s teels of s teel which can exhibit very different forms.
For several decades chrome-nickel steel has Only very few sorts are used in the brewery. groups 3 (1.4429, 1.4435, 1.4436) and 4 (1.4439, The danger of pitti.ng increases
been increasingly used for vessels, pipes and Since chrome-nickel-molybd enum steels have a 1.4462, 1.4539) are very corrosion resistant in with an increaSing concentration of chloride
fittings . Instead of the term clu'ome-nickel steel conSiderably higher corrosion resistance but water with a high chloride ion content. ions,
) or stainless steel, standard factory notations are also more expensive, a difference between The corrosion resistance of chrome-nickel with increasing temperatures, and 6
such as V2A, Rostfrei or Nirosta (Tyssen- them and standard steel has to be made. In steels in comparison with standard steel consists with higher pH va lu es.
Krupp) are the norm. Europe the steels are differentiated according in the ability to form a passive layer. A wafer-thin When using cleaning and steriliSing agents,
Chrome-nickel steels are non-rusting steels to the European standard DIN EN 10 088-2 .; the smface film of metal oxides rich in chromium is the composition of the agents and their compa-
which are characterised by their resistance to abbreviated name is derived from the composi- thereby formed, which separates the metal from tibility regarding different materials has to be
corrosion. Standard steels contain on average tion. In addition to the European standards, its slliTolUldi.ngs. This passive layer forms spon- checked precisely in order to prevent damage.
17 - 20% chrome and 8 - 13% nickel; the even there are also other standards which are listed taneously and also reforms if there is damage to The following table gives an overview of the
more corrosion resistant chrome-nickel-molyb- here: the smface. The higher the clu'omium content, use of cleaning and sterilising agents in the ca-
the more resistant the passive which is hut- se of stainless steels. Particularly important he-
Clu-ome-nickel steels (CrNi steels) Steel group 1 (selection) her increased by the addition of molybdenum. re is that to prevent damage, the chlorine ion
Discoloration may occm as a result of welding content must be kept low (see notes).
Abbreviated name in USA ASTM Japan CIS
COST and soldering, whidl prevents the formation of For the use of cleaning and sterilising agents in
EN No. DIN EN 10 088-2 Type/UNS JIS
the surface film. In these cases, passivation must the case of CrNi steels, the following criteria ac-
1.4301 X 5 CrNi 1810 304 SUS 304 08Ch18N10 then occur by means of, for example, abrasion. cording to DIN 11 483 apply in Germany (tlu'es-
1.4306 X 2 CrNi 1911 304 L SUS 304 L 03Ch18N11 An increasingly erosive smface corrosion oc- holds for CrNiMo steels are listed separately):
1.4541 X 6 CrNiTi 18 10 321 SUS 321 08Ch18N10T
1.4550 X 6 CrNiNb 18 10 347 SUS 347 08Ch18N12B Agent Concentration Temperature pH value exposure time

Vessels, pipes and fittings are today usually made from dU'ome-nickel steel. They are the all-pm- Na- hypochlorite <5% < 70 °C > 11 <l h
pose steels used for areas of application where corrosion is a less serious problem. In the case of + NaOH 1)

higher pH values (above 9), higher temperatures and the presence of more than 50 to 100 mg/l cluo- NaOH ') <5% < 140 °C >13 <3 h
ride ions, these chrome-nickel steels are not deployable in perpetuity (see table). Na-hypocluorite 3)
< 20 °C > 9 <2 h
As a result of their titanium or niobium additive, steel types 1.4541 and 1.4550 already have Na-hypochlorite 3)
< 60 °C > 9 < 0.5 h
slightly increased corrosion resistance. H 2S0 4 < 1.5 % 4) < 60 °C < lh
H 2S0 4 <3.5% 5) < 60 °C < lh
Chrome-nickel-molybdenum steels Steel group 2 (selection) HNO,lH3 P04 6) <5% < 90 °C <lh
(CrNiMo steels) HNO,lH3P04 7) <5% < 140 °C <5 l11in
Peracetic acid 8) < 0.15 % < 20 °C <2 h
Abbreviated name in USA ASTM Japan CIS Peracetic acid S) < 0.0075 % < 90 °C <30 min
EN No. DIN EN 10 088-2 Type/UNS JIS GOST Iodophore < 50 mg iodine/I < 130 °C <24 h

1.4401 X5 CrNiMo 17122 08Ch16N11M3 Il < 300 IIIg CI iOllsl/ ill illilia/ sO/lIlioll, " < 500 IIIg CI iOllsl/ ill illilia/ sO/lltioll , JJ < 300 IIIg acl. C11/, " < 150 IIIg CI iOllsl/ ill ill-
316 SUS 316
ifia/ sO/llt ioll ill Ille case of CrNi sleels, 51 < 250 IIIg CI iOlls/l ill ill ilia/ SO/" lioll ill tile case ofCrNiMo sleels, " < 200 IIIg CI iOlls/l
1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 1713 2 316 L SUS 316 L
ill illitia/ sO/lltioll ill I/le case of CrNi slee/s, " < 300 lllg CI iOllsl/ ill illitia/ sO/lIlioll ill Ille case of CrNiMo slee/s, .'1 lip to 300 IIIg
1.4571 X6 CrNiMoTi 1712 2 316 Ti SUS 316 Ti 10Ch17N13M2T C/ iOllsl/.
 •
804
805
Since non-rusting steels neither require a damage to the illside are difficult to detect and
ISO R 1629 Characteristic Trade name
coating nor give off any flavouring substances, locate.
abbreviation colouring
there are no limits to their use. In their Rubber hoses mus t be cleaned only with dilu- vinylidene fluoride rubber FPM Viton®
main advantage is that as a result of their insensi- te alkali. Oxidising agents, such as nitric acid, ethylene-propylene-diene copolymers EPDM black Buna ApD
tivity towards acids alld caustics, they Call be alld copper ions cause ageing of the rubber. Ca- pheny l-methyl-polysiloxane MPQ red
cleaned eXh'emely easily in the CIP system. New re must therefore be taken, for example, that no (Silicon rubber)
plants are therefore only built with this in mind . rubber hoses are cleaned together with copper
It is eXh'emely importallt thereby that the umer pipes in the same circuit. Thermoplastic materials
surface of the vessel is as smooth as possible (low Rubber quality is very val·iable. Many rubber polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE Teflon®
6 peak-to-valley height), to enable a thorough inl- hoses inh'oduce flavour substances into the polyvinyl chloride PVC
plementation of the clealWlg and remove all con- especially when their Ulterior is damaged or they 6
polyamide PA
tamination residues. This applies above all to become old. The suitability of the rubber hoses for
the grulding off of weldulg seams and foodstuff applications must therefore be checked.
the polishulg of the ilmer surface (as far as To avoid the risk of contaminations and the
this is possible), increased risk of oxygen uptake resulting from
Since the seals are integra ted ill the CIP circuit, the chemicals contained in the cleaning and ste-
in particular in the case of vessels, filters, using hoses, they are gradually being replaced
rilising agents attack the seal materials to differillg degrees. According to DIN 11483 the followulg
pumps, and pipes from the fermentation stage in breweries by fi xed pipes.
criteria regarding usage of clemung and sterihsing agents for the material EPDM apply:
of processing (see Sect. 4.4.1.1). Sealing materials, with which all screw joults
Stainless steels only achieve their resistance and fittulgS are equipped, cause at least as ma- Agen t Concentration Temperature Reaction time
to corrosion if their surface is metallically pure ny problems as rubber hoses. Because they co- HN0 3 <2% <50°C < 0.5 h
alld a passive layer can form. The oxidation lay- me UltO contact with beer they must be of the HN03 <1% <90 °C < 0.5 h
ers or oxidation tints therefore have to be remo- quality prescribed by the Federal Health De- H,PO, <2% < 140 °C <lh
ved mechanically (by means of brushing or parhl1ent alld must not affect beer flavour. Peracetic acid <1 % <90 °C < 0.5 h
gruldulg) or chemically (through acid cleaning) Seals are made of rubber-like elastic materials Peracetic acid < 1% < 20 °C <2h
following shielded arc welding (TIG, MIG) so which differ considerably ill their properties Iodophore < 0.5 % <30 °C <24 h
that the passive layer can reform. Stainless steels such as hardness, tensi le strength, stretch resi- Hot water < 140°C without limit
must not come into contact WiUl oUler iron mate- stance alld final elongation as well as their tem-
rials since iron ions Call lead to corrosion. perature and swelling behaviour.
Rubberised materials with a relatively good 6.2 Cleaning agents substances which Calmot form emul sions and
6.1.3 Hoses and seals resistance to the effects of chemical processes ClealIDlg removes product residues alld depo- are not soluble. These substances must be
Most hoses are made of rubber. Rubber hoses and temperature are elastomers based on: sits, such as proteins, resins, oils, organic and emulsified after wetting.
are dangerous cOlUlecting pipes. There is a ten- NBR - acrylonitrile-bu tadiene rubber, inorganic salts, and micro-organisms from the The simplest and least problematic cleaning
dency to judge the interior state of a hose from silicon rubber, surfaces of vessels, etc. medium is water.
its external appearance. This is often a great mi- PTFE - polytetrafluoroethylene alld A surface free from chemicals is obtained by Water is used successfully with brushes and
stake. Many large stresses are put on the inte- EPDM - ethylene-propylene-diene copolymer. the disulfectillg effect of chemicals alld sterilisa- scrubbers of all types and sizes for manual
rior of a rubber hose and moreover they are dif- Fluoride elastomers also h ave a particularly tion by heat trea tment. cleaning. Admittedly not everything can be
ficult to clean (hose bath). Cracks and slight good resistallce. Contamulations can be classified accordulg cleaned manually in this way nowadays, but
to the following aspects: the process must not be forgotten. Primarily,
ISO R 1629 Characteristic Trade name substances which are truly soluble and dissol- clealWlg with pressurised water, as used in mo-
abbreviation colouring ve during the cleaning process, vable sprayillg devices, is of great importance
Synthetic rubber materials substances which can form emulsions but are for thorough cleaning of appliances such as val-
acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber NBR blue Perbunan® not soluble; these substances must be emulsi- ves, which are not included in a CIP circuit and
chlorobutadiene rubber CR Neoprene'" fied, and Calmot be cleaned in a caustic bath.
 806
As well as the mechanical cleaning agents, acid or citric acid with the addition of inh.ibi-
pressurised wa ter and bru shes, chemical tors.
cleaning agents are used. One particular fact must be taken into accOlmt
The followin g properties are required of a with regard to cleaning. An increasingly thick
chemical cleaning agent: layer of beer stone (beer scale) is inevitably depo-
high solubility in water, sited in time on all parts of vessels which come in-
good cleaning power with regard to dirt con- to contact with beer. 111e rough surface of the
tamination, beer stone forms an ideal hiding place for conta-
effecti ve at low temperatures, minations. Consequently the beer stone must be
-
) high wetting power, regularly removed. The best medilU1l for remo-
little redeposition of dirt, ving beer stone is still dilute nitric acid .
no foam formation, Most cleaning media supplied are based on
easily rinsed off, no deposits, caustic soda. This is a ve ry efficient cleaner
no reaction with salts in the wa ter, w hich also kills micro-organisms. Additives
not corrosive to the equipment materials, can substantially further increase its cleaning
easy to use, power. One group of additives are the tensides.
low cost and Tensides are water soluble active compounds
little pollution of the waste wa ter, use of bio- employed in cleaning media to release dirt by
logically d egradable chemicals. lowering the surface tension of the water. In
Cleaning agents are available in various Germany the tenside regulations sp ecify that
forms nowadays (powders, pas tes, liquids). In the tenside must be at least 80 % degradable.
general a liquid for m is preferred since the me- Ca talogues of cleaning agents almost always
dium is then easier to handle and ca n be d osed show whether the agent contains tenside or not.
more easily. Tensides must be completely removed on rin-
All commercially manufac tured cleani n g sing beca use they can spoil the beer foam (see
agents contai n two components: Sect. 5.1.2.3.1).
a carrier substance (caustic soda or an acid) From the aspect of environmental pollution,
and the use of biologically degradable organic acids
active agen ts (stabilisers, solvents, d eter- is important - such as citric acid or lactic acid .
gents).
Depending on their pH they are classified in- 6.3 Disinfecting agents
to: The same properties are required for a disinfec-
alkaline, acidic and neutral cleaning agents, tant as for a cleaning agent except th at instead
and of good cleaning power the decisive factor is a
acidic, n eutral and alkaline disinfecting powerful disinfecting effect over as wide a
agents. spectrum as possible.
Alkaline cleaning agents are predominantly Preferred disinfectants are
based on 60 to 80 % caustic soda with additions halogen containing disinfecting agents
of sodium carbonate, metasilicate, polyphos- (e.g. NaOCl = sodium hypochlorite, ClO, =
phates, trisodium phosphate, wetting agents chlorine dioxide, m on obromoacetic acid),
and inhibitors. oxidants (H,O" peracetic acid),
Acidic cleaning agents are based on phos- quaternary ammonium compounds (QAV)
phoric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, gluconic and
amphoteric tensides.
Chlorine dioxide achieves a disillfecting ac-
tion with an application of only 0.5 to 2 ppm.
The ClO, peneh·a tes the cell wall into the cyto-
plasm of the micro-organism and destroys it by
breaking d own essential amino acids. CIO, is
characterised by a broad spectrum of activity
effective aga inst yeas ts, bac teria, mould, viru-
ses and even spores.
The risk of pitting formation (see Sect. 6.1.2)
caused by sta nd ard meth od s previously used
of producing CIO, from sodium chloride and
hydrochloric acid is prevented nowadays by
the use of modern production procedures (e.g.
ASiRAL-Duosept) . Application occurs in the
bottle spraying water (7 m g/l), conveyor lubri-
cation (7 mg/l), in the exterior cleansing of the
filler and in the erp cleaning. Chlorine dioxide
is completely broken dow n and does not cause
AOX formation.
Peracetic acid is employed in 0.01 to 0.1 % solu-
tion . Its disinfectant action depends on the re-
lease of atomic oxygen which ac ts as a disinfec-
tant and disappears from the solution by forming
molecular oxygen. Peracetic acid is an ideal disin-
fect31lt in that it leaves no residues behind which
must be taken care of. yeasts which
form ascospores sllch as Sacch31·omyces diastati-
cus are insensitive to peracetic acid.
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAV)
are present in many disinfecting agents. They
are cationic tensides with a neutral pH and
good bactericidal (bacteria-killing) properties.
They are very surface active 31ld thus ensure
good wetting. Disadv31ltages are that they are
difficult to rinse off (residue problems).
When clea ning and diSinfec ting, howeve r,
thou ght must be given to the fact that 31ly of the
agent which is not used up will appear in the
was te water and possibly cause environmental
problems.
A particular type of problem with waste wa-
ter is presented by the use of chlorine-contai-
807
ning cle31ling agents [71]. Amending the Ori-
gin of Waste Water Regulations of 27 May 1991,
the German Federal Govern ment has se t thres-
hold values for dangerous substances in the
sense of § 7a of the Domestic (drinking) Water
Regulations produced by the use of chlorine-
containing products. The chlorine-containing
produ cts are converted to Ad sorbable Org31lic
Halogen compOlil1ds (AOX) which pass into
the waste wa ter (see Sect. 9.2.1) 31ld lead to in- 6
creased was te water treahnent costs.
It is not possible to list here all the commerci-
ally availabl e clearting 311d disinfecting agents,
with their names, compositions 31ld concentra-
tions employed . For these, reference must be
made to the suppliers' application guidelines
concerning their use in practice and to operatio-
nal experience of the agents. However, in every
case a detailed examination of the suppli er's
cleanin g and disinfecting agent ca talogu e
should be made to establish
for what purposes the agen t should be used,
what concentration is recommended for use,
311d
which materials it can be used with and what
limitations exist.
6.4 Cleaning and disinfecting using a
ClP system
In small breweries and plants brush es and
scrubbers still reign supreme. This w ill not
change in the future.
However, with in creasing vessel and installa-
tion size m31lual clea ning becomes increasingly
uneconomic and finally impossible. This h as
led to the development of specialised brewery
sections, the cleaning and s terilisin g stations,
which use fixed devices to clean the equipment
in which they are ins talled, in other word s to
perform cleaning in place (erp). By automating
the erp valuable working time is also saved.
Nowadays all machinery and installations in
the brewery are d esigned from the s tart so that
808 809

14 IXI
9 t !XI
8
y
container bad: run

1
13 13 13 +- pipe: back. run
13

container fOlefUll
10 10 10 fresh
!XI I><J4 !XI+
water
oj.

2 3 5

fresh disin - acid caustic stored

6
water fec tant 80' C 8O'C water
20' C 20' C

y
y y y y
o
Fig. 6.1 oj.
ClP deallillg sys teJ/l (£xalllp/e 1) condensate
(£xp /allat iolls oJpos.1 -7 ill text) dtsinfecting agent acid caustic
(8) cirCII/atillg plllllp pipe, (9) back-flow pipe, (10) Jil/illg pipe Jar d eallillg al/{I disillfectillg agellt, (11) elllptyillg, (1 2).fi"es/1 wa- condensate concentrate concentrate
ter m try, (13) ClP d eallillg oj tile coll taillcrs, (14) back flow oj tile dea llillg alld disillfect illg IIledia sO/lltiolls Fig.6. 1a
( /P c/eallillg systelll (£xa llip/e 2) Krolles, Nelltrallb/illg

eIP can be used, i.e. they can be connected in Peracetic acid is unsuitabl e for hose baths be-
one of the eIP circuits. As a result, in modern cause it gradually dissolves rubbers. system. Durations of flows, amounts, tempera- drain the diSinfecting solution
plants there is no manual cleaning from the It is important to arrange all equipmen t parts tures, etc. are established from the results of off 1-3 min
brew house to filling . in the disinfectant baths in such a way that aU practical experience in the brewery. A typical final rinse with fresh water 3-5 min
Despite this arrangement, in every brewery surfaces are wetted . Air bubbles mus t be pre- programm e is: drain the water off 1-3 min
there are equipment parts, for instance curved vented. prerinse with water - The entire programme thus lasts 1 to 2 h.
pipe connectors, cOLUlection fittings, valves, A CIP plant consists of the following vessels fo r this the stored final To keep the costs fo r cleaning and pollution
etc., which caLUlot be cOLUlected into the circuit. (Fig. 6.1): rinse water from the of the environment as low as possible, great ca-
In order to be able to clean and disinfect these a storage container for fresh water (1), previous cycle is used 3-5 min re has to be taken in arranging the vessels and
parts, there are s terilising troughs containing a a storage container for s tored water (2), drain the water off 1-3 min pipes for the CIP plant. This includes [265]:
disinfectant solution into which these parts can a s torage container for the disinfectant soluti- clean with alkaline cleaning paying great attention to a close separation of
be placed. Many breweries also have long "ho- on or hot water (3), solution by circulating a the mixing phases in the case of cleaning fore
se baths" into which the hoses can be inserted a storage container for acidic solution (4), 1 to 2 % solution at 70 °e 30-50 min and back runs (observance of dead clea ning
for sterilisation / decontamination. a storage container for the caustic solution drain the caustic off 1-3 min ends, positioning of branching pipes),
It is important to ch eck the solutions in these (5), intermediate water rinse 4-5 min the installation of rate of flow volume regula-
troughs and baths regularly, beca use with time a circulating pump (6), drain the water off 1-3 min tors in place of programme process control,
they lose their disinfecting activity and in the a heating s tation (7) acid rinse w ith the ins ta ll a tion of pressure regulating sy-
end become nutrient solutions for contaminati- as well as num erous pipes, valves and 1 to 2 % nitric acid 10-15 min stems for cleaning the containers lmder over-
on nests. The solution should be changed from pumps. dra in the acid off 1-3 min pressure,
time to time because, particularly with quater- A powerful flow of medium is pumped from intermediate water rinse 2-3 min the creation of short cycles by means of an
nary ammonium compound s, resistant beer these con tainers, using automatic swi tching, drain the water off 1-3 min optimal placement of the CIP plant in the sy-
spoilage organisms can develop. through the vessels and pipes of the attached- rinse w ith diSinfecting solution 15-20 min s tem,
 810 811

fresh water forerun containers with the smal-
lest possible volumes (Fig. 6.3 (4)),
lowest possible cycle volumes by means of
the correct choice of pipe diameter:
nominal size of
pipe diameter DN80 DN65 DN50 DN40
content in 1/m 5.0 3.3 2.0 1.3
3
delivery in m /h 45 30 18 12
6 tank diameter in m > 6 6 4 3 switches.
It should be noted that the speed of the flow
of liquid is dependent on the nominal value of
the pipes and the voltune flow (m3/h or 1/min).
The respective values can be read in the dia-
gram in Fig. 6.1b .
The following statements also apply to the
machine parts of a CIP plant:
The storage containers must have all compo-
nents necessary for a problem-free operation,
such as overflow, manhole, fill height indica-
tor, sampling facility, interior cleaning facili-
ty, overflow, vapour release and, in the case of
heated vessels, heat insulation.
The pumps, pipelines and fittings must be ar-
ranged in such a way that no cavitation (see
Sect. 10.5.1.3) can occur. Accidental mixing of
media must be prevented by appropriate
The delivery and storage of the chemicals must
- according to the laws of the individual coun-
try - OCCLLr in such a way that no damage can
be caused should a defect arise. Since large
amOlmts of liquid are sometimes being dealt
with here, great attention must be paid to this.
The measuring teclmology and plant control
must ensure problem-free operations in the
right order. The most important measure-
Fig. 6.1u
Speed of liqllid flow depelldellt
all pipe diallleter
ments thereby are the measurement of the
conductivity of th e individual media, the
temperature and the volumetric flow rate.
During elP cleaning, contaminations passing
from one department to another must be pre-
vented . Thus different elP stations are used by
means of which different sections are treated
differently. Hence, certain sections are always
cleaned with hot caustic whereas others are not
or only reluctantly. A possible division [146] is
to have separate
plants for the brewhouse and wort path,
plants for pipes carrying lmfiltered beer,
plants for lmfiltered beer tanks and
plants for the filtrate and filling process.
Plants for the brewhouse and wort path (Fig.
6.1a) usually have
tanks for hot caustic for brewing vessels,
tanks for hot caustic for wort path (division
because of heavy soiling caused by the cau-
stic from the brewing vessels),
acidic solution,
disinfectant (for the wort path),
fresh water, stored water.
The cleaning of brewing vessels occurs today
using low alkalinity (2 to 3 % NaOH) and oxidi-
sing additives, by means of which the cleaning
process is considerably accelerated and a more
thorough cleaning occurs. By means of a short
acidic cleaning measure, cleaning agent residu-
es are absorbed and the vessels or pipes then
rinsed with fresh water.
Plants for lmfiltered beer pipes are equipped
with
tanks for hot caustic,
tanks for acid,
tanks for fresh water (possibly from mtmici-
pal supply),
tanks for stored water and
tanks for disinfectant.
The unfiltered beer pipes - like the brewing
vessels - are as a rule cleaned with hot caustic,
neutralised with acid and rinsed thoroughly
w ith fresh water. Subsequent disinfection using
peracetic acid or a solution of chlorine dioxide
in the final rinse is important.
Plallts for IlIlfiltered beer tallles (CCVs)
There are several ways of cleaning unfiltered
beer tanks (cylindroconical fermentation and
lagering tanks):
Allcalille hot callstic cleallillg 6
Alkaline hot caustic cleaning is a widespread
procedure for cleaning tanks. With hot caustic
cleaning the tank is sprayed with a defined
amOlmt of alkaline (caustic soda or a cleaning
agent with an NaOH basis) .
Problems:
The NaOH reacts with CO, to form insoluble
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHe0 3 )
which precipitates, thus causing the caustic
to become increaSingly ineffective. The CO,
has therefore first of all to be removed to pre-
vent lllu1ecessary loss of the caustic. On the
other hand, the inert CO, is important becau-
se it prevents oxidation. For the removal of
the CO, two variants can be considered:
Variant 1
The tank is pressed empty by means of air
(emptying time < 12 hours); the CO, cushion of-
fers reliable protection of the beer against oxy-
gen. If only a part is emptied, CO, gas first has
to be used as a tensing gas.
After emptying, the tank must be expanded
via the cone: first comes CO" then air! As a re-
sult of this, the tank is free of CO,.
Variant 2
The empty tank is rinsed with compressed air
(air from above) or, energetically better: CO, is
vacuumed off, or displaced with air. For this a
high pressure blower can be used.
More recently, attempts have been made to
obtain pure nitrogen (99.9 %) and thus to to-
 812
tally eliminate oxygen from the tank. This,
however, only has a future if it is possible to
prepare pure nitrogen very cheaply.
A vaCUlU1l can OCClli' in the interior through
spraying with cold water if the vacuum valve is
closed. The tanl< can conh'act (implode); this
happens very quickly since the vessels are vul-
nerable to vacuums. It is therefore preferable to
create overpressure from the beguuling, which
6 then decreases again on COOlulg, or the pressu-
re is monitored by means of a controllulg devi-
ce and if necessary exh'a gas is added.
Hot caustic cleaning is possible to above
90°C. However, a condition for this is that the
tank is equipped to withstand these tempera-
ture increases . This is not usually the case.
CCVs are therefore are only cleaned at luke-
warm temperatures of not more than 35 °C.
It is also possible to clean the tanl< using a cold
alkaline solution. This, however, does not in ge-
neral achieve much . It is therefore preferable to
use a combination of alkali.Jle and acidic cleanulg.
Acidic olle-phase cleal/illg
Cleaning with only the usual acidic agents does
not prove successful over a period of time be-
cause the dirt particles are not adequately re-
moved and the cleaning solution becomes in-
creasingly contaminated. It is advantageous,
however, that it is possible to perform acid
cleaning ill a CO, ahnosphere. This means that
an ea rlier removal of CO, is not necessary,
which has a positive effect on costs.
Owing to the development of acidic cleaning
solutions on a nitric and phosphoric acid, and
sometimes gluconic acid, basis, in combination
with tensides and anti-foaming agents, it is pos-
sible to carry out a thorough soil removal Ul the
tank using an acidic one-phase cleaning pro-
cess, as well as disinfection, Ul a very short time.
This type of tank cleanmg is becoming more
and more widespread today, in particular also
for the cleaning of pressure tanks.
TIle approximate timescale is then:
pre-rinsulg 10 mUl
acidic solution 60mUl
intermediate rinsing 5mul
disinfection 15 min
fresh water 10 min
Plmlts for filtered beer
These include the filter, the pipes behind the fil-
ter, the pressure tank area and the fillulg paths.
The equipment for these are:
tanks for alkaline cleaning agent,
tanks for acidic cleaning agent,
hot water (acidified),
fresh water and
disinfectant.
This area is particularly sensitive sU1Ce any
remainulg contaminations here can no longer
removed and can permanently harm the beer.
The necessity of intensive cleaning has alrea-
dy been discussed in the context of the cleani.Jlg
of the bottle filling and sealulg machine. A "mi-
crobiological" filler front table (Fig. 6.2) h as
been developed in order to prevent germs from
collecting on the front tables and the filling ca-
rousel and new plants even work without a
front table (see Fig. 5.58 a).
Foam cleallillg
Of particular ulterest is foam cleanulg, which is
very often used for the outer cleanulg of vessels
and plants. Foam cleanulg is used to avoid the
disadvantages of other cleaning methods:
The high-pressure jet spray with up to 200
bar overpressure shoots not only into the con-
tamination nests, but also into ball bearulgs,
electrical plants and movable parts. Water
thereby penetrates the plants, thus encoura-
gUlg corrosion.
Contaminations are transported over di-
stances with the water droplets in the jet mist,
and reappear Ul unsuitable places.
Liquid cleaning agents rapidly run down ver-
Fig. 6.2
Microbiologicnl f illerfrolll Inble, low-
cOlllnill illnlioll Iiesigll
(KH S Dorllllllilil colllpnlly)
tical surfaces and are therefore effective only
for a short time or not at all.
If cleanulg foam is used, these disadvantages
are prevented. The cleaning foam is formed in a
centrifugal pump with a working pressure of 12
to 25 bar overpressure with the addition of
and the approx. 2 mm thick foam layer is spray-
ed onto the surfaces which are to be cleaned.
Sometimes a single jetting (pressure < 3 bar
overpressure) is sufficient to create foam .
The foam distributes itself and crawls slowly
UltO the cracks and gaps (see Fig. 5.38b). The
dissolved dirt is taken up by the foam and can
later easily be rinsed together with the foam .
The contamulations, too, are not swirled UltO
the atmosphere, but detached and rUlsed out
with the water. Foam is easily visible, and foam
residues show that the rinsing after the foam
cleaning has not been sufficient.
Foam cleaning has become dominant in the
past few years. Adherent gel can be used in pla-
ce of foam.
The brewery of today must be as open as a
greenhouse, clean and without dirt corners -
only thus can it be presented to visitors, who
813
6
expect the most meticulous cleanliness from the
producers of their beer. This open cleanluless
mus t be absolute law Ul all departments!
The cleaning caustic of the Clr plant accumu-
lates dirt substances during cleanulg and can
therefore only be used for a limited period.
With time, the cleaning caustic, because of the
accumulated dirt substances, becomes a nu-
trient solution for microbes. In order to prevent
this, there are two possibilities:
The cleaning caustic is only used twice: once
for the second cleaning and then for the first
cleaning of the next batch. Then the caustic is
discarded; alternatively,
The caustic is cleaned by letting it sit or filte-
ring or treating it, as with the bottle cleanulg
caustic (see Sect. 5.2.1.6.3).
Re-use of the used cleanmg and disinfectant
solutions (recovery) is only possible or useful to
a limited extent. Today, one is more interested
in setting up the plants so that a combination of
recovery and fresh batches is possible (Fig. 6.3).
Clr pipe cleanulg as a rule requires recovery,
while cleanulg of the containers can be perfor-
med advantageously according to the "no reco-
 814
8
6
y
Fig. 63
COlllvilled recovery alld fresh vatch cleallillg systelll
(1) storage tallk for cleallillg SOllltioll, (2) storage cOlltaillerfor disillfectillg SOllltioll, (3) storage tnllk for IIsed watel; (4) fresh
wnterfirst rillse cOlltnillel; (5) dosillg of chelllicals (callstic, acid, disillfectillg ngellt), (6) PIlIllP, (7) hentillg sectioll, (8) vnck rtlll,
(9) forertlll, (10) fresh watel; (11) stenl/I, (12) cOlldellsnte
very" principle. It therefore makes sense to use
a combined system which permits both variati-
ons and enables a minimisation of water and
chemical consumption [355] .
With such an installation in place it is possi-
ble
to withdraw liquid from the storage tank or
bypass it,
to either reuse the solution (store it) or to dis-
card it after use (single use cleaning),
to adjust the cleaning solution to the desired
temperature (7) and
to adjust the cleaning agent concentration as
desired. The concentration is increased again
9
2 1
by a dosing unit (5). The storage tank then
contains only the weakest concentration ne-
cessary.
Because the particular shape of the water first
rinse container (4) involves a "support co-
lumn", as normally used for raised water
towers, it provides a high, and above all con-
stant, inflow pressure into the cleaning system
with minimal storage capacity.
6.5 Cleaning procedure
Vessels are cleaned by spraying them with
cleaning solutions. Both low pressure spraying
and high pressure spraying are used.
10 - - I - - { ; "
/
.......
" 6
Fig. 6.4
Freqllellt callses offnllits with flow-tlllnllgh cleallillg
In the case of high pressure spraying a shar-
ply defined jet at up to 60 bar overpressure is
used for predominantly mechanical cleaning.
In the case of low pressure spraying a sub-
stantially larger flow of solution (20 to 75 m 3/h)
at a lower pressure (up to 6 bar overpressure) is
sprayed onto the vessel wall and flows over it
allowing the chemical effect of the solution to
be obtained . Nowadays low pressure spraying
is mainly used .
The art consists in mOlUlting suitable spray
heads and jet cleaners in the vessels so that all
parts of the vessel, even the peripheral corners,
are reached every time cleaning is performed.
For this an extensive variety of spray heads and
815
cleaners are available from the relevant su p-
pliers. However, it is necessary to ensure that
all spray heads have a small opening at the bot-
tom to allow all residues of cleaning solutions
to drain out.
Every eIr installation comprises two pumps.
One pumps the cleaning solution through the
pipes to the spray head, the other pumps the
draining solution back. To ensure there is no
hold-up, the second pump has a maximum per-
formance up to 25% higher than the first.
err installations operate without problems
only when the following are constantly monito-
red and strictly observed:
 816 817

sequential and complete adherence to the
programmed steps,
exact separation of solutions (conductivity
measurements with time supervision),
correctly sized pumps,
careful supervision of spray heads and con-
centrations,
regular maintenance of valves, sensors and
measuring devices,
6 easily cleanable construction of all components
which come into contact with the product,
Error
1. Dead water spots
2. Air pocket because of a pipe
with a blind end above it
3. Air pocket in Bourdon manometer
4. Air pocket because the highest point in the install vent, no upward bends
pipework is not vented. A similar risk exists
with pipes bent up to form a saddle (4a).
5. Residues because the pipe is bent to form no low level sections, install a
a lower section which is not drained.
The same sihlation exists at the lowest
point (Sa).
6. Residue in a valve
7. Residue in sagging pipe
with a uniform fall, support well
8. Residue because of pipe widening
or constriction
9. Tlu'ee-way taps or valves which must be
disassembled for cleaning
regular cleaning of the CIP installation itself.
In-line measurement is lIsed to control the
flow-through velocity,
temperature, and
conductivity (and therefore the concentration)
of the cleaning caustic and so all necessary
process data can be collected.
Faults often occur when cleaning the pipes,
and their causes are not always immediately
apparent. Fig. 6.4 shows some of the causes of
these faults [51].
Remedy
double angle valve or T-valve instead of a
sh'aight through valve
dismantle
use membrane devices
drain point
use valves which when suitably installed drain empty
install horizontal parts of the pipework
use constant diameter, make any
reductions in vertical pipes, use eccenhic reduction
lise suitable valves for £1ow-
through cleaning
6.6 Mechanical cleaning
Not only must the vessels be clean insid e, the
parts w hich are attached, such as bent pipe con-
nectors, closing devices, va lves, and other a t-
tachments must also be cleaned. This is usually
done in a bath with cleaning solutions. Moreo-
ver, the parts which camlot be moved, such as
cOlmection pipes and the like must be m echani-
cally cl eaned. For this, small movable hig h
pressure spraying dev ices are u sually employ-
ed. In the brewery a specific programme is es ta-
blished for com prehensive cleaning.
All parts which are not clea ned by the eIP sy-
stem have to be cleaned and disinfected manu-
ally using brushes of varying shapes and sizes;
in most cases spraying is insufficient.
These parts include taps, ball valves, valve
gates, screw operated valves, sampling taps etc.
They have to disassembled manually, cleaned,
greased with silicon grease and reassembled .
Even when all the vessels are cleaned by the
CIP system, complete cleanliness and order are
still not necessarily achieved. In addition
the floors and drainage chalmels must be
clealled,
vessels must be clealled on the outside,
walls must be whitewashed 01' painted, etc.
the boreholes and caissons have to be tidied
and cleaned .
But even when everything is in order, one
must also think of the general mechanical
cleaning of
the regions which are swept, such as the bot-
tom of the mill, should be vacuum cleaned,
the brewery yard must be swept, and through-
out the brewery there should be no dirty cor-
n ers.
6.7 Monitoring of cleaning and dis-
infection
The results of cleaning and disinfection are re-
flected in the contaminations which occur in the
brewery. Supervision is provided by the micro-
biolog ical control section (see Sect. 7.4.2) which,
using specific methods, determines the site and 6
time of every contamination alld thus s upplies
the basis for conclusions concerning what £Lut-
her steps are necessary.
6.8 Protection at work when cleaning
and disinfecting
When working with cleaning alld disi.nfecting
agents, the safety of the person handling them
is first priority. Human skin will be burnt or
corroded by most of the agents used. The hallds
alld face, but in particular the eyes have to be
well protected £L'om such harm when working
with cleaning and dis infecting agents. When
working with cleaniJlg and disinfecting agents,
the following have to be strictly adhered to:
the safety information sheets must be read
and observed,
when mixing chemicals, the order of
acid/caustic/water must always be observed.
Anyone not following this order risks suffe-
ring serious injury,
protective goggles must be worn to protect
the eyes,
the prescribed protective clothing must be
worn and
the prescribed work protection measures,
such as eyebaths, safety showers, etc. must be
used in the case of emergency.

10. Screwed on tank outlet cOlmections with use tlU'eaded connections welded
internal seal to the container
 -- ----

819

7 I Finished beer

The end product of the production process is logical inhibitions, a feeling of well-being, tal-
the packaged, finished beer. To retain CllstO- kativeness, conviviality and a feeling of conten-
mers and win new customers, a consistently tedness . Larger amounts of alcohol lead to
good beer quality is required . drunkel1Jless, a state in which each person be-
To ensure that a high quality beer is always haves differently. It is important for every bre-
produced, however, knowledge of a number of wer, who has to dea l with beer every day, to be
7
interrelationships discussed in this chapter is in control in this respect.
necessa ry. This includes knowledge of A good brewer is not distinguished by the
beer composition and the importance of indi- fact that he drinks a particularly large a1110lmt
vidual components, of beer, but by the fact that he can produce par-
£lavou r and foam, the most iIllportant criteria, ticularly good beer. A brewer who is his own
beer types, their special fea tures and proper- best customer is in the wrong place.
ties, and finally an extremely important sub- When expressing alcohol content, a diffe-
ject is rence is made between the usual value expres-
quality control of the beer, which is of special sed as vol % and the value expressed in mass
importance. per cent (mass%) - usually expressed as % by
weight; the values differ considerably because
7.1 Beer composition when alcohol is mixed with water it is "swallo-
Water at about 91 to 92 % forms by far the lar- wed", i.e. 1 I of water and 1 I of alcohol do not
gest, if not the most important, component of a give 2 I of mixture but considerably less.
beer. A beer drinker very soon notices that it
must contain a lot of water. 7.1.1 Components of beer
The water requirement for humans is 2 to 31i- The following table shows the average alcohol
tres per day - and it can be consumed in many contents of a few beer types [93].
forms. The water in beer, together with the dis-
solved mineral compounds, the CO, and the Beer type Alcohol % Alcohol %
cool drinking temperature is particularly thirs t by weight by volume
quenching. average range average range
The alcohol content is, at 4.5 to 5.5% by volu-
me, one of the major constituents of beer. The Pale full beer 3.8 3.3 -4.5 4.94. 3 - 5.8
VLB Berlin alcohol is taken up directly by the body and Export pale beer 4.3 3.7 - 4.6 5.4 4.4 -5.9
transformed directly into energy - as can be Marzen 4.3 3.7 - 4.6 5.5 4.7 - 5.9
Research Institute for Water and seen and heard in the case of some drinkers. Pilsner 3.9 3.4-4.5 5.0 4.4 - 5.7
The slower the uptake of the beer, the lower Bock bee r 5.0 4.2 - 5.9 6.4 5.5 - 7.5
Waste Water Technology (FIWAT)
the alcohol level in the blood. Alcohol uptake is Diet beer 3.8 3.7 - 4.1 4.8 4.7 - 5.1
reduced when food is present in the stomach. Alcohol-fr. beer 0.3 0.0 - 0.5 0.4 0.0 - 0.6
www.vlb-berlin.org/fiwat The effect of small amounts of alcohol is ex- Light bee r 2.2 1.6 - 2.8 2.8 2.0 - 3.6
5:l ahrens@vl b-berlin.org pressed in the increasing release from psycho- wheat full beer 4.0 3.5 - 4.6 5.2 4.5 - 5.9
 •
820 821

As well as ethanol, small amOlUlts of other her alcohol as possible through deamination of Inorganic Amount in Physiological effects With regard to ex tract content, one must di-
higher alcohols are formed by yeast metabo- am ino acids. substances beer (mg/I) in humans stin guish between apparent and real extract
lism during fermentation. These higher alco- The extract in beer consists, approximately, of calcium 35 - 40 ca n prevent heart since these values are very different. The appa-
diseases
hols are referred to as fusel oils and in large 75 to 80% carbohydrates, in particular limit rent extract is obtained by meas uring the
quantities these can lead to headaches, nystag- dextrins (maltotetraose, maltopentaose) and magnesium 100 - 110 lowers the cholesterol gravity with a hydrometer, the real content on-
mus, altered reactions, hangovers and poiso- very little maItotriose, level, ly after removing the alcohol.
beneficial effect on
ning symptoms. In contrast to ethanol, which 6 to 9% nitrogenous compounds, Examples of extract content [93]:
cardiac activity
can be broken down by the enzyme system of 4 to 5% glycerine (glycerol) and also
the (beer accustomed) body in a relatively short inorganic compounds, tamlins and bitter sub- phosphate 300 - 400 important constituent Beer ty pe Apparent ext ract Real ex tract
time, higher alcohols cannot (initially) be bro- stances, organic acids and a number of com- of bones and teeth; content in % content in %
res pons ible for ener -
ken down by the normal body mechanisms. potmds wluch, despite their low concentration, a verage range average range
7 gy storage and tran s- 7
These, much to the suffering of the afflicted, are have a large effect on the quality of the beer. mi ssion
passed backwards and forwards in the body The nitrogen compounds play an important pale full beer 2.4 1.5-3.4 4.2 3.4 - 5.0
until replacement mechanisms finally enable sulphate 150 - 200 without important
role in the extract. The following values may be export pale beer 2.7 2.0 - 3.9 4.6 2.7 - 6.0
effect
them to be degraded more slowly. This usually regarded as normal : Marzen 3.3 2.5 - 4.3 5.2 4.6 - 6.1
takes at least a day. total nitrogen in the beer 600 - 1100 mg/l chloride 150 - 200 daily requirement of Pilsner 2.3 1.5 - 3.7 4.1 2.9 - 5.6
Larger amounts of such higher alcohols (fusel coagulable nitrogen 18 - 20 mg/l humans is Bockbeer 4.1 3.4 - 6.8 6.5 5.8 - 8.7
about 2500 mg
oils) are usually fotmd in beers with a high al- MgSO, precipitable lutrogen 130 - 160 mg/l die t beer -0.1 -1 .2-0.3 1.9 1.6 - 2.1
cohol content, whereas on the other hand beers a.-amino nitrogen (FAN) 80 -120 mg/I nitrate 10 - 80 nitrate can be conver- a lcohol-fl'. beer 5.3 2.0 - 7.6 5.5 2.9 -7.6
with a low alcohol content contain less higher formol nitrogen 160 - 210 mg/l ted to nitrite wheat full beer 2.4 1.8 - 3.7 4.3 3.7 - 5.3
alcohols and are consequently much more which is harmful to
health. The amOlUlt of
agreeable. 80 to 85% of this lutrogenous material is deri- nitrate in beer is be- One must clearly understand that there is
Beer contains the following higher alcohols: ved from the malt and about 10 to 15% from the low the legal limit of much more extract in beer than an attenuation
mg/l yeast. The effects on foam stability, palateful- 50 mg/l for drinking limit of 80 to 85% would suggest!
water and is harmless
n-propanol 9.8 ness and beer stability are described elsewhere. Attention must also be paid to other substan-
isobutanol 9.6 Pale full beer contains on average 500 to 1600 Other substances also present in the extract at ces present in low concentrations:
amyl alcohol 60.1 mg of glycerine per litre. It arises as a by-pro- low concentrations but, sometimes, with large the viscosity of beer is between about 1.40 to
2-phenylethanol 19.8 duct of alcoholic fermentation and contributes qualitative effects are, for example 1.60 mPa' s . A lugher viscosity can make beer
to the palatefulness of beer and smootlung of its 220 - 400 mg/l filtration more difficult,
These alcohols are produced by the yeast by flavour. Methanol does not occur. anthocYaJ.l0gens 5 - 50 mg/I the vicinal dike tone content (diacetyl) at the
removing amino groups from the amino acids InorgaJ.uc compmmds also affect beer quality. The phenolic compmUlds in beer, especially end of maturation should be at most 0.10
present and replacing them with the -OH group They are mainly contributed by the malt. anthocyanogens, are very effective, in particu- mg/l. In every case efforts must be made to
of the alcohols (Sect. 1.4.2.2). lar those with a low molecular weight because ensure that the maximum is 0.10 mg/I,
The amount of amino acid either present or they are bactericidal, the pH of beer is 4.3 to 4.7. Wheat beers have
Inorganic Amount in Physiological effects
lacking therefore plays a very important role. substances bee r (mg/I) in humans they affect cardiac activity and counteract sto- a slightly lower pH (4.3 to 4.5) .
For instance, if valine is lacking, more isobuta- mach cramps, The nutritional and physiological value of
nol is formed, and if leucine is lacking, more sodium 30 - 32 low sodium content they contribute to the absorption of iron and beer is very high . Reasons for the popularity of
desirable
3-methylbutanol is formed, etc. magnesium, and beer - excluding the hmdamental effect of alco-
In this context it is important to draw attenti- potassium 500 - 600 daily requirement they have a very s trong reducing power aJ.ld hol - include:
on once again to the fact that by suitable proce- about 250 mg, inhibit oxidation. Beer quenches tlurst, in other words the lon-
good for prophyla xis
dures during mashing (see Sect. 3.2.1.5) at least The wide range of values shows, however, ging for liquid, better than other drinks.
against infarction;
20 mg of a.-amino nitrogen FAN/lOO ml are pro- a high potassium how great the differences in composition of dif- Beer stimulates the appetite - the taste of beer
vided for the yeast in order to form as little lug- content is diuretic ferent beers are. is also designed to ensure that consumption of
 822
one bottle of beer results in the desire for anot-
her one.
Beer assists digestion - this is accomplished
because the low alcohol concentration and also
the carbon dioxide released stimulate the acti-
vity of the digestive enzymes. The assistance of
diges tion by beer is very important.
Beer has a powerful diuretic effect. This is
probably due to the hop components and po-
tassium salts. The effect is considerable and can
also be a nuisance. Urologists utili se the diure-
7 7
tic effect of beer to flush the kidneys and pLi rge
them of kidney stones.
Beer does not make a person fat. Body weight
remains tmchanged when moderate amounts
of beer are consumed. The beer cannot be bla-
med if frequent consumption leads to an increa-
se in appetite.
Beer has a soporific effect. Even small
amOtmts of alcohol rapidly have a calming ef-
fect. Small amounts of beer do not induce tired-
ness but overcome nervous tension. If however
a tiredness is uncovered, the soporific effect of
alcohol comes fully into play. The hop resins
have no effect on tiredness.
Although yeast removes almost all the vit-
amin B1 from the wort, the beer still contains
valuable vitamins, in particular of the B group
(B1 and B2) and much vitamin PP (nicotinic
acid). However, because yeast stores most of
the valuable vitamin B1, it is more healthy to
drink unfiltered, yeast-containing beer. This ho-
wever conflicts with the desire to drink spark-
lingly clear beer which must also be catered for.
It is here that the microbrewers have an advan-
tage with their unfiltered beer. Breweries are in-
creasingly offering beer with cellar haze; howe-
ver, the turbidity does not necessarily have to
derive from the yeast. Protein haze has the ad-
vantage that it does not settle and does not af-
fect the taste.
The average contents of a beer (Pilsner type)
are [169]:
(the figures in brackets are the number of sil1-
r acetaldehyde can then accumulate in the cen-
gle compounds which were recorded with the tral nervous system and lead to drowsiness,
measurem ent) headaches and dizziness [312]. Thus the break-
alcohol 4.8 - 5.1% vol (ml/100 ml) down of higher alcohols, also known as fusel
extract 3.9 - 4.1 g/100g oils, only occurs indirectly. These are responsi-
water 920 g/kg ble for the well-known thumping head and fee-
physiological energy 400 - 440 kJ/kg ling tUlwell the following day until the body
carbohydrates 27 - 30 gil has broken them down using indirect means.
protein and amino acids 4.3 gil This is the effect ethanol has on many East Asi-
inorganic substances and ans whose bodi es have no suitable enzyme sy-
trace elements 1500 - 1700 mg/l stem for its breakdown.
of which It is, indisputable that long-term ex-
sodium 40 - 45 mg/l cessive beer consumption can damage health
vitamins 200 - 220 mg/l and lead to addiction .
organic and fatty acids (> 100) 630 - 680 mg/l A distinction therefore has to be made bet-
phenolic substances 150 - 155 mg/l ween [207]
hop content substances 250 - 500 mg/l moderate consumption of alcohol, which
carbon dioxide 0.50 g/100 g harms neither the drinker nor society,
sulphur dioxide 3mg/l misuse of alcohol; this means an excessive
nucleic structural elements 300 mg/l consumption of alcohol, which deviates from
amines, amides, pyrazines 70 mg/l the usual rules and occurs in individual ca-
fermentation by-products 1500 - 1800 mg/l ses. This includes, for example, consumption
fibre 1520 - 1530 mg/l of alcohol whilst driving or at work, and
nitrate 25 - 33 mg/l alcohol d ependence; this n1eans that the per-
oxalate 12 -13 mg/l son has an irresistable desire for regularly
reccurring or permanent intake of alcohol to
7.1.2 Beer and health prevent a feeling of unease. Physical and
There are always voices which equate beer with mental health, interpersonal relationships
high alcohol consumption and harm to health . and the ability to perform social and profes-
This is incorrect in this form. As was described sional tasks are affected.
in the previous section, beer contains a number Moderate consumption of alcohol or alcohol
of easily digested and health promoting sub- misuse do not automatically lead to dependen-
stances and has a calming and relaxing effect on ce on alcohol. All tests carried out in recent ye-
the person consuming it. The human body is al- ars prove unanimously that moderate con-
so in the position, with the help of alcohol de- sumption of beer is not harmful, but can by
hydrogenase, to rapidly break down the etha- contrast, have a positive effect on the health of
nol to acetaldehyde which in turn is broken the person drinking it [169, 207] . In this respect
down via acetate to water and CO2 in the body, the following points should be made:
if it is consumed in moderation. Therefore the- Beer does not cause a person to become fat,
re are no after-effects. In the case of excessive al- providing that the enjoyment of the beer do-
cohol consumption, the acetaldehyde is excre- es not promote the joy of eating and lead to
ted by the liver into the blood and finds its way an increased intake of food. In the case of mo-
into different organs via the bloodstream. The derate beer consumption the body weight re-
mains tmchanged or even falls, if the total
823
energy intake remains constant.
Moderate beer cOnStU11ption leads to reduced
amount of fat because alcohol has a limiting
effect on the metabolism of fat. Moreover,
moderate cOnStU11ption of beer has a positive
effect on blood clotting and blood pressure
regulation.
Moderate consumption of beer has a positive
effect on protective cholesterol (HDL) in the
blood. At the same time the amotmt of arteri-
al schlerosis-causing cholesterol (LDL) is re-
duced. These changes are particularly likely
to occur in people with an active lifestyle. In
this case, moderate consumption of beer re-
duces the risk of a heart attack.
There is a considerable amotmt of evidence
which indicates that people who consume
low or moderate amotU1ts of alcohol suffer fe-
wer cardiovascular diseases or die from these
than people who drink no alcohol at all. At
the same time, people who drink large
amotmts of alcohol have higher death rates.
Moderate alcohol consumption increases ce-
rebral perfusion, expands the coronary blood
vessels, increases diuresis and expands the
blood vessels in the skin [312].
Following the consumption of moderate
amounts of beer the blood sugar level drops,
which results in an increase in insulin and an
improved responsiveness to insulin. Both the
sugar and fat balance depend on this.
People who consume moderate amOtU1ts of
beer have a lower blood pressure than those
who do not drink. As a result changes in the
balance of hormones, water and electrolytes
occur.
Beer promotes urination resulting in the ex-
cretion of increased amounts of cooking salt,
whilst the excretion of potassium and magne-
sium is prevented. High alcohol consumpti-
on, on the other hand, has the opposite effect.
Moderate consumption of beer leads to a de-

824
ficiency of neither magnesium nor potassi-
um. In recent times studies have brought the
protecting effect of antioxidants (polyphe-
nols) to the focus of attention. These substan-
ces not only have a protecting effect on the
vascular system, but they also reduce the risk
of suffering from cancer and heart attacks.
All in all, tests verify that moderate beer drin-
kers develop a reduced risk for heart attacks
and cardiovascular diseases than teetotallers or
7 heavy beer drinkers . According to extensive
studies [169] the death rate and number of car-
diovascular diseases amongst men is lowest if
they have drunk between 20 and 40 g of pure al-
cohol daily; this corresponds to an upper level
of two bottles of beer a day. Amongst the annu-
al deaths represented in the study, teetotallers
accOlmted for twice as many as moderate drin-
kers. Above a threshold of 40 g, however, the
mmlber of deaths increased again.
Expressed as an amoLUlt, the consumption of
one to three alcoholic drinks a day (on average
two a day) is seen as moderate [207]. This corre-
sponds to 13 to 39 g of alcohol per day (average
26 g per day).
Related to beer this amOlmts to 1 to 3 0.33 1
glasses (average 2 x 0.33 1) of beer with an alco-
hol content of 40 g or 50 ml per I.
Professor Piendl comments: "One beer is better
thnn 110 beer. Two beers nre better thnn aile beer. Four
beers, howevel; nre not twice ns good ns two beers."
7.2 Taste and foam
The taste and foam of beer are very important
quality parameters, which may be accorded a
different weight in different cOlmtries and for
different types of beer. Nevertheless some basic
statements can be made about the two quality
criteria.
7.2.1 Beer flavour
Beer flavour is a very important characteristic.
It must be suitable for the type of beer and is of-
f
ten influenced by elements depending on the
country and on fashion. All the same it must sa-
tisfy the customers' expectations in order to win
them away from the beers made by competitors.
The taste is conveyed during the initial drin-
king by the
aroma and the palatefulness, supplemented
by the
Liveliness (sparkl e) of the beer. In the afterta-
ste the
bitterness of the beer is predominantly ex-
pressed.
All these sensations finally merge with one
another and give a (more or less) balanced taste
to the beer.
7.2.1.1 Beer aroma
The beer aroma depends on
the yeast strain and the fermentation by-pro-
ducts formed by it,
the hop varieties and the amount of hops
used, and
sulphur compOlmds.
The yeast strains differ greatly with regard to
their formation of fermentation by-products, in
particular higher alcohols and esters, and the
ratio of the floral smelling esters to the higher
(aliphatic) alcohols. The ratio of higher (alipha-
tic) alcohols to esters is 2.5 - 3 : 1 in "normal"
fermentations. Under certain circumstances,
e.g. with frequent topping up (Drauflassen) in a
long pitching phase, the ratio may be 4 - 5: 1, or,
when growing yeast with rapid topping up and
intensive aeration, up to 11 - 12 : 1.
The latter beers taste empty and harsh and
lack a smoothing effect [143].
In such cases a gradual addition of the yeast
when filling the tank in steps and a second aera-
tion are recommended to make it possible for
the yeast to grow as uniformly as possible. The
vessel geometry also influences the ratio of lug-
her alcohols to esters. A diameter to height ratio
of 1 : 2 (to 1 : 3) has proved to be favourable .
Top fermen tation yeasts produ ce considera-
bly more esters and higher alcohols than bot-
tom fermentation yeas ts, influenced mainly by
higher fermentation temperatures in top fer-
m en tation, whereas
use of pressure decreases their formation .
An estery aroma is desirable in strong beers
(Bock beers, festival beers, etc.) and rounds off
the flavour. On the other hand, in the case of
bottom fermentation beers, especially Pil sner
beers, the formation of high e r alcohols and
esters is suppressed.
The hop aroma is particularly noticeable and
desirable in Pilsner beers. Hop aroma is contri-
buted by bitter substances and the hop oils, but
it is not so much the amolmt as the composition
of the hop oils wluch is important. The matmer
of hop addition (intact hop cones, pellets, ex-
tract) atld the time of hop addition have a pro-
nOLmced effect.
The desired soluble hop oils are more easily
obtained from hop cones or pellets thatl from
extracts. Addition of hops to the first worts in
the kettle results in a substatltial part of the hop
oil being extracted in a beer-soluble form. Bitte-
ring hops in the form of extract should therefo-
re be added at the start of boiling to drive out
the hop oils (including undesirable oils) with
the steam.
To obtain the best hop aroma it is advisable to
add the finest hops - which are usually the
most expensive - last, for instance with a one
hour boiling time [143]:
25% at the start of boiling,
25 % 40 min before the end of boiling,
25% 20 min before the end of boiling, and
25 % 5 min before the end of boiling.
The fineness of the hop aroma depends on
the quality of the uutial hops and of the pel-
lets,
air uptake in the hot wort stage (drawing in of
,.
825
air, eddy formation) becau se of the producti-
on of isovaleric acid (smells cheesy),
filling Ul the presen ce of little or, preferably,
no oxygen.
Hop aroma also affects the flavour stability of
beer.
Sulphur compounds affect the tas te of beer
through the formation of sulphur dioxide .
Sulphur dioxide has a beneficial effect on beer
flavour, in particular on flavour stability [144,
285,296]. SO, is formed as atl ultermediate pro-
7
duct of the synthesis of sulphur-containing
amino acids in the last phase of fermentation.
Formation of SO, depends on
the yeast straul atld
the aeration conditions. Low aeration leads to
a considerably higher SO, content Ul the case
of harvested yeast, but also to an Ulcrease in
the fermentation time. By mixulg harvested
and assimilated yeast it is possible to obtaul a
lugher SO, content with the same fermentati-
on time. In the same way, a reduction in the
aeration or not aerating the last brew at all
both maultains the fermentation activity atld
has a positive effect on SO, formation atld the
ageing stability of the beer [288].
Off-flavollrs
In addition to the so-called normal flavour asso-
ciated with different beer types, off-flavours Catl
also occur Ul beers, wluch are llilpleaSatlt atld
Catl hmm the overall impression of the beer. Off-
flavours Catl be recognised in that the general fla-
vour is different. Off-flavours ulclude:
Stale flavour
Stale flavours occur in beer over time pm·ticu-
larly as a result of the influence of oxygen. The
timing of its occurrence Catl vary enormously
atld great efforts are made to ensure to defer
tlus for as long as possible, at least until the best
before date (BBF) (see also Sect. 4.6 .4) . Firstly, a
blackcurrant aroma occurs which, through the
 826
oxidation of w1saturated fatty acids, turns into
a cardboard flavour. As a result of Maillard pro-
ducts, a more bread-like and sweet malty fla-
vour then arises which finally ends in a sherry-
like flavour (see Fig. 4.97b).
The occurrence of a stale flavour impairs the
beer quality and therefore considerable efforts
are made to retain the flavour stability for as
long as possible.
GreeH a1'0 III a
7 7
A penetrative green apple aroma, tasting of green
beer, is indicative of too short a lagering time and
thus not completely degraded acetaldehyde (see
also Sect. 4.1.3). Furthermore, high exposure to
oxygen may have occurred. The acetaldehyde
tlU'eshold level is about 15 mg/l.
Butter a1'0 111 a
A buttery sweet aroma is caused by diacetyl (see
Sect. 4.1.3.1). The al'Oma occurs when diacetyl
from the yeast has not yet been broken down be-
low the flavour threshold level, to be monitored,
of 0.1 mg/l. The causes for this can be:
a lack of FAN in the wort,
insufficient yeast activity, the yeast is not vital
enough,
the yeast settles to the floor and no longer
breaks down.
The butter aroma can also arise thl'Ough con-
tamination with pedicoccus (Sarcina).
A butter aroma is desirable in the case of so-
me beer types.
Cooked vegetable al'Oma
Dimethyl sulphide (OMS) is responsible for
causing a cooked maize, vegetable or cabbage-
like aroma (see Sect. 2.4.1.3 .5; 2.5.1.4 and
3.4.1.9).
Objectionable threshold values for OMS are
60 ppb in the case of beer made with adjuncts,
or
100 to 120 ppb in the case of malt beers .
It has already been mentioned that malt Con-
tains the precursors of OMS, S-methyl methio-
nine (SMM) and dimethylsulphoxide (OMSO)
r of iron II ions. It can occur through contact of
and through the effect of heat are increasingly
converted into volatile OMS. This process,
which begins during kilning (see Sect. 2.5.1.4),
continues during wort boiling (see Sect. 3.4.1.9).
Care, however, has to taken that following wort
boiling, no further OMS is formed from the pre-
cursor which can then no longer be evaporated
and results in the flavour being affected (see
Sect. 3.4.2.6.6) . Care also has to be taken that the
OMSO can later be converted by certain yeasts
and bacteria to OMS, which can become notice-
able in the flavour.
The causes of a cooked vegetable aroma are
thus :
inadequate kilning of the malt,
insufficient boiling of the wort,
formation of free OMS in the whirlpool,
contamination by wort bacteria.
Clove-like flavol/r
A clove-like, phenolic bitter flavour, similar to
that at dentists, occurs as a result of 4-vinyl
guaiacol. It is a metabolic product of certain ye-
asts and is formed from ferulic acid. 4-vinyl
guaiacol is an off-flavour, however when com-
bined with the formation of certain esters and
other compounds, plays an important part in
the overall flavour of yeast beer (see Sect.
7.3.1.2) and is desirable in this case.
Medicillal flavo l/ r
An aroma of hospitals or chemists is indicative
of the possible vestigial presence of chlorophe-
nols. The flavour can occur if chlorinated bre-
wing water is used or disinfectant residue is not
completely removed. Inadequate rinsing of
bottles can also account for this.
Illky taste
An inky or iron-like taste points to the presence
the product with metallic iron, but may also ori-
gina te from the kieselguhr.
Ligllt stmck flavol/r
A light struck flavour smelling like bad eggs
can occur after a short time if the beer is expo-
sed to sunlight. A malodorous mercaptan is he-
reby split off from a sidechain of the iso-a.-acid
of the hops (see Sect. 4.6.4.4).
Light struck flavour is counteracted by pro-
tecting the beer from exposure to light of 350 to
500 nm wavelength. If complete protection
against light is not provided (keg, can), the
glass or can is coloured brown. Brown glass
protects the beer better than green. Neverthe-
less, the beer has to be kept away from sunlight
or exposure to bright light.
With the use of light stable hop products (e.g.
tetra-hydro-iso extract), light struck flavour do-
es not occur or is hardly noticeable. This enab-
les filling in clear (so-called white) bottles.
Rmlcid flavour
A sweaty, musty, dull, cheesy, old hop flavour is
formed by butyric acid and isovaleric acid. It
arises as a result of excretion of the yeast, auto-
lysis in the case of long lagering times or
through contamination by butyric acid bacte-
ria, Pectin a hlS or Megasphaera. The use of hops
stored for too long can also be a cause.
The typical concentration of fatty acids nor-
mally lies below the threshold value of butyric
acid (2-3 mg/I), isovaleric acid (1.5 mg/l) and ca-
prylic acid (4-6 mg/l).
Sui phidic a 1'0 111 a
A foul, sulphury-yeasty flavour reminiscent of
stink bombs and sewers is formed by volatile
sulphur compolU1ds, in particular hydrogen
sulphide and mercaptans.
This beer character is produced
as a result of using not very highly kilned malt,
as a result of limited oxygen uptake during
wort preparation,
as a result of biological acidification of the
827
mash, and
as a result of a rather slow primary and secon-
dary fermentation.
If the wort is also subjected to shear forces
whilst hot, the aroma can change to become
more "onion-like", and custOlners may C0111-
plain about this.
7.2.1.2 Palatefulness (body)
The palatefulness of a beer is detected at the initi-
al stage of drinking and the conSlll1er forms an
impression of the "sh'ength" of the beer. The "bo-
dy" of the beer depends on its original gravity:
The higher the original gravity of the beer the
more full-bodied it tastes . This is due to the al-
cohol content and the residual extract content.
There are deviations from this basic rule in
the case of
light-bodied Pilsner beers; in these the palate-
fulness must not be so pronounced,
light beers; with these one a ttempts to add bo-
dy by adding dark, more highly kilned malts.
In addition, high molecular weight protein
degradation products (10 - 100 kOa) contribute
to palatefulness.
The following malt analyses are considered
to be beneficial (see Sect. 2.8.3):
protein content 10.5 -11%
nitrogen modification 39 - 41 %
fine-coarse difference 1.7 - 2.0%
viscosity 1.54 - 1.57 mPa.s
wort/boiled wort colour 2.5 /5.5 EBC
Overmodified malt gives a musty smell and
taste and no palatefulness. In the case of beers
made with 20% adjw1ct (rice or maize) the valu-
es should be:
nitrogen modification up to 42%
fine/coarse difference 1.5 - 1.7%
and
viscosity 1.50 - 1.55 mPa ·s.
 828
The addition of gypsum or calcium chloride
to the brewing water also the increases the sen-
sation of mellowness and body on drinking. Re-
sidual alkalinity and acidification produce mo-
re full-bodied, softer beers.
Nowadays protein degradation is restricted
so that the FAN contributes only 21 - 22 % of the
total nitrogen in the wort. To achieve this, it is
possible with the well-modified malts com-
monly available today
to mash in at 60 to 62 °C and
7 7
to draw off the first boiled mash at 62 °C (see
high temperature short mash process).
Long rests in the 45 to 55 °C range lead to
empty, harsh beers with little tingle and a poor
foam.
7.2.1.3 Tingle
By tingle or sparkle is meant the prickling sen-
sation on drinking the beer. This tingling sensa-
tion should last to the end of the drink. A beer
which no longer causes tingling soon tastes flat
and insipid.
Tingle depends on
the carbon dioxide content of the beer, and
the pH of the beer.
The tingle becomes visible as the CO, in the
beer is slowly released from the beer in the
glass. The period over which CO, is released de-
pends on
the matmer of dispense (e .g. foaming from a
great height or carefully into a tilted glass),
the duration of CO, release in the glass,
the imler surface of the glass (porous areas in
the glass).
It is therefore recommended
to pour carefully into the glass, so as not to
release the CO, prematurely (see Sect. on fo-
am),
to fill and present the glass within a short ti-
me (recommended 3 min),
to pour into smaller glasses and preferably
more often.
Apart from the CO, content, the tingle is af-
fected by the pH of the beer. A lowe r pH gives a
better tingle.
Recommendations are
a pH of 4.35 to 4.40 for all malt beers, and
a pH of 4.0 to 4.2 for adjtU1ct beers.
7.2.1.4 Beer bitterness
The bitterness of beer is produced
primarily by the hops, but in addition there
can be
a polyphenol bitterness,
a protein bitterness atld
a yeast bitterness.
Hop bitterness is, of course, mainly caused by
the bitter substances derived from hops . A
strong bittering effect is attributed to cohmllU-
lone. The combined effect of the bitter substan-
ces and hop oils is important with regard to the
rounding off of the bitterness. The bittering hop
containing the least desirable hop oils is added
first during wort boiling in order to drive off the
hop oils in the steam. The effect of hop variety
on beer bitterness is therefore clearly defined .
The hop varieties can be arranged in order of
increasing bitterness and decreasing aroma
strength [144] :
Hersbrucker/Perle-Hli Iler
Bitter Record, Northern Brewer,
new Americatl super-a-hops
Brewers Gold, Nugget and Magnum.
Polyphenol bitterness is particularly notice-
able when
last nmnings or pressed spent grains water is
reused,
the proportion of sparge water is very high
when very strong first worts are produced,
the polyphenols are highly oxidised, e.g. by
drawing air into the wort or formation of
whirlpool-like currents,
hop polyphenols are more completely extrac-
ted by use of carbonate-containing water.
Protein bitterness can result from
use of undermodified malt or
m ore intensive mashi.ng.
Yeast bitterness becomes detectable when
the yeast is in a poor physiological condition,
the yeast is reused too often, or
the yeast content of the beer at tratlsfer is too
high.
The taste of the beer, which depends on so
m any individual factors, is in the end the deci-
sive link in the chain of evaluations made by the
cus tomer. Consequently everything must be
done to prevent undesirable changes and varia-
tions in the beer flavour. A brewer must be awa-
re at an early stage of atly deviations from the
desired flavour and their magnitude in order to
deal with them and to ensure a consistently
good beer quality.
7.2.2 Beer foam
The foam of the beer is a parameter which is
evaluated very differently in different coun-
tries. Whilst in Germany and most European
cOlmtries great value is attached to a large, sta-
ble head of foam, in England, for example, no
importatlCe is placed on foam . This is emphasi-
sed by the glass being filled to the brim, atld not
only in the case of beer, whereas in other coml-
tries the glass is only intended to be filled to the
calibration line to leave sufficient room for the
foam.
For the evaluation of good foam, its volume
atld stability are of interest.
FOIlIll formatio11
Foam occurs on dispensing the beer as a result
of the formation of CO, bubbles released by the
reduction in pressure . The CO, bubbles occur
preferably at condensation points (cracks, ad-
herent particles) in the glass and collect surface
active materials as they rise . These surface acti-
ve substances have a low surface tension but a
high hydrophobicity (water repellent proper-
829
ty); this means that within limits they can in-
crease their surface area and also, after the bub-
bles have risen, they form an ela s tic skin
around the gas bubble.
The greater the amOtU1t of dissolved CO" the
more foam is formed. But foam formation is not
the same as foam stability. Foam is only stable
in the presence of these surface active substan-
ces.
No stable foam can be formed in a glass of
mineral water since there are none of these sub-
stances present there. Thus one must always di-
stinguish between foam formation atld foam
stability. It is the stability which is most impor-
tatlt.
Foa111 collapse
Foam begins to collapse as soon as it is formed,
but the rate of collapse is very variable. Collap-
se begins with the bursting atld flowing back of
the skins of the gas bubbles, as a result of which
evaporation processes are encouraged and the
foam becomes more solidified in the upper re-
gion. This makes it possible to dispense more
beer into the glass after a relatively short time
(after about a minute) so that the solidified fo-
am is pushed up to form a foam crown above
the glass .
The further solidification of the foam Catl be
recognised by the formation of foam rings pro-
duced on the wall of the glass each time a drink
is taken .
Factors affecting foa111 stabilit!J
Basically there are foam positive (beneficial)
and foam negative (detrimental) substances.
The main foam positive SubstatlCes are the
higher molecular weight protein degradation
products with a molecular weight between
10,000 atld 40,000 (10 - 40 kDa) with the main
fraction consisting of 40 kOa, in particular the
lipid transfer protein (LTP1) with 10 kOa and
the protein Z with 40 kOa, as well as the hop-a-
 830 831

acids. Consequently, a more stable foam can be mashing method 60 °C nu mber of additional condensation points are Slut of food consumption and can destroy the fo-
expected from a more highly hopped beer. Wort: coagtuable nih'ogen 20 - 40 mg/l created - the beer foams over, am in a matter of seconds. Use of clean glasses
On the other hand, the main foam negative MgSO, without the slightest film of fat, exchange of
substances are alcohols, particularly the higher precipitable S/lbseqllellt factors affectil 19 foam stability empty glasses with fatty rims, and use of clean
ones, and several fermentation by-products nitrogen 130 - 180 mg/I Apart from the teclmological factors during polishing cloths are only a few of the conditions
and also anthocyanogens and a higher concen- FAN 220 - 250 mg/l beer production, foam stability can be affected needed to ensure good foam stability. Even the
tration of amino acids. ex-acids 1 - 3 mg/l subsequently, The greatest negative effect is the smallest traces of fat are harmfuL Much work re-
Effects on foam stability (reported in points iso-ex-acids 10 - 40 mg/l fo am destroying effect of oils and fats which be- mains to be done to teach umkeepers - and also
on the Ross and Clark scale) are therefore very Fermen- come applied to the rim of the beer glass as a re- home consumers - how to mallltaiJl beer quality.
variable [142]: tation: zinc 0,15 - 0.30 mg/l
rcp Factors affecting beer foam
7 > 6.0
7
Factor Change in Changes the foam methylene blue below 5% Negative factors Positive factors
the factor by stability by surface tension 40 - 44mN/m
coagulable N + 0.1 mg/lOO ml + 1.0 point LTP1 2-6 - very high proteul modification> 45% Malt - proteul content of 9.5-11 % in malt
high molec. protein Z 100 - 250 pg/ml (dry matter)
weightN + 1.1 mg/lOO ml +0.9 points - protein modification 39-42 %
proteinase A < 50 U * 10 - Simi
- lipid h'ansfer protein content (LPT) 2-6 pg/ml
viscosity + 0.1 cP +2.6 points medium chained - formation of melanoid ins
isohwl1luones +1 .1 mg/100ml +0.5 points fatty acids < 8 mg/I - lipid breakdown during mashulg-in Mash - prevention of lipid breakdown
low molee. dmulg mashing in
weight G1Ishillg - mashing in temperahu'e > 60 °C
polypeptides + 0.1 mg/lOO ml - 0.3 points -long rest at 45 QC - prevention of further proteul breakdown
It can happen that on opening the bottle, the
- lipid breakdown stopped
anthocyan- beer foams out forcefully and sprays upwards. - shorter mashing times
ogens + 1.1 mgll - 0.2 points This unpleasant feahue is known as gushing; it - long and intensive boiling Wort - higher content of ex-acids, iso-o,-acids
alcohol + 0.1 % - 1.4 points is more common in some years than others and - cloudy wort > 40 EBC - gentle boiling, shorter boiling tline,
The main components of the foam positive occurs more frequently - but not only - in yeast moderate temperature, few shear forces
substances are - besides hordein and glutelin beers, - coagulable nih'ogen: 2-4
- biological wort acidification
fragments - mainly the lipid transfer protein Many tests have been carried out to ascertain - use of bitter substance free hop exh'acts
(LPTl) consisting of 10 kDa as well as the pro- the causes of gushing. The most recent [351] ha- -late removal of yeast Fermen-
tein Z, a 40 kDa protein. During lagering and in ve identified the following processes as causal: following fermentation and tation - early yeast crop, repeated
beer which is not heat treated the LPT1 is in- During gushing, besides the LTP which is eit- matm'ation - cold yeast storage (I-4 °C for beer or wort)
- long contact period between yeast - short yeast storage
creasingly broken down by the yeast proteina- her missing or only present in low concentrati-
and green beer - control of the physiological condition of
se A, which leads to a decrease in foam stability ons, other surface active proteins of fusarium pitdling yeast
[261] . By means of heat treatment of the beer culmorum or hydrophobines accumulate in the - too long and slow fermentation -low wort pH
(HTST, pasteurisation at at least 30 PU) the ye- gas bubbles. As a result of electrostatic repulsi- - mistakes in yeast maJlagement - optimal yeast maJlagement, assimilation
ast proteinase A is inactivated. on, islands of different species of proteins are - mcreased pitching - powerful fermenting yeast
- high gravity worts - cold aJld short fermentation aJld maturation
Of the large quantity of factors which can af- formed in the skin of the bubble, These islands
- proportion of dead yeast cells> 5 %
fect the foam, a number of these are summari- behave differently to LTP and do not form tight - no HTST or pastemisation
sed in Fig. 7.1a. bonds with LTP aggregates, As the bubble - warm and long yeast storage under
From an analytical point of view, the factors grows on release of pressure, the skin of the water
affecting foam are [344]: bubble caJmot provide resistance to the growth - oils and fa ts Filtration - downstream hop products
- surface-active agents / tenside Filling - additives
Malt: protein modification 39 - 43 % of the bubble, The fragments of the burst skin of Finished - nitrogen as dispensing gas
Mashing: mashing in temperahue the bubble expose the water repellent ilmer si- beer
through short de to the watery surroundings, As a result, a

832
Insufficient pressure in the delivery pipes of
the pub, inadequately cleaned beer pipes, un-
suitable dispense tap fittings and unsuitable
washing up liquid can also decrease the stabili-
ty of the foam.
There are also a number of positive factors
which increase foam stability. One factor is the
nature of the gas forming the foam. It has been
mentioned that foam is formed by the fonnati-
on of gas bubbles surrounded by a liquid film.
The gas dissolves in the liquid film and the bub-
7 which proved to be fatal in many cases. Investi-
ble then bursts. However, the solubility of diffe-
rent gases in the liquid is very variable. Gases
which dissolve only with difficulty in the liquid
build a more stable foam than those which dis-
solve easily. CO, is relatively soluble and so do-
es not form as good a foam as, for example, air,
which is less soluble and with which a more sta-
ble foam can be produced.
Pure nitrogen gas (N,) in gas bubbles dissol-
ves much less easily and is therefore an ideal
propelling gas for producing a fine bubbled,
very stable foam (see widgets, Sect. 5.5.8),
which, however, does not solidify.
Nitrogen (N,) gas is also increasingly being
used for this reason in many countries for dis-
pensing cask or keg beer. The saturation pres-
sure relationships of the two gases (CO, and N,)
must be borne in mind to avoid CO, losses.
Nitrogen alters the beer flavour to make it
milder or softer; the "bite" and tingle caused by
CO, are largely lost.
An alternative way to improve foam stability
is to add foam stabilising salts or agents. These
include, primarily, iron salts (0.6 g/hl) together
with reducing agents to prevent browning of
the foam. Iron, nickel and zinc salts, together
with high molecular weight protein com-
pOlmds also stabilise foam.
Alginates, xanthan and gum arabicum also
improve head retention. The dose rates recom-
mended by the relevant suppliers must be ob-
served exactly.
¥
It should be pointed out that with the additi-
ons, in almost all cases there is a flavour change,
mostly to a softer taste. These additions, howe-
ver, are not permitted under the Reinheitsge-
bot.
How catastrophic an uncontrolled addition
can be, when thought of and used by an indivi-
dual company, is illustrated by what happened
a few decades ago at a Canadian brewery. A lar-
ge number of drinkers of the beer from tlus
company suffered severe myocardial damage
gations showed that for successful improve-
ment of the foam, the brewery had added cobalt
salts which were not excreted again from hu-
man organs but, as a result of enrichment in the
body, caused the aforementioned terrible da-
mage. A customer cemetery belonging to the
brewery is not exactly a suitable advertisement
to attract new customers.
It also has to be mentioned that the addition
of foam stabilising agents, in most cases, also af-
fects the flavour of the beer.
An important opportunity for improving the
amount of foam and its stability is provided by
the shape of the beer glass. Here the character
of the beer is particularly expressed - together
with the plulosophy of the brewery in the form
of design, decorative beer mat, etc. Beers pro-
ducing a lot of foam, such as wheat beers are al-
ways served in very tall glasses (and WeiBbier
in a special very wide glass) to caphll'e the lar-
ge amotmt of foam.
With Pils type beers one expects a very copio-
us stable foam with head retention values of
120 to 130 sec
by the Ross and Clark method, or
220 to 290 sec
by the Nibem method (see Sect. 7.4.3.6).
This fo.am is best shown in narrow, tall glas-
ses and smaller glasses (0.3 and 0.4 1) are prefer-
red ("better two small than one large"). In tlus
case special emphasis is put on serving witlun
three minutes. A low foam is first dispensed in-
to a tilted glass, and after the calming and s tif-
ferun g of the upper layer of foam a second dis-
pense forces the stable foam crown up out of
the glass . Pils beer cannot be dispensed in one
mo vement. Modern dispense plants permit the
dispensing of a sparkling beer with a stable fi-
ne-bubbled foam on which great importance is
placed in many countries.
7.3 Beer types and their special
features
There are many thousands of different beer
brands throughout the world and every brewe-
ry a ttempts to tailor its beer as closely as possi-
ble to the customers' taste in order to obtain
good sales. Many of these beer brands can be
classified in defined beer types which have de-
veloped in the course of time in some cOLmtries
or regions.
Depending on the yeast used and the fennen-
tation process determined by this, a first classi-
fication into two groups can be made:
top fermentation beer types, and
bottom fermentation beer types.
A few important beer types and their special
feahlres are described in the following, and so-
me development trends are also indicated.
7.3.1 Beers produced by top fermentation
Top fermentation is the oldest method of beer
production, whereas bottom fermentation was
not referred to until the end of the 15'" cenhu')'
and acquired importance in the second half of
the 19'" century. Yet even a htmdred years ago
three-quarters of beer was produced using top
fermentation.
Top fermented beers have developed in par-
ticular in
Germany, in the form of Weizenbier Berliner
h cular ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate. Moreo-
WeiBe, Altbier or Kolsch, but also as alcohol-
free malt beer or double caramel, etc.,
Great Britain, as Ale, Porter or Stout, and
833
Belgium, as Lambic, Gueu ze, Trappis t beers,
White beers, etc.
Top fermenting beers differ from bottom fer-
menting beers regarding importance diffe-
rences in the yeast as well as their metabolic
products which give the beer its own indivi-
dual character. Before describing the different
sorts of top fermenting beers, the characteristics
of top fermentation in contrast to bottom fer-
mentation will first be explained.
7
7.3.1.1 Special features of top fermentation
Top fermenting yeast is characterised by LUl-
wiedly clumps of buds wluch break up only af-
ter fermentation has taken place. These connec-
ted clumps of buds are carried to the top by the
carbon dioxide produced during fermentation,
so that the yeast becomes enriched on the surfa-
ce and can be harvested there.
Physiological differellces betweell top fermen -
tillg alld bottom fermenting yeast
Raffi1lose fer1l1elltatioll
A feature which differs considerably is the fer-
menting ability of the trisaccharide raffinose,
which can be utilised completely by bottom fer-
menting yeast, but only a third of it by top fer-
menting yeast.
Ability to for111 spores
Most top fermenting yeasts already form spo-
res after 48 hours, whilst bottom fermenting ye-
asts have very poor spore-forming ability.
Fer111eJltatioll by-products
Top fermenting yeasts develop considerably
larger amOtmts of fermentation by-products,
such as higher alcohols and esters, and in parti-
ver, wheat beer yeast is able to form
4-vinyl-guaiacol
in amounts of 0.5 to 3.0 ppm and

834
4-vinyl-phenol
in amOlU1ts of 0.1 to 0.7 ppm
These, together with the esters, are responsi-
ble for the typical wheat beer taste and smell,
which reminds one of cloves.
Pel/orlllillg top fermentatioH
To Lmderstand the special features of top fer-
mentation, there is particular interest in
the fermenting vessels used for top fennenta-
tion,
7 Fig. 7.1
the composition of the wort,
pitching,
the course of the main fermentation,
changes in the wort,
secondary fermentation and
the treatment of the top fermenting yeas t.
FenneHtation vessels IIsed for top ferllleHtatioH
Since the yeas t is skimmed from the surface in
the case of top fermentation, older fermentation
vessels are open at the top or at least provided
with an overflow (Fig. 7.1). The yeast flows over
or is pushed into the overflow with a ladle or
mouldboard and collected in a tank. There are
also adjacent lying fermentation tanks with a
sealable yeast discharge outlet, the lower edge
of which is reached by the fermenting beer.
More recently cylindroconical tanks have
been increasingly used for top fermentation. In
this case, however, the yeas t settles in the cone
of the tank and can be harvested there. In the
case of CCVs a headspace of approximately
50% is required.
Special features of wort compositioH
Whea t beer has to be produced using at least
50 % wheat malt. If a larger proportion (up to
70 %) of whea t malt is processed, one has to as-
sume that a considerably lower conten t of assi-
milable nitrogen w ill be present, which has to
be cOlmterbalan ced by means of well-modified
malt. The mashing process recommended here
------
W mentation proceeds very intensively, so that the
...
1
w
1 r
Gpell nlld closed Inllks will! overflows for lop fenllel/lnlioll
is described in Section 3.2.4.3.1 (Fig. 3.40 a) . As
a result the glucose content in the wort can be
increased to 35 to 40%, whereby the compositi-
on of th e fermentation by-products changes
considerably, and more ethyl acetate and isoa-
myl acetate are formed, the latter being respon-
sible for the banana-like aroma in w h eat beer.
Pitching
Pitching is performed at a temperature of 12 to
16 °C with 0.24 to 0.5 I yeast/hI. Aeration occurs
by means of the usu al aerating plant with an
oxygen content of 5 to 8 mg/l.
Course of maiH fermentation
With top fermentation one only has to distin-
guish between two s tages:
hop sprouting and
yeast sprouting.
Hop sprouting occurs about 8 to 12 hours af-
ter pitching and las ts approximately 12 to 24
hours. As a result, hop resins in parti cular,
which precipitate due to the lowering of the
pH, and trub components as well as protein
talmin compounds are precipitated together
with the yeas t in the head . This hop shoot is
skinuned to obtain a pure yeas t.
In the high head which is then formed, the ri-
sing yeast is precipitated to an increasing extent.
Yeast sprouting begins abou t one d ay (to 1.5
days) after pitclling, and the yeast is then fre-
quently skimmed, preferably every 3 to 6 hours.
The temperature rises to 18 to 22 °C, whereby fer-
necessary fermentation cellar degree of attenuati-
on is obtained afte r 48 to 60 hours.
C/ulIIges ill tile wort
I As a result of the higher fermentation tempera-
tures, but also because of the other properties of
top fermenting yeast as opposed to bottom fer-
men ting yeast, a number of changes OCC Ul" in
contrast to bottom fermentation:
The pH is more grea tly reduced from that of
the wort of 5.4 - 5.7 to 4.0 - 4.2 as a result of in-
creased yeast propagation and more intensive
fermentation.
The bitter substances are precipitated to an
increased ex tent as a result of the larger pH re-
duction and grea ter CO, development.
In the case of the fermentation by-products,
in particular considerably more higher (alipha-
tic) alcohols and esters are formed. The propor-
tion of these fermentation by-products ca n
amOlmt to up to 50% more than in the case o f
bottom fermentation.
A special feature of wheat beer yeast is that it
decarboxylates ferulic acid present in the wort to
4-vinyl-guaiacol. The fer ulic acid is released
when the pentosans are broken down, which can
be encouraged during mashing by means of a
rest at 45 °C, a pH of 5.7 to 5.8 and a barley malt
propor tion of at least 40%. At fermentation tem-
perahlres of 22 to 24 °C this 4-vinyl-guaiacol gi-
ves the wheat beer its typical flavour;
balanced ratio of 4-vinyl-guaiacol (1.2 to 1.7
ppm) to the content of esters and higher alcohols
in the wheat beer is decisive for the balanced fJa-
vom of the w heat beer. A very high concentrati-
on of 4-vinyl-gu aiacol suppresses the ester note.
The shape and size of the fermentation tank also
playa very important role.
1.
835
Thus a multiple CCV cycl e results in a reduc-
tion of the 4-vinyl-guaiacol formation, whereas
if the yeast spends longer in the fermented beer
the proportion is increased .
Secolldar!f fennentatioll
With modern processes a basic difference is ma-
de between the mahu ation an d lagering stages.
During the m ahlration phase firs tly the break-
down of the diacetyl is wa ited fo r before the
beer is cooled to about 7°C, the yeast is elutria-
7
ted and the beer then cooled to -1 °C. This can
occur in the same tank (one tank process) or by
means of a cooler in a cold storage tank.
The elutriation of the yeast frequently occurs
by means of transferring it usi.ng a separa tor. In
any case the yeas t has to be completely remo-
ved, otherwise an increase in the pH occurs and
autolysis products get into the beer. For special
fea hues relating to the production of wheat
beer see the following section .
Treatmellt of top fermeutillg !feast
Cleaning of the harvested yeast can be perfor-
med using sieves if this is necessary. A short
term storage of up to four d ays can occur in
beer at 3 to 4 °C; however, w h en stori.ng for up
to ten d ays it is recommended to keep the yeast
under wa ter.
The number of cycles is far more frequent
than wi th bottom fermentation. 5 to 15 cycles
are common, and there are also breweries
w hich successfull y use the sa me yeast - lmder
tight control - for years w ithout renewed pro-
a pagation.
Wlleat beer yeasts can gradually lose their abi-
lity to fo rm 4-vinyl-gu aiacol after 2 to 3 cycles. In
the case of wheat beer yeasts it is therefore neces-
sary to cultivate these again. The propagation of
top fermenting yeasts occurs in principle in the
same way as bottom fermenting ones.
 836
7.3.1.2 Wheat beers (Weizenbiere)
Weizenbier is a top fermentation beer made
with at least 50% wheat malt and an original
wort gravity of at least 11 %.
Character of wheat beers
As a result of the typical aroma components
which are formed by wheat beer yeast, these
beers also have typical aroma impressions
which differ considerably from bottom fermen-
ting beers [201] :
7 A highe r content of fatty acids (above 0.7
The typical wheat beer aroma is mainly influ-
enced by 4-vinyl-guaiacol (0.2 to 3.2 ppm, mean
value 0.5 to 0.7 ppm), whose flavour in large
quantities fits into higher alcohols and esters
(flavour threshold 0.7 mg/l).
The formation of 4-vinly-guaiacol (clove aro-
ma) is aided by
low mashing-in temperatures,
-long 45°C rest (see Fig. 7.1 al),
a mash pH of 5.7 to 5.8, no mash acidification,
at least 40% part barley malt,
the strain of yeast,
fermentation temperatures of 20 to 24°C,
one or two yeast cycles and
early harvesting of the yeast.
Frequent yeast cycles in CCVs lead to neutral
beers with an aroma profile resembling apple
esters. These beers taste more like bottom fer-
mented beers. 4-vinyl-guaiacol is then no lon-
ger perceptiple.
Long maturation times before harvesting the
yeast at high temperatures cause a considerable
deterioration in flavour.
Of the esters, in particular ethyl acetate acetic
ester and isobutyl ester give the beer an aroma-
tic note . Their amounts also depend on the
strain of yeast, the treatment of the yeast and
the fermentation proceedings. A pleasant inten-
sive ester aroma arises with an isoamyl acetate
content of about 4 mg/l in the form of a desit'a-
ble banana aroma. At the same time, the ethyl
acetate content should be below 45 mg/l [296].
Low ester contents (below 3 mg/l isoamyl ace-
tate and below 35 mg/l ethyl acetate) occur if
mash and wort acidification is introduced, the
pitching amount is increased and intensively
aerated (see Sect. 3.2.4.3.1 and Fig. 3.40a). Ot-
henvise, the ester values are too high and thus
there is no banana aroma.
Of the higher alcohols (normally about 150 to
160 ppm), propanol and methyl propanol are par-
ticularly noticeable; if they have a ratio of 3 - 4:1 to
esters, a balanced flavour can be expected.
ppm) and h ence a higher content of FAN (> 12
mg/lOO ml) as well as an increase in the pH are
signs of excretion by the yeast, which have a ne-
gative effect on the flavour as well as the head
retention. The yeast excretes protein degrading
enzymes (Proteinase A) which can cause the fo-
am to deteriorate.
Based on the features of the aroma substan-
ces, it is possible to divide white beers into four
main types:
estery,
phenolic,
yeasty, and
neutral.
The estery type has a dominant fruity aroma,
whereby isoamyl acetate with its banana-like
character stands out.
The phenolic type is characterised by the clove-
like smell of 4-vinyl-guaiacol. The yeasty aroma
is predominantly characterised by esters and
sulphur compolUlds.
White beers which do not have any dominant
components are described as neutral.
A balanced flavour impression is obtained
with approx. 4.0 mg/l isoamyl acetate and
about 45 mg/I ethyl acetate (Fig. 7.1 b) .
Ester formation depends on a number of fea-
tures:
low mashing-in temperature below 45°C are
beneficial for ester formation [332], the same
applies to
mash acid ifi cation,
high glucose content (sugar adjunct outside
German y),
poor wort aeration,
high number of yeast cells on pitching,
higher main fermentation temperature (auto-
lysis at over 24 0c),
selective yeas t s train.
In the case of esters, amounts of more than 4.5
to 6.0 mg/l are no longer experienced as pleasant
(fmity). If the ester content is too high, one should:
no longer apply mash and wort acidification,
lower the fermentation temperature,
reduce the amolUlt of pitching yeast,
decrease aeration, and
apply pressure fermentation.
Effect of isoa11lyl acetate alld etllyl acetate all
sellsoryevalllatioll
It can be seen that the formation of a balanced
white beer aroma depends on a number of fac-
tors. The most important are shown again ill
their coaction in the following schematic dia-
gram (Fig. 7.1al) [296]:
In the formation of differen t aromas, the du-
ration of the 45°C rest is not insignificant [326]:
Duration of 45 °C rest (min) Aroma impression
o 10 25
phenolic 1.2 2.1 3.3
estery 4.1 3.4 2.6
yeasty 1.8 2.6 2.8
A rest of at least 10 to 15 minutes should be
observed to achieve a clear phenolic aroma.
Mash acidification suppresses the release of the
ferulic acid and thus the formation of 4-vinyl-
guaiacol. On the other hand, an extended 45 °C
rest reduces the occurrence of an estery aroma.
A particular problem is the yeast aroma, sin-
ce the yeast is inactivated in the case of yeast
turbid beers and the proportion of dead yeast
cells can increase to 100%. A neutral, or plea-
837
santly yeasty aroma is expected, not a su lphury
or musty aroma or even an autolysa te fl avo ur
in the beer. The bitter aftertaste which is caused
is also unpleasant.
The production of good yeast wheat bee r re-
quires a lot of experience in thi s field. Accor-
ding to the remaining yeast cells in the wheat
beer, a difference is made between
wheat beers with at leas t 1 million yeast
cells/ml and
7
turbid wheat beers with 10 million yeast
cells/ml.
In 2004 yeast beers ranked third in Germany
with 8.1 % of sales. It is possible to detect a cle-
ar North East / South West divide ill the con-
sumption of wheat beer. The highest proporti-
on of sales (2004) by far were Bavaria with
21.1 % and Baden-WLirttemberg with 15.1 % of
total beer sales in the state.
The reasons for this popularity are to be
fOlUld in
the high carbon dioxide content of 6 to 10 gil,
which has a refreshing and beneficial effect
(providing one has first overcome the pro-
blems of pouring), and
the typical wheat beer aroma, which is cha-
racterised by a high content of esters, alcohols
and special phenolic compounds (4-vinyl-
guaiacol).
There are two types of ""heat beers:
Hefeweizell (wheat beer contailung yeast). In
the case of these beers the ex tent of fermentati-
on ill the bottle is determined by the exact ad-
justment of the residual ex tract and amOlUlt of
yeast immediately before filling . Great care is
needed when producing these beers.
Kristallweizell. This is a filtered sparkingly
clear wheat beer no longer containillg yeast.
 839
838

Prodllctioll of Hefeweizell a "Speise" (feed) is added. By Speise is meant

40-45 ·C rest, Yeas t-containing wheat beers are produced over an exactly dosed amount (about 6 to 7 %) of
pH 5.9-6.1 a wide range of colours from an 8 to 14 EBC mut first worts which lllust have been s terilised
Original wort *1 Acidification! pale type to a 25 to 60 EBC lm.it dark type. previou sly. This should produce a difference
The original wort content is usually 11 to 12 % of about 12 % to the final attenuation and , as
Sugar composition *2
but is better with 12.5 % to 13 % [332]. The whe- a result of fermentation of the added ex tract,
Aroma s influence at malt proportion varies from 50 to 100 %. The an adequate CO, enriclun ent will be obtai-
each other colour is obtained by adding dark malt, dark ned. Alternatively,
caramel malt, or coloured wheat malt (see Sect. casting wort is added, or
Yeast strain 2.9.10). bottom fermentation krausen with a hydro-
Vitality Temperature The mashing procedme used today by some meter reading of 9 to 10 % is added to the mi-
7 Viability Aeration
7
60 % of breweries, despite the somewhat difficult xing tank and fermented under pressure.
protein breakdown, is an infusion mash process In both cases fresh yeast must be add ed for
* 1: High gravity aromas (or single decoction mash process) with a mas- the secondary fermentation and bottom fer-
*2: Maltase procedure
hing-in tempera ture of 35 to 37 °C and an inten- mentation yeast is normally used. A haze in He-
Cell number in the bottle I sive protein rest of up to 30 min at 45 to 50 dc. feweizen can only be achieved temporarily by
Mash boiling lasts 20 to 25 min. The main wort shaking, because the yeast settles due to its par-
Yeast strain
}<-_---j Cell number mashing ratio is 1 : 3 to 1 : 4. Final attenuation is ticle size (5 - 8 pm) . A permanent haze can only
Vitality
Viability Temperature 78 to 85%. For favourable mashing processes for be achieved with a particle size of 0.1 - 1 pm.
Aeration wheat see Section 3.2.4.3.1 and Fig. 3.40a. The main components responsible for ha ze in
The wort is pitched with 0.3 to 11 of yeast/hI Hefewei zen are therefore proteins, polyphe-
(2 - 4 mio cells/ml) at about 15 °C. Primary fer- 1101s and starch fragments [297].
Fig. 7. lnl mentation commences very vigorously and fi- During mixing after the primary ferm entati-
Mnill illf!lIellcillg jnctors ill tile jonllntioll ojwllent beer nromns (nccordillg to Bnck /330]) nal attenuation is reached in three to four days on care mus t be taken to avoid oxygen uptake.
at 13 to 21 °C. The yeast is then collected (from A special feature of Hefeweizen beers is fer-
an open tank by skimming, from a CCV by re- mentation in the bottle. A distinction is made
moval from the cone). between
Additive and sy nergetic effects of esters Higher fermentation temperatures and hig- bottle fermentation without prior lagering in
Sensory Isoa myl acelale '" 4.0 mgtl her pitching numbers encourage the formation a tanl<, and
evalualion 4,0 Elhyl acelale < 45 mgt I of an estery aroma. The phenolic aroma is influ- bottle fermentation with prior lagering in a
enced by the choice of yeast strain and the feru- tank.
3,5 lic content of the wort, and only slightly by the
fermentation parameters. Bottle ferl1lelltatioll withollt priorlagerillg ill a
TIle tanl<geometry and the different heights of tallk
the fermentation vessels have a strong effect on The green beer with added "Speise" (feed) and
the aroma formation. It is strongest in open fer- yeast is filled into bottles and lagered in two
mentel'S and decreases considerably in horizon- stages:
tal tanks and particularly in CCVs. The phenolic Stage 1: 3 to 7 days at 12 to 20 °C. This results in
2,0
aroma is also reduced in CCVs and duri.ng the fermentation of the exh'act to 0.1 to 0.2 % and
25 Estery ".,/
Ethyl Acetate ........ comse of several cycles, disappears altogether. reduction of the diacetyl. The pressure in the
(mg/ll ..,/ Fig. 7.1n2 To obtain sufficient CO, in the secondary fer- bottle increases to 1.5 to 2 bar overpressure.
4.0 65
Isoamyl ace lale Img/ll 6,0 Empty ,t••••••••• Additive nlld sYllergetic mentation, fresh extract-ricll wort must be ad- Stage 2: 14 to 21 days at 5 °C. The pressure re-
ejfect s oj esters /296] ded. There are hvo alternative ways of doing this: mains at about 2 bar overpressure.

840
Bottle fer111elltatioll with prior lagerillg ill a
ta 11 Ie
In the process using intermediate la gering in
a tank, after a short initial fermentation the beer
is fully attenuated in the fermentation tanks (6
days warm tank at 16 - 22°C, 14 days cold tank
at 1 °C) and thereby matured. It is then fennen-
ted in bottles.
The Hefewei zen haze is caused by protein.
The yeast cells are too large for a permanent ha-
ze; they settle to the bottom and are s tirred up
7 7
there.
Wheat full beers (bottle fermentation) had
the following average analysis values [200]:
original wort gravity 12.20%
apparent extract content 2.33%
actual extract content 4.22%
alcohol content 4.12 mas %
alcohol content 5.26% vol
output degree of attenuation 81.6%
pH value 4.32
colour, pale beers 10.9 EBC
colour, dark beers 36.9 EBC
bittering units 17.9 BU
head retention (R&C) 126 s
Prodllctioll of Kristallweizell
Kristallweizen is usually brewed at a strength
of 12.5 to 13 % and has a colour of 8 to 12 EBe.
The malt grist consists of up to 50 to 70% pale
wheat malt with the addition of special malts
which contribute colour. The same mashing
process is used as for Hefeweizen and the treat-
ment up to the primary fermentation is normal.
However, directly after the primary fennentati-
on the beer is transferred without cooling, and
still 12 % below the final attenuation into a
warm tank. The pressure in the warm tank is
controlled at 4 to 5 bar excess pressure and after
3 to 7 days it is cooled to about 8 0e.
The beer is then transferred with the addition
of yeast or krausen into a cold tank and cooled
•
within 10 days to 0 °C at 5 bar overpressure. A
week before filtration it is cooled to -2 °C and
this temperature is maintained until filling .
In addition to the usual Hefeweizen-Vollbiers
fermented in the bottle, other wheat beers are
also often produced, either pale or dark, e.g.
wheat export beers bottle fermented with 12
to 13 % original wort gravity,
strong wheat beers such as Weizenbock with
16 % original wort gravity or Doppelbock
with 18%,
light wheat beers with 6.5 to 8.5% original
wort gravity or
alcohol-free wheat beers in the form of low
gravity beers with 4.5 to 7.0% original wort
gravity.
A confusion of the definition with WeifSbier,
described in the following, occurs regionally;
thus in Bavaria in particular, Weizenbier is fre-
quently referred to as Weillbier.
7.3.1.3 Berliner Weige
Berliner WeifSe is a naturally cloudy, pale, ap-
proximately 7.5% original gravity beer mad e
with 35 to 50% wheat malt. It contains about 2.7
to 2.8% by vol. alcohol and 0.7% CO,. Fermen-
tation is performed using a mi xed culture of top
fermenting yeast and lactic acid rods, which
live together in symbiosis. As a result, at the
end of fermentation the Weigbier is acidic with
a pH of 3.2 to 3.4. In some WeiBbier breweries
wort and yeast are again added to the beer and
secondary fermentation is performed as bottIe
fermentation. The lactic acid produced makes
the beer stable so that it can be stored in the
bottle for years, whereby the flavour continues
to mature as a result of the slow breakdown of
the acid under the formation of aroma substan-
ces. The wort is not boiled in the production of
WeiBbier but held at about 95°C for 25 to 30
min. The addition of a small amOlU1t of hops (20
to 30 g/hl) occurs in the mash.
The most we ll-know n Weifsbier is Berliner
Wei Be, which is served in wide glasses. The pi-
quan t drink with its floral flavour is very thirst-
quenching. To lessen the acidic taste, most cus-
tomers drink the WeifSe "mit Schuss", i.e. with a
shot of (red) raspberry syrup, or in spring with
a (green) shot of Waldmeister (sweet woodruff)
syrup. Thus the "white" beer can have various
colours. In recent times Berliner WeiiSe mixed
with syrup has been produced ready-to-drink
in bottles. In some cases Berliner WeiiSe is also
brewed with a higher original wort gravity.
Apa rt from Berli11er WeiiSe, only a few WeiiS-
biers have more than local importance. Of these
the "Leipziger Gose" should be mentioned, an
(originally produced in Goslar) lactic acid beer
which is drunk from s temmed glasses and, as a
result of the addition of salt and coriander, has
its own specia l acidic flavour.
7.3.1.4 Altbier
Altbier is top fermentation beer made in the "old
way" with the use of barley malt and wheat malt.
The colour is dark amber and it tastes bitter, he-
arty and a little rustic. Altbier has an original
gravity of 11.5 to 12 % and an alcohol content of
4.8 to 5 % vol. ll1e colour ranges between 30 and
38 EBC and the bitterness is 30 to 40 BU.
Almost all the Altbier breweries are in the lo-
wer Rhine region. Nevertheless, Altbier, which
was rediscovered a few decades ago - but with
a much better quality - is sold throughout Ger-
many. The proportion of Altbier in the total
sales output was 3.2% in 1997 and 11.5 % of the
total amOlmt of that is drunk in North Rhine
Westphalia.
The malt grist may consist of:
99% pale malt and 1 % coloured malt,
90% dark malt and 10% pale malt or
70% Vielma malt, 20 % Munich and 10 % whe-
at malt (see Sect. 2.9.10).
Normal mashing procedures are used . Very
high quality hops are added in 3 to 5 batches.
841
Pitching is either
with 0.51 of yeast/hl at 12 °C with the highest
temperature being 16 DC, or
with the normal yeast addition at 18 DC, with
hi ghes t temperature being 20 De.
After cooling to 14 to 16 DC some of the yeast
is removed and after waiting for the breakdown
of the diacetyl, the beer is cooled to 0 °C and la-
gered cold for one to two weeks.
7.3.1.5 KOlsch
Kolsch is a dry, pale beer which can only be pro-
duced in Cologne (Kolsch Convention). Kolsch
is brewed with 11.2 to 11.5 % original wort
gravity, has a colour of 7 to 10 EBC, a bitterness
of 16 to 35 BU and an alcohol content of 4.6 to
5.1 % vol.
In 1996 Kolsch beer had the following avera-
ge values [200]:
original wort gravity 11.28%
apparent ex tract content 2.27%
ac tual extract content 4.01%
alcohol content 3.74 mas%
alcohol content 4.77% vol
apparent degree of attenuation 80.6%
pH value 4.44
colour 8 EBC
head retention (R&C) 120 s
In Germany Kolsch has a market share of
2.1 %, which is almost exclUSively limited to the
Cologne region.
It is brewed using mainly Vielma malt with
up to 20% wheat malt to produce palatefulness
and smoothen the flavour. Infusion or single
mash procedures are used. Primary ferm entati-
on is for three to four days at temperatures of 14
to 18 De. It is then cooled to 8 to 10 DC and trans-
ferred with its residual extract.
Lagering takes
at temperatures of 4 to 5°C, 40 to 60 days,
at temperatures of 0 to 1 DC, 14 to 40 days with
a previous maturation phase.
-------------------------------------------------- -----
842
7.3.1.6 Ale
Ale is the collective name for several, mos tly
dark, but always top fermented English beer ty-
pes, for the production of which well-modified
malt is used. An infusion mash is used or, in
many cases, a jump mash process or addition of
separate adjunct mash.
Raw grain is normally used, although for so-
me beers only ingredients allowed by the Rein-
heitsgebot are used.
The alcohol content of ale beers can vary bet-
7 7
ween about 3 and 10%. Depending on their alco-
hol content they are called light, heavy, export or
strong. Many special beers are now being produ-
ced, often for a very limited time (e.g. 1 or 2
months) using a wide variety of fruity adjLmcts
such as honey, ginger or orange peel. There is
currently a revival of the type known as India Pa-
le Ale, a beer originally produced with a high al-
cohol content and very heavily hopped so that it
could withstand tlle long time and vigorous sha-
king which it received when being sent by ship to
India and other distant cOlmtries.
Pnle n le is a copper coloured, often 11 % beer
with an alcohol content of 4.5 to 5.0% vol. The
colour has 15 to 30 EBC and the bitterness Lmits
range between 20 and 25. Pale ale is usually
sold as bottled beer.
Bitter (ale) on the other hand is a somewhat
darker beer with a cheshlut brown colour and
with 25 to 40 BU comes as a strongly hopped beer
with a dry taste and is usually sold in kegs. Bitter
is the major type of top fermentation beers. The
original wort gravity is between 9 and 13 % and
the alcohol content is 4.0 to 5.5% vol.
Mild ale is sweeter and darker since caramel
malt is used and caramelised sugars are added
to the kettle. It usually has a lower alcohol con-
tent of about 3.0 to 3.5% vol. The colour is very
dark with 40 to 50 EBC and the hop bitterness is
lower with 20 to 25 BU.
•
Originally the term mild ale was given to relati-
vely YOlmg, incompletely fermented beer w hich
had not aged. Its popularity as a drink which
could be dnmk in great quantities by labourers in-
volved in heavy manual work has decreased be-
cause most of these jobs no longer exist. Nowa-
days there is a preference for less sweet, more
alcoholic beers such as bitter, pale ale and lager.
Scotcli nle is made with aromatic malts and
consequently has a malt flavour. The colour has
20 to 25 EBC and the bitterness is 30 to 50 BD.
The name Scotch ale is often used for a very
dark and strong special beer with a malty taste:
Heavy ale original wort gravity 8.5 to 9.5%
Export ale original wort gravity 10 to 11 %
Brown ale is a 14 % malty ale with up to 6%
vol alcohol content. The colour has an EBC va-
lue of 60 to 120 EBC and is extremely d ark.
Brown ale has a bitterness of 20 to 35 BD.
7.3.1.7 Stout
Stout, which has up to 200 EBC LmitS, is a black
top fermentation beer made from a mixture of
very well-modified pale malt and 10 to 20% of
a very highly coloured malt, such as black malt
or caramel malt. Guinness, which is still the lar-
gest producer of stout, uses 10% roasted barley.
The hop addition is very high at 600 to 700 g/hl
(40 to 50 BU). Furthermore, caramelised sugar
is added to the kettle.
As a result of its ingredients (dry) stout has a
very strong burnt taste and has a harsh strong
bitterness. The stouts made by GUllmess taste
less sweet but do not have an after bitterness.
The use of nitrogen gas when dispensing
draught Guilmess or in cans with widgets gives
a very fine, persistent foam.
Other brewers of stout are also increasmgly
using nitrogen to dispense their beers, thus
GUllmess is no longer as predominant as it was.
The origlllal gravity is 11.5 % and the alcohol
content 4.5 to 5.0% vol.
843
Sweet stout refers to an equally black stout as added to the wor t. Fermentation is performed
dry stout with a original gravity of 10.5 to 11.5 % using the monastery's own top fermentation
and approx. 4.0% vol alcohol content; howeve r, yeas t, at 20 to 25 °C, and a secondary maturati-
owing to the addition of lactose and vitamins, on is performed at 0 to 5 0c. Before it is filled in-
the flavour is softer and milder. to bottles, sugar and yeast are add ed and the
bottles undergo a warm maturation for three to
7.3.1.8 Porter six weeks in air-conditioned lagering halls at
Porter is a very dark beer. Once a very impor- about 25°C. The beer has a shelf life of up to fi-
tant typ e of beer in England, it has in the mean- ve yea rs. As a result of the repea ted ad dition of
time been almost completely replaced by stout sugar, Trappist bee rs have a hi gh or very high
and bitter. Nowada ys porter is produced as a alcohol content. The ex tensive fermentation by-
dark (about 300 EBC Lmits) and bitter (about 40 products which are also produ ced give Trappist
BU) beer with an original gravity of 13 to 14% beers interesting flavour nu ances.
and 4.5 to 5.0 % vol alcohol. Production is as follows:
For a long time porter was produced as a very Brasserie de Rochefort
strong dark beer. A smaJl group of brewers are Rochefort 6 with 7.5% vol alcohol
still producing relatively small quantities of por- Roch efort 8 with 9.2 % vol alcohol
ter containing about 9% vol alcohol. For this they Rochefort 10 with 11 .3% vol alcohol
sometimes use - as "vas originally the case - Bret-
tanomyces sh'ains of yeast with typically sh'et- Brasserie d'Orval
ched out cells to perform secondary fermentation Biere Trappiste Orval w ith 6.2% vol alcohol
and to give the beer a fruity taste. Brettanomyces
sh'ains of yeast work very slowly but are still ca- Brasserie de Chimay
pable of living after many years. Chimay Capsule Rouge with 7% vol alcohol
Chimay Capsule Blanche with 8 % vol alcohol
7.3.1.9 Belgian beer types Chimay Capsule Bleue with 9% vol alcohol
Beers produced III Belgium have a confuslllgly
wide range of highly lllteresting tastes. Many Brouwerij Westvleteren
beers are fermented USlllg special stralllS of ye- Westvleteren 6 (red) with 6.2 % vol alcohol
ast, including secondary fermentation yeasts; Westvleteren 8 (blue) with 8% vol alcohol
fermentation sometimes occurs with the inclu- Westvleteren 12 (brown) with 11 % vol alcohol
sion of acid forming bacteria, whereby the aci d
decreases with mcreasing lagering, leaving a Brouwerij Westmalle
ch aracteristic mild flavour. Westmalle Dubbel with 7% vol alcohol
Of the specialities, the following are descri- Wes tmalle Tripel with 9% vol alcohol
bed here :
Trappist beers which are produced by the Lal1lbic beer is a very unusual type of Belgian
strict order of Trappis t monks in their monas te- beer with a very wide and fascinating flavour
ries [170]. Five of these monasteries are III Belgi- spectrum. Lambic is mainly brewed in Brussels,
um, one is in the Netherlands. in the sLllToLmdings of which Lambic is also bre-
The beers are brewed using 10 to 15 % cara- wed by many small breweries. Lambic is a spon-
mel malt in an lll£usion process, hopped with taneously fermenting beer containitlg 30 to 40%
mainly whole hops, and liquid candy sugar is wheat. The barley is only lightly malted, whilst

844
the wheat is processed in an LUU11alted state. The
wort is boiled with whole leaf hops for a very
long time, when it is already strongly oxidised.
Fermentation is wild and the then natul'ally sour
beer is stored for half a and sometimes lon-
ger (up to tlu'ee years), whereby the interesting
flavour forms which characterises this beer.
The original gravity is 11.5 to 13.5% and the
alcohol content is 4.5 to 5% vol.
Lambic is frequently the basis for the produc-
tion of fruit beers (Kriek and Fromboise). Kriek
7 With the invention of beer filtration using a
is a variation of Lambic where cherries are ad-
ded to the cask. This beer is called Fromboise if
raspberries are added.
Gell ze is a dark mliiltered beer with a strong
apple aroma but very sour, like Berliner Weille.
Geuze is produced in different forms, frequent-
ly by continued fermentation in the bottle, blen-
ding with normal beer or fruit juice. There are
no LUuform instructions for producing Geuze.
By Faro is meant the sweetened Lambic ver-
sion containing 4 to 6% vol alcohol.
DlIvel (Devil) looks pale like a Pilsner and ta-
stes soft and pleasant. It has dense, durable fo-
am, but with 8.2 % vol it has a very lugh alcohol
percentage. The yeast gives Duvel its characte-
ristic flavour.
Belgian Witbier is produced using 50% raw
wheat grain, dried, grOlmd orange peel and co-
riander as a pale top fermentation beer with an
original gravity of 12 %. The alcohol content is
about 5% vol. The flavour of Witbier is sweet-
bitter.
7.3.2 Bottom fermentation beer types
The development of the present bottom fer-
mentation beer types did not occur until the last
century and depended on a number of circum-
stances and developments:
•
With the invention of the refrigerating machi-
ne by Linde (1871) it became possible to
maintain low temperatures during fermenta-
tion and lage ring independent of the ambient
conditions.
The development of mechanical glass blo-
wing made it possible to manufacture cheap
bottles and drinking glasses which replaced
the previous customary earthenware jugs. As
a result it was possible to examine the con-
tents of the glass.
mass filter (1878) by Lorenz Enzinger it was
possible to prod uce completely clear beer
and this has since become an essential quali-
ty criterion.
Up to the end of the 19 th century, in middle
Europe almost the only bottom fermentation
beer drunk was that brewed in the Bavarian
way. Tlus type, also called Munich beer, was
dark, lightly hopped, very palatable and initial-
ly was only dnmk from earthenware jugs.
The change occurred with the arrival of pale
beer brewed in the Bohemian way. The Pilsen
city brewhouse, which later became the Pilsner
Urquell Brewery (Pl zenke Prazdroj) was the
leader here. Here in 1842 the original Pilsner ty-
pe was developed which, because of its taste,
tingle and wholesomeness caused a turning
point in the lustory of beer from top fermentati-
on to bottom fermentation.
7.3.2.1 Pilsner type beer
Pilsner type beer accOlmts for 68.6% of beer
sales in Germany [213], by far the most fre-
quently dnmk beer (2002) . A clear gap between
the Northern and Eastern federal states (Schles-
wig-Holstein, Hamburg 85.0%, Saxony-Anhalt
82.3%, Berlin 81.8%) on the one hand, and Ba-
den-Wi.irttemberg (48.7%) and Bavaria (31.7%)
on the other hand, can be clearly observed.
Pilsner type beers in Germany have an avera-
ge original gravity of 11.6% which fluctuates,
845
between about 11.3 and 12.2% (10.2- pleasant refined bitter taste. The selection of the
14.0) . hop variety to be used as well as the timing of
In 2002, tests carried out on 375 German beers hop addition is of particular significance in this
of the Pilsner type in the Central Laboratory of respect. Regarding the strength and purity of
the VLB resulted in the following average valu- the fresh, bitter hop aroma, Pilsner beers differ
es [275] (selection): grea tly in the bitter taste from North to South.
The Pilsner type beers examined varied con-
original wort gravity 11.57 % siderably in their bittering unit content between
appa rent extract content 2.04% 21 and 42 and also express the differing expec-
actual extract content 3.84% tations regarding the bitterness, which ranges
alcohol content 3.98mas% from "Fresian bitter" to "only slightly". In ge-
alcohol content 5.07% vol
7
neral, the bitterness of Pilsner beers has decrea-
final degree of attenuation 85.0% sed in the past few years, which corresponds to
actual degree of attenuation 83.0% the general trend to less bitter beers.
pH value 4.39 In contrast to the German type of Pilsner
colour 7.0 beers are the Bohemian beers, represented by
bitterness units 28.8 BU (19-44) Pilsner Urquell (Plzenske prazdroj), the pro-
head retention (R&C) 122 s duction of which, on the other hand, favours all
head retention (NIBEM) 277 s factors which result in a robust flavour and a
viscosity 1.60 mPa.s somewhat darker colour (intensive three-mash
anthocyanogens 54 ppm method, wort boiling duration of over two
total phenols 133 ppm hours, to name but a few). Tlus "Bohemian ty-
haze at 20 °C 0.4 EBC pe" has its distinct clientele which is not at all
forced test (warm days) >2 divided by cOlmtry borders. It is therefore pos-
air in headspace 0.23 ml (0.1-0.5) sible, without exaggeration, to split Pils drin-
p-glucans 306 ppm kers, who make up the greatest part of beer
dextrins 0.41 % drinkers in middle Europe, in to these two
usable carbohydrates 2.43 g/lOO ml "camps" - very pale and dry German Pilsner
physiological calorific value 40 kcal/100 ml beers and darker Bohemian Urquell types.
= 168 kJ/I00 ml
tluobarbituric acid index (TBA) 40-45 7.3.2.2 Lager beer ("Vollbier")
vicinal dike tones (diacetyl) 0.08 ppm Lager beer is a beer type which is not defined
exactly by anything. Nowadays it accolmts for
There are considerable differences in beer co- about 80 to 90% of bottom fermentation produ-
lour in Pilsner beers. Very many breweries pla- ced beers worldwide, including in Germany the
ce a lot of significance on a very pale Pilsner so-called "Vollbier" . Basically, all beers wluch
with colour values from 4.5 to 7 EBC, whilst ot- cmmot be categorised under any particular ty-
hers favour a dark Pilsner with colour values pe are lagers. These beers are not provided with
from 8 to 10 EBC. a varietal designation but are given an invented
The general trend is moving further towards name for advertising purposes, linked with the
a very pale, dry Pilsner. The particularly valu- name or location of the brewery.
able factor with Pilsner is the high quality hop Lager beers have an original gravity which is
bitterness which is supposed to give the beer a generally between 10.5 and 12.5%, an alcohol
 •
847
846

content of 4.7 to 5.3% vol and, as they have 18 7.3.2.3 Export beer used for its production contribute a roasted, but wadays, increasingly two types of Marzen are
to 23 BU, are only moderately bitter. Beers which are brewed somewhat stronger are no t burnt, flavour which, together with the al- brewed:
produced under this name. The nam.e Export is cohol content, makes the black beer very plea- a pale type with a colour of 11 to 12 EBe (9 to
The German version of lager beer is Vollbier, misleading because the beer is not exported at sant. The bitterness is often stronger than with 19) and
which is usually brewed as the pale variation. all. Export, which also includes Edel and Spezi- Export beer. a dark type with a colour of 40 to 60 EBe.
In 1997 Vollbiere had a market share of 3.6% in al in this category, is ranked second behind Pils- Black beers often enjoy great regional popu- Because of the higher original gravity and a
Germany with insignificant proportions in the ner for bottom fermentation beer types in total larity. high attenuation limit of 80% or above, the
different federal states; only in Bavaria did this beer sales in Germany (2002) with a share of 5.7% by vol (4.7 to 5.9) alcohol content is rather
type achieve a share of 26.1 % [213]. 7.3 %. It corresponds to the earlier "Dortmtmd 7.3.2.5 Festival beers high. Marzen is a type of beer which is only
type". Festival beers are seasonal beers which are bre- produced in small quantities. It should be on
Pale lager has the following average compo- Export is a mainly pale brewed beer with an wed on the occasion of special festivals or cere- sale for only a very limited time.
7 7
sition [200]: original gravity of 12.5 to 13.5% and is also con- monies. Depending on the character of the
original wort gravity 11.65% siderably stronger than Pilsner. The alcohol event they are mostly pale beers, and more ra- Marzen average values in Germany 1996 we-
apparent extract content 2.28% content of export is on average 5.5% vol (4.8 to rely dark beers, with at least 12.0 to 12.5% ex- re [200]:
actual extract content 4.05% 5.9) = 4.3 mas % (3.7 to 4.6). tract, which are full bodied and sweet, and ex- original wort gravity 13.31 %
alcohol content 3.91 mas% With 20 to 25 bitterness tmits there is less em- pensive to buy. apparent extract content 2.83%
alcohol content 4.99% vol phasis on hops than with Pilsner; however, it is Festbier for the Oktoberfest in Mtmich is bre- actual extract content 4.81 %
final degree of attenuation 81.4% considerably more bitter than pale beer, palate- wed at 13.5 to 14 % and after a few litre-sized alcohol content 4.42mas%
actual degree of attenuation 81.1 % ful and mild, and aromatic in flavour. With 8 to jugs have been consumed, its incapacitating ef- alcohol content 5.65% vol
pH value 4.58 15 EBe Export is somewhat stronger in colour fect is clearly seen. actual degree of attenuation 79.6%
colour 7.8 EBe than Pilsner. pH value 4.53
bitterness units 21 BU Pale Export has the following average values 7.3.2.6 Ice beer head retention (R&C) 125 s
head retention (R&C) 117 s [200]: Ice beer is not really a special sort although it is
original wort gravity 12.47% sold as such. The name refers to the production 7.3.2.8 Bock beer
Dark lager are frequently brewed stronger. apparent extract content 2.42% process (see Sect. 4.9.2). In this proteins and po- The name Bockbier originates from the beer of
With 12.5% (11.8 - 13%) they make a stronger actual extract content 4.32% lyphenols are precipitated and the taste of the the Einbeck brewery in Lower Saxony, whose
impression; with 5.0 to 5.2 % by vol they contain alcohol content 4.22 mas% beer with a slightly increased alcohol content beer, along with the Braunschweiger Mumme,
more alcohol and with 18 - 20 EBe less bitter- alcohol content 5.38% vol becomes milder and softer and thus less expres- was already famous about 500 years ago. The
ness. The 30 - 40 EBe colour is considerably actual degree of attenuation 81.3% sive. beer from Einbeck (Ainpockisch) also arrived in
darker. Dark lager beer has a more malty aroma pH value 4.61 Particularly in North America, the beer is fur- Bavaria where the name was changed to "Oam-
and taste because of the use of special malts colour 8.2 EBe thermore ice cooled and dispensed in pre-iced bock" and finally "Bock" .
(Munich type - see Sect. 2.9 .10). Black beers ha- bitterness units 23.2 BU glasses . This might cool the beer down but the Bock beers are very strong beers brewed from
ve an even more intense flavour. head retention (R&C) 118 s flavour can only unfold at higher drinking tem- 16 to 17 % original wort exh'act and are mostly
With 45 to 100 EBe dark Export is a very dark peratures (8 to 10 DC) . seasonal (May, AutUllli1 or Clu'ishnas Bock beers)
The average composition of dark lager is [200]: beer, whereby the tendency often exists to brew and are more rarely sold throughout the year.
original wort gravity 12.18% the beer somewhat stronger (13%) to obtain the 7.3.2.7 Marzen Production of Bock beer requires great skill be-
apparent extract content 3.03% necessary palatefulness. The name Marzen (March beer) relates to the cause, as a result of the longer fermentation and
actual extract content 4.76% fact that previously in many breweries a stron- lagering, conSiderably more aroma substances
alcohol content 3.83 mas% 7.3.2.4 Black beers ger beer was brewed in spring, in March, which are formed which affect the flavolU of the beer
alcohol content 4.90% vol Blacks beers have an original wort content of was very popular. more or less strongly - but in evelY direction.
actual degree of attenuation 76.0% 11.5 to 11.8% and are characterised by a parti- Marzen beers, brewed with an original wort Thus the Bock beer is not the same every year and
colour 60 EBe cularly dark colour (100 to 150 EBC) and an al- extract of 13 to 14 %, are relatively strong beers the Bock beer should be made differently depen-
bitterness milts 22BU cohol content of 4.8 to 5.0% by vol. The malts with a colour between pale and dark beers. No- ding on the season, for example:

848
May Bock somewhat paler, dryer and m ore
and
Christmas Bock more sa ti ating, fuller an d
milder [114].
Especially in the case of Bock beer, attention
must be paid to the fact that all beers have a pe-
ak time up to which their qu ality improves on
s torage in the lage r cellar. Bock beers can be la-
gered for three to four months if it is stored,
krausened, in a very cold cellar. However, it
mu st be carefu lly monitored to make sure th at
7 7
the yeast does not auto lyse and spoil the tas te.
The danger of a premature stale flavour oc-
curring is very high with Bock beer.
Bock beers are pale (8 to 13 EBC) or dark (45
to 100 EBC) beers. Despite the low attenuation
(65 to 75 %) they have a high alcohol content of
7% vol (6.0 to 7.5%).
Bock beers had the following average values
[200]:
original wort g ravity 16.18%
apparent extract content 4.50%
actual extract content 6.73%
alcohol content 4.99 mas%
alcohol content 6.42 % vol
actual degree of attenuation 73.5%
7.3.2.9 Double Bock
Double bock beers brewed with an original
gravity of 18 to 30% are the s trongest com-
monly brewed beers . The alcohol content of
double bock is 7 to 12 % vol, in other words
very high. Double bock beer purchasers are li-
mited in number because there are limits to
the amounts which can be con sumed without
w1pleasant after-effects. It must certainly be
remarked upon that beers brewed at higher
gravities always contain more higher alcohols
and esters which - if enjoyed in large amounts
- by next morning at the lates t make it absolu-
tely essential to avoid any rapid movements of
the head.
•
Double bock beers are brewed and sold as Alcohol is an impor tant fl avo ur contributor.
seasonal beers. Producti on over the course of During alcohol removal inevitably other volati-
the whole yea r in volves a risk of over-ageing le subs tances a re removed and so alcohol-free
and conseq uently of possible fla vour deteriora- beer is always different from the control beer. A
tion. direct com parison is therefore pointless.
Alcohol-free beers can, of course, be prepa red
7.3.2.10 Alcohol-free beer just as well from top fermentation beers. Sales
In Section 4.9.3 the process used to remove alco- of alcohol-free beer amounted to 2.6% in Ger-
hol pal'tially or completely from or to pre- many (2006).
vent its formation were explained. People who
drink alcohol-free beer fo r various reasons do not 7.3 .2.11 Dietetic beer
wish or are not allowed to drink alcohol. Usually Dietetic beer (diet beer) is produced for custo-
the customer associates this with the expectation mers who wish to have or mu st have a low nu-
that SUd1 beer has little nutritional va lue and/or trient diet (e.g. diabetics).
contains few fattening ca rbohydrates. This is, ho- In many cOLmtries there are legislative regu-
not always the case and it depends very lations in force for the manufacture and sa le of
mud1 on the process used . With most processes dietetic foodstuffs.
there is s tiU a relatively large amount of carbohy- In normal beer production, although all the
drate in the alcohol-free beer. starch is degraded, some of it is not degraded to
In Germany, where a m aximUll1 alcohol con- sugars and fermented but only to (iodine-nor-
tent of 0.5 % vol is allowed, alcohol-free beer is mal) dextrins which remain lll1£ermentable in the
usually prepared beer. To produce dietetic beer, these dextrins
with an original wort gravity of 5.0 to 6.0% must also be broken down further to su gars and
and with a fermented to alcohol. Consequently a higher con-
usable ca rbohydrate value of 2 to 5 g/100 ml cenh'ation of alcohol is automatically produced
(Pilsner 2 to 4 g/100 ml); in the dietetic beer and in many COlll1tries the law
a calorific value of 10 to 23 kcal/100 ml (Pils- states that this must be reduced again .
ner 35 to 50 kcal/100 ml)
a dex trin content of 2 to 2.5% (Pilsner 0.3 to COlllplete brea1cdowll of starc" to fel'111elltable
2.0%). sllgllrs
In 1996 alcohol-free beer had the follow ing With the usual mash processes s tarch degrad a-
average values [200]: tion comes to a halt at a final attenuation valu e
original wort gravity 5.22 % of 80 to 85%. There is insufficient time and resi-
apparent ex tract content 4.48% dual enzyme activity present to degrade the re-
actual ex trac t content 4.61% maining d extrins (equilibrium reaction).
alcohol content 0.31 mas% If an attenuation limit of 90 to 92 % is requi-
alcohol content 0.40 % vol red, mashing must be performed for a very long
degree of attenuation 14.7% time (3.5 to 4 h) and very inten sively [73], e.g.
head retention (R&C) 118 s mashing-in at 50 °C with a 30 min rest,
bitterness units 23.7 BU rests at 62 and 65 °C, each for 45 min,
dextrins 2.21% rests at 68 and 70°C, each for 30 min,
usable carbohydrates 2.26 g/100 m1 rest at 72 °C for 15 min,
physiological calorific va lue 14 kcal/l00 ml mashing-off at 73 to 74 °C.
849
Nevertheless this s till does not resul t in the
necessary 100 % at tenu ation (apparent attenua-
tion limit above 100 %) required for com plete
carbohydra te degradation. Consequently, to
obtain complete breakdown, malt extract (2 to
3%) or malt flour (2 x 300 g/hl) are add ed, usu-
ally at the beginning of fermentation and mixed
well with the fermenting wor t. Th e a-a mylase
present then breaks down the dextrins s till pre-
sent, very slowly but also very systema tically,
so that the sugars p roduced can be fermented.
This results in a very alcohol-rich beer.
This, however, results in the fo llow ing pro-
blems:
with the use of malt extract or malt fl our, mi-
cro-organisms also n aturally pa ss into the
beer, which can reduce its shelf life, and
with the use of m alt ex trac t, proteolytic enzy-
m es also pass into the beer, w hich slowly
break down the high molecular weight foam-
forming proteins and result in a visibl e dete-
rioration of the foam .
There are ways to prevent particula rly the se-
cond problem :
It is possible to m ash-in 2 to 3% of the m alt
mash separately at above 60 °C and to add
thi s part lU1boiled and cooled in the fermen-
tation cellar. At 60 °C (and above) the pepti-
d ases are already inactivated so that no furt-
h er breakdown of foam-forming p ro teins can
occur. On the other hand, limit residual dex-
trins are still active and during fermentation
and maturation are able to split a-1.6-com-
pOLU1ds and thus ensure a complete break-
dow n of the starch.
It is pOSSible, after gelatinisation and liquefac-
tion at 62 °C, to once again lower the tempera-
ture of the mash to 50 °C, to enable the limit
dextrins to completely break down the starch.
Using this process an apparent fin al degree of
attenuation of 88 to 92 % is obtained.
For breweries which do not have to abide by
the Reinheitsgebot, the simplest method is
 •
850 851

the addition of enzyme preparations (see
Sect. 3.2.4.3.5.6) during mashing or in the fer-
mentation cellar, which guarantees a comple-
te breakdown to fermentable maltose and
glucose (V/ inal above 100%).
In most countries dietetic beer has to fulfil the
requirements of diabetic beer. Thus the prevai-
ling regulations in each cowltry have always to
be observed regarding
usable carbohydrates,
physiological calorific value and
7 7
alcohol content.
If a reduction of the alcohol content in this
beer is required, this is linked with considerable
costs. Some breweries help themselves by pum-
ping back a part of the fermented beer into the
kettle and removing the alcohol by boiling. This
is, of course, considerably cheaper than part de-
alcoholisation using the usual processes. Oxy-
gen uptake is just one of the problems that may
occur.
In Germany dietetic beers had the following
values [200]:
original wort gravity 9.48%
apparent extract content 0.25%
actual extract content 2.02%
alcohol content 3.80mas%
alcohol content 4.80% vol
degree of attenuation 97.4%
dextrins 0.66mas%
usable carbohydrates 0.77 g!100 ml
physiological calorific value 33 kcal/100 ml
= 139 kJ/100 ml
7.3.2.12 Light beer
Light beers are produced in the form of pale or
dark, bottom fermentation or top fermentation,
low gravity or full gravity beers. Consequently
no generally applicable description can be gi-
ven. Light beers, with a low content of alcohol
and other substances which cause weight addi-
tion, such as dextrins, are primarily used as mi-
xing drinks.
Light beers are often produced with a much
lower calorie content and are often made even
more acceptable by partial removal of alcohol.
In Germany light beers have a 0.9 % market sha-
re, with a downward trend.
In Germany most light beers have
an original wort extract of 6.5 to 8.0 %
an alcohol content of 2.5 to 4.0% vol
a dextrin content of about 1.0%
a usable carbohydrate content of about
2.0 g/100 ml and
a physiological calorific value of 25 to 30
kcal/100 ml.
Ma1lllfactllre of light beer
Light beer can be produced by dilution of a nor-
mal gravity beer - but it then tastes as if it has!
For a good light beer a special flavour note is
needed to make the character of the beer more
pronounced . This can be done by [75]:
use of darker, more highly kilned malts,
use of mashing procedures to keep the final
degree of attenuation especially low or high,
use of a higher hop addition and more inten-
sive boiling,
use of warmer fermentation with thorough
diacetyl removal,
nutrient deficiencies (amino acid or zinc defi-
ciencies) must be avoided in light beer fer-
mentations,
the difference between the attenuation at the
end of fermentation and the attenuation limit
must be controlled.
In contrast to Germany where they have not
achieved a breakthrough, light beers have won
a substantial market share on the North Ameri-
can beer market in particular.
7.3.2.13 Malt drink (beer)
Following a "sweet beer war" in 1960 it has sin-
ce been forbidden in Bavaria to produce malt
beer with the addition of sugar. The result of se-
veral court cases was that the Federal Court de-
cided that in Germ any in future, malt beer had
to be called "malt drink" (Malzh'l111k). As a top
fermenting beer, it is possible for malt beer to be
sweetened.
By malt drink (malt beer) is meant a dark am-
ber coloured drink with an original wort
gravity of 11 .7 to 12 %. The beer is initially bre-
wed with 7 to 8 % and it is only after filtration
that so much sugar is added that an original
wort gravity of 11.5 to 12 % results. The alcohol
content of the beer, as with alcohol-free beers, is
below 0.5 %. As a result malt drinks have acqui-
red the reputation of being thirst-quenching
drinks with a concentrated amount of nu-
trients.
Pronllctioll
65 to 75% Munich malt, 3 to 5% dark caramel
malt, the remainder Pilsner malt are mashed in
the usual manner, lautered and boiled for 60 to
70 min with few hops (15 to 20 mg a.-acid!l
wort). Pitching occurs at 10 °C with top fermen-
tation yeast and is already interrupted after on-
Iya few hours by cooling to 0 to 1 °C in order to
keep the alcohol content below 0.5 %. In this
short time the top fermentation yeast of course
does not develop any metabolic products. In or-
der to abide by the conditions of the law, top
fe rmentation yeast must be added since this
beer is defined as top fermenting.
Following lagering at a temperature of 0 to
1°C, the missing 4 to 5% (4 to 5 kg/100 kg wort)
of sugar is added in the form of caramelised
brewing sugar (80% concentration), sugar sy-
rup or inverted sugar and mixed together. Mi-
xing is problematic at times since the sugar do-
es not dissolve completely and mixing two
liquids of differing thickness in large containers
without a stirrer is incomplete.
The drink is then carbonised, filled into bott-
les and pasteurised. Treatment in the high-tem-
perature short-time pasteuriser is too unsafe
since microbes, especially yeast cells, can get in-
to the beer iJ1 the filling process, and can fer-
m ent it due to the rich sugar content. As a result
of rising pressure, the bottles can burst and cau-
se considerable harm to people and damage to
property.
With a physiological calorific value of 44 to
46 kcal/100 ml (185 to 193 kJ!100 1111) malt beer
has only slightly more calories than, for exam-
ple, Pilsner, which has about 40 kcal/100 ml; ho-
wever, it has far more usable carbohydrates
(average 10.5 %).
Malt beer is an ideal energy drink which, be-
cause of its lack of alcohol as well as its easily
digestible carbohydrates, proteins and vit-
amins, can be recommended as an energy pro-
vider at any time to both children and athletes.
Forbidden under the Reinheitsgebot but usu-
al practice in other countries is the addition of
sugar to slightly sweeten bottom fermentation
dark or black beers with an alcohol content of
up to 5% by vol. This gives these beers a slight-
ly sweet aroma which secures them good sales
particularly amongst women.
At the same time it is possible to produce a
sweetened bottom fermentation caramel malt
beer (double caramel malt beer) providing the
Reinheitsgebot does not apply. Each addition of
sugar (preferably caramelised brewing sugar),
however, always makes it necessary to pasteu-
rise the beer in the bottle or can. To improve the
formation of foam, a rest can be taken at 30 to
35 °C before or at the beguming of pastemisation
so as to encourage fermentation; for this it is ne-
cessary to add a small amount of yeast to the 1111-
filtered beer beforehand. Thorough pasteurisati-
on is required, otherwise the fermentation which
begins will bmst evelY bottle (see above).
7.3.2.14 Beer types with a very low distribution
Dr!! beers
By dry beers is meant beers which usually have
an original gravity of 11.3 to 11 .8 %, are very
 852
highly fermented and strongly hopped. As a re-
sult, a desired bitter dry flavour is obtained,
which gives the beer its name.
Cellllr beers
In recent times normal Vollbiere have been left
in their natural state, i.e. lu1filtered, and sold as
cellar beer or Zwickelbier (unfiltered beer from
a storage tank). The name Zwickel refers to the
sampling cocks that were attached to the stora-
ge tanks to draw off (still cloudy) samples. The-
7 ""
se slightly turbid beers have an average original
gravity of 11.5 to 12.5% and a degree of atte-
nuation of 76 - 78%. With an alcohol content of
4.4 to 5.0% vol, they are produced as pale or
dark types and sold lmfiltered - with a cellar
haze - mainly as draught beer. The haze, howe-
ver - as with Hefeweizen - does not have to be
a result of yeast. Protein haze has the same ef-
fect and does not settle.
Cellar beers and Zwickelbiere are not lmi-
formly defined beer types.
S1Iloked beers (RIlHchbiere)
By smoked beers are meant beers which are pro-
duced using smoked malt. Smoked malt is indu-
strially produced by passing cold smoke through
the green malt thus preventing the formation of
nitrosamines. h1 small breweries it is still produ-
ced by passing the heating gases inunediately
tlu'ough the malt dming its production. h1 addi-
tion beech wood is bLUnt, which gives the beer its
typical smoky-scratchy flavom that has made
Rauchbier well-known. Rauchbier is only produ-
ced by a few small breweries in Bamberg and one
has to get used to its flavom.
Stolle beer (Steillbier)
By Steinbier is meant a beer whose mash or
wort is heated by placing glowing hot stones in-
to it. Through contact with the hot stones, cara-
melisation processes occur which aromatise the
flavour of the wort and hence the beer. This pro-
853
cess is, however, very se ldom used and only by _.. '
very small breweries.
7.3.2.15 Beer lIIix drillks
In Germany beer mix drinks are well-establis-
wasser
hed drinl<s which, at the request of the guest, water
were mixed together from beer and lemonade-
based drinks by the bartender, and because of
......... .........
their individual flavour and low alcohol con-
tent were very thirst-quenching.
Nowadays beer mix drinks are produced rea-
\fiIctftlm 7
dy to drink with a mixture ratio of 1 : 1 of beer,
which is brewed according to the Reinheitsge-
bot, and lemonade, cola or other drink, with an
alcohol content of 1 to 2.7% vol and mainly fil-
led in cans.
Traditional beer mix drinl<s are, for example:
Radler mixture of pale beer
(shandy) and lemonade,
Alsterwasser mixture of pale beer
(shandy) and lemonade,
Mixery mixture of pale beer
and cola,
Russn mixture of Kristallweizen Fig. 7.2n
and lemonade, Mulli-cO/upollelll lIIixillg plnlll (Wilri illring, /-Ieirielbel g)
Diesel mixture of wheat beer and
cola,
Turbodiesel mixture of wheat beer, cola
and admixture.
Beer mix drinks are no longer only seasonal
beers for the warm season. The requirement for lues regarding its composition, CO, content, Analogous to this is the production of swee-
thirst-quenching drinks with a low alcohol con- etc. For this a mixing plant is necessary which is tened mix drinks. However, in the case of these
tent is has greatly increased. h1 other cOlmtries able to mix the individual components of the fi- drinks, the risk of subsequent contamination
too, the demand for beer mix drinks has stron- nished mix drink in exactly measmed amOlmts and fermentation is much higher, so that these
gly increased in recent years, whereby there is a and quality (Fig. 7.2a). At the end, the drink thus drinks have to be filled either when hot or in an
general trend towards low alcohol (1 to 3 %) ta- produced has to be mixed with the beer at a ra- aseptic plant free from contaminants of any
sty drinks. tio of 1 : 1 and blended in a buffer tank. It should kind (Fig. 7.2b). This occurs by means of either
Many breweries today are trying to establish be pointed out again that liquids of different wet sterilisation using peracetic acid or H,O,-
themselves in the beer mix drink sector, with density and viscosity do not mix intimately of based dry sterilisation. Recently, plasma sterili-
varying degrees of success. However, it requi- their own accord. Stirring is also necessary be- sation or other high-energy irradiation have
res precise knowledge of the drink to be mixed, cause the complete drink has once again to be been used .
since the finished drink, which is taxed in Ger- thoroughly impregnated with CO, to guarantee For il1formation on the solubility and soluti-
many as if it were beer, has to satisfy certain va- that the mix drink has the required tingle. on of sugar, see Section 1.5.6.
 854
2 3
II
7 10
Fig. 7.2b
Soft drillk lIIixillg plallt (Krolles, Nelltrallblillg)
(1) sligar lip take alld storage, (2) sligar SOllltioll alld pastellrisatioll, (3) COllcelltrate IIptake, (4) Big Pack/Sack plallt, (5) powder
solvwt, (6) tea preparatioll, (7) blwdillg tallks forfillislled beueragelfillislled symp, (8) IIli.reI ; (9) 1I0t jillillg, (10) aseptic jillillg,
(11) CIP plallt
7.3.3 Trends regarding the development
of beer types not corresponding to
the Reinheitsgebot
The production of beer brewed according to the
Reinheitsgebot is the traditional way of produ-
cing beer and requires the brewer to have great
skill. Within the framework of the Reinheitsge-
bot there are still many ways to alter the flavour
nuances, e.g. by using different strain s of yeast,
which, due to their metabolic products, can af-
fect the flavour and aroma formation.
It has already been mentioned that in many
cOlmh·ies a part of the barley malt has been repla-
ced by other cheaper natural products for pmely
economic reasons. It can be stated that nowadays
85 to 90 % of beer produced worldwide is not bre-
wed according to the Reinheitsgebot. Fmthermo-
re, it is possible to replace a part of the barley malt
with raw materials whidl have a particular effect
on the aroma formation.
11 Thus, a number of breweries, mainly micro-
and pub breweries which like to experiment,
add the following natural products - indivi-
duall y or in combination: tangerine peel, oran-
[] 4 ge peel, orange blossom, elder blossom, sage,
II camomile, coriander, ginger, cilmamon, cloves,
5 blackberries, strawberries, cherries, pumpkllls,
nuts, wild flowers, buckwheat, etc.
A particular trend is beer with the addition of
hemp . A part of the hop, to which hemp itself is
rel ated, is replaced by hemp blossom. Hop use
6 7
7 is generally reduced in all beers which are pro-
duced with the addition of fruit and plant parts
to allow the typical fruit or combination flavour
8 to h ave its effect. In the case of the admixtures it
should of course not be forgotten to place the
relevant health benefits of the plant in the fore-
grolmd of the label in the advertisement. St
Jolm's wort, for example, helps against insom-
nia and nervousness, etc. Significant in each ca-
se is the particular mixhlre which leads to a mu-
que flavour.
The addition of sugar as a sweetener ll1 fllus-
Apart from the production of traditional beer hed beer was discussed in Section 1.5.7.
types which continue to dominate the market,
there are therefore many trends in the develop- HOlley beer as a speciality
ment of new beer types. This development is A speciality is the u se of honey wluch is beco-
especially supported by the opening of nume- ming increasingly important in some countries.
rous restaurants and microbreweries in many Honey is produced by bees who take up nectar
cOlmtries around the world. or other sweet juices from living plant parts, en-
In cOlmtries and breweries which are not ob- rich them with their own body substances, alter
liged to abide by the Reinheitsgebot, aromatising them in their bodies, store them III honeycombs
additives such as natural fruit or plant parts are and allow them to matme there. The nectar tllik-
increasingly being added to the beer in order to kens and llwerts as a result of the acids and enzy-
obtain interesting flavour and aroma compo- mes taken up by the bees. Mineral vit-
nents which find the approval of interested cir- a.mins and aroma substances from the bees' food
des of conSlrmers. These beers are frequently less are concenh·ated here to a water content of 16 to
important for the consumer with regard to thirst, 19 % of the honey mass and when harvested in
but more for the pleasme, whidl they no longer the form of exh·acted honey, it is centrifuged from
wish to renOlU1ce. For SUdl llmovations there are spawn free, warm honeycombs.
endless possibilities as a result of an ablmdance This honey contains on average
of fruit, spices and plants and their mixes. It is up 38.2 % fructose,
to each individual to explore these possibilities. 31.3 % glucose,
855
7.3 % maltose,
1.3 % sucrose,
1.5 % higher sugars,
0.04 % lutrogen,
0.17 % mineral matter a.o.
The protelll content of the honey is ll1itially
very low, as is the mineral matter content, whe-
reby dark honey tends to have a higher mineral
content. The pH of honey is 3.9. Honey is rich in
organic acids, mainly gluconic acid, at 0.57%.
The importance of honey lies mainly in its
lugh content of easily re-absorbable carbohy-
drates and in its content of aroma substances,
wluch have always given honey a particular si-
gnificance. We need only to think of honey wi-
ne, the mead of our ancestors.
The aroma is formed by more than 300 vola-
tile compolmds, of which 200 ha ve been identi-
fied. These lllclude esters of aliphatic and aro-
matic acids, aldehydes, ketones and alcohols.
Depending on the main collection area, the
origlll of the plants (nectar flow), a difference is
made between
flower honey and
honeydew honey.
Flower honey (e.g. honey made from heather,
lime, acacia, clover, rape, lucerne, buck wheat,
fruit blossom) is syrupy and translucent when
fresh and becomes increaslllgly solid and cry-
stalline with age. The colour of the honey is -li-
ke the aroma - dependent on the collection
area. Thus
maple honey is pale yellow,
heather honey is dark reddish,
clover honey is pale yellow to reddish,
meadow flower honey is yellow to brown in
colour.
The taste and aroma is sweet and aromatic to
highly aromatic. Some types, such as some he-
ather honeys or buck wheat honey, sometimes
have a more plmgent aroma than other types.
Honeydew honey (pine, spruce, leaf) solidi-
fies only with difficulty. It is also less sweet,
 856
darker in coloLu' and has a more spicy and re-
sin-like flavour and smell.
C!loice of !/olley
The choice of honey for the production of beer
is of particular significance since honey contri-
butes considerably to the aroma even in small
amounts. For this reason great care has to be ta-
ken when selecting from the types of honey
available. Honey which is characterised by a
very s trongly aromatic or pLmgent aroma does
7 7
not usually come into considera tion for beer
production. The honey is supposed to give the
beer a residual sweetness with a pleasantl y soft,
but not pungent flavour of honey. Particular at-
tention should therefore be paid to the selection
of honey.
Till/illg {lIId n 11/0 IIIl t of !wlley to be ndded
As a result of its high content of fermentable su-
gars and aroma substances, honey is idea l as an
admixture for the production of beer. One can
thereby choose all possible variations between
the two options:
Option 1: the honey is added as a supplier of
extract in the brewhouse shortly before casting
and then processed as normal. In this case the
micro-organisms present in the honey are kil-
led, but some of the valuable volatile flavour
compOlU1ds which make up the flavour are also
lost. The beer then has no residual sweehless at
the end of fermentation. The addition of honey
can occur immediately before casting, since the
micro-organisms are killed within a very short
time at 100 °C and the high temperatures in the
whirlpool also guarantee sterility.
Honey is almost 100% fermentable and is in-
deed fermented! Honey is relatively expensive
as a supplier of extract and does not provide, in
a fermented state, many advantages, particular-
ly as the aroma substances are almost comple-
tely lost.
Option 2: the honey is apportioned just befo-
re filling . The sweehless and full aroma are then
expressed to their full advantage. For this one
requires
a well-functioning dosing pl ant (or one mixes
by means of circulation),
a device for secondary carbonisation and
a pas teurisa tion p lant for conservation and
prevention of und esirable fermentation .
This is of course an ex pensive process, espe-
Cially as honey is not chea p. It is nevertheless
the best method.
Care has to be taken, however, to prevent the
drink from becoming too sweet. The balance of
residual sweetness, a light honey aroma and a
slight hop bitterness is what makes the drink
interesting.
As a rule, 1 to 3 % of (diluted) honey is added
before fil tra tion and the bottles pasteurised.
The honey then gives the beer a residual sweet-
ness, which together with a weak honey aroma
make it a very pleasant "ladies' drink". It is re-
commended to brew the beer, which in this ca-
se should be more wea kly hopped, somewhat
stronger (13 to 14 %) in order to increase the wi-
ne-like character of honey beer through the hig-
her content of alcohol and esters .
The higher costs of the honey can be balanced
by the sales price of the honey beer, which in
addition attracts a completely different and
new circle of consumers. Very frequently, sim-
ply a reference to the use of honey causes the
consumer to pick the product up out of interest.
In general, they will assume that the product
will taste very similar.
The addition of honey or other natural pro-
duct must always be d eclared on the label. This
is particularly important because the consumer
of the beer expects a pure and natural product
even if it is not brewed according to the Rein-
heitsgebot.
In Germany the drink is of course not permit-
ted to be sold under the name of beer.
OtTt er v nrieties
Anoth er interes ting var iety is horseradish
beer produced by a brewe ry in Japan. If green
horseradish is brewed together with the beer, a
green beer with a spicy and aromatic flavour is
produced. The completely different colour of
the drink and the different fl avour make the
dri nk interesting . The horseradish, unlike ho-
ney, does not provide any fermentable extract
and should only be viewed as a condiment, al-
beit a very s trong one.
This somew h at s trange example shows that
the range of options is by no means exhausted
and that there are s till many ways to enrich
beer. When experimenting, however, it should
never be forgotten to write down exactly all in-
gredients (amount, origin, temperahlIe when
processing, time of addition, etc.). It would be
very unpleasant if an optimal mixture could not
be reproduced beca use the mixhlIe was tln-own
together "somehow".
FLll·tllermore, one has to be aware of the fact
that this drink - whether it is allowed to be called
beer in the cOLU1try in question or not - will al-
ways only have a small market share and will not
be able to replace the large beer brands and types.
7.4 Quality examination
Quality examination of the finished beer has
th ree different aspects:
beer tasting,
microbiological monitoring and
chernical and phYSical properties examination.
7.4.1 Beer tasting
Many of the substances in beer and its proper-
ties can be measured specifi ca lly, e.g.
the amount illld s tability of the foam,
the colour of the beer, or
the tu rbidity of the beer.
However, tas te illld aroma attributes of the
beer, such as the cleanness illld fineness of its
bitterness and the tingle component of its taste,
857
are parameters which camlot be measured ana-
lytically. But these are exac tly the factors which
the beer consumer is mos t interested in . The
beer must taste so good that no other w ill do.
To measure these quality determining para-
meters, the bee r must be tasted to exa mine the
various aspects of the aroma and tas te of the
beer. If specific conclusions are to be drawn, the
tasting must be performed in accordance with
established rules and tasters must be previous-
ly selected illld trained.
Since there are very man y flavour nUilllCes,
the "Flavour Wheel" [321] (Fig. 7.2c) has been
d eveloped to facilitate description.
For tas ting, people are needed who can detect
very small differences in taste and aroma. In or-
der to test this, beers are served to the potential
tasters in which
10 % of the beer is replaced by degassed water
(dilution test),
4 gil of sugar is added (sweetness compari-
son), or
4 mg iso-(x-acid is dissolved (bitterness com-
pa ri son).
The test bottles are closed again in the normal
fashion, hlrned by 180 °C, and stored overnight
in a refrigerator with the control beer. It is then ta-
sted
in the duo-test in which the difference bet-
ween the two samples is examined and des-
cribed, or
by triangular tasting in which the tas ter recei-
ves two samples of one of the test beers (A or
B) - i.e. in the sequence AAB, BBA, ABA,
ABB, etc. The taster must detect the odd sam-
ple and give their reasons.
The selection of tasters described above is
made from the brewery workforce available for
selection, illld with time they can make increa-
sing ly correct distinctions because of their ex-
perience. However, it is also important to know
how consumers will receive individual pro-
ducts. For this consumer preference tests are
 •
858 859

made at a more or less hjgh position between Fea ture Points Description
the Jines their opini on of the beer. But here it is exa m ined awardable
important tha t the beer tas ted fi rst should be ta- Bod y 5 full bodied,
sted again at the end! well rounded
4 full bodied
To perform the tas ting there are quite sp ecific 3 not very full bodied
recommendations. Thus the beer should be 2 not well ro L\J1ded
poured without foam into a dark coloured 200 1 empty, watery
ml tas ting glass and tas ted a t a predetermined
temperature be tween 8 and 14 °C. The beer Tanginess 5 desirably tan gy
mu st have already been brought to this tempe- 4 tangy
7 7
rature during the prev io us rught. The tasting 3 not very tangy
room, its tempe rature, the positioning of the ta- 2 flat
ster, e tc. are all closely controlled so that com- 1 very flat
pletely tU1biased results are obtained.
There are various schemes for tasting sam- Bitterness 5 excellent
ples. Representative of these is the German ta- quality 4 good
sting scheme u sed for the DLG beer quality ex- 3 som ewhat lingering
amination. 2 lingerin g
1 very lingering
Feature Points Description
examined award able
Because tas ting is always p e rformed wi th se-
Aroma 5 perfect vera l tas ters, important concl usions can be
4 still perfectly accep ta- drawn from the average results of the tasting
C>
N
ble results. Older samples should al so be included
r--
C> 3 sli ght odour faults in these tas tings in order to determine objecti-
C> (diacetyl,oxidised) vely at w h a t time flavour deterioration can be
r:::
C> 2 pronOlU1ced odou r de tected. Tasting is a very importa.nt fe ature of
fa ults (very es tery) beer eva lua tion.
1 g reat odour faults However, it must al so be pointed out that
(musty, yeasty) beer is a drink to which on e becom es acc usto-
Fig . 7.2c m ed and its taste becomes regis tered in the
Flnvo llr Wlleei (nccorrlillg to OLG)
Taste quality 5 perfect mem ory. The beer w hich som eone drinks re-
4 still perfectly accepta- g ula rly tas tes better to them even when - and
ble perhaps because - it has a quite di s tinctive ta-
3 sli ght tas te faults ste. It is said that beer needs its own home
(diace tyl, oxidised) town and many hundred s of sm a ll breweries
performed . Because this involves the genera l of the taster. The taster is given a sheet of paper 2 pronotU1ced taste profit from this. They still exist - pa rticularl y
public and untrained persOlmel the simplest on wh.ich there are two horizontal lines 10 cm faults (very estery) in North Ba va ria - and they sell their beers
possible tasting m ethod is u sed . apart. The upper line re presents the best result 1 grea t tas te faults (mu- su ccessfully in their own ne ighbou rhood.
For this closed bottles of the brewery's own imaginable, the bottom line the worst possible s ty, m e talli c, light-
beer and of a competitor's beer are put in front result conceivabl e. The tas ter shows by a m a rk s truck)
 860
7.4.2 Microbiological examination
It is possible for beer spoilage micro-organisms
- contaminants - to pass from the wort or beer
produ ction route into the finish ed produ ct. If
these contaminants multiply they at first form a
slight deposit in the beer and then eventually
make the beer turbid and through the formati-
on of various metabolic products spoil its taste
and even make it undrinkable.
Consequently everything possible must be
done to detect foreign micro-organisms as ea r-
7 7
ly as possible, to discover the sites at which they
get into the wort or beer, and to adopt measures
to prevent them from multiplying. This is the
task of the microbiological control department.
Not all micro-organisms which somehow get
into wort or beer are spoilage organisms. Basi-
cally three groups can be distinguished with
regard to spoilage:
harmless accompanying micro-org ani s ms
(indirect beer spoilage organisms),
potentially damaging micro-organisms, and
obligatory spoilage micro-organisms .
The harmless accompanying micro-orga n-
isms consist of mould spores and many species
of bacteria and yeast. They cannot grow in beer
and consequently die, but their presence often
indicates the presence of more LUldesirable mi-
cro-organisms (indicator germs).
The potentially damaging micro-organisms
can only multiply in finished beer when the
conditions are favourable for this, e.g.
if the oxygen content of the beer is high or
if the beer pH is relatively high (4.7 to 4.8) or
if the hop bitterness is very low.
The potentially damaging bacteria include,
for example,
Lnctobncilllls cnsei,
StreptococCIIs /nctis,
EI1 tel'Obncterincen.
Some of these bacteria, for instance Strepto-
coccus lactis, produce lactic acid but also an LU1-
pleasant flavour in the beer.
A parti cular ris k here is posed by biofilms. By
this is m eant the establishment of colonies of
bacteria on th e walls, in pipes, on seals, in
cracks and splits - basically, everywhere beer
can access. First of all, bacteria of the genus Aci-
netobacter [315] colonise, as well as acetic acid
bacteria and other strains, which accumulate at
the bottom and form a slimy protective layer
around them selves which protects them from
environmental influences. Beer spoiling micro-
organisms can also hide in these biofilms, and
then escape into the beer at a suitable time (see
Sect. 5.1.6 and Fig. 5.36a).
The obligatory beer spoilage organisms have
a particularly damaging effect. These include
especially
Pectil1ntlls cerevisiiphi/lls and
Megnsphnem cerevisine.
These strains of bacteria are anaerobic, i.e.
they can only multiply LU1der stringent exclusi-
on of oxygen . Since everything possible is done
to keep oxygen away from beer, the living con-
ditions for these beer damaging organisms are
at the same time improved (exclusion of air, lo-
wer pH). This means that these bacteria can
multiply in the fill ed oxygen-free beer. The me-
tabolic products they form develop a disgu-
sting, liquid manure-like smell and taste and
can make the beer undrinkable. Detecting and
destroying them ea rly is therefore extremely
important. We also know (Sect. 5.2.2.5) that the-
se oxygen-hos tile bac teria collect and enrich
themselves in the protective mucous shells of
the omnipresent acetic acid bacteria in order to
be able to become active at a given time.
Other obligatory beer spoilage organisms al-
so have a damaging effect through the fonnati-
on of unpleasant by-products. These include in
particular:
Lnctobncilllls brevis,
Lnctobncillus Lil1dl1eri,
Lnctobncilllls frigidlls nl1d
Peddioco ccll s dnllll1osll s.
These mi cro-organi sms are anaerobic, but h a-
ve the option of living aero tolerantly.
Yeasts can also cause d amage to beer by gi-
ving rise to fermentation probl ems or seconda-
ry fer mentation. Pediococcus damnosus is a
fea red s train of bacteria (sa rcina) in this regard,
which excretes diace tyl as a metabolic product
thus giving the beer an unpl easant flavour, or
even making it LU1drinkable.
Beer spoiling yeasts are:
yeas t cells still present in the beer after filtra -
tion,
foreign Saccharomyces yeasts. These are rela-
ted to the culture yeast but are not desired he-
re and cause d eposits, turbidities and flavour
defects.
They include
Sncchnl'Omyces dinstnticlIs,
Sncchnl'OlIlyces pnstorinl'llls, nl1d
Sncc/wl'OlIIyces ellipsoidells.
Non-Saccharomyces foreign yeasts also occur
in beer. They include
Brettnl1oll1yces,
Tal'll/apsis,
Hnl'lSel1l.1/n and
Cnl'l didn.
In all cases foreign yeasts produce sediments
and turbidities in beer if they multiply. Further-
more, as a result of their multiplication and me-
tabolism they lead to deficiencies of nutrients
for the culhll'e yeast.
The task of the microbiological control de-
parhnent is to make checks at as many locations
as possible, and as frequently as possible, in or-
der to determine where and how micro-organ-
isms (MO) enter the wort or beer. Such foreign
micro-organisms are collectively called conta-
minating organisms, abbreviated to contami-
nants (from the Latin col1tnlllil1o = merge with -
861
and so spoil) . It is absolutely decisive that the
presence of such contaminants is detected as
ea rly as possible so that countermeasures can
be introduced.
Samples are taken according to a pl an esta-
blished for the brewery, whereby samples of
wort and beer are taken at different locations
and monitored. Controls occur on the basis of a
s te p by s tep control plan, separated according
to
the production area: primary contaminations
and
the filling area: secondary contaminations.
The examinations occur on
obligatory beer spoilage micro-organisms
II potentially damaging micro-organisms
III indirect beer spoilage micro-organisms
IV indicator germs.
The step by step control should include the
following stations:
wo rt (I - IV) 50 ml wort + 8 ml NBB-C + 120 ml
pas teurised beer
harves ted yeast, pitching yeast, pure culhlre
(1 - IV) NBB-B, Schi.ittler
green beer before high krausen (I - III) NBB-C
+ 20% water, Schiittler
storage tank sample (I, II) after green beer
transfer; NBB-C + 10 % water, Schi.ittler
daily sample (I, II) continuously before sheet
filter; liquid enrichment
daily sample (I, II) continuously after sheet
filter; membrane filtration
grouped valves (1, II) before and after, liquid
enrichment
daily sa mple (I, II) filling point of entry conti-
nuously, liquid enrichment
rinsing water sample from the entire beer
route; 50 ml water sample + 5 - 20% NBB-B +
beer
The s tep by step plan, however, is only the
firs t s tage towards a combined test plan for the
 862 863

safe detection of trace contaminations, whereby
the rapid detection method should be included
[285] . Fig. 7.2d illustrates the control points
and methods:
The wort route is anchored in the step by step
control plan. Water and air should be monito-
red occasionally. Monitoring in stages (1) is per-
formed as described above. Besides this, speci-
al samples (2) should monitor the weak points
on a staggered basis, with particular attention
paid to detecting indicator germs. Rapid detec-
7 7
tion methods are required especially in the ye-
ast and filter cellar as well as before filling, par-
ticularly the PCR analysis (3).
The usual detection systems for bacteriologi-
cal contaminations have the disadvantage that
they are not as fast as desired . The result may
sometimes not be available for five days, which
may be too late under certain circumstances.
In the case of the PCR analysis (Polymerase
Chain Reaction) parts of the genotype (genetic
fingerprinting) of the organisms to be detected
are identified - and not the cell in its entirety.
Since only a limited range of microbes occur in
beer, it is possible with this method to detect as
well as differentiate between beer spoilage or-
Wort Water Air
1 1 1 112
II
II IT II
1 I 2 3 1 I 2 1 I 2
ganism s in one step within a few hours [212].
Using a more recent method [276] it is also pos-
sible to distinguish between living and dead
cells in beer samples by means of PCR and thus
to recognise false findings.
With this method it is subsequently possible
to detect and at the same tim e determine diffe-
rent beer spoilage Lactobacillus strains such as
Pediococcus, Megasphaera and Pectinatus wit-
hin a few hours. As a result the brewery is able
to assess both the risk potential and the cause of
the contall1inations considerably faster.
The rapid detection method should be cou-
pled with a continuous sampling (bypass m em-
brane filtration) after filtration or before filling
in order to detect all foreign microbes (4). With
bypass membrane filtration (BM system) [286],
beer is continuously withdrawn via a bypass
pipe, filtered by a membrane filter and the fil-
trate fed back into the main flow. The contami-
nants left behind accumulate on the filter. At
the end of filtration the filter is removed and in-
cubated in a special medium. The microbes can
then be recognised lmder a microscope by the
trained eye as a result of their typical colony
formation.
CO2
1
II
1 I 2 1 I 2
Swa bs (5) should be taken at intervals, parti-
cula rly in the bottle cellar, from exposed locati-
ons (filler, filler surroundings, belts, etc.). The
swa bs should then be incubated preferably
usin g NBB-B-AM for three days aerobically at
25 - 28 D C (yellow coloration = biofilm!).
Harvested and pitching yeast, water, air - all
are possible sources of contamination which
mu st be monitored. The more thorough the mo-
nitoring the greater the chance of nipping a
source of contamination in the bud . It is not suf-
fici ent to rely on the use of sharp filtration and
flash pasteurisation. The most scrupulously
clean operating procedures must be used.
Samples are taken in such a way that there is
no risk that they can be contaminated. In other
words, it must be ensured that only sample ma-
terial from the collecting site and nothing else is
obtained. The sample material is added under
sterile conditions to nutrient solutions or to a
nutrient medium and incubated at a constant
temperature.
Different types of samples are used for diffe-
rent materials [94]. This is supposed to accelera-
te the growth of contaminations to enable better
identification. These include:
Type I sample for filttered beer al1d ril1sil1g water
sall/ples
Membrane filter method followed by incubati-
on on nutrient agar or nutrient broth.
Type II sall1ple for yeast sall1ples
Ammoniacal fermentation probe. Incubation
on agar or broth.
Type V sall/ple for air
Use an agar sampling medium exposed for a
few 111.inutes.
Type VI sal11ple for swabs
Liquid enrichment or membrane filtration.
Important nutrient media are, for example,
wort agar,
NBB agar of different compositions, NBB-B,
NBB-C, NBB-AM, etc.,
VLB S7 agar,
yeast autolysate,
hopped wort,
pasteurised beer,
ammoniacal fermentation samples, etc.
A stability sample is taken from every filled
batch and stored in an incubator at a constant
temperature (26 DC) . The stability sample must
not show any sediment or turbidity in the mini-
mum shelf-life period.
Biofilms provide a basis of existence for beer
spoiling organisms which, while protected by
the biofilms, can develop a multi-thousandfold
resistance to cleaning agents. It is therefore ad-
visable to control the primary colonisation and
the onset of biofil111 formation. On sensors in-
stalled in the immediate vicinity of the checkin
points (e.g. the filling inlet and discharge stars,
crown inlet etc) [325], the same microbiological
fouling occurs as on the adjacent surface area.
This means that the extent of coating formation
can be continually recorded online and the ne-
cessary measures can be taken.

Yeast
Cellar
-- Fermen-
tation
Cellar
-- Storage
Cellar
-- Filter r-
4
Cellar r-
3 Pressu re
Tank
Cellar
r- f-
4
r-
Filling Type III sall/ple for yeast-col1tail1ing beer
NBB-concentrate method or beer stability me-
thod.
7.4.3 Beer analysis
To produce a good beer with a consistently high
quality a number of parameters must be conti-
nually monitored. These involve above all:
Type IV sall/ple for wort analysis of the original gravity to determine
Fig.7.2ri
Membrane filter method or modified NBB con- the extract and alcohol content,
COlllbilleri test ploll for the sofe rietectioll of trnce cOlltnillillotiolls
(1) step by step cOlltrol, (2) specinl sOlllples nt wenk POillts, (3) rnpiri rietectioll by lIlenllS of PCR nllnlysis, (4) bypnss IIlclIlbrnllC centrate method. determination of the pH,
filtrntioll systelll, (5) swnbs determination of oxygen content,
 864
determination of the diacetyl content,
measurement of the bitterness units,
measurement of the CO, content,
determination of the colloidal stability
and other measurements. The methods of de-
termination described ill the following only ex-
plain the principle; the exact procedure must be
obtained from the values determilled in each
individual case.
7.4.3.1 Determination of the original gravity
7 100 + A x 1.0665
The determination of the original gravity is
supposed to provide information about the
constituents of the beer. However, only a part of
the original constituents are still present becau-
se a considerable portion is lost durillg fennen-
tation. Attempts must therefore be made to de-
tennille the extract content of the finished beer
before fermentation.
The extract content of the wort before fer-
mentation is the original gravity or origillal
wort extract (Fig. 7.2) . It is for example 11.5%.
It was shown ill Section 4.1.2 .1.1 that the fer-
mentable extract is split into almost equal parts
of alcohol and carbon dioxide during fermenta-
tion. The parts are, however, not quite equal,
since 92 g of alcohol and 88 g of CO2 are produ-
ced from 180 g of sugar.
If the un fermentable extract still present ill
the beer were now measured, USillg for exam-
ple, a simple hydrometer, a considerably lower
amount would be registered, e.g. 2.3 %. The rest
has obviously fermented, that is disintegrated
into almost equal weight = mass parts of alcohol
and CO,. If the alcohol content of the beer is
measured, a volume of about 4.9% is ascertai-
ned, i.e. 100 ml beer contaillS 4.9 ml alcohol.
These results are only seemillgly correct be-
cause the specifically lighter alcohol causes the
hydrometer to Sillk slightly more than would
reflect reality. We therefore speak of apparent
extract (E,). To obtain the true or real extract
865
r--- I 2.0665 g of extract on average produce A density m easurement is therefore required
1 1 1.0 g of alcohol for every beer anal ysis which is p erform ed
1
- I CO 2 1 and using
1 1
1 0.9565 g of carbon dioxide and together a pycnometer,
0.11 g of yeast } 1.0665 g a precision-made density hydrometer,
·:-:':·iiiti·;·:·:-: ':-:-:'iifc::-:-:-: a hydrostatic balance or
E
- ·:-:ij6f::%:·: According to the overall Balling formula the a bend oscilla tor.
original extract content (p) of the beer is calcu- The most exact measurement of the density is
lated as follows: performed by means of a pyolometer. TIlis is a
glass vessel with a very thin spilldle neck (Fig.
(A x 2.0665 + EJ x 100%
p= 7.3) with a 50 ml graduation mark. By weighing
7
the volume at 20 °C, the immersion weight ratio
Fig. 7.2
C/wIIges ill tile extmet nud nlcollOl eOlltellt dlll'illg fel'lllelltnti- of 20/20 °C is determined. A reference solution
011 where A = alcohol content in weight % of water must be weighed beforehand. The me-
E", = real extract in weight % thod is laborious but very exact and is used for
content (E,J, the alcohol must be removed, e.g. reference analyses.
by distillation. It can then be seen that 1 to 1.5% The origillal gravity is inferred accordillg to
more extract is present (e.g. 3.8 mas%) than is the overall Balling formula and this calculation TIle density can also be determined with the aid
shown by the hydrometer. If the weight percen- is used in Germany, for example, to determine of a precision density hydrometer; this is an aero-
tage of the alcohol were now to be measlued, it the beer tax. This calculation is not correct in the meter already familiar to us from the brewhollse.
would be seen that this value is now about 1 % case of Its buoyancy is dependent on the density of the li-
below the percentage value of the vol. percent • beer where alcohol has been removed, (alco- quid in which it swims. The more fill ely the
(e.g. 3.9%). This gives rise to the following pro- hol-free beers, light beers, dietetic beers) and spindle neck is designed, the more exact the indi-
portions in a beer: • top fermentation yeast beers (Hefeweizen), cation. It has an accLU'acy of 2x10-' g/cm 3 .
Apparent extract (EJ =2.3% because yeast is still contailled in the beer.
Alcohol =4.9%vol To determille the original wort extract con- In modern plants, the density is determined
Real extract content (E,J =3.8% tent, one therefore has to ascertaill using bend oscillators (denSity-measuring
Alcohol =3.9 mas% the extract content of the beer and cells). The bend oscillator consists of a vibratillg
• the alcohol content. U-tube filled with the liquid which is to be ex-
If it is now known, however, what the mass amined. The basis for measurement is the inert-
percentage of alcohol in the beer is, it can be cal- This cannot, however, occur at the same time ness of oscillating masses in relation to their
culated how much extract it has been derived because the proportion of both factors is very density. The U-tube's own frequency depends
from, since the slightly lower mass amolmt of different and on the density of the filled sample (Fig. 7.3a).
CO 2 has, of course, been lost ill the meantilne. • the extract content mcreases the density whe- TIle bend oscillator is made to vibrate with a
Its amount, however, is determined by the alco- reas characteristic frequency; the resultillg frequen-
hol by weight %. • the alcohol lowers the density. cy depends on the density of the filled sample.
We now know the The oldest and most laborious method con- The resulting frequency is measured and con-
real extract content still present and the sists of distilling the alcohol (distillation me- verted illtO density (Fig. 7.3b).
content of alcohol by weight %. thod) and exactly measurmg the To determine the original gravity it is neces-
In addition to that there is another small • extract - water mixture and sary to ascertaill the alcohol content and real ex-
amount of extract which was used by the yeast • alcohol - water mixture tract content, which occurs by means of
to form new cell matter. In total it can be calcu- which is produced to determine the original • a distillation analysis or
lated that gravity. a refraction analysis.
- - -- - - - -
866
the alcohol content is determined from the di-
stillate (A) and
the real extract (Ew) is determined from the
topped-up residue .
The exact measurement is performed using a
pycnometer.
Refractioll mwlysis
Graduation mark 50 ml The principle of refractometric analysis de-
pends on the fact that a ray of light changes di-
rection on passing from an optically less dense
medium into an optically denser medium. This
effect is known from the appearance of objects
partially immersed in water.
It is possible to measure the change in direc-
tion of the light passing from the optically less
dense liquid into the optically denser prism
Fig. 7.3 very exactly (Fig . 7.4). This change in direction,
Pycllollleter expressed as a number, the refraction index, is a
function of the concentration (alcohol, extract),
temperahll'e and wavelength. The refraction in-
dex is expressed as a ftmction of the angle of en-
try D, and the exit angle of the light beam.
Distillatioll a1lalysis
In the case of distillation analysis it is assumed Refractive angle n = sin (J.
sin
that the alcohol has a lower boiling point than
the water. With distillation the alcohol and a The optical density of the liquid depends on
part of the water is distilled off. After both parts the alcohol and extract contents. It is therefore
are weighed up to 100 g, possible to determine the original wort extract
® combine the previously described methods
Fig.7.3n
Prillciple of tile velld oscillntor
(n) Ll-tllve filled witil nil': low dells ity - iligil tOlle, (v) U-tllve filled witil wnter: lIigll dCll sity - low tOile
867
"'/
"'I 1 I
/ / /'"
1/'"
6
) 7
3
Fig. 7.3V
Belld oscillntor
(1) gns filled glnss cylilldel; (2) Ll-tllve fil-
led witil VeeI; (3) IIIngllet, (4) spool, (5) 0'
nl/lplifiel; (6) evnlllntioll, (7) illdicntor
content from the refractive index, the apparent
density and special nomogrammes. The appa-
rent density is determined by means of a hydro-
meter or bend the refraction index by
an iIrul1ersion refractometer or a refractometer
with a heated prism.
Allalysis 111ac/lilles
Nowadays analysis machines are iIlcreasiIlgly
replacing the processes which have just been
described because they work through a large
number of beer tests in quick succession with a
high level of reproducibility. To do this, they
(bend oscillator; refraction) or implement new Fig. 7.4
measuring methods, e.g. bend oscillators and iVlenSlIrelllellt of tile refrnctioll illdex
sowld rangiIlg. In this case, the sonic speed is
put next to the density in place of the refraction
figure. The sonic speed spreads out, according
to the concentration of the dissolved substan- two parallel surfaces. The sonic speed is defi-
ces, over a distance of 5 mm which is defined by ned by the quotients from the distance and the
868
time measured . Instead of the refraction figure,
the alcohol content can directly measured as
well as the density. By means of neal' infrared
(NIR) spectroscopy, a selective alcohol measu-
rement with a high resolution can be performed
using NIR absorption. This makes it possible
nowadays to have analysiS machines which can
perform a large number of high precision ana-
lysis parameters in a very short time. An exam-
ple is the Alkolyzer Plus Beer Analysis System
from Anton Paar, Graz/ Austri a (Fig. 7.5), or ex-
tended by using the PBA-B measuring system.
These measure:
the original extract,
the extract content,
the density in g/cm 3,
the colom in EBC and ASBC,
the CO, content and
the pH value.
As a result it is possible to calculate rapidly :
the alcohol content by weight (mass) %,
the real and apparent extract content,
869
the original ex tract content,
the relative density,
the real and apparent degree of attenuation,
the physiological calorific value (calorie con-
tent).
The FermentoStar [316] from FunkeGerber,
Laborteclulik Berlin (Fig. 7.5a), the Scaba Auto-
matic Beer Analyzer from Foss, Hamburg, and
the InfratecTM 1256 Beer Analyzer from Foss,
Hamburg all function in a silTlilar ma!U1er.
7.4.3.2 Measurement of beer colour
7
The colour measurem ent is performed visually
by colom comparison with s tandardised colour
discs. Samples and colour discs are adjusted in
a comparator lUltil the same colour is obtained.
Fig.7.5n
In the case of dark beers dilution with a diluti-
FerJllw toStnr (F llll keGerbel; Lnbor-
on factor (K) is often n ecessary to measure the tecllllik, Berlill)
colour.
The col oms are given in units on the EBC scale.
It is also possible to measure the beer colour fluences of the human eye. The measurement usually placed in a protective housing and can
spectrophotometrically to avoid subjective in- occurs with a wavelength of 430 !UTI and is com- then also be used under working conditions.
pared against a factor on the EBC scale. Normal pH values are usually
beer colours are: in the casting wort 5.3 to 5.5 (optimally 5.0 to
Pilsner beers 6 to 11 EBC 5.2),
pale full gravity beers 7 to 12 EBC in beer 4.3 to 4.6 (optimally 4.2 to 4.3).
dark full gravity beers 30 to 40 EBC
export pale beers 7 to 15 EBC 7.4.3.4 Measurement of the oxygen content of
export dark beers 45 to 100 EBC beer
Marzen, pale type 9 to 15 EBC The monitoring of the oxygen content is one of
Bock pale type 8 to 15 EBC the most important controls in the production
of beer. High oxygen values can have a very de-
7.4.3.3 Measurement of the pH trimental effect on the quality of the beer and its
The pH is also always measured in beer analy- flavour stability.
sis. The measurement of the pH is very impor- In the simplest case the air in the headspace
tant because all enzymic processes are depen- of the bottle or can is monitored with the aid of
dent on it as is the behaviour of micro-orga- the underwater flUmel method, with or without
nisms. a supplementary burette.
The measurement of the pH is performed With the underwater flumel method, the gas
with a glass electrode and located in the neck of the bottle is collected un-
Fig. 7.5
with a reference electrode. der a flume I filled with gas (Fig. 7.8) and then
A lko l!Jzer PillS Beer AlInl!Jsis SysteJII They are usually both combined in a single slowly passed through a liquid collUml of sodi-
(Photo: Alltoll Pnm; Grnzl AlIs trin) rod measuring chain. The measuring chain is um hydroxid e solution, where the CO, is absor-
870
bed as NaHC03 • The residual gas - air, con si-
s ting of nitrogen and oxygen, is collected in a
burette and the vo lum e read off as "air in the
bottle neck" . An air bubble of 1 ml corresp onds
to an oxygen content of 0.28 mg. The result is al-
ways given in ml air/bottle or can .
A more accurate m ethod of measuring the
oxygen in the hea dsp ace ex ists w ith the aid of
the "hea d-space an alysers" (O rbisphere, Li ch).
Even more important than the meaSluement of
the oxygen is the meaSlUement of the total oxy-
gen. The total oxygen consists of both the oxygen
dissolved in the beer and that contained in the
bottle neck. The beer is firstly shaken according
to defined rules an d tlle total oxygen is then di-
rectly measlUed and determined by means of a
table value. This total oxygen content meaSlUe-
ment is performed electro-dlemicall y (Dr. TIne-
dig, Orbisphere, Mettler-Toled o, among others).
The oxygen is reduced on the cathode of a mea-
suring cell with a defined (polarisation) voltage.
TIle elech'icity thereby produced is measlUed; it
is the directly p roportional to the parti al pressu-
re of the oxygen and thus to the oxygen content.
The measurement occu rs either
with membrane covered measuring cells or
with measuring cells without m emb ran es.
Men Sllrell1ellt II sillg membmlle covered lIIenSII -
rillg cells
Tins measurement is usually performed by me-
ans of a polarograplnc membrane measuring
cell according to Clark. For tIns gold or plati-
num is used for the cathode and silver/silver
chloride for the anode. Tile m embrane foil con-
sis ts of 10 to 25 thick PTFE or PE.
MeaSllrelll ellt II sillg lIlen sllrillg cells w ithollt
111 emb mil es
The reduction of the oxygen occurs on a polari-
sed electrode. The electro-chemical measuring
principle is thereby u sed by means of a poten-
tiostatically adjusted arrangement of tlu-ee elec-
trodes. The beer is used d irectly as electrolyte
an d the measurement performed di rec tl y wit-
hout a membrane (e.g. device Oigox produced
by Co. D r. Thj edig). The m easurement can oc-
cur in the laboratory or by means of a transpor-
table or stationary attached device in situ . Part
o f the fl ow of beer is then p assed in a byp ass
(10 l/h) throu gh the sensor and the oxygen con-
tent is measlUed directly (Fig. 7.7).
The ex pected va lu e is
in the case of lage r tank beer 0.00 to 0.01 mg/l,
at fillin g 0.02 to 0.03 m g/l and
in tIle case of filled beer 0.10 to 0.15 mg/l.
7.4.3.5 M easurement of the diacetyl conten t of
beer
As h as been m enti oned, the removal of diacetyl
during maturation is considered to b e a d ecisi-
ve criterion. Consequently in most breweries
the removal of di ace tyl during the maturation
phase is regularly controlled and cold lagering
is n ot begun befo re the di acetyl content h as
been reduced to less than 0. 10 mg/l.
Diacety l is measured as part of the total vici-
nal diketones using the Hetzel/Gjersten photo-
metric method and the Parnas apparatus. The
solution with an added chemical is dis tilled . As
a result of a reac tion another compolmd is for-
med, the amowlt of winch is measured with a
Fig. 7.7
MenS ll rel1lwt of tlIe oxygell colltellt ill tlIe bljpnss
(Co . Dr. TlIied ig, Berlill)
2
Fig. 7.8
Ullderwnterf llllllell1letliod
(1) bnlnllcillg tnllk,
(2) pnrt filled witii sodilll1l lIydroxide soilltioll to billd tile
CO!'
(3) cnlibmted bllrette,
(4) glnss flI II IICI fi lled witii wntel;
(5) nir ill tlIe bottle lIeck of tlIe opelled bottle
spectrophotometer beca use it h as a sp ecifi c ab-
sorption at 335 mn. The diacetyl content of beer
should be less than 0.10 mg/ 1.
7.4.3.6 Measurement of foam s tability
Because foa m stability is an important quality pa-
rameter it is often measured. For tIns two me-
thods are mainly used . The results obtained with
them CatUlOt be compared directly. They are
foa m stability by the Ross atld Clark method
and
the NIBEM foam s tability method.
In the Ross and Clark (R&C) method a d efi-
ned foam volume is produced in the bee r. The
871
measure used for foam stability is the average
li fetime of the foa m bubbles w hich is determin-
ed from the collapse time of the foa m and th e
ratio of the collapsed foatn to the foa m s till pre-
sent. TIns method is used in p articular when
the effect of the CO 2 content in the beer on foam
fo rmation is to be excluded .
Th e foam is more s table the higher the value.
Foam values are between 90 and 140 sec, on
average about 120 sec.
With the N IBEM method the time is measu -
red within whk h the surface of the foam head
7
(Fig. 7.9; A) is lowered 10, 20 or 30 111m (B). Th e
measurement is m ade by a m ovable electrode
system (a) with long needles (b and c). The time
is measured in sec. The evalu ati on scale is
values below 220 sec are very bad,
values between 260 and 280 sec are good, and
values above 300 sec are very good.
Fig. 7.9
Electrode systelll of tlIe N IBEM Stnbility Tester
M enSllrelll ellt IIsillg Foallltest er
Foa m stability is also dep endent on a number of
environmental factors, such as temperature, air
 872
pressure, humidity, etc. These factors ha ve an
effect on the read i.ng so that an objecti ve result
is not possible. The Foamtester was developed
to eliminate these environmental factors (Fig.
7.9a). In this case foam production occurs by
pressing a cons tant volume of beer through a
0.6 111m wide nozzle. Behind this the foam deve-
lops in a glass cylinder where its collapse is de-
termined by mean s of optical m easurement.
The use of a constant amOlUlt of beer leads to fo-
am collapse times w hich correlate with the re-
7 llltefligellt CO, CelIa /-
sults of the R&C method. Air pressure, humidi-
ty and air mo vem ent have no effect on the
results, since the measurement occurs in a clo-
sed system.
The method developed by the company LG-
Automatic aps, Frederiksvard /DK has now
been further developed by the company Stein-
furth Mess-Systeme, Essen.
7.4.3.7 Determination of the carbon dioxide
content
The dissolved CO, content of the beer is an im-
portant quality parameter, particularly for the
production of good tingle in beer. "Normal"
CO, contents can be considered to be:
0.45 to 0.60 gil in the case of bottom fermen-
tation beers, and
0.40 to 1.00 gil in the case of top fermentation
beers.
Beers with lower values begin to taste flat.
There are two basic types of method for CO,
measurement:
manometric methods, and
titrimetric methods .
Whilst the titrimetric methods are very lab o-
rious, with the manometric methods only the
pressure in the thoroughly sh aken bottle and
the tempera ture are measured .
The method s d ep end on the Henry - Dalton
law. According to this, at a defined tempera tu-
re, the concentration of an (ideal) gas dissolved
Fig. 7.9a
FST Faalll Stability Tester (Steilljllrt/I Mess-Systeillc, ESSCll)
in the liquid is proportional to the partial pres-
sure of the gas in the gas phase, provided that it
is in the equilibrium condition. This equilibri-
um condition is achieved by vigorous sh aking
or constant inversion of the bottles or by electric
heating. The pressure is measured by a mano-
meter.
With the "Intelligent CO, Gehaltemeter"
(Haffmans BV, Venlo/NL) (Fig. 7.10) it is possi-
ble to determine the CO, content in beer quick-
ly and precisely. With the "CO,lO, Gehalteme-
ter " it is possible to combine the CO, measme-
ment with an a, measurement.
Fig. 7.10
tell/cter
Typei-OGM
HaJJllinIlS
lIell/alNU
7.4.3.8 Measurement of bitterness units
Measurement of the bitterness is an important
control since the bitterness of the taste grea tly
a ffects the beer.
Determination of the bitterness lU1its (EBCI
ASBC) is performed spec troph o tometri ca lly
using a method which will not be described in
more detail here. Values for different beer types
are:
Pilsner 25 to 40 BU
pale full gravity beer 20 to 30 BU
export p ale beer 22 to 26 BU
7.4.3.9 Measurement of haze tendency
A very impo rtant measurement is the haze
tendency of the beer. Clear filtered beer in ti-
me loses its brilliance until it finally becomes
hazy (turbid). It is therefore important to
know as soon as possible if the beer will be
stable for a long time or if it w ill soon form a
haze. Consequently m ethod s have been deve-
loped which will predict, afte r only a few
days, the tendency of a beer to form a haze.
The most important m ethod is the forcin g test.
In the forcing test at leas t 5 bottles are immer-
sed alternately for 24 h
873
in warm water at 40 °C (untrea ted beer) or
60 °C (stabilised b eer) and then
in cold water at 0 °C
lmtil an increase in h aze of 2 EBC for mazin
units or a light opalescence ca n be observed. By
multiplica tion of the stability determined, ex-
pressed in wa rm days, with a con version factor,
the approximate time during which the beer
w ill remain haze-free is obtained .
In addition, precipitatio n method s are used
to d etermine the tendency of the beer to form
7
h aze. In this case the h aze which is formed by
the precipitation of proteins or phenols with
correspond ingly reactive substan ces is measu-
red by means of a nephelometer e.g . TalUlome-
tel' (Pfeuffer) or Opto-ems (Raske and Sclmei-
der Brew Service). The m ost well-known test is
the determination of the tamlins, a p ar ticularly
reactive form of the phenolic compounds. By
means of the alcohol coo li.ng test accord ing to
Chap on, mainly the unstable protein-tamling
agent compOlU1ds are determined, which have
a negative effect on the colloidal s tability as
well as the filterability of the beer. The alcohol
cooling test is p erformed on the Tann0111eter
(Tatmomat) within one hour u sing a sma ll sam-
ple amOlUlt (4 ml) atld shows a clear correlation
to the forcin g test.
7.4.3.10 Filterability of the beer
The filterability of beer is the capacity of the
beer to affect the quality of filtration based on
its material composition.
For the brewery it is important to be able to
predict the filterability of the b eer. In the case of
filtration problems a number of undesirable
features occur:
the beer loss rises,
the usage of kieselgulu- and sheets increases,
higher persOlmel costs arise,
there is an increased requirement for water,
heat and electrical energy, and
waste water pollution is increased .
 874 875

To monitor the filterability, it is possible to directly in the plant, e.g. in the container or in tel's a re used:
use - 1 the pipe or COLUlters with movable parts,
the membrane filter test and off-line: in this case they are completely outsi- inductive flow measurer (rOM),
the Raible test.
With the membrane filter test beer which has
been cooled to 0 °C is pressed through a membra-
-6 2
de the process, e.g. in the laboratory or in the
form of a hydrometer sta tion in the brewhou-
se, and are aided by the human sampler.
mass flow measurer according to the Corioli s
principle (MOM),
instruments using ultrasoLUld impulses.
ne filter LUlder pressure of 2 bar (Fig. 7.10a). The The term "in line " , often used for "online", is In the case of counters with movable parts
amOLUlt of filtrate is thereby periodically measu- not used in measurement technology. (annular piston, oval wheel or w ing wheel
5 -
red by weighing it on scales placed below and Nowadays there is a n increasing wealth of COUJlters) the flow of liquid activates a specifi-
from this a coefficient is calculated, whidl can different possibilities in process measurement ca lly formed wheel or a piston. The flow rate
serve as a comparative value for filh·ation. The and anal ysis technology. Here, we will briefly a nd velocity can be ascertained from the speed
7 7
coefficient is given in grams. Values below 50 are describe the following com mon measurements with which the piston or wheel are turned. The-
considered to be bad, over 100 is good and the in- and sen sors [211]: se counters are hardly u sed any more in the bre-
termediate values are normal- good.
o tempera ture meters, wery except in the case of water (WoltmaJul
In the case of the Raible test, beer which has 4 flow meters, counter).
been cooled to 0 °C is filtered using kieselguhr. o filling level m e ters, With the inductive flow measmer (IDM; also
density m e ters, MID) the conductivity of the beer is used to mea-
7.4.3.11 Other measurements haze meters, sure the amOLUlt flowing through. According to
Only a large brewery can afford to perform the me ters to measure oxygen, Faraday's Law of Induction, in aJl elech'ic con-
Fig. 7.10 a
previously listed measurements frequently it- pH value me te rs, ductor which is moved tlU'ough a magnetic field,
Melllbrnlle filter tes t
self. Other measurements are done when neces- (1) colllpressed gas, (2) coolillg jacket, (3) coolillg IIledilllll, (4) meters to m easure cond uctivity, a voltage is induced which is proportional to the
sary or for occasional monitoring by large ana- scales, (5) lIIelllbrnlle jiitel; (6) illfllSioll 1'00111 limit value probes and velocity of the conductor - in this case the beer.
lysis companies or institutes which have access pressure meters In the flow meter - a pipe without interna l fit-
to the very costly equipment and trained per- tings (Fig. 7.11) - the beer flows through bet-
sOTmel required. 7.5.1 Temperature meters ween the electrodes which are arranged a t right
Some of these analyses, with normal values, ses may be made. However, the description of The usual temperature meter is the Pt100. Pt angles to it. Using suitable evaluation, one can
are listed here: these is beyond the scope of this Chapter. stands for a thin platimun wire, which has a resi- read off the flow rate directly on the display.
Total nitrogen stance of 100 n (at 0 0C) and is embedded in a This measurement is highly accurate and inde-
Casting wort 900 to 1100 mg/I 7.5 Process measurement and analysis small glass capsule. The electrical resistance pendent of pressure, temperature, viscosity
Beer (12%) 700 to 800 mg/l technology which this wire has at a particular temperatme is a nd consistency of the product (the temperatu-
Formol-N Apart from the exact control of the raw materi- known. TIlese Pt100s come on the market as sen- re differences CaJl be electron ically compen sa-
Casting wort 300 to 350 mg/l als, intermediate and end products, it is beco- sors, inserted into a stainless steel protective pipe ted). These flow meters work completely wit-
Beer (12 %) 160 to 210 mg/l ming increasingly necessary to measure a nLUn- and smeared with synthetic resin, or are manu- hou t abrasion aJld enable the most accurate
Free amino-N (FAN) ber of parameters during the process. This is all factured as transducers. In this case the areas of possible controls. The result is, however, distor-
Casting wort 200 to 250 mg/l the more necessary since maintaining constant measurement (50 or 100 K are normal, e.g. 0 to ted by gas bubbles. It is therefore advisable to
Beer (12%) 100 to 120 mg/l product quality is only possible by controlling 100 °C, 0 to 50 0C) are fixed and give a standardi- install the measuring pipe vertically or at an in-
Total phenol (EBC) the maintenance of the quality of the interme- sed starting signal, e.g. a current or a voltage (e.g. clination, to remove the gas bubbles.
Beer 150 to 200 mg/l diate products. This, in turn, is only possible 4 to 20 mA, 0 to 10 V), which can be processed di-
Anthocyanogens today by implementing online measuring tech- rectly by the stored program control (SPC). The inductive flow measurement has now
Beer 50 to 70 mg/l nology in combination with the communication become LUuversa lly accepted and is offered for
Nitrate systems in use in the company. 7.5.2 Flow meters dimensions of all sizes. Worthy of particular
Beer 20 to 30 mg/I The sensors are either For many processes, the amount flowin g men tion is its use in the filling of bottles, CaJ1S
In addition many other differentiated analy- online: in this case the measurement is made t1U'ough is important. The following flow me- and kegs. With deviations of only 0.2 % of the

876
measuring value, they fulfil the requiremen ts of
the Prepackagillg Act.
Mass flow meter acconfillg to the Coriolis prill-
ciple (MDM)
With this flow meter, the Coriolis force is ex-
ploited, which acts on every body moving in a
rotating sys tem. The rotating motion overlaps
with a straight motion. Applying thi s principle
to the measurement of the flow rate, the bevera-
ge to be measured is led tlu'ough a measure-
ment path consisting of two parallel pipes or pi-
pe loops or a pipe spiral. The measurement
pipes are mad e to oscillate. This ca uses a phase
discrepancy between the beguuling and end of
Fig. 7.11
J'vJensllremellt prill ciple of tlte illdllctive flow mens llrer (10M)
(UE) J'vJensllrelllellt voltnge, (0 ) dinmeter (electrode distnllce),
(v) flow velocity, (B) mnglleticfield
the measurement pipe. This change to the reso-
nance frequency is measured . It is proportional
to the mass flow and can also be used as the
density measurement.
The procedure is highly accurate and can be
built UltO plants which have been officially cali-
brated .
Ultrasollic flow lIIeasuremellt
Usulg this method, the duration of an ultraso-
nic signal in the direction of flow and agaulst
the direction of flow is measured. From the dif-
ference between the two measurements, it is
possible to determme the volume flow rate and
•
the flow velocity. An advantage here is that the
ultrason ic sensors a re installed exte rnally on
the pipes so that no built-in components are ne-
cessary.
7.5.3 Filling level meters
The measurement of the filling level is of p ar ti-
cular importance. In m any cases, it is critical not
to exceed the maxi mum permitted filling level,
in order to prevent damage. In the case of bulk
materials, three different systems are employ-
ed:
capacitive sensors, which are cheap but only
have a low level of discenul1ent,
oscillating fork sensors, whose oscillation is
dampened as soon as the sensor is covered by
cereal, which the inbuilt electronic teclmolo-
gy can easily interpret, and
wing wheel signallers, whose motor driven
wing wheel comes to a halt as soon as the
bulk material has reached a particular level.
For liquids, a variety of different probes are
used.
Fig. 7.12 shows the filling level measurement
on the basis of pressure differences Ul a closed
contauler (Endress + Hauser). From the diffe-
rence between the total pressure, measured by
sensor 1, and the CO, head pressure, measured
by sensor 3, the pressure compensated fillin g
level is given. This, however, is dependent on
the density.
It is also possible to determule the tallk con-
tents in standing or lyulg tanks using ultra-
sound (echolot principle). For this, one sensor
measures the diameter of the tank, the other the
height up to the beer level (Fig. 7.13) . The tank
contents are determined from this by all evalua-
tion ulstrument. The sensors are simply stuck
to the tank on the outside, so that internal fit-
tmgs are LUUlecessary. ln the case of lyUlg tal'lks,
the uldication only appears when the tank is
more than half full. The uldication is accurate to
within 1 %.
..c ..c
<l
Fig. 7.12
Fillillg levellllensllremellt all lite bnsis of
press llre differellces
The content of tallks can also be determuled
very easily and accurately by registerulg the in-
flOWUlg alld outflowing volume usulg IDM.
Emptiness uldication p robes (on the basis of
measurement of conductivity or using oscilla-
tUlg fork sensors) give a signal as to whether the
container is full or empty.
7.5.4 Density meters
Bend oscillators and ultrasolmd sensors are im-
plemented as density meters, alld in combinati-
on with other method s are also used to determi-
ne the alcohol content of the beer. For example,
bend oscillators are used with ultrasound sen-
sors (Anton Graz) or ultrasound sensors
with Corio lis mass flow meter (Diessel, Hildes-
heim).
The extract measurement is approached from
di ffe rent angles.
The density of the wort is determined using
bend oscillators, ultrasOlmd and mass flow me-
ters.
Beer values (original wort content, ex tract
content, fermenta tion level) are determined
usulg
bend oscillator and refraction or
bend oscillator and ultrasound or
mass flow meter and ultrasolmd.
877
Sensor 1
7
By applying inducti ve flow measurement
with ultrasound measurem ent, it is p ossible
cons tantly to measure the wort concentration
online and thus, i.n combulation with a s uitable
regula tion, to achieve all optimisa tion of the
original wort concentrati.on (Di essel, Hildes-
heim).
With ultrasound measurement, the diffe-
rence in the operating time is measured, which
can also be used to determule the density m the
case of d efined liquids. This ultrasOlmd measu-
rement (US) Call also take place through thin
walls, so tha t no internal fittin gs are necessary.
The accuracy of measurement of US systems is
up to 0.2 %mas. Because of this, they are used,
for example, for extract indications in wort kett-
les, for the separation of first and las t rlumings
in filtration or for re-thinning in the High
Gravity procedure.
For even more accurate measurements, bend
oscillator systems are used which achieve an ac-
curacy of 5 x 10-5 g/cm 3 . As well as in the labora-
tory, bend oscillators are used to determine the
concentration foreruns during lauterulg . The
mode of operation of the bend oscillator was
described in Section 7.4.3.1.
The differential pressure measurement (En-
dress + Hauser) is based on the correlation bet-

878
ween the differential pressure and the hydro-
s tatic height and the density of the medium .
Two ex tremely accurate pressure measurement
sensors measure the hydrostatic pressure at
two different heights of the tank. Based on
knowledge of the height difference, the opera-
tional density of the current tank tempera ture
can then be calculated.
Fig. 7. 13
CO lllellis lII ensllrellle1llllsillg IIllrnsollllri
(EellDlol prill ciple) (III nlllolllniioll)
7.5.5 Optical online measuring technology
Optical sensors in the form of meters are impor-
tant elements in automation teclmology. With
their help, much smaller differences in the de-
gree of haze or colour can be recorded than is
possible with the human eye. Optical online
measuring teclmology was developed for this
reason .
879
At different points during the production
process, there is a necessary phase separation,
for example during the transition from yeast to spectrum of electromagnetic waves
beer, the transition from wort to water or water
1DB 109
to beer. In every case, the correct changeover
point is decisive from both an economic and a microwaves
qualitative point of v iew. It is h ere that optical
online measuring technology has come into its
own, whereby the different light fractions are
used in different ways (Fig. 7.15).
Haze is an optical effect caused by the ad-
7
sorption and diffusion of li ght on particles
which are dis tributed in liquid. The particles
here are all three-dimensional in form and have
a different refractive index from that of the li- 400 450 500 570 590 620 670 (nm)
quid - that is, they are solids, such as: colour measurement, suspension measurement,
• yeast cells, independent 01 haze independent 01 colour
kieselgulu· (PVPP),
diffused light, residual haze
• filter aids. independent of colour
As gas bubbles also have their own refractive
index, it is not possible to take a measurement
in beer with CO, release, because the gas bub-
bles distort the measurement result.
Fig. 7.15
In the case of ha ze measurement, the degree Process pholollleiry lIIenSlIrelllell1 vnllles
of haze is m easured by: speclm lll of elecirolllng ll elic wnves
the absorption of light or
the diffusion of light.
In both cases, the process medium of a beam
of light is penetrated; a receiver then measlll"es angle of measurement from 11 to 25 (for- 0 of the photometer (tI) is considerably faster
the difference in the light beam. wa rd light diffusion measurement) and than the mean value of the response time using
angle of measurement of 90 (Fig. 7.16) . 0
the human eye (t2) [287]. Time is money; many
• In the case of absorption measurement, the
detector is located directly on the optical axis In recent years, optical measuring teclmology small losses or gains accLunulate over time!
of the light beam and measures the attenuati- has been increasingly incorporated into process In addition to the examples mentioned, there
on of light, which occurs as a result of the par- measurement and analysis teclu1010gy in bre- are many other possibilities for the application of
ticle concentration (e .g. measurement of the weries . With the aid of optical measuring tech- optical measuring teclmology: for example, in
yeast concentration during yeast removal). nology, it is possible to evaluate the mass flow filter backwashing,
In the case of light diffusion measurement, more rapidly than by using conductivity or ot- pitching control,
detectors d etermine the amount of light that her measuring techniques, and thus to take any roasted malt beer dosage,
is scattered below a certain angle (e.g. resi- necessary measures. The saving in time and concentration of disinfectant,
dual haze following filtration). thus the economic ga in is even greater in con- rinsing,
With light diffusion measurement, two an- tras t to the human reaction (Fig. 7.17). From the polluting load in CIP,
gles of measurement ha ve proven to be partiClI- example of a phase separation of beer and ye- output control (COD),
larty favourable: ast, it can be clearly seen that the response time water inflow control a.o.
 880
7 cles
As well as haze measurement, optical sensors
are used for
measuring op tical d en sity - concentration
measurement,
measuring colour,
measuring fluorescence and
measuring the refractive index .
7.5.6 Oxygen meters
The measurement of the oxygen content in the
beer has become increasingly important in the
last few years. Oxygen measurement using por-
table and, increasingly, also p erm anently instal-
led instruments is gaining more and more im-
portance (see Sect. 7.4.3.4).
7.5.7 pH value meters
The measurement of the pH value is very impor-
tant, since very many processes in the production
of wort and beer are dependent on the pH value.
Measurement takes place using a glass elech'o-
de and a reference elech'ode, which are usually
combined to form a "single rod measuring chain"
and which are also capable of temperature com-
pensation. The glass electrodes are made of very
thin glass and are velY sensitive to the touch!
Fig. 7.16
Allgle distriulltioll of diffll sed
ligllt for Inrge nlld s111nll pnrti-
90 0: 111nilll!! for slllnll pm·ticles
(e.g. proteill, tm111ill1110leCIIles)
11 mid 25 0: 111nillllj for lnrge
_ _ _-' pm·ticles (!Ienst cells, kieselgllhr)
In m an y areas, portable measuring instru-
ments are often u sed . The adjustment of the in-
struments is carried out using buffer solutions.
7.5.8 Conductivity measurement
Cleaning agents are used up with time and have
to be topped up. Directly measlll'ing the concen-
tration is very laborious and time consuming.
Cleaning agents and disinfectants, however,
consist of solutions of acids, alkalis, or their
salts and are thus dissociated. The conductivity
of a liquid is therefore proportional to the con-
centration of the ions in the liquid and can be
measured as such. Therefore the conductivity
can be u sed to determine the concentration of
watery solutions, such as cleaning agent soluti-
ons or disinfecting agent solutions and their au-
tomatic refill (topping-up) doses.
The lU1it of measurement for the specific con-
ductivity is the Siemens (e.g. mS/cm) . It is pre-
ferable to use inductive conductivity sensors
which are not disturbed by possible d eposits.
7.5.9 Limit value probes
Limit value probes are employed to reveal or si-
gnal particular filling heights. Mostly it is mini-
yeast
-t::
I
I
II ' ;11
I
19
Fig. 7.17
t1 : process
Sigllnl pnllem ill phnse sepnmti-
all !Ienstfueer t2 : visible process
mum or m ax imum fillin g levels which h ave to
be measured, and if necessa ry also intermedia-
te values. Generally only a yes/no result is ne-
cessary.
Li mit value probes are based on capacitive or
inductive m easurement. The conductivity mea-
surement, change to the optimal density or me-
chanical measurements can also be evaluated.
7.5.10 Pressure measurement
At many points on the production path, the pres-
sure must be m easured . The lUut of measure-
ment for pressu re is the Pascal (Pa). For tecluucal
measurements, bar is preferred. 1 bar = 105 Pa.
In. addition, for low pressures, the lIlut Meh'e
water collUnn (m WC) is given, and for still lower
pressures mm we. On old m anometers one so-
metimes still finds the indication kp/cm2 = 1 a t -1
wluch is no longer permitted to be used.
Manometers generally show the overpressure
in relation to the air pressure. A m anometer pres-
slll'e of 0 bar tllerefore m eans an absolute pressu-
re of 1 bar. Overpressures are therefore indicated
with P<y e.g. Po = 3 bar or p = 3 bar (0). Unlabelled
pressure indica tions are absolute pressures.
881
mixture beer
I
8
,, 3
6.,
't-:
.J IS
:l
:/
I
\ I
I,
•
7
The measuring instruments used are:
m an ometers if the indication is made on the
spot or
• pressure sensors (pressure transdu cers) if the
pressure is measured remo tely.
TIle measuring part of a manome ter consists
of a pipe spring, a plate sprin g or a capsule
spring made of brass.
Pressu re sensors often have as measuring parts
stretchable measuring strips, piezoelech'ic effects
of resistance or inductive or capacitive measu-
ring techniques; the last-mentioned mostly in
c01Ulection witl1 ceran1ic membranes. Pressure
sensors are produced with a margin of error of
0.6%, 1 % and 1.6 %. The first-mentioned instru-
ments should be preferred. Particularly for blU1-
ging, manometers of Class 1 at least should be fa-
vOlu'ed, in order to avoid overpressure.
Process m easurement and analysis teclu1010-
gy has become highly developed in recent years
and provides the brewery w ith extensive possi-
bilities to manage and control the processes
very exactly according to previous specificati-
ons. This increasingly eliminates human mista-
kes and ensures the quality.
VLB Berlin

Central Laboratory

www.vlb-berlin.org/labor
@ harms@vlb-berlin.org
www.haffmans.nl
leading in purification
 Beer Analysis without
Sample Preparation
The modular measuring system PBA- B
Generation M determines the original extract,
alcohol, extract, CO 2 content, and other
important quality parameters for beer and beer
mixtures. Sample is taken directly out of the
package, and the quick and accurate analysis
requires no sample preparation.
PBA-B Generation M is a combination of a
DMA 4500 M or DMA 5000 M density meter,
an Alcolyzer Beer ME measuring module, a
CarboOC ME measuring module and a PFD
Filling Device.

Anton Paar Measuring Instruments for Analyzing Beer Products: Packaged Beverage Analyzer for Beer

% Alcohol, Extract, Original

Extract - In Real Time
The Beer Monitor uses the density and sound
method to precisely determine the real extract, original
extract and alcohol content. The concentration values of
the main components - alcohol/water and extract/water
- are detmmined exactly.

VLB Berli n Influences arising from changing temperature, pressure

and degree of fermentation are compensated.
Research in the dissolved CO 2 content can be measured and
compensated using an inline CO 2 transducer. The Beer
Monitor can also be used to measure nonalcoholic beers
www.vlb-berlin.org/research and beer mixtures.
5:l brewmaster@vlb-berlin.org

Anton Paar Measuring Instruments for

Analyzing Beer Products: Beer Monitor

VLB Berlin
Research Institute for
Engineering and Packaging
(FMV)
www.vlb-berlin.org/fmv
[;'] pahl@vlb-berlin.org
Dr. Thiedig
----
D igox 6.1
Your reference analyser for 0 2 measurement
in the laboratory and production process
• im mediate display
• Thiedig Active Calibration
• direct measurement without a membrane
• self-diagnostic
• built-in graphica l recorder and US B 2.0
• TPO (optional)
• medium scanner (optional)
Dr. Thiedig - Process Analysers
info@thiedig.com • www.thiedig.com
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8 Small Scale Brewing
Previously the talk was always about making
large volumes of beer in large installations.
About 95 % of the total global beer production
is now brewed by large brew ing companies.
With their brands they dominate the marke t
and everyone can buy their beers.
However, in many countries people increa-
singly wish to brew their own beer or to sit in a
pub and watch bow tbe beer is brewed, experi-
ence how it smells and observe what goes on.
Of course the beer is always produced using the
same stages as has been d escribed but there are
a few special features which apply to these
small breweries which should be mentioned
bere. A distinction must firs t be made between
two different groups: on the one hand there are
the "home brewers" or "hobby brewers" who
brew their own beer and who also drink the
small amounts (more or less) which they pro-
duce themselves, and on the other hand the-
re are
the "pub brewers" and " microbrewers" who
produce and sell about 500 to 10,000 hl per
year.
In many cOlmtries sma ller commercial bre-
weries with a capacity of up to about 30,000 hI
are called microbreweries. There are a conside-
rable number of micro and pub breweries and
the number grows daily. In Germany there are
about 680 micro and pub breweries with an an-
nual output of up to 5,000 hI, of which 220 are
res taurant bre weries, and in the USA their
VLB Berlin number has increased in recent years to more
tban 1500. In other countries too, the number of
Eventmanagement micro and pub breweries being opened is in-
creasing.
www.vlb-berlin.org/events In the USA a distinction is made between
[2,J brewmaster@vlb-berlin .org small breweries as follows:
889
regional breweries with an output of more
than 17,550 hi = 15,000 US bbl and
microbreweries with an output of below
17,550 hI = 15,000 US bbl.
The structure of the pub breweries is defined as
in Germany whereas microbreweries are not per-
mitted to have restaurant operations.
In addition there are also contracted brewe- 8
ries which brew and l'lm specialities for other
breweries.
What is the difference between pub and mi-
crobreweries? Depending on the legal regulati-
ons applicable in the particul ar cOlmtry, they
sell their beer
in the attached eating and drinking establish-
ment (pub breweries),
or
they supply their beer (cask or bottle beer) to
res taurants (microbreweries) beca u se they
are not permitted to, or do not want to, sell
beer in the brewery.
8.1 Pub breweries
In pub breweries there is a direct cOlmection
between beer production and gastronomy. The
pub brewer has therefore a very close relations-
hip with customers. The customers of a pub
brewery expect
to be able to see (and possibly to some extent
smell) how the beer is brewed,
to see the brewer, to talk to tbem and get to
know them,
tbat the beer will taste good and it will be a
pleasure to have another glass of it,
tha t the pub will be a comfortable place in
which to sit and talk,
that there will be a choice of nourishing meals
suitable to go with the beer, and
 890
that there will be an atmosphere of good com-
panionship.
As a result one refers to "themed restaurants"
or "event gastronomy" .
These are the high expectations which a pub
brewer must satisfy. And it is not quite so easy for
a pub brewer to do this, as pub brewers who ha-
ve been unsuccessful point out. Problems such as
the choice of the building fo r the brewery, the
catchment area, the customers to be expected
from the ca tchment al"ea, the status and ability to
pay of the potential customers, the expectations
3 of the brewer, the type and variety of the foo d to
be provided and the serving staff, etc. w ill not be
discussed in detail here. an indication
will be given of how greatly the answer to these
and similar questions can affect the results.
The pub brewer is first of all interested in gi-
ving p articular emphasis to the display value of
their brewery. This includes, for example, an a t-
tractive (and wh ere possible, copper) brewhou-
se, in some cases w ith an attracti ve wood en
cladding, exhibited close to the publi c so that it
can almost be touched. The two vessels w hich it
m ay comprise should be slightly raised so that
everyo ne can see them. It should be automated,
but only when no-one is there, and at other ti-
mes the brewer should viSibly m anually control
it in p erson . The fermentation cellar sh ould al-
so be on show - behind glass of course for hy-
giene reasons - with the fermenting yeas t head
in the open fermentation vessels visible to all.
Palms look good in the brewhouse, but attracti-
ve wa ll decora tions must also be p resent. Here
one mus t h ave one's own id eas . Everything
w hich the customer sees mus t be stimulating .
High-quality music, an tmobtrusive pianis t or a
small band which plays occasionall y also make
a pub interesting and attractive. The brewer can
also talk about his b eer or how it is made - the
customers want to be entertained .
It is m ore difficult if the brewer cooks in the
presence of the gu ests. Some gu ests d o not like
891
the expelled mois ture smellin g of wort and may
even stay away. Noises associated w ith b rewing
are not always received positively. It is better
n ot to mix the display va lue of the brewhouse
with noises and smells.
The Figures of brewhouses of different 111i-
crobreweries (Fig. 8.1) are intended to give tips
and ideas.
What equipment is absolutely essential fo r a
pub brewe r and what ca n be used to comple-
ment this? The core equipment for considera ti-
on is the brewing plant.
Basic considerations must include the follo- 8
wing question s.
How large is the exp ected beer trad e?
How many sea ts d oes the pub ha ve and how
many of them will be occupied at midda y/in
the evening?
What is the anticipated beer turnover daily,
weekly, m onthl y and yearly?
How man y brews should be m ad e each
week?
What size of vessel d oes this require?
What are the possibilities for exp ansion?
For example: with a 10 hi brewing plant (cast
wort output 10 hi) about 8.5 hi of beer can be
produced (ca. 15% loss). If on e brew is made on
each of fi ve d ays p er week for 40 weeks a year
(5 weeks holiday, 3 weeks illness, 2 weeks re-
pairs) then
8.5 x 40 x 5 = 1700 hi of beer p er year
are produced .
If one assumes (with 300 opening d ays) 6 hI
Fig. 8.1
of beer consumption per day this is equivalent III the pllb brewery
to Th e Figllre shows differell t pllblic maillS witll illtegmted brewillg eq ll ipillellt. Th e two copper (nlso copper plnted or copper
300 x 6 = 1800 hI of beer p er year. conted) brewillg vessels nre nlwnys the cell tre of nttelltioll for the gll es t. Tllis nlolle, I/Owevel; is 1I0t sllfficiell l; Ihey shollid be posi-
liolled ill the lII iddle of the mOIll, mised nll d sepnm ted by n decomtive grille to prevellt nccidwts - the vessels nre sOllletillles I/Ot
It is obvious that in this case there is a defi-
or IIIny overflow.
ciency and there are no reserves. However, if a
d aily consumpti on of only 4 hI is consumed, PnrtiCIIlnrly decomtive is n 10llg nttrnctive bnr IIInde of copper ill the snllle style, ns well ns IIInllY wnll decomtiolls nlld dingmllls
then Iypical to n brewery or old brewery eqlliplllwt nlld itellls. This nil hns 10 be illteres fillg nlld excitillg fa fhe CIIstolllers nlld nl/mcf
their nttell tioll. The shnpe nlld desigll of tIle pllblic m01l1 sl/OlI ld nlso be givell n lot of nftell tioll : divided pnrtit iolls, lIiches nlld
300 x 4 = 1200 hi of beer p er year
sll/nll spnces nre f reqllell tllJ desirnble sentillg nrens.
are need ed. The requirement is covered an d a
large reserve is avail able. Photos: (1 - 4) Knspnr 5chlllz, Bnll/berg (5) Appnmtebnll Nordhnllsell (6) BTE Bmllerei-Tech II ik Essell
 •
892 893

It is of course possible to produce more than
one brew a day, but this catmot be done indefi-
nitely by one brewer alone. It is importatlt that
the beer production process extends into the
eve rung pub trading hours because this consi-
derably increases the entertainment value atld
the customers feel directly involved in the bre-
wing process .
In Germany one reckons with 10 hI of
beer/seat in the pub per year.
A pub brewer must first calculate this basic fi-
gure since it is from this that the size of the
mash vessels are calculated.
One assumes the following approximate va-
lues (Sect. 3.6.2) per dt (0.1 tonne) of grist:
mash and lauter vessel 6 - 8 hI
mash and wort kettle 8 - 9 hi
Because of teclul010gy u sed for beer producti-
on, a pub brewery also has a hot section (the bre-
wing equipment) and a cold section (fennentati-
on atld maturation cell at') which must be suitably
separated from one another (Fig. 8.2).
Points to be considered by the pub brewer
with regard to the plant and its operation will
now be considered.
Brewillg plallt
Because of the small quantities involved, malt is
delivered in sacks. The sacks must be stored lU1-
del' dry conditions because malt is hygroscopic
atld gradually becomes moist. With silo storage
at least two silos must be provided and stored
batches should not be too large . A weighing de-
vice must be available for smaller quantities.
Brewhouse whirlpool
(hot rooms)
23
Pub brewers usually employ a simple two-
roll mill for milling, located outside the public
room but, if possible, visible. Care must be ta-
ken with dust formation during milling atld it
must be kept away from the guests.
The kettle is indirectly heated by steam
which is produced by a low pressure boiler. Ot-
her types of heating (direct burning of gas or
oil, or electric heating) may be used but cause
pro blems. Heating Catl also be done by means
of an external boiler. However, the heating sur-
face must be calculated accurately to avoid de-
trimental effects.
Great value should be put on vapour conden-
sation, especially when the pub is located in a
built-up area. Over-powerful smells in the pub
area Catl also be lUlpleasant! Vapour compressi-
on can be used but is very expensive.
The lauter nUl must be well insulated to pre-
vent lU1desirable cooling of the small quantities.
Wort separation should not be enclosed because
it is in any case impossible to prevent oxygen
tratlsfer in the small quantities and
the visual effect of open lautering is dispro-
portionately greater.
The visual effect Catl be increased, for example,
by using a hand pump to pump back the clou-
dy wort or by a visibly connected lauter mano-
meter (with explanation) . Removal and dispo-
sal of the spent grains throughout the year
should be kept in view.
for special additional ingredients such as salt,
coriatlder, cloves, lemon or orange peel, honey
etc. Attention must be paid to storage life, sto-
rage temperanlres atld possible spoilage.
Careful consideration should be given to au-
tomation of the plant. Basically everything
should be automated to set the brewer free . On
the other hand it must be possible to switch to
manual operation everything which makes a
visual impact and illustrates the brewing pro-
cess.
Ferlllelltatioll al/{l lIlatllratioll cellar 8
It is best to use open fermenters, located behind
glass, in order to show consumers how fermen-
tation proceeds. If there are height differences
mirrors Catl easily be used. Fermenters should
be suitable for the brew size. Because of the risk
of contamination, non-circulation cooling is
preferable; the fermenters have wall cooling.

In
Pipework should consist of stainless steel pi- Fig. 8.3
Cooling, Aeration pes and butterfly valves should preferably be Fenllelltntioll nlld IIIntllrntioll cellnr of n pllb brewery
B Fermentation
11 (Photo: BTE Brnllerei-Teclillik, Essell )
9 used. Transfer should be performed by centri-
Maturation
12 Q1 I (cold rooms) fugal pumps with open impellers (up to 60

13 8 G 6n A hI/h) with a flow velocity not greater thatl 1.3

;Pf14 F m/s in the suction pipe. Special attention should be given to fennen-
The whirlpool should be built near the cop- tation vessels (wall cooling) .
Fig. 8.2
Plnllt nlld process dingrnlll for n pllb brewery per or the copper built as a combined whirl- Lagering should be performed in vertical
(BTE Brnllerei-Tecllllik, Essw) pool-kettle. The trub should be sprayed out ma- tat1l<s with dished bottoms, or pOSSibly CCVs
(1) IIInlt bnlnll ce, (2) IIlnlt lIIill, (3) IIlnshlwort kettle, (4) IOllter till I, (5 ) Wllirlpool, (6) wort coolel; (7) wort nerntioll, (8) (9) nually and wort cooled by a plate cooler. (Fig. 8.3), made of stainless steel. Fixed pipes
beerfiltel; (10) pressllre tnllk, (11) tnppillg, (1 2) sipllOlI, (13) keggillg, (14) pllIllP, (15) ClP tnllk, (2 1) sten/II gellerntol; (22) COIII-
Hop pellets or hop extract should be stored in should be used. When hoses are used these
pressed nil; (23) ice wnter plnllt, (24) wort unpollr colldellsntioll, (25) IlOt wnter tnllk
A) cold wntel; (B) hot wntel; (C) hops, (0 ) spellt grnill, (E) tmb, (F) yenst, (G) kieselgllhl; (H) colllpressed nil; (I) ice wnta a refrigerator. Similar storage must be plamled should be of the highest quality. In small plants
 894
cleaning and disinfection is best done w ith d is-
posable solutions (no storage containers).
The full y fe rmented beer is forced, unfiltered
and cooled to 0 °C into h olding tanks. Th e loca l
regul a ti on s of the revenue authorities rela ting
to recording the a molmts of beer so ld must be
obse rved exactl y, otherwise unpleasa nt surpri-
ses ca n occur. There sh ould be a t least three hol-
ding tanks - m ore if more than on e type of beer
is sup p lied .
It d oes not p ay a pub brewer to have his ow n
yeas t p ropagation unit. Yeast should be obtai-
8 ned fr om a larger brewery. A fter a brewing
shutdo wn (m aintenance, holiday, illness) fresh
yeast must in any case be obtained from a larger
brew ery.
Dispellse eqllipmellt
In a p ub brewe ry the connection between beer
production and disp ense is very close. The pub
brewer is therefore interested in adjusting the
sa tura tion pressure in the holding tank to the
dispense and drink ing temperature. This tem -
perahlre varies from cOlmtry to cOlmtry and is,
for example,
in Europe 6 - 8°C
in Am erica 0 - 4 0c.
N owad ays a CO,IN, mi xed gas is preferably
used as dispense driving gas and this ca n be ob-
tained everyw here as a mixed gas or p roduced
in sih!.
It is obvious that the dispense cOlmter w ith the
dispense COllU1111 should be attractively equip-
ped . The brewery's ow n decora ted glasses w ith a
special shape, possibly also special mugs and ot-
her containers, should also be used . H owever the
cost fac tor must also be considered.
Production of na turally h lrbid beer d oes n o t
elimi.nate the n ecessity for d aily cleanin g of the
dispense equipment. Without it contaminations
soon becom e es tabli shed, which are in this case
more difficult to see but can soon cause lmplea-
sant tas tes and smells. The op erator always re-
mains res pon sib le for control of the d ispense
equipment.
Types of beer
It is ex trem ely im portant for the pub brewer to
d ecide wh a t type of beer wi ll be brewed, w hat
it sh ould tas te like and w ha t the cus tomers w ill
expect.
It is inherently nonsensical to com pete with the
m ajor bra nds. Large breweries nahlrally have
comple tely different opporhmities for ensuring
the qu ali ty of their products. The pub brewer
must find his own niche and produce only a few
types of beer. The development of own brands
should be based on the following considerations:
Wha t original gravity sh ould be chosen - thi s
to a la rge extent determines the alcohol con-
tent of the beer. In general the tend ency is to
produce a rather weaker beer with an ori gi-
n al wor t content of 10.5 to 12 %. Much s tron-
ger beers result in lower consumption becau-
se they are less pala table.
• What ch aracter should be given to the beer,
i.e. sho uld the beer have a stronger or less
pronolmced tas te; this is also affected by
the colour of the beer, which can be made to
vary fr om pale, through m edilll1 and d ark to
black, but must be adapted to the ch a rac ter of
the beer. In this context a decision must be
m ad e wh ether
the beer should h ave m ore malt flavour or
m ore bitterness or w he ther
by the use of additives a m ore aromatic fla-
vour differing to a lesser or grea te r extent
from the normal sh ould be produced. Exam-
ples of such additives are
spices such as cooking sa lt, cloves
and cuu1am on, or
fruits such as cherries, blueberries or d ried
orange or lem on peel,
herbs such as basil, sage or camomile, and
m ore recently and increasingly
honey.
Becau se honey is produced by bees fro m a
very wide va ri e ty of mead ow fl owers it con-
tains the abund ant flavour, a nd m ostly vola tile,
arom a compo unds of these m eadow plants.
Corresp o ndingly the typ es of hon ey d iffer
grea tly in qu ality d epending on the m eadows
visited by the bees (see Sect. 7.3.3).
O ther fac to rs w hich can pl aya role in the de-
velopment of a brewery 's own brands are
the u se of a top fermentation yeast ins tead of
or before the bottom fermenta tion yeas t, o r
the use of a second ary ferm enta tion yeas t
with a special aro ma profile (e.g. Bre ttano-
myces), o r
use of lac tic acid bac teria.
Acidic beer can be desirable, but when the
acidifica tion proceeds Lmcontrolled the beer be-
comes undrinkably sour. It is be tter in su ch ca-
ses to obtain cu ltured lac tic acid bac teria from a
supplying institute and allow them to wo rk in a
controlled way. The consumer must then have
available a sweet additi ve to balan ce the fl a-
vour. Of p articular importance is the co-ordu1a-
tion of the foo d m enu with the type of beer.
Ell ergy sltpplies
For opera tions the pub brewer requires
a low pressure plant for steam production,
possibly a flash w ith
a hot wa ter tank,
a refri gera tion plant, electrica lly opera ted
with glycol cooling, or more simply
• an ice w a te r s torage unit for wort and beer
cooling, and also
an air compressor for wort ae ra tion.
Because the en ergy supplying equipment is
expen sive, both to purch ase and to op era te,
much attention should be p aid w hen justifyin g
its selection . The inexpensive supply of h ot w a-
ter, in p articul a r, mus t be ensured .
Wit/, regard to legal regltlatioll s
It is not p ossible to brew beer in any cOlmtry
895
w ithout knowled ge of, and complian ce w ith,
the legal reg ulation s. One sho ul d therefore first
pay a ttention to the lega l requirem ents. In most
countries these include:
a licen ce to brew beer,
building regulation con sent to establish a pub
brewery,
en vironmental protection regula tions,
tax/revenue regul ation s, and
other rele vant legal requirem ents w hich have
to be observed in this case, such as, for exam -
ple, lega l requirem ents rega rding food, hy-
giene and wa ter, as well as 8
work a nd fire protection .
Investigate mOlley sav illg altel'//atives
Since no pub brewe r builds or ins talls his plant
himself he is dep endent on tenders. When the
pub brewer - and this is usually the case - is not
a t the outset wea lthy, h e must save money. H ow
can this be don e? Chea p is not the same as eco-
nom ic. Advantages for the pub brewer are:
the b eer d oes not need to be filtered and pac-
kaged,
there is n o o utside trade and no contacts with
s uppliers.
Con sequently th ere a re only th e in-h ouse
costs.
Matters which must be a ttended to are:
fU1ancing, compan y capital, credit, interest,
rep aym ent, time p eriods,
costs for ma terials and energy, wages and as-
soci ated costs, the number of employees the
business h as, wha t one can p ay, what is secu-
red and w hat is n ot, what is the p ain thres-
hold,
the exp ected income, profitability.
8.2 Microbrewers
In contras t to a pub brewer, a microbrewer has
fewe r worries about the appea rance of his bre-
we ry. It must of cou rse be clean and attrac tive
but it is n ot on displ ay to the beer consumers
 896
every day. The larger the microbrewery, the mo-
re applicable the comments made in the prece-
ding section regarding plant and processes.
However, every microbrewer also needs fil-
ling equipment because the beer in not sold on
the spot. O£ course there are also microbrewe-
ries which operate a pub attached to them. In
that case the boundaries between the two defi-
nitions are blurred.
First and £orelnost a micro brewer needs a keg
filling plant. Depending on the amolmt of keg
beer a plant with one or more filling heads is re-
8 quired . When the opportunity arises, or when it
is necessary, microbrewers also use bottle, sy-
phon or can filling equipment.
Because a microbrewer sells his beer off the
premises, the beer must be filtered and stabili-
sed before it is filled. Moreover attention must
be drawn to the merits o£ the product by suitab-
le labelling and advertising, because direct use
catmot be made of the display value o£ the bre-
wery as is the case with a pub brewer. But the
microbrewer must also compete successfully
against the major bratlds by establishing a ni-
che with his own special beer brands, which the
consumer likes, and convincing the customers
of the quality of the beer.
Otherwise everything which is described in
section 3 to 5 applies also to microbrewers even
though the equipment used is rather smaller.
8.3 Hobby brewers
The number of home and hobby brewers has in-
creased considerably in recent years in some
cOlUltries. This movement is supported by nu-
merous compatlies which, in many cOlUltries,
supply the necessary raw materials for beer
production in small packages available for pur-
chase and also make available equipment and
assistance for wort production and £ermentati-
on on the premises o£ the company. Conse-
quently an individual can make their own beer
with minimal outlay.
Others purchase the ingredients but prefer to
work with the materials obtained at home and
prepare their beer there.
A third group refuse to obtain pre-prepared
extracts and materials and instead are proud to
produce a good quality beer by themselves,
starting from the begilming. Since the amount
of equipment required is relatively expensive to
purchase and operate, sometimes such groups
o£ hobby brewers take turns to a use a co-opera-
tively bought and operated plant and then com-
pare their products with one another. That is
very enjoyable!
In order to make good quality beer - even in
small quatltities - good raw materials are requi-
red. The raw materials for malt and beer pro-
duction or only for beer production are availa-
ble for purchase in the respective shops in large
towns:
barley or malt - different types,
• malt extract (to be diluted to wort),
hops in the form o£ extract, pellets or whole
leaf hops,
yeast of different strains, stored cool and with
a reasonable shelf life, partly as dried yeast.
In addition: vessels, measuring cylinders,
spindles and much more.
Anyone who does not know such a shop or
have one within a reasonable distat1Ce, has to
look arOlUld in the neighbourhood.
• malt, to be obtained from a brewery or mal-
tings - or home made!
hops, preferably as pellets, vacuum packed,
from a brewery or hop merchant. One should
try to obtain the smallest possible packet of
different sorts - hops are very important for
the aroma.
• water, only the local supply is available. But
beware - water is usually chlorinated and
this produces an unpleaSatlt chlorinated phe-
nol flavour in the beer. It is advisable in such
cases to install an active carbon filter or to boil
the water beforehand.
yeas t, this must be obtained in a container
fro m a brewery if a dried yeast is not used,
the quality of which CatUlot be guaratlteed.
Turning once again to malt. One can make
this oneself. It has been shown (Sect. 2) how it is
produced. But there are a few problems when
producing such small amolUlts which will be
discussed here.
MnldHg YOllr OWH 1I1nlt
How much malt is needed? Rather more
(comparatively) than by a large brewery which
of course, using 17 kg of malt per hi of 11 % beer,
can operate more efficiently. It should be assu-
med that for home brewing
for 1 hi o£ 11 - 12 % beer about 20 kg o£ malt is
required .
If a smaller volume is to be produced then the
quantity is simply divided appropriately.
In order to produce the malt, a larger quanti-
ty of barley is needed because about a fifth to a
quarter o£ the weight is lost during malting (see
Sect. 2.7). Thus it can be calculated that
for 1 hi of beer 25 kg of barley is needed
or the appropriate fraction thereof.
Steeping Catl be performed in a simple contai-
ner with a flat bottom. For this water equal to
just less than half the weight of the barley is
needed. Thus it can be calculated that
25 kg o£ barley (15% water) contains 3.75 kg
,.vater, to which is added 12 1 o£ water
= 12.00 kg water, producing 37 kg of
steeped barley containing 15.75 kg water
=42.5%
This is the degree of steeping we want. Of
course the water is not absorbed immediately,
but first very rapidly and then increasingly
slowly. Consequently just less than half the wa-
ter is added at first, in other words about 5 1,
and the steeping barley is well mixed from time
to time until all the water has disappeared from
the bottom. Then the remainder of the water is
897
added at intervals of about 6 to 8 hours, not for-
getting to bring the barley from the bottom up
to the top again.
After about two days the barley has taken up
enough water to start to grow and slowly it be-
gins to germinate, as Catl easily be seen (see
Sect. 2.4.2). In the following days the germina-
ting barley must be thoroughly turned - prefe-
rably by hand - 2 to 3 times a day and preven-
ted from drying by spraying from a bottle. It is
possible to see how the rootlets grow and gra-
dually intertwine. If care is not taken and tur-
ning is forgotten, the heap becomes too warm 8
and a felted mat is soon produced. Therefore
the germination vessel is best kept in a cool
room at 14 - 15 DC. The germinating barley has
a strong smell of fresh cucumbers.
This procedure has to be observed very close-
ly because the processes now occur very quick-
ly. When the rootlets have reached about 1.5 ti-
mes the length of the corn, germination must be
stopped and kilning conunenced. The kiln must
now be ready, otherwise a miniature green field
of barley will soon have been produced for the
waste bin.
It has been pointed out (Sect. 2.5.1) that kil-
ning primarily depends on air flow. A large
amolUlt of hot air results in good drying. An at-
tempt must now be made therefore, to force a
lot of hot air through the germinating barley
(which is called green malt at this stage). The air
temperature must not increase above 50 DC if
the risk of producing glassy malt is to be avoi-
ded. Only after the malt is almost completely
dry can the temperature be increased to 80 DC.
To do this within one day is not very easy.
One possibility (Fig. 8.4) is to construct a clo-
sed box (1) with a false bottom screen (3) on
which the green malt (4) is placed. Hot air is for-
ced under the "floor" by a fan . In the simplest
case this Catl be a fan heater (2). However, the
air only passes through the layer of malt, which
offers a resistance, when the space beneath the
 898
false bottom is air-tight. It is therefore highly If the small fan is not suitable for the malt cu-
advisable to seal this container to begin with . ring ( 3 hours at 80 °C), this last stage must be per-
Furthermore the green malt layer must not be formed in a closed vessel, rather like a steam hea-
more than 10 cm thick, so that the resistance is ted pot or an oven with a recirculation mode, so
not too great. To reduce the resistance to the air as not to cause overheating. The malt must be
and to pass the necessary amount of air through quite dry at the end of the process, otherwise it
the green malt layer, a chinmey cowl (5), wit- rapidly becomes spoilt. moist malt is
hout a filter, should be fitted on the box. not easy to mill for the mashing process.
Kilning can also be performed by drying the
green malt in securely closed linen bags in a
5 tumble drier for washing (with an adjustable
temperature). As a result of the rotation of the
8 drier and the large amount of hot air (depen-
1 Fig. 8.4
ding on the drier type), the green malt dries
A fl ollle-lIlnde IIInll
killl well. Linen bags must be chosen which are
(1) woodell or plnslic much larger than is necessary to contain the
box
amount of green malt put in them, so that the
(2) frl/l fl enler
(3) fnlse bottolll
malt corns continuously change their relative
2 screell positions and the moisture distribution inside
(4) grew IIInII the bags decreases uniformly.
(5) ciIillllley cowl w il -
For curing what was said above applies.
flolIl n filler
At the end of curing the seedlings must be
rubbed off and removed since they are useless
and even damaging, because of their high pro-
How much air should be passed through the tein content, in the further process.
malt? This depends on how thick the malt layer Finally a malt is obtained which can be used
has become. First of all then, what surface area for brewing.
is required? Barley has a hi weight of 68 to 75 kg What has been described above for Pilsner
(Sect. 1.1.5.2.3); if the figure of 70 kg is used: malt applies similarly to other malt types which
one - although in smaller amOlU1ts - can also
70 kg = 1.00 hI = 100 I, therefore make oneself. A standard range should contain,
25 kg = 0.36 hI = 36 I in addition to Pilsner malt, at least caramel malt
For 36 I, and a thickness of 10 cm, the surface and black malt (cured in a baking oven) .
needed is 0.36 1112. A real fan will also try to convert other cere-
The green malt layer must not exceed 10 C111 . als apart from barley to malt - wheat, rye, em-
25 kg of barley produces a volume of 361 x 1.5 mer or others . It can be seen very quickly that
= 54 I of green malt. each type of cereal reacts differently - a very in-
teresting field of activity!
With a layer height of 10 cm, 0.54 m 2 kilning
surface is required; this is a surface area of 0.75 Beer prodllctioH
m x O.75m. Before beginning to make beer one should, to
To kiln the 25 kg of malt about 150 m 3 of air is be on the safe side, investigate the taxation re-
required. gulations of the cOlU1try relating to this subject. In
some cOlUltries the amOlUlts of beer w hich can be
prod uced without paying tax are very small. In
Germany, for example, the fi gm e is 200 I per ye-
ar, but this even this amOlmt has to be registered .
Exceeding this amOlUlt causes problems with the
taxation or excise authorities.
The composition of the grist of different
malts (Sect. 2.9.12) for the beer to be produced
is the firs t important matter to consider.
To grind the malt a ball mill or hammer mill
such as a kitchen grinder or coffee mill is used but
grinding must not be too fine (see Sect. 3.1.2).
The next consideration is how varied and dif-
ferentiated the equipment requirement is and
what equipment is available. In the simplest ca-
se mother's cooking pot can be used for mas-
hi.ng. Inventiveness is called for when the cash
supply is short.
Mashing-in is done using the ratio
1 kg malt grist to 3 I water.
In this way, with subsequent dilution during
sparging (Sect. 3.3.1) and spraying the vessel
clea n, an original extract content of about 12 %
is obtained after boiling with hops (see Sect. 3.4)
in the wort kettle.
Mashing is best done using an infusion process
or by increasing the temperature by adding boi-
ling water to the main mash, but of course other
methods can be used if enough money is availa-
ble for the equipment. Mashing-in is performed
at 58 to 60 °C and the temperature raised after a
30 min rest to 63 to 64 0c. After a maltose produc-
tion rest of a further 30 min, the temperature is
slowly increased to 70 to 72 °C and held lU1til sac-
charification is completed, as shown by testing
with tincture of iodine (see Sect. 3.2.1.3). It is
equally possible to mash-in already at 60 to 63 °C
and to hold this temperature for 60 min before in-
creasing it to 70 to 72 0c. When the wort is iodine
normal, the temperahlre is raised to 75 °C and the
wort then lautered. For this a large close-mesh
sieve is used and the spent grains held back are
eXh·acted with not too much hot water.
899
Lautering often presents problems w hen
such a sieve is lacking. A well proven alternati-
ve method is the following:
A chair is turned upside down and placed on
another one, so that the four legs project up-
wards. A corner of a permea bl e cloth (coarse li-
nen or muslin cloth) is ti ed to each of the four
legs. A good wort separation and sp ent grain
retention is obtained with the s training vessel
thus formed .
The wort is allowed to l"lU1 into the "kettle",
which in the simplest case is a large cooking pot
(if possible with a run-off tap) and it is boiled
8
for a full hour with the hops added (see Sect.
3.4.3.2 and 7.2.1.1). A considerable amOlU1t of
water boils away and the extract concentrates,
which has to be monitored .
The hop addition in the small brew is nahlral-
ly small and depends on the beer type (see Sect.
7.3). If 25 bitterness units are required in the
beer (see Sect. 3.4.3.2.1), then it is necessary to
add about
25 BU = 2.5 g/hl, which with a 30 % yield
= 7.5 glhl of a-acid
It tl1en depends on how much a-acid the foil
package contains - but that is generally marked
on it.
Finally the wort must be separated from the
hot trub . This se ttles cleanly in the middle of the
cooking pot if a rotational movement of the
contents is caused at the end of boili11g (whirl-
pool effect, see Sect. 3.8.3.1). Consequently the
wort can be easily and cleanly drawn off
through the side tap in the cooking pot. If there
is no run-off tap, the separation is of course mo-
re difficult.
The wort is now put in the vessel in which it
will be fermented and allowed to cool. The ves-
sel must be sufficiently large and have a loose-
ly fitting lid. In the simplest case a waste bucket
or milk churn can be used. Since, on the one
hand, the fermenting beer now develops a consi-
derable head due to the carbon dioxide which is
 900
produced, and on the other hand, there is the risk
of foreign micro-organisms passing into the beer
which could chan ge its taste, it is better to look
arOlmd for a fermentation vessel which can be
sealed, and which by m eans of a fermenta tion
closure should en able the release of CO, w hilst
preventing the entry of contaminants. Moreover
a fermentation closu re clearly sh ows when fe r-
mentation has finished. Containers of this ty pe
are, for example, fermentation balloons w ith a
fermentation closlLre or even better are party
kegs or syrup containers with the appropria te fit-
tings and dispense possibilities using CO,.
8 been used and how much - otherwise the great
When the wort has cooled to 6 to 8 DC the ye-
ast is added and stirred in thoroughly. With the
end of boiling the largest problem commences.
From then on micro-organisms can pass into
the b eer. These can no longe r be removed and
can completely ruin the beer. Lactic acid and
ace tic acid producing b ac teria are present
everY'",here and can acidify the b eer in n o time
at all and m ake it wlacceptably sour. Every-
thin g possible must therefore be done to keep
micro-organisms out of the w or t and beer. Ho-
w ever, this is very difficult under the conditions
u sed by hobby brewers.
For fermentation and m aturation the fermen-
tation vessel should be placed in as cool a place
as p ossible (6 to 8 DC) and the beer left quietly
for about a week to ferm ent. The end of fe rmen-
tation is indicated by a dirty brown foam layer
on the b eer w h ich can be removed ca refully
w ith a boiled foam rem oving sp oon . The beer
still does no t taste good since it must first ma tu-
re. That occurs onl y after filling.
No-one wish es to drink 50 to 100 litres all a t
once and so it must be carefully filled into bott-
les . In order to obtain CO, production by a se-
condary fermentation, and thus to produce a
pressure in the bo ttle, a teaspoon of boiled su-
gar syrup is added to each bottle. This should
be - also fo r quality reason s - the only su ga r
production during beer production . The bottles
a re closed w ith crown corks or better with a
swing stopper o r screw closure, a second ary
fermenta tion is allowed to occu r for a week at
about 18 DC, then the bottles are stored cool and
the beer consumed as soon as possible.
In addition to this "standard brew ", testing of
the numerou s p ossible varia tions of the grist
composition and the use of possible additives
is, as in the case of pub brewing, extrem ely en-
joyable. Even when a composition d oes n ot ta-
s te so good, one should not become d iscoura-
ged but should m ake further tests.
However, always m a ke no tes on w h at h as
su ccess canno t be repea ted . Enjoy yourself ex-
perimenting !
Most hobby brewers begin their brewing at-
tempts in the kitchen o r its vicinity. It then d oes
n ot take long until there is trouble with m others
becau se one constantly needs some thing, b e it a
ladle or a sieve or a good sau cepan . And then
the u tensils are not always cleaned properly.
Such senten ces then u sually b egin w ith the
words: have you been .. .
This causes many hobby brewers, particularly
if they are determ ined, to invest a little more m o-
ney in their hobby in tlle form of somewhat better
equipment. Such equipment is available nowa-
d ays at brewing trade fairs in every price range,
whereby several friends frequently club together
to buy even better or larger or more ath'active
equipment and thus produce even better beer and
have more hm Witll brewing. Nowadays tllis de-
velopment can be seen all over the world.
Beer production fulishes with lagerulg here,
too. Filtration and filliIl g lmder the exclusion of
air and aseptic conditions would be far too labo-
rious and expensive in tlus sm all format. If it is not
desired that the fuushed beer is tapped from tlle
lagerulg vessel for a famil y celebration, it should
be filled Ulto bottles as previously described and
secondary fe rmentation performed there Witll the
addition of sugar for the prod uction of CO,.
9 I Waste disposal and the environment
Du ring the manu fac tu re of beer a number of
substan ces are p ro duced w llich must be d ispo-
sed of, prevented or rep rocessed . These include
Ul pa rticular
waste wa ter with its po llution load,
spent grains and sp ent hops,
tr ub,
excess yeas t,
kieselg uhr slurry,
label residues,
broken g lass,
smells from the brewhouse,
exh au s t gas fro m the b oil er plant,
the n oise produced a t m an y locations,
d ust from the raw ma te rials,
packa g ing residues,
re turned cans, glass an d PET bo ttles,
amongs t others .
9.1 Environmental legislation
The times when one could dispose of these
things oneself w ithout an y probl em are long
past. Nowad ays in m ost cOlmtries there are re-
gula tions to ma ke sure that these substances are
dealt with in a proper m anner if their occurren -
ce itself crumot be prevented .
Th e basic issues are regula ted by the recy-
cling and was te disposal laws of the individual
cOlUl tries. The aim of en vironmental legisla tion
is to en sure that the rul10unt of rubbish and wa-
ste produced is continuously d ecreased so that
in the end the process is p erfo rm ed without rulY
ru bbish or waste at all, in tha t subs tan ces are re-
peatedly used (recycled) .
Even in countries which d o n ot ye t h ave en vi-
ron mentallegisla tion, it soon becom es evident
that in creasing p ollution affec ts all areas of life
and fi nally lead s to a paralysis of commlmity li-
901
fe which ca n have da ngero us consequences.
Observa tion of env ironme ntal regula tions is
therefore of param ount impo rtance for b rewe-
ries in every cowltry.
In Ge rmrulY numerous environm ental laws
are ex tremely impor tant. These ulclude Ul pa r-
ticula r:
The Fed eral Emissions Control Act w ith 21
by-laws, including
1. BIm SchV - combus tion plants VO 9
• 4. BImSch V - plants requiring au thorisa-
tion
• 9. BImSchV - authorisation p rocedure
11. BlmSch V - Sta tem ent of Emissions
by-law
• 12. BImSch V - MalflUlction by-law
• Teclulica l Instruction for Air
• Teclulica l Instruction for Noise
Env ironment Li ability Ac t,
Federal Wa ter Ac t includulg
Was te Wa ter Origin Act,
Indirect Discha rge Act and
• 1/11 Was te Wa ter Admulis trative Regulati-
on
Was te Wa ter Ch arges Ac t,
Refu se Ac t includ mg
• Rehlse DefiIlition O rdulance,
Residual Material Defuli tion Ord inrul ce,
Sewage Sludge Ordinrul ce,
Used Oil Ordinance,
Packaging Ordin an ce,
O rdulan ce regardiIlg the Re turn of Plas tic
Packagulg,
Energy Saving Act,
Chemicals Act inclu d ulg
• H azard ou s Ma terials Ordinance,
• P rohibition of PCB, PCT, VC Ordin ance,
• Prohibition of FCKW, Halon Ord in ance, etc.

902
No t without ca use, mos t areas of en viron-
mental law deal with waste wa ter as this is also
the area of most concern.
9.2 Waste water
With the exception of the water which is contai-
ned in the beer itself or the by-p roducts, or is
evaporated, every drop of water used ends up
as waste water.
It can therefore be calculated that excep t for
up to 1.8 to 2.5 hI of water p er hI of beer, the rest
of the total wa ter used b ecomes waste water.
With 6 hI of water used per hI of beer, that me-
ans there are 3.5 to 4.2 hl of waste water/hi beer;
with lower wa ter usage rates the value is corre-
spondingly lower.
On the way through the brewery the water
picks up or dissolves many substances. Brewe-
ry waste water contains:
beer and wort residues,
last rW1nings,
waste water containing trub,
waste water containing yeast,
waste water from the CIP plant,
waste caustic from the CIP plant,
acid from the CIP plant,
black caustic from the PVPP filter,
w as te water containing kieselgulU',
alkaline cleaning water,
warm, dirty waste water and in particular
waste caustic from the bottle cleaner contai-
nmg
insoluble substances su ch as shredded paper
from labels, slurries, etc.
soluble substances such as adhesive, caustic,
m etal salts,
traces of oil and fat from plant lubricants,
residual beer from rehlrned bottles, casks and
kegs,
beer sprayed off the filler.
Even the belt lubricant from the slat plate belt
also finally ends up in the waste water - it does
not disappear.
903
These substances increase the concentration ly polluting the soil. (Nevertheless in the bre- ment slud ge and must be avoided as much as
of impu rities in the waste water. If this concen- wery, as before, nitric acid is used in the CIP possible.
tration is multiplied by the corresponding p lant to dissolve beer stone) . Acids, ca ustic solutions, cleaning and d isin-
amOlmt of waste wa ter, the waste wa ter load is fecting agen ts are also dangerous substances
obtained. Special attention is also paid to wa ter-endan- for w hich tested storage tanks and - as for
gering or d angerous substances because they
These waste wate r loads require large capaci- hea ting oil - collecting troughs or double
ty trea tment plants and cause regular cleaning endanger h ealth . These include salts of me- walled containers are stipulated .
costs in the form of increased waste wa ter char- tals su ch as m ercur y, lead, cad mium and In Germany the following h armful substan -
ges. To save costs, measures to reduce the waste clU'omium, but also AOX and halogen ated ces or groups of harmful substances are consi-
wa ter load are required, su ch as m easures to hydrocarbons. These s ubstan ces rem ain in dered to be equivalent to the lU1its of damage
hold b ack the was te and recycling. These pro- the water after wa ter treatmen t or in the trea t- sh own:
blems play an increasingly important role par-
Harmful substance One d amage unit corresponds Threshold value depending
ticularly in the highly indu strialised countries. or group to the followin g measurement on concentration and
unit alU1uai am ount
9.2.1 Waste water costs 9
Communities and waste water associations are Oxidisable material 50 kg 0 , 20 mg/l
legally obliged to make consi derable invest- in COD 250 kg atmual amOlU1t
ments for waste wa ter trea tment. In addition
Phosphorous 3 kg 0.1 mg/l
very large sums must be spent for the renovati-
15 kg annual amount
on of defective sewage systems. The costs of
these m easures mus t be recovered from the Nitrogen 25 kg 5 mg/1
contributors as decid ed by the community. 125 kg annual amount
Consequently the waste water charges, inclu-
ding the sewage pipework costs which someti- Organic halogen 2 kg 100 m g/l
mes amolU1t to more than h alf the cost, will in- compOlmds as AOX 10 kg annual amolmt
crease in the foreseeable future.
Metals and compounds Thresh old AlU1uai
Additional charges for heavily polluted wa-
for amount
ter, w hich almost all breweries pay, dri ve the concentration
costs for waste water treatment even higher.
For all these reasons breweries have been for- • Mercury 20 g 1 100 g
ced to consider very seriously how the costs for • Cadmium 100 g 5 Fg/l 500 g
waste water disposal can be substanti ally redu- • Chromium 500 g 50 2.5 kg
• Nickel 500 g 50 Fg/l 2.5 kg
ced.
• Lead 500 g 50 Fg/l 2.5 kg
Certain substances are rega rded as pm·ticu-
• Copper 1000 g 100 Fg/l 5.0kg
lady damaging to the envirOlUl1ent and large fi-
nancial penalties have been placed on their in-
troduction into public waste water system s. It is now necessary to explain here the positi- Indirect dischargers: these are fir ms which in-
Substances rega rded as par ticularly harmful on w ith regard to legal responsibility when in- troduce their waste wa ter throu gh the com-
to the environment are: troducing waste water into the trea ted water sy- mlmal water treatment plant, and
Nitrogen in the form of nitrates stem (Fig. 9.1 ). Direct dischargers: th ese are firms w hi ch
EnvirolUl1ental damage by nitrates has recei- discharge their waste water after cleaning di-
ved much attention. Nitrate passing into the There are two groups of waste water dischar- rectly into a public surface water l'lm-off sy-
ground water and waste wa ter is increasing- gers, namely stem (brook, stream or river) .
 905
904

thus, for example, for COOs above 500 mg/l vessel is used. This has a flUmel shape at the bot- Instead of the KMnO. method there is ano t-
The water discharged in.to the nUl-off system is
up to 1000 mg/l + 0.25 EUR/m 3 was te wa ter tom. Measmement is made after 2 h settling. her method wluch u ses a solution of potassium
subject to the Domestic Water Regulations. These
also include the Waste Water Discharge regulati- up to 3000 m g/l + 0.50 EUR/m 3 waste wa ter dichromate (K,Cr,0 7) in sulphuric acid. With
ons with the maximlUll permissible discharge li- above 3000 m g/I + 0.75 EUR/m 3 waste wa ter BODs this method the orgaluc compounds are com-
Waste water is very expensive and tlu'eatens to The BODs is the biochemical oxygen demand of pletely oxidised according to their theoretica l
nuts and damage lUUt data listed above.
be increasin gly expensive in futme . It is therefo- the waste water, i. e. the amount consumed in a oxygen requirement. The boiling tim e necessa-
Before that, however, the Local Community
re necessary to consider how to improve the qua- period of 5 da ys at a temperature of 20 °C by ry is 2 h. This method has repl aced the previo-
Law applies up to the discharge into the run-off
lity of waste water, to limit the amOlUlt of waste bacteria. us COD standard method.
system . The waste waters discharged by brewe-
water and thus reduce costs. In order to do this, To determine the BOD, the instantaneous oxy-
ry A as indirect introducer into the communal
however, a few terms must be explained wludl gen content (8 to 9 mg 0 ,11) of the water sample Wn s te wnter fond
sewage network and the communal trea tment
previously have been used inaccurately. to be measured is first established. TIlen the oxy- By waste water load is meant the product of the
plant are processed in the communal water
gen content of a second sample wluch has been amount of waste wa ter (in m 3) by the BODs con-
treatment plant, but the pollution load they
9.2.2 Definition of terms used relating to stored closed for 5 days at 20 °C is measmed. TIle centration (in g/m 3 ).
contain is charged to the brewery.
waste water difference in oxygen content is the BODs. Howe-
The Association of local community sewage
authorities which is responsible for the operati- The following term s are used in connection ver, because a water sa mple is rarely so clean that ResideHt eqllivnlellce vnllle 9
with waste water: it still contains any dissolved oxygen after 5 days, The resident equivalence value is a ratio wluch
on of the commlUlal sewage treatment plants
sedimentable solids, an amOlUlt of pure water saturated with oxygen ex presses, for comparison, the amount of pollu-
establishes maximum values, in order to pro-
BODS' must be added to the waste water sample so that tion which a resident of a middle European
tect the pipework and an optimally operating
COD, there is still at least 2 mg 0 ,11present after 5 days country produces in 200 I of waste water per
treatment process in the sewage plant. These in-
waste water load, (dilution method). d ay. TIle following basic values have been esta-
clude, for example:
resident equivalence value. A few guidelines for BODS concentrations blished for this:
tempera tures up to 35 °C,
are shown as follows:
pH values between 6 and 9 (10) .
Sedilllelltnble solids domestic waste water 300 mg 0 ,11 mg/l = g/m3 inorgani c organi c total BOD,
By sedimentable solids is meant those wluch, be- brewery waste water 1200 mg 0 ,11 sed imen tabl e
The so-called heavy polluters and waste wa-
cause of their greater density compared to the treatment plant outflow 20 mg 0 ,11 mate ri al 20 30 50 20
ter concentrations which greatly exceed those
waste sink to the bottom. To measure them last numings up to 10,000 mg 0 ,11 non -sed i men table
of domestic waste water are charged increased
rates by the community and additional charges, a 40 cm tall, 1 I capacity Imhoff sedimentation pressed spent sllspend ed
grains water up to 15,000 mg 0 ,11 materi a l 5 10 15 10
beer about 80,000 mg 0 ,11 dissolved
ma teri al 75 50 125 30
CO D to ta l 100 90 190 60
I nalional and regionallegis/alion
community legislalion TIle chenucal oxygen demand (COD) is deter- (g/resident/day)
.'.
I (IJomeslic Waler Regulalions - mined from the reaction of a sh'ong oxidising
I WHG)
agent with the oxidisable orgmuc mld inorganic
i surface lValer
substances in the waste water. Previously potas- The load per resident is about 60 g BODs a
.I I run-olf syslem
l' (brook, river) silUn permmlgmlate (KMnO.) in acidic solution day.
locality -"T".;.r:)
communallrealmenl planl l -........ I I was usually employed. The method is very easy these definitions vary from COW1-
and quick to perform. In Germany the sample is try to cmUltry.
II: \' I /1 \I Wasle Waler
Discharge regula/ions boiled for 10 min . In England the sample is usu-
ally kept at 27 °C for 4 hours. However, tlus me- 9.2.3 Waste water treatment
!! thod gives values wluch indicate different con- There are very mmly substances in waste water
1/ 1\ Fig. 9.1
Direct dischnrgers nlld illdirect
centrations when different pollutmlts are present which can be decomposed by micro-orgmu sms.
discllnrgers and consequently it should not be used. For this, however, the micro-organisms require
906
oxygen . It is therefore possible to go a long way
towards cleaning the water through the intro-
duction of air. This results in the formation of
activated sludge which is interfused with aero-
bic micro-organisms. This is called aerobic
treatment of the water. Because the air does not
simply pass into the water, energy must be used
to introduce the air.
If no air is used, the waste water is slowly de-
composed by putrefying bacteria. This results
first in the production of organic acids by hy-
drolysis and then biogas (methane) is produ-
ced. This is referred to as anaerobic treatment of
the water. In comparison with the aerobic treat-
ment the removal of the waste water pollution
is less and at the same time the amount of ex-
cess slurry is less. Biogas is produced which can
produce energy when burned.
Both processes - aerobic and anaerobic - are
used in practice; modern plants are frequently
anaerobic plants with a subsequent aerobic stage.
AEROBIC TREATMENT
Multistage: atrobic bioloqicaillealme:nt
(only with
fullcle:aning)
!
I i
ae:ratton
Fig. 9.2
Aerobic wnste wnter tren tllwllt (prillciple)
907
9.2.3.1 Aerobic waste water treatment plants Large roughened plastic discs, 2 to 3 m in dia- Carbon in CO2 = 50 %
There are many different aerobic waste water are attached at short spacings on a horizon-
treatment plants and they can be divided into tal shaft and are about 40% immersed in the wa- Organic carbon
in waste water
three groups: ste water. They are slowly rotated mechanically 100 %
1. Activnted sludge bnsil1s nl1d troughs aJld aerobic micro flora grow on them and slowly Carbon
in sewage
These are large basins up to 50 m long and breal<down material in the waste water. Basically, sludge
= 50%
with a water depth of 3 m in which the waste aerobic methods are as shown in Fig. 9.2.
water is supplied with oxygen through aera-
ting devices. At the same time these aerators 9.2.3.2 Anaerobic waste water treatment Residua; carbon in nm'oll = 1 %
homogenise the waste water and prevent the plants
sludge from settling. Anaerobic processes have been used success-
2. Specinl renctors fully for many yea rs for highly polluted waste a) Carbon balance in the
aerobic activated sludge process
These are devices in which the waste water is wa ters from sugar factories, wood pulp facto-
subjected to intense aeration. The slurry there- ries, distilleries, etc . and have also become of
by produced is removed by special equipment. more interest to other sectors of industry, such 9
Cilfbon in blogas 90 - 95 %
3. Renctors cOl1tnil1il1g illllllobilised bioll1nss as breweries, since energy in the form of com-
In these reactors the biomass remains perma- bustible methane gas can be recovered. Moreo-
nently in contact with the waste water and at Organic carbon
ver no energy is required in this case to opera- in wasle lValer
the same time is supplied with oxygen . A ty- te the aeration device. A great deal of energy is 100 %
pical representative is the rotating screen fer- required for this in the case of aerobic treat-
menter. ment.
Anaerobic treatment plants usually consist of
large cylindrical or cylindroconical digestion Organic residual
carbon in excess slurl'j 1 - 5 %
(decomposition) tanks in which d ecomposition
processes occur at constant temperahue. The
process is divided into several stages (Fig. 9.3)
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT
at the end of which mainly methane (biogas) is b) Carbon balance in Ihe
from the plant
buffer - - CSJ produced. The process requires uniform loa-
ding and highly skilled persOllllel are needed to Fig .9.4
anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds
J
from the plant operate the plant because the anaerobic bacteria Cnrboll balallces ill aerobic nlld nIInerobic lIlethods
Llsed are highly discriminating gourmets ma-
acidifitationstage: methane:stagt: king high demands on their enviromnent. consideration with regard to the trea tment of
The carbon balance in anaerobic processes is brewery waste water.
en
very different to that in aerobic processes (Fig.
9.4). Whilst in the case of aerobic processes 9.2.3.3 Amount and composition of brewery
about 50% is converted to sludge and about waste water
50 % escapes as CO2, in anaerobic processes mo- Waste water is not produced at a luliform rate or
re than 90% can be recovered as methane and
:, ===
to the surfact
clarifYing plant
or ae:fobkslage:
Llsed as a source of energy.
with a constant composition in the brewery. There
are peak times on certain days and small flows at
UttsS slurry
control, dosage: I setting
For the treatment of waste water in tlle brewe- night or at the weekend. Often the waste water is
pH valvte:tc
ry, anaerobic plants with a subsequent aerobic very alkaline and hot when, for example, hot
Fig. 9.3 stage are being increasingly used these days. water baths of the bottle cleaning machine
Allnerobic wnste wnter trentl1lell t (prillciple) There is, however, another very important are emptied, or
908 909

very acidic when the spent acid from the CIP
plant is discharged, or
dark in colour and very alkaline when the re-
cycling caustic from a PVPP filter is drained
off.
One is never safe from surprises with waste
water, principally because there are some em-
ployees who consider the drain in the floor to
be the final cure-all. If the inspector of the sewa-
ge control authority arrives at such an inconve-
nient moment, there is inevitably a great deal of
trouble. The brewery is then forbidden to use
the public water treatment facilities by revoca-
tion of permission to feed in waste water and is
forced to pay surcharges for heavy pollution lo-
ads and damages which the commlmity is entit-
led to charge.
However, it is not only the large amounts of
alkali or spent acid, which are only occasional-
ly released, there are also the continuously oc-
curring small residues of tank bottoms, break,
spent grains or kieselguhr which make the pla-
ce look dirty and are simply rinsed away. There
are also the residues which always occur in the
bottling hall, such as for example [83]:
In waste water Resulting waste
water load in g
COD/hi beer
Beer rinsed off
With this waste water flow alone it is difficu lt
to maintain or be below a target guideline of 4.0
hI waste water/hI beer with a maximum COD of
600 g/hl in order to save surcharges for heavy
pollution loads.
Waste water treatment is more expensive
than waste water prevention. From this point of
view the prevention of waste water is of parti-
cular significance. This should be a matter of
consideration in the brewery.
Particular importance is put on the waste wa-
ter treatment. One possibility for the treatment
of waste water is to employ an aerated mixing
and balancing tank, able to equalise the d aily or
weekly output, to collect the output and make it
more consistent and possibly to neutralise it.
Advantages:
acidic and alkaline waste waters neutralise
each other and thereby prevent too high a
pH,
temperature differences are equalised and
there are no more unacceptably high tempe-
ratures,
very strong colours are to a large extent dilu-
ted,
amounts of waste water released can be con-
trolled and also distributed over the night ti-
me hours and weekends,
because of the reduction of the waste water
9.2.3.4 Waste water treatment with mixing and
equalising tanks
The mixing and equalising tanks (System VLB)
consist of
a circular tank similar to a silage container,
an immersion aerator for aeration and mixing,
a controllmit for the aeration and control of
the process,
a drainage control system.
A distinction can be made between two basic
types:
Type A - Plants in which the biomass is not
held back and is therefore washed out with the
waste water. For breweries with water which is
not too polluted there are
small tanks with the capacity to equalise a
day's output and
large tanks with the capacity to equalise a
week's output.
Type B - Plants in which the biomass is retai-
ned designed as
PhrTJe 1
3
1
tanks to equalise a day's output or
tanks to equalise a week's output.
Using type B2 as a tank to equalise a week's
output the following is achieved:
a 90 to 95% biological decomposition,
a reliable neutralisation of all polluting loads,
and
a uniformly purified waste water.
The type B2 equalising tanks operate in four
stages (Fig. 9.5):
Stage 1:
Starting position - the tank contains only the ap-
proximately 1.5 m high biomass layer. This con- 9
dition occurs at the earliest on Slmday everting.
Stage 2:
Equalisation, neutralisation and biological de-
gradation - at the start of work on Monday the
production waste water flows into the tank. The
tank fills slowly and the aerator operates at in-
tervals depending on the oxygen utilisation.
The biological decomposition of the organic
Phase 2

/,
=
0.96 ml/bottle 23 load there is no high pollution surcharge.
Beer residues
1.6 - 2.6 ml/bottle
Extract from labels
38.4 - 62.4 There are also cases where the local sewage
regulatory authority can advantageously use
,
25 - 37.5 mg COD/bottle 5 - 7.5 the composition of the brewery waste water to
Label adhesive 6 compensate for the properties of the quite diffe- PhtrIe .3 Phcm: 't
Intermediate total 72.4 - 128.9 g COD/hi rent domestic waste water. The circumstances
Fig. 9.5
differ from town to town and a brewery is well Wnste wnter trentmellt by the ScJlII-
This is a permanent flow loading the waste
water and one is hardly able to control the
amolmt of beer residues, sent back by custo-
mers, which are discharged during bottle
advised to cooperate with the local authority in
this ma tter.
In this connection waste water treatment
with mixing and balancing tanks is particularly
IIWIIII IILB process IIsillg mixillg nlld
eqllnlisillg tnllks

1 = illlet
t
.:. . .
1\
..
2 =olltlet
cleaning. important [80]. 3 = immersioll nerntor
 910
substances occurs with the formation of the car-
bon dioxide required for neutralisation.
Stage 3:
Sedimentation - the biomass separates and sett-
les, whereas the cleaned water collects above it.
Stage 4:
The cleaned sediment-free waste water is led
off. For drainage a floater device is used in or-
der always to remove the cleanest water from
the top.
Stages 3 and 4 occur after every fresh charge
9 of waste water. There are several of these per
day. Under defined conditions, the amount of
sludge in the tank increases only slightly. After
production pauses, old sludge is decomposed
by autolysis and endogenous respiration. The
inorganic substances formed by the breakdown
leave the tank as dissolved and no longer sedi-
mentable material. The removal of sludge asso-
ciated with excess sludge production is not ne-
cessary.
Because of increasing waste water costs, wa-
ter treatment will in the coming years place
even greater demands on breweries.
9.3 Residues and waste material
It is, not only waste water but also ot-
her waste material which must be disposed of
by breweries. It can be assumed that the follo-
wing amOtU1ts of waste materials occur [100]:
Type of waste kg/hi sales beer
Spent malt and hops 18.86
Surplus yeast 2.64
Hot break 1.42
Cold break 0.22
Kieselguhr sludge 0.62
Malt dust 0.12
Labels/paper 0.29
Packaging material 0.04
There are thus subs tantial amounts of waste
which must be d ealt with in every brewery.
Today many breweries are still able to dispose
of some of these waste substances relatively
cheaply. Increasing costs, however, compel ever
more breweries to decompose the waste materi-
als themselves. The anaerobic decomposition
process has an increasing role in this.
9.3.1 Spent malt and hops
Every dt of grist results in about 110 to 130 kg
wet spent grains with a 70 to 80 % water content
or about 20 kg/hi sales beer (see Sect. 3.3.5).
It can thus be assumed that ammally about
200 t of wet spent grains are produced per
10,000 hi of sales beer (= 4 t/week).
The Foodstuffs, Consumer Goods and Ani-
mal Feed Code stipulates the protection of the
consumer in the area of food and animal feed
by prevention of, or defence against, risks to
human health. This means that in the case of
animal feed too, care has to be taken in the pro-
tection of animals by preventing risks to animal
health. This means that if spent grains and ye-
ast are used as animal feed, as a foodstuff they
are equated with beer and for reasons of food
safety must be considered as such. This requi-
res a certified quality assurance system. These
legal regulations must in future be strictly ob-
served when decisions are taken regarding use
as animal feed.
It is very advantageous to sell these spent
grains as cattle feed. In many districts this has
proved very successful, because spent grains
are a valuable additional food, but there are al-
so regions in which the farmers have no need
for it or there are no farmers.
Particularly in summer many farmers are not
prepared to take spent grains. Drying them -
and thereby making them storable - only ma-
kes sense when they can be sold for 4 to 5 times
the price, and that is even more doubtful.
Fig. 9.6
Spell t graill colI/vllstioll plnllt
(1) wet spellt graill silo
(2) velt press
(3) riry spellt grnill silo
(4) riosillg screw
(5) colI/vllstioll voileI'
(6) stenll/
(7) nil' filt er
(8) nil' preilenter
(9) rillst filt er
(10) flll e
Increasingly therefore, the spent grains are
used in combustion or biogas recovery, thus
providing energetic benefit in addition to the
grain disposal. In order to be able to burn the
spent grains, a spent grain combustion plant
has to be used (Fig. 9.6) [348,350], in which the
water content firstly has to be reduced from 70
to 80% down to approx. 42%.
Since the costs of thermal drying are too high,
it either occurs by means of a tube btmdle dry-
er (Vetter, Kassel) or belt dryer (Fig. 9.7). Here,
the spent grains are pressed between two belts
with increasing pressure so that a continuous
dewatering occurs tmtil a water content of 42 to
45% is achieved. At the end of this process the
spent grains, which are now pre-dried and lar-
gely biologically stable, are fed into a dry silo.
The spent grains dried in this way are fed via
a dosing screw into a combustion boiler (Fig.
9. 8) where the thermal reaction occurs. The
energy recovered is returned to the production
in the form of saturated or hot steam. The ex-
haus t gases are cleaned and used to preheat the
combustion air.
From 1 t wet spent grain « 80% water con-
tent), it is possible to produce 1.4 t steam (1
911
9
MWh thermal energy) . Using this method, up
to 90% of the primary energy in the brewery
can be supplied. Furthermore, old labels can al-
so be burnt in this way and used for energy pro-
duction. The ash, which is rich in phosphates (9
kg per t spent grains with a phosphate content
of 60 %), is in demand as a fertiliser additive.
The press water (520 litres per t spent grains)
has a high BODs and is beneficial in the produc-
tion ofbiogas. Combustion of the spent grains
thus results in considerable advantages for the
brewery, which redeem the costs of the plant in
a relatively short time.
A disadvantage is that the belt press has a
tendency to become clogged so that the pre-
drying process does not always occur at the de-
sired level. Also, the cleaning of the flue gases
also requires an expensive plant owing to the
tightening of the Air Directive.
Another option for the recycling of spent beer
grains is anaerobic fermentation - together
with the tank bottom yeast and the break. The
problem with this is that the cellulose and he-
micellulose fraction, which makes up to 50 %, is
very difficult to break down. Recent tests [366]
work with mixed enzymes to achieve an enzy-
 912
matic breakdown of these extremely resistant
9 cOlnpowlds. As a result of the combustion of
the biogas produced, up to 35% of the energy
requirement can be covered by the fe rmentati-
on of the spent beer grains [366] .
Fig.9.B
COlllbllStioll fllmace witll stealll gellerntioll
In contrast, spent hops are no longer an im-
portant topic. Intact hop cones are scarcely used
4 weve r, the informa tion provided in Sect. 9.3.1
Fig. 9.7
Belt drlfer (Flottweg, lIilsbibllrg)
(1) belt 1
(2) belt 2
(3) wet SPellt graill illfeed
(4) dry spellt grnill discllnlge
(5) belt cienller
any more. TIlere are also hardly any breweries
with hop sieves because of the work and losses
involved. When natural hops are used they are fi-
nely milled and form part of the break.
The cans and foil packets in which the extract
or foil pellets are delivered are put in the refuse
and are partly recycled.
9.3.2 Break
Break occurs as a trub cone in the whirlpool,
more rarely as a discharged material from sepa-
rators or settling tanks. In every case the break
still contains wort which can be recovered.
Most breweries pump the cloudy wort as spar-
ging water into the lauter tlU1 to recover this
wort and at the same time to convert the pro-
tein-rich break, which is a good source of nu-
trients for cattle, into a useful form . Those w ho
do not wish to have the lower quality cloudy
wort in the wort kettle add it directly to the
spent grains.
9.3.3 Surplus yeast
A large amount of the yeast after use is surplus,
or waste, yeast. Tank bottom yeast has a COD
value of 0.53 kg/hi and therefore belongs to the
very strong oxygen removing materials. Yeast
must therefore under no circumstances pass in-
to the waste water since it would soon lead to
putrefaction there.
It can be ass umed th at atUl ually about 15 to
18 t of surplus yeast per 10,000 hi of sales beer
must be d ealt w ith .
The best solution is, of course, to sell the pro-
tein and vitam ill-rich yeast as ca ttle feed. Ho-
regarding food safety mu st be observed. For
storage it must be stea med as soon as possible
becau se otherwi se it s ta rts to ferment in the
cows' stomachs and causes severe colic. Fur-
thermore the yeas t very rapidly s tarts to autoly-
se atld the gases produ ced a re very lU1pleasant.
The yeast is dried and added to the mixed
fodder. It can also be used in the pharmaceuti-
cal industry in the recovery of vitamins. The op-
tion of recycling in a biogas plant has already
been discussed above.
9.3.4 Kieselguhr slurry
One can expect about 500 g of kieselguhr slurry
per hi of filtered beer. Consequently there will
be 5 t kieselguhr slurry per 10,000 hi of sales
beer. In GermatlY, about 70,000 t of kieselguhr
slurry accumula te annually.
Since 1 July 2005, this kieselguhr slurry Catl
no longer be disposed of as dom estic waste.
The disposal of hazardous waste incurs con-
siderably higher costs.
The reprocessing of kieselguhr is, in compari-
son with improper disch a rge into the waste wa-
ter drain, very laborious and expensive. In the
Tremonis process using a heat treatment of the
kieselguhr slurry the costs are necessarily high
[54]. TIle gulU' Catl, however, be used again to
replace up to 50% of the kieselguhr atld so the
amount of new guhr needed is reduced.
Kieselguhr in sedimentation tanks atld in wa-
ste water pipes Catl in time become solidified so
that it sets like cement and is then very difficult
to remove.
For this reason, and because of rising diSpo-
sal costs, attempts must be made to get rid of
the guhr at a favourable cost. One possibility is
913
to compress the kieselguhr slurry to a wa ter
content below 50% to obtain a product which
can be crumbled . Suitable kieselguhr presses
are band filters or chamber filter presses [1 41].
In this form the guhr can be distributed on the
ground by farmers u sing available spreaders
[101] . The spent kieselguhr, with the yeas t cells
it contains, is a valuable nitrogen -rich soil im-
prover and plant fertiliser for farmers. Moreo-
ver it also improves the water retention capaci-
ty of sa ndy soils without adversely affecting the
g round wa te r.
Spent g uhr contains yeas t which soon begins
to auto lyse . As a result the protein it contains is
decomposed and strong smelling ammonia is 9
released and its unpleasant presence is soon de-
tected . This must be taken ca re of by temporary
s torage of the guhr.
Nowadays the co-use of spent kieselguhr for
the manufacture of bricks, asphalt or concrete is
being considered [88] .
Because of the high costs there is atl interest
in finding more economic methods to replace
kieselguhr for beer filtration (cross-flow filtrati-
on or kieselguhr fre e substitutes) .
9.3.5 Old labels
About 1.5 t of old labels which must be disposed
of are obtained each year from the bottle cleaning
machine per 10,000 hi capacity of re turnable bott-
les. TIle amolU1t can be greater depending on the
size of the labels atld number used .
One does not Watlt the labels to dissolve com-
pletely or to diSintegrate. Aluminium foils re-
quire a higher caustic concentration, and more
frequent changes, in the bottle cleane r to release
them. Moreover they Catl cause explosions du-
ring bottle cleaning.
In the bottle washing m achine the labels are
sieved off and then pressed becau se they still
contain some caustic.
Disposal of used labels causes problems be-
cause recycling is very energy intensive and re-
 914
sults in only a low yield of useful paper pulp.
Consequently most used labels end up on the
dump.
There are also disposal problems because
there are always fragments of glass bottles and
crown corks amongst the labels which can easi-
ly cause damage to comminution mills and
must be removed before the paper is reproces-
sed.
Recently a possible application has been sug-
gested [88] for used labels in brick manufacture
as a filler which can be burnt out, or for burning
during spent grain combustion (Sect. 9.3.1).
This provides a good method of disposal while
9 recovering energy.
9.3.6 Broken glass
Glass breakage in a brewery depends greatly
on the quality of the glass. It can be assumed
that with average glass quality, annually 0.5%
i.e. about 3.5 t of broken glass is produced per
10,000 hi capacity of returnable bottles. In the
case of bottle material with 1.5% breakage, the
amOlmt can increase to 11 t per 10,000 hI of re-
turnable bottles annually.
The broken glass is collected in containers
and regularly disposed of. Usually the glass is
sent back to a glass manufacturer for rep'oces-
sing.
9.3.7 Beer cans
Empty beer cans are easily damaged because of
their extremely thin walls. It must therefore be
assumed that about 3 to 4 % of the cans Calmot
be filled and are rejected. One must therefore
expect an alulual amOlmt of steel Call waste in
the brewery of about 380 to 400 kg per 10,000 hi
of beer in steel cans. When aluminium CallS are
used the value is halved.
The cans are compressed alld sent back for re-
processing.
With the increasing amolmt of cans used, in
many cOlmtries there are disposal problems be-
cause some people leave empty cans in public
places along with other litter such as packaging
material, paper and bottles. In many counties,
however, it has been possible to collect empty
cans, compress them and send them back for re-
cycling.
It is possible to recycle both steel and alumi-
nium cans. Aluminium is the only substance
which can be recycled practically without limits
for similar applications and is thus particularly
enviromllentally friendly. Whilst the producti-
on of new aluminium requires a large amolmt
of electrical energy, recycling requires relative-
ly little energy.
9.3.8 Minor sources of waste
In addition to the sources of waste mentioned,
which in general are neatly collected alld remo-
ved, in every brewery there are also smaller
amounts of waste material which in time accu-
mulate. These include, for example
cardboard and carton packaging material,
waste paper from administration and produc-
tion departments,
foil and plastic waste,
waste wood,
scraps of various metals,
old tyres,
old batteries,
cleaning cloths,
kitchen waste,
lime sludge,
oils and fats,
solvents,
residues of oil alld fat removers.
It always pays to collect such materials separa-
tely since they are then easier to sell or get rid of.
The waste mOlmtains are growing bigger in
every country with increasing consumption
and greater industrialisation. Consequently all
countries are compelled sooner or later to take
measures to avoid being "suffocated" by it.
Thus to an increasing extent attempts must be
made to take care of all the was te and recycle as
mu ch as possible. This involves high costs, but
these are lower when it is possible to collect the
individual types of waste separately.
9.4 Emissions
9.4.1 Dust and dust emissions
Dus t is produced during malt intake, malt
transport and milling in a dry mill which - apart
from the risk of explosions - can cause obstruc-
tions. It must be removed by suction, separati-
on and collection.
Dust is exh'act rich but this is not good quality
extract. The dust is collected in sacks or silos and
sent to the dump or added to the spent grains.
9.4.2 Brewhouse emissions
During wort boiling water containing volatile
wort and hop components evaporates. It is the-
refore often possible near a brewery to detect
when wort is boiled by the smell produced.
This can, according to the Federal Emissions
Prevention Law, be fOlmd to be an odour pollu-
tion.
Use of a kettle vapour condenser greatly re-
duces these emissions alld they are almost com-
pletely suppressed by use of vapour compressi-
on.
9.4.3 Exhaust gas emissions
In general in the case of boiler plants the thres-
hold limits are observed by use of a suitable fu-
el (natural gas or extra-light heating oil) [84] .
To keep below the limit set for oxides of nitro-
gen (NOX) and CO
in the case of smaller stationary diesel motors,
swirl chamber motors are used.
Larger diesel motors contain a three-way ca-
talyst. This is also the case for four stroke
spark ignition motors.
Diesel motors should be equipped with a
smoke filter.
915
Forklift trucks must be equipped with stan-
dard catalysts. Exhaust fumes from diesel mo-
tors are carcinogenic.
9.4.4 Noise emissions
Legal declarations regarding permissible noise
emissions are laid down in Germany in
Teclmical Instruction Noise
§ 15 of the Workplace Regulation "Protection
against Noise" alld
the Accident Protection Regulation UVV Noi-
se (VBG 121).
Particularly high noise emissions are recor-
ded in general 9
in the bottling hall,
near air alld refrigerant compressors,
near vapour condensers, alld
near vapour compressors.
Noise emission is reduced by
suitable selection of building materials, e.g.
double wall construction with insulation,
windows with sound damping,
installation of sound damping ceilings in the
bottling hall,
restricted use of wall tiles,
sowld insulating covers on particularly noisy
machinery.
The examples quoted briefly outline the ex-
tent of the problems which every brewery has,
and indicate a few ways to overcome them. En-
viromnental problems and the associated dis-
posal problems will continue to increase in fu-
ture years. Many of the currently existing
refuse dumps will be closed in the next few ye-
ars. Companies will be increasingly compelled
(recycling and refuse laws) to deal with their
waste themselves - or not to produce ally in the
first place.
With this in mind, it is the duty of every bre-
wer to help ensure that as little waste as possi-
ble is produced.
 916
9.5 Recycling of PET bottles
PET is produced from crude oil; 1 kg of PET is
produced from approx. 1.9 kg of crude oil. The
returned PET bottles can be recycled and half of
the recycled material used for the production of
new PET bottles. With the increasing filling also
of beer into PET bottles, the necessity is becoming
even grea ter to recycle the returned bottles and
thus return them again to the cycle. For this there
are several recycling concepts; in the following
the American URRC process is briefly described.
The precondition for recycling is the reRU-
ning and sorting of the bottles according to
their colour. The material collected is pressed
9 into balls consisting of 3000 - 5000 bottles and
processed in three stages:
1" stage:
The bottles are isolated and comminuted; tra-
ditionally operating separators and washing
VLB Berlin
Research Institute for Water and
Waste Water Technology (FIWAT)
1! www.vlb-berlin.org/fiwat
12; ahrens@vlb-berlin.org
teclul010gy remove closures, beverage resi-
dues and labels.
2"" stage:
In a reaction with caustic soda the surface of
the flakes is dissolved and adherent or inter-
calated impurities removed. This also applies
to intercalated or applied layers and quen-
clung and tempering in the case of beer bott-
le flakes. Residues of foreign material and
aromas are then also removed in a rotary
kiln.
3"'stage:
In the third stage the flakes are rinsed and
any final impurities removed.
The recycled ma terial undergoes several
checks with regard to its suitability for reuse in
renewed contact with food .
10 I Energy management
in the brewery and maltings
Energy is needed in all stages of brewing, mal-
ting and bottling. The forms used are
electrical energy,
heat energy (thermal energy) and
pnelll1latic energy.
10.1 Energy requirements in malting
and brewing
Electrical energy is required for
cooling purposes,
production of compressed air,
operating pumps and valves,
driving stirrers and conveyors,
switdting and control of fittings,
h'ansfer and processing of data, and
lighting.
Thermal energy is required for
hot water production,
heating kilns,
heating mashes,
heating and boiling wort,
bottle cleaning,
cask and keg cleaning,
flash or tmUlel pasteurisation,
the crr plant,
steaming filters, fillers and pipework,
hea ting blwdings and other purposes for per-
sOlUlel comfort.
TIle energy requirement for malting and bre-
wing forms a substantial part of production
costs. It is the job of the brewer to use energy as
efficiently as possible to keep these costs as low
as possible.
All forms of energy can be transformed into
one another and therefore compared with one
another. For this purpose the International Sy-
stem (SI) of Units was developed. This consists of
a few basic lmits to whjch all other lUutS can be
91 7
converted. The most important are shown at the
end of the book.
Work is force times distance, or alternatively
expressed
Work is power times time.
The unit for work is the Joule (J) .
1 J =1 W x s =1 Nm
From tlus it results that:
3600 s =1 h
3600 Joule = 1 Wh (Watt-hour)
10
3600 kJ = 1 kWh or alternatively expressed:
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ = 860 kcal or
alternatively expressed: 1 kcal = 4.19 kJ.
Amounts of energy are always measured in
kilo-Watt-hours (kWh) or
kilo-Joules (kJ), Mega-Joules (MJ), and occasio-
nally (outdated) in
kilocalories (kcal).
In the following table are the conslUnption va-
lues for heat and electrical energy in the indivi-
dual areas of conventionally equipped breweries
[89]. The figures are differentia ted
according to the size of the brewery (breweries
with 20,000 hI and breweries with 250,000 hi
output per year) and
according to optimal and average values (see
Table next p. ).
For the entire beer production process one
must therefore reckon with an energy COnSlll1lp-
tion of
180 to 200 MJ per hI of sales beer for hea t ener-
gy and 10 to 12 kWh per hI of sales beer for elec-
trical energy.
At a glance it can be seen tllat:
The greatest users of heat energy in the brewe-
ry are the brewhouse and filling departments,
 •
918 919

the greatest u sers of electrical energy are refri-
geration and also the filling and brewhouse de-
partments.
A brewery contains the following types of
10.2.1 Fuels
Nowadays the fuels most commonly u sed are pe-
troleum oil and natural gas, but other fuels are al-
so economically advantageous for various rea-
aIllolmt. TIle lugher h eating value (HHY) is the
theore tical greatest possible value. This differs
from the lower heating value (LHV) - which is
the only figure quoted in tables - by the conden-
much 1 kWh or 1 MJ costs Ul the end. It is deter-
mUled from the followUlg formul a:
Price of the fuel per t or m 3
Heat price =

sation hea t value. Heat value (HI) of the fuel

plant and equipment producing or using energy. sons.
They will be considered individually: There are two bases of comparison for evalua- Water is produced in every combustion pro-
boiler plants, ting the heating value of various fuels: cess; for example: The result is expressed Ul EurolMJ or (kWh.
refrigeration plants, the hard coal unit and CH, (metllaIle) + 20, CO, + 2H,O. However, this result does not give any uLfor-
electrical equipment, the (lower) thermal value. TIlis meaI1S that steam is produced in evelY m ation about the extent to which the boiler CaIl
plUllpS and compressors. The hard coalwut (HCU for Steinkohleeinheit) combustion process aIld it condenses on cooling. actually convert the energy Ul the fuel to heat
is the average energy content of 1 kg of hard co- TIle condensation heat produced is the difference energy - aIld tlus is also very ullportaIlt with re-
10.2 Boiler plants al. Tlus is established internationally as 29,400 kJ. in energy between the upper and lower heating gard to the cost. The ratio of these two numbers
In the boiler water is converted to steam which Other fuels have the following values: values. Payments are always based on the upper is called the boiler efficiency.
can be used to perform work. Steam has 1 kg petroleum oil 1.44 HCU heating value. TIle importaIlt available heat price (or net heat
a considerably higher heat content than water, 1 m 3 natural gas 1.40 HCU The lower heating value is the aInOlmt of h eat price) is obtauled as follows:
1 kg wood 0.50 HCU wluch is released when the steam produced du-
o and
Available h eat price
(Gross) heat price 10
can be easily transported . 1 kg crude lignate 0.26 HCU ring bunung is cooled to 20°C but is still present =
boiler efficiency
To lmderstand boiler plants better, the science 1 kWh 0.123 HCU as water vapolU'. However, the upper heating va-
relating to steam must first be considered. To pro- TIle thermal value of a fuel is the amount of he- lue is u sed for calculating the aIllOlmt of fuel re-
duce steam a fuel is required. at which is released on burning a defined quired. Thus the available heat price shows exactly
Commercial fuels in Germany have the follo- how many Euros one MJ or kWh finally costs for
wing thermal values (LHY = Hlower). production purposes.
Energy source LHY in kJ Nahlrally, the available heat price is always
Heat usage in MJ/hl Electricity u sage in kWh/hi lugher than the heat price because the boiler effi-
20,000 hi 250,000 hi 20,000 hi 250,000 hi Fuel oil EL 42,700/kg ciency is less thaIl 100 %. Modern brewery ser-
opt. imn opt. imn opt. imn opt. imn Fuel oil M 41,020/ kg vice water boilers partially condense the exhaust
Fuel oil S 39,770/ kg gas and therefore aclueve - related to the lower
Raw materials to weighing 6.34 10.98 5.60 8.64 0.30 0.41 0.25 0.34 Gas oil (diesel) 41,820/ kg heat value - efficiencies above 100 % ("conden-
Brewhouse to wort discharge 66.2 114.8 58.6 90.4 1.97 2.71 1.65 2.27 Hard coal (Ruhr) 31,800/ kg SUlg value boiler") .
Fermentation cellar to h'ansfer 1.72 2.37 1.44 1.89 Blast furnace coke 28,900/kg If one ultends to evaporate water in the boiler,
Lagering 1.60 2.20 1.34 1.85 Gas coke 29,300/ kg one should know more about the properties of
Filtration 8.49 14.71 7.50 11.58 0.57 0.79 0.48 0.66 Brown coal briquettes 20,090/kg steam.
Bottle / can filling 26.61 46.12 23.51 36.29 2.24 3.07 1.88 2.58 Crude brown coal (Saxony) 10,460/kg
Keg / container filling 13.94 24.16 12.31 19.00 0.46 0.63 0.38 0.52 Crude brown coal (Lausitz) 9,630/kg 10.2.2 Steam
Packaged goods to ramp 3.17 5.49 2.80 4.32 0.40 0.54 0.33 0.46 Peat, air d ry 15,490/ kg When water is heated to boiling poult aIld addi-
Residue (dispatch, distribution) 9.19 15.72 6.34 8.48 0.55 0.76 0.46 0.64 Town gas 16,120/ m 3 tional heat is then supplied, steam is produced.
Administration, cantine, Na tural gas L 31,950/ m 3 The temperature at wluch water boils is called
workshops 13.05 22.62 11.53 17.80 0.99 1.36 0.83 1.14 Natural gas H 37,500/ m' the boiling point. The boiling point increases
Refrigeration 4.16 5.71 3.49 4.79 MethaIle 35,880/m' with increasulg pressure.
Water supply 9.12 15.81 8.06 10.99 0.40 0.54 0.33 0.46 PropaI1e 93,210 / m'
Beer production, total 130.0 225.0 113.0 173.0 9.9 13.6 8.3 11.4 10.2.2.1 Heat of evaporation
Soft drink production 33.5 39.2 28.8 33.8 1.9 2.3 1.7 2.1 From the economics point of view a very un- To convert water ultO steam, heat is required to
Malt production per dt 253.0 331.0 204.0 285.0 8.5 12.2 7.3 11.0 portant figure is the heat price. Tlus shows how evaporate it.
 •
920 921

The heat of evaporation is the amOLmt of hea t ration temperature and the pressure. With in- 10.2.2.2 Wet steam 10.2.2.3 Superheated steam
necessary to convert 1 kg of water to steam at the creasing temperature and increasing pressure it The steam produced during boiling is ca lled In ord er to be able to move the s team wi thout
same temperature. becomes increasingly smaller. At the "critical ste- wet steam. It has the same temperahlre as the loss, the sa turated steam is heated furth er to
For example, to convert 1 kg water at 100 °C am pressure" of 221.2 bar = 374.15 °C no further boiling liquid and and s till contain s about 20 % 300 °C (570 OF) by suppl ying additional hea t
and at the normal pressure of 1 bar to steam at heat of evaporation is needed. The boiling water water. As soon as the heat of evaporation has (Fig. 10.1). Superheated steam catmot ye t con-
100 °C, is converted directly to steam. been supplied completely, one speaks of dry sa- densate even if it is slightly cooled; the stea m
2257.9 kJ = 2257.9 Ws = 0.6272 kWh = 539 kca l 111e following table shows for each pressure turated steam which can be led off. Howeve r, as only condensates if it falls below the tempera hl-
is needed. the corresponding stea m temperature and the soon as the temperature drops it condenses re of evaporation.
The heat of evaporation depends on the eva po- amOLmt of heat contained. again and loses a considerable amolU1t of its he- Such s team is called superheated stea m. Its
at content. During condensation the hea t for large hea t content m akes it possible to convey it
Pressure Temperahlfe Amolmt Heat content of the Heat of eva poration is se t free again. over long dis tances without much loss of ener-
of steam water steam evaporation 111e vollU11e of steam produced during boiling gy. H ea t transfer, despite the high tempera hIre,
under saturation conditions is extremely lal"ge. If we boil at 1 bar (normal is relatively poor. One therefore tries to keep
bal" in °C inm3/kg inkJlkg in kJ/kg in kJlkg pressure), 1.694 dm3 of steam (see table) are pro- the heating surfaces as small as possible and to
duced per kg of evaporated water: that is, about introduce the steam into the heat exchanger as
129.20 29.34 2514.4 2485.0
a 0.010
0.050
6.9808
32.898 28.19 137.77 2561 .6 2423.8
1700 litres. This enormous increase in volume
makes it possible, for example, to produce a lot of
sahlrated steam. For this reason condensa te is
often sprayed into the superhea ted steam short-
0.10 45.833 14.67 191.83 2584.8 2392.9 steam with a relatively small all10Lmt of water ly before it enters the heat exchat1ger to remove
0.50 81.345 3.240 340.56 2646.0 2305.4 and thus to operate a steam engine. the superheating (steam cooling).
0.70 89.959 2.365 376.77 2660.1 2283.3 Conversely, during condensation a lot of steam
0.80 93.512 2.087 391.72 2665.8 2274.0 produces a small amOLmt of condensate. 10.2.2.4 Hot water
0.90 96.713 1.869 405.21 2670.9 2265.6 It is also possible to distribute heat in a different

-
JSOO
way by hea ting the water under pressure to 160
1.0 99.632 1.694 417.51 2675.4 2257.9 IIi 1-
'*'
l..tee
I-
J- !-': i - i-- to 170 °C without allowing it to boil. This very
;;j..c::I _r-.. r-- r-- r-t--
kg I-
111.37 1.159 467.13 2693.4 2226.2 !- r-.
I""
1.5 3000 § hot water can then be trans ported at1d used for
2.0 120.23 0.8854 504.70 2706.3 2201 .6 Koo r...... boiling. In this case one sp eak s of hot water boi-
2.5
3.0
127.43
133.54
138.87
0.7184
0.6056
0.5240
535.34
561.43
584.27
2716.4
2724.7
2731.6
2181.0
2163.2
2147.4
zsoo V '-
<;;
. c::
Q>
i'-....
........
'"i'. ling or hydroboiling (see wort boiling).
It is advantageous to be able to use the full
heating potential for heating. In addition the
3.5
<:::
4.0 143.62 0.4622 604.67 2737.6 2133.0 :2 management of condensate and its control is no
1-000
4.5
5.0
147.92
151.84
0.4138
0.3747
623.16
640.12
2742.9
2747.5
2119.7
2107.4
'"
j,. V
l/PI
critical point
longer n ecessary.
Disadvantageous is the substantially large pi-
I. -
6.0 158.84 0.3155 670.42 2755.5 2085.0 pe diameter at1d the higher pump performance

11
1500

8.0 170.41 0.2403 720.94 2767.5 2046.5 I.....- ,.., needed to transport liquid water ins tead of ga-
.I
V seous steam.
10.0 179.88 0.1943 762.61 2776.2 2013.6 1/
g
15
20
198.29
212.37
0.1317
0.09954
844.67
908.59
2789.9
2798.2
1945.2
1888.6 500'
/ ·s
<;;
Q>
10.2.3 Boilers

j
7
50 263.91 0.03943 1154.5 2794.2 1639.7 10.2.3.1 Classification of boilers
100 310.96 0.01804 1408.0 2727.7 1319.7 Boilers, in the sense of the Germat1 Boiler Regu-
o 80 120 160 bp/ .2'rf} lations, are closed containers or arrat1gements
200 365.70 0.005877 1826.5 2418.4 591.9 steam pressure of pipes which produce steam at higher than at-
221.2 374.15 0.00317 - 2107.4 0.0 Fig. 10.1: Henl cOlllell 1 of slenlll mospheric pressure for use outside the boiler.

922
In Germany boilers are classified in 4 groups:
Boilers of Group I with a maximum water
content of 10 1.
Boilers of Group II have a capacity of more
than 101, a maximum overpressure of 1 bar and
a supply temperature of 120 dc.
Boilers of Group III have a capacity of up to
50 I.
1. with an overpressure of more than 1 bar pro-
vided that the product of the water content in
litres and the permitted overpressure in bar
does not exceed 1000.
2. if during hot water production the permitted
supply temperature is more than 120 DC (250
OF) and the product of the water content in li-
o tres and the permitted overpressure in bar
does not exceed 1000.
Boilers of Group IV - all other boilers. This
Group includes the boiler plants used in brewe-
ries.
Boilers of Group IV must be contained in a
boiler house. According to the Teclulical Regu-
lations for Steam Boilers (TRD 604) the equip-
ment may, under certain circumstances, be
used in 24 h lU1supervised operation.
Boilers are classified
according to the operating pressure (high
and low pressure boilers),
according to the type of fuel (coal, oil, natural
gas, electric),
according to the type of water circulation (na-
tural and forced), and
according to the medium flowing through (fi-
re-tube and water-tube boilers).
The most important operating d ata of a boiler
plant are
the capacity in t of steam per hour,
the furnace output in MW per hour,
the operating overpressure in bar,
the steam temperature in the boiler or super-
heater outlet,
the water temperature at the boiler inlet,
•
the fuel (type and hea t value in kJ/kg or /m3)
and
the water capacity.
10.2.3.2 Types of boiler structure
Basically there are two types of boiler construc-
tion:
fire-tube exhaust gas-tube boilers and
water-tube boilers.
Fire-tube exhaust gas-tube boilers
In these the combustion occurs in a fire-tube
and the exhaust gases pass tlu'ough exhaust
gas-tubes. The fire-tube and the exhaust gas-tu-
bes are both located in the water chamber.
Because of their great water content these
boilers are also called large water space boilers.
In the form of two fire-tube boilers these large
water space boilers have been used for many
years very successfully for steam production in
breweries. Double fire-tube boilers are still built
today with modern designs for outputs of up to
30 t of steam/h.
Nowadays most boilers in breweries are
three pass boilers.
This term is used because the flame and ex-
haust gases pass tlu-ough these boilers in three
flow paths. The heat exchange surfaces availa-
ble are thereby used optimally.
The advantages of the large water space boi-
lers are considerable:
because of their large water content they are
very robust and can compensate for inequali-
ties in rates of use.
because of their large evaporation surfaces
they supply relatively dry steam.
Water-tube boilers
In contrast to fire-tube boilers these have water
and steam in the tubes. These tubes form the
outside of the furnace chamber. Water-tube boi-
lers are built for medium and high outputs with
operating pressures of up to 180 bar.
High speed stea lll producers
High speed s team producers are a specia l type
of wa ter-tube boiler in which water is forced by
pumps through hea ting co ils and as a result
evaporated in the shortest possible time (2 to 10
min).
With water-tube boilers a dis tinction is made
between natural flow and forced circulation
boilers.
In natural circulation boilers the less dense
stea m/wa te r mi xture rises upwards whilst the
wa ter in the cooler part sinks downwards. This
results in a natural circulation in the water
cha mber of these boilers, which are operated at
a pressure of up to 180 bar.
In forced circulation boilers the water is circu-
lated by a plU11p. The pump circulates the boiler
wa ter from the steam separator through the hea-
ted tube system and thereby brings it to the boi-
ling temperature set by the boiler pressure.
10.2.3.3 Three pass boilers
Most breweries have one or more three pass
boilers of various sizes which can be switched
on according to the energy needed.
Fig . 10.2 Tllree pnss boiler
(n) sirie v iew
(b) lop v iew
(e) frol ll view
(1) boiler wn ll
(2) fire-II/be
(3) bl/mer
(4) renr riireelioll cllnllg illg
cll nmber
(5) exllnl/sl gns II/be bl/I/rile
(2 1/ri pnss)
(6) fro lll riireelioll
cllnl/gillg cllmllber
(7) exlwl/sl gns II/be bl/I/rile
(3 rt! pnss)
(8) slemll vnlve
923
The boiler consists of a hori zontal, well insu-
lated sheet steel cylinder (Fig. 10.2; 1). A t one si-
de of the boiler is the fire-tube (2) at the front
end of which the burner (3) is installed. By me-
ans of this the gas/air or oil/air mixture is burnt
in a large flame in the fire-tube.
Water flows around the fire-tube and the water
level is maintained at a constant level above the
fire-tube by a boiler feed pump (controlled by
water level electrodes). The direction of flow of
the exhaust gases produced is reversed in the re-
ar direction changing chamber (4) and is sent to
the front of the boiler again through a blUldle of
exhaust gas tubes (5) forming the second path .
In a front direction changing chamber (6) the
direction is reversed again and the exhaust gas
is now led to the rear of the boiler again - third
10
path - in the bundle of exhaus t gas tubes (7). Be-
cause of the cooling of the exhaust gas which
has occurred by then, the third path consists of
conSiderably fewer tubes.
Whilst the exhaust gas is cooled, the water is
brought to boiling point and the s team leaves
the boiler through a steam valve (8). Fig. 10.3
shows once again the flow of the exhaust gas.
1
Z
a G
b
 924 925

In a double fire-tube boiler the three paths for
each of the two fire-tubes are obtained by a
layered arrangement of the exhaust gas tubes
(Fig. 10.4).
To provide operation of the boiler without
continuous supervision according to Boiler Re-
gulation 604, the boiler must be equipped with
an appropriate control and safety system .
This includes, in addition to the previously
mentioned water level safety electrodes:
a water level indicator,
a manometer with special marking of the hig-
hest permissible pressure,
a device for shutting off the steam line,
feed water control valves,
opera te at pressures of up to 32 bar = 235 °C.
Boilers used in breweries mostly supply 5 to
15 t s tea tn/h.
The fuels mostly used are crude petroleml1 oil
and natural gas, but solid fuels are also used. Re-
cently biogas from the brewery's own anaerobic
sewage treatment plant has also been considered.
The fuels are burnt in the boiler at a high tem-
perature. The furnace temperature depends on
the heat value of the fuel, the amount and tem-
perahll'e of combustion air and the heat radiati-
on in the furnace chamber. The furnace tempe-
rature is lower than the combustion
temperature because the latter could only be
reached with complete combustion with a theo-

o a water and oil separator, retically total amOlU1t of combustion air and 10
a controller for fuel supply and burner con- without any radiation.
trol, Theoretical combustion temperatures
a safety pressure controller and limiter, and Bihlminous coal 2300 °C
an early warning and fault indicator. Fuel oil 2000 °C
Brown coal (Rhineland) 1500 °C
Fig. 10.4 Three pass voileI': exaillple of a dOllvle fire- tllve voileI' (IIKK Stalldardkessel, Kiithell )
Three pass boilers are built in sizes of Actual average combustion temperahnes (1) voiler vody, (2 ) f ire-tllve, (3) exhallst gas tllve, 211d pass, (4) exhallst gas tllve, 3rd pass, (5) rear directioll challgillg cham vel;
1 to more than 30 t steam/h, Coal, oil, nahnal gas 1200 to 1600 °C wa ter cooled, (6) f/'Ollt directioll ehallgillg ehn/llvel; (7) exhallst gas discharge, (8) eeolWl/lisel; (9) sllperheatel; (10) satllrnted ste-
have a performance of up to 20,000 kWh, and am pipe, (11 ) hot steam discharge, (12) drnillillg valve

10.2.3.4 Energy recovery and improvement of Exa1l1ple 1:

Fig. 10.3
Three pass voiler: example of a sillgle fi re-
tllve voileI' (Th. Laos, Gllllzellhallsell )
efficiency
It is advantageous to use the energy released
from the fuel as completely as possible within
the brewery. For this purpose
the feed water is preheated in an economiser
by cooling the exhaust gas,
the steam is superheated to make it transpor-
table, and
condensate losses and condensate expansion
are prevented.
A closed condensate rehll'n system only ope-
rates if the plant is always under pressure. The
plant must therefore rW1 365 days a year.
The efficiency of the boiler, however, de-
pends on the number of starts, and the opera-
ting and use times.
A boiler with a large capacity and a water tem-
perahlre of 65°C is switched on on Sunday to
steam the air filter for wort aeration. Most of the
heat is produced for no useful purpose. The ef-
ficiency in this case is almost 0%.
Example 2:
In many breweries a high speed steam produ-
cer is used to prepare steam (Fig. 10.4 a). A high
speed steam producer with two stages (6 tlh
and 12 t/h) is operated in a brewhouse in which
50 h1/h is evaporated. In this case it can happen
that the boiler is continuously switched on and
off, low output, high output, etc. The result of
this is that during ventilation of the flow paths,
which is necessary to avoid explosions, the hot

926
.0
combustion gases are removed unused . The ef-
ficiency is less than 50%.
In most cases the nominal efficiencies are re-
lated to optimal operating conditions. Conse-
quently average efficiencies greater than 85%
are rarely obtained.
10.2.3.4.1 Economiser (Eco)
The combustion gases are still very hot when
they leave the boiler. So as not to lose this heat,
serpentine p ipes are installed in the space im-
mediately behind the boiler aDd the boiler feed
water is led through them in a cot.mterflow. The
hot exhaust gas, still at about 260 to 300°C, is
thereby cooled to about 120 to 130°C whilst the
boiler feed water is heated to above 100°C (Fig.
10.5). The boiler efficiency can be iDcreased to
above 95 % in this way. Such an exhaust gas wa-
ter preheater or economiser (Eco for short) is
cOlUlected directly to the boiler or fixed by flan-
ges in the exhaust gas pipe.
10.2.3.4.2 Superheater
In the superheater the temperature of the steam
is raised above the saturation temperature. This
increase in temperature has the following ad-
vantages:
10.2.3.4.3 Return of condensate
The condensate also contains a considerable
amount of heat which can be recovered. The
condensate, which is under pressure, is still
above 100 °C, sometimes considerably above
this. By returning the condensate, at 140 to 180
0c, to the boiler about 10 to 12 % of this heat
energy can be recovered. For this it is necessary
to have a closed system since as soon as the con-
densate is no longer under pressure, it evapora-
tes until a temperature of 100 °C is reached.
10.2.4 Steam engines
Fig. 10. 4n
Earlier it was customalY for every brewery to ha-
Higll speed slemll prodllcer
(Til. Laos, Gllll zelilInllSell) ve its own steam piston engine in which some of
the steam was used to produce rotational move-
ment. Using a decorative flywheel an electric ge-
nerator was driven and this more or less provi-
120°C
2 ded all the brewery's own energy requirements.
Such steam piston engines can nowadays be ad-
mired in brewery muset.U11S. Only about 12 to
14% of the energy contained in the fuel was COI1-
vetted in these machines to mechanical move-
ment energy (mechanical efficiency). The largest
part of the energy in the steam CalUlOt be conver-
ted to rotational movement alld occurs as heat
energy (waste steam or hot water).
Fig. 10.5 EcollOllliser Later, instead of steam piston engines, steam
(prillciple) turbines were used in which, by means of ro-
(1) exllnllsl gns illflow tors, a continuous rotation was obtained inste-
(2) exllnllsl gns 10
cilillllley ad of the to and fro movement of the steam en-
gine. Such turbines Cal, still be encountered in
the water carried with the steam out of the a few breweries. Their viability was increased
boiler is vaporised, and in GermallY when the state, in order to sup-
the dry steam can be transported over long di- port the production of private sources of elec-
stances with little cooling and without con- tricity from coal, paid a subsidy for such use of
densing. coal.
Superheaters are constructed with one or mo- To use heat energy as economically as possi-
re stages and consist of smooth pipes bent in a ble, the following types of processes were deve-
serpentine shape . The exhaust gas flowing past loped:
on the outside supplies additional heat to the Non-condensing operation:
steam in the pipes and su perheats it to 250 to In this process the steam expallds in the ma-
300°C. chine t.mtil it reaches atmospheric pressure alld
927
then escapes unused. Such a process is comple-
tely t.meconomic and little used nowadays.
Counterpressure operation:
The pressure on the steam is reduced only to
2 to 3 bar alld it Cal, be used for boiling and hea-
ting purposes.
Condensation operation:
The steam is condensed . Its volume therefore
decreases alld as a result a vacuum of 0.1 bar is
produced. This increases the drop in pressure
and consequently the mechanical efficiency.
Basically is must be said that the use of steam
powered equipment to provide an internal sup-
ply of electricity is more ral'ely found in brewe-
ries nowadays. It is more adValltageous where
low cost fuel is available as an incentive . Nowa-
10
days combined heat alld power plalltS are more
commonly used .
10.2.5 Combined heat and power plants
(CHP)
Instead of the old steam operated machines,
combined heat and power plants (CHP) are in-
creasingly encountered. The name "power sta-
tion" leads one to suppose something rather
greater than it is.
A combined heat alld power plallt consists of
a gas or diesel motor or a gas turbine, in which
the nahlral gas or fuel oil is combusted. In this
process, mechanical work is converted into
electrical energy. The combustion gas is used
for heating purposes .
An electricity generator is attached to the gas
motor and, producing a voltage of 380 V, it l'Lms
in parallel to the su pply network alld provides
a substantial part of the internal electriCity
needs or, if the internal needs are small, it Cal,
supply electricity to the public network. Tem-
porary electricity requirement peaks Call thus
be covered.
However, use of a gas motor simply as an
electricity generator CalUlOt be justified since
the electricity provided is much too expensive.
 928
exhaust heat exchanger
coldwater
-=======----_J
o _________ __
It only becomes of interest wh en the heat from
the motor can also be full y utilised (heat and
power plant).
The basic idea behind the heat and power plant
is to employ the kinetic energy obtained from the
energy in the n atural gas by converting it to elec-
trical energy and to use the heat produced in the
form of hot water or steam in the brewery.
It can be expected that of the 100 % amount of
energy in the n atural gas, about 96 % can be
used i.e. 33% by conversion to electricity and
58 % as h eat (hot water or steam) together w ith
5 % from radiation from the motor which can al-
so be used fo r preheating.
In order to be able to use the heat energy re-
leased efficientl y it is u su ally recovered in two
water circuits [103] using
a high tempera ture water circuit at about
140 C and
D 10.3 Refrigeration plants
a low tempera ture water circuit at about 65 DC
and the corresponding storage tanks.
The high temperature water circuit at ab out
140 DC corresp onds to a pressure of 3.5 bar. This
hot water can be used directly for h ea ting or
boiling.
exhaust
¢ must also be cooled .
warm water
electricity
Fig. 10.6
COlllvill ed !len t nll d power plnllt
(C H P): prillcip le
Con sequently a combined heat and power
plant comprises
the gas motor with an electricity generator,
and
low and high temperature water circuits w ith
storage tanks.
Installation of heat and power plants in brewe-
ries and maltings to cover a substantial p art of
their own energy requirements is an important
step towa rds reducing energy costs. The plant is
cOlmected p arallel to the supply network or in
"isolated op eration" which can be very advan-
tageous in m any cOlmtries. In the case of large
plants using gas turbines one speaks of "power-
heat coupling". Whether the installation of
CHPs makes economic sense depends on the
energy situation in the cOlmtry in question.
During beer production cooling mus t be used
many times:
the casting wort is cooled to pitching tempe-
rature,
the fermenting young beer is cooled in the
ferm entation and m aturation phases,
in th e low temperature cooling ph ase the tem-
perature is fin ally lowered to 0 to -2 DC, and
the bright beer storage tank and
the fermentation cellar and lagering cell ar
This results in the follow ing cooling require-
ments [11 9]:
kWh/hi
Wor t cooling 1,668- 2,224
Fermentation and
low temperature cooling 1,270- 2,427
Room cooling, etc. 2,780- 5,830
Total requirement 5,718-10,489
If it is ass umed that a diffe ren ce of up to 2 D C
can be cooled by the cooling medium, fo r all
cooling below 12 to 14 DC cooled media are re-
qu ired beca use the process wa ter cannot be
used for cooling to lower tempera tures. Colder
media are produ ced in a refri gera tion plant.
It was n ot always so. Our grandfa thers did
not have refrige rating m achines but they too
needed a sou rce of cooling in summer. It was
then customary for brewery employees to cut
blocks of ice from a nea rby pond in the bitterly
cold winter and laboriously brin g it back to the
brewery. The very cold ice was then stored in a
thick-walled ice cellar - these still exis t in old
breweries althou gh their function has me-
anwhile been changed . The ice had to cover the
cooling requirements until ice w as collected
again the n ext winter. Cooling w as then p erfor-
med using floa ting devices containing ice. The-
re were, however, problems in ice-free w inters
which often occurred .
10.3.1 Refrigerants and cooling agents
10.3.1.1 Refrigerants
Cooling is produ ced as a result of the fac t that
on evaporating a liquid h ea t of evaporation is
needed and this is taken from its surroundings.
In this way the surroundings cools dow n.
929
A substance is ch osen which requires a lot of
energy for its evap ora tion - usu ally ammonia
(NH3)' These substances which withdraw heat
by evapora ting are called refrigerants.
Besides ammonia, in smaller plants fluorina-
ted hyd rocarbons (FCs) and h ydrochlorofluo-
rocarbons (HCFCs) are used to a decreasing ex-
tent. These, h oweve r, are hi ghl y criticised
because of their ozone-depleting activity. These
h alogenated FC refri geran ts are referred to by
an "R" (refrigerant) followed by a combination
of numbers relating to the number of ca rbon, hy-
drogen and chlorine atoms (e.g. R21, R22). The
accompanying brand nam e relates to the manu-
facturer (Frigen 12 Farbwe rke by H oechst, Freon
12 by Du Pont, etc.). Even ammonia h as a num-
ber (R717).
10
Because ammonia has no ozone-d estroying
potenti a\, and so does no t contribute to the
greenhouse effect, it is increasingly employed
as the refrigerant, even for smalier refri gera tion
plants. Nevertheless, a few comments mus t be
made about its dangers:
Anunonia is a very corrosive gas w hich can
cause irritation or even burning of the respi-
ratory pathway,
Ammonia is explosive w hen mixed w ith air
at high temperature. It reacts w ith CO, and
acid w ith the production of a large amount of
heat.
Ammonia is a water-endangering m aterial
belonging to Class 2 of the water protection
classifica tion. Sites where plants containing
amm onia are located must be equipped with
collection troughs so that no NH3can pass in-
to the ground wa ter.
It is, however, p erceptible even w h en highl y
diluted, so that small defects can be recognised
and corrected very quickly.
If there are large faults, the evapora tion of
NH3 immediately produces an ice-cold aerosol
cloud at -70 DC w hich can cause grea t d amage.
 931
930

Breweries usually employ very good safety
procedures when using ammonia, but a num-
ber of incidents in the past show that great care
must be taken when working with ammonia.
In Germany, plants with a total ammonia ca-
pacity of more than 3 t (attendant facilities 2 t)
are regulated by the Federal Emissions Protec-
tion law. Ammonia cooling plants with a total
ammonia capacity of over 50 t are subject to the
statutory order on hazardous incidents.
Nevertheless, ammonia will still remain the
principal refrigerant used in coming years.
10.3.1.2 Cooling agents
Refrigerants are
either directly evaporated (direct cooling)
o 10
where the cooling is required (cooling zones
in CCVs, cooling pipes for room cooling etc.)
or
the cooling power is transferred in an evapo-
rator to another free zing-resistant nledium,
known as a cold transferring agent or cooling
agent. Cooling agents transfer the cooling
power but do not evaporate. In the same way
that they become warmer during this heat ex-
change they must be cooled down again later
(indirect cooling) . The efficiency of the plant
is thereby decreased and nowadays, where
possible, there is an increasing switch to di-
rect cooling. There are, however, areas in
which, mainly for safety reasons, use of indi-
rect cooling is preferred. Only frost-resistant
Compression refrigeration plants: in these
the gas is compressed by a compressor and
condensed during cooling, and
Absorption refrigeration plants: in these the
gas is absorbed by water and later driven out
again by hea ting.
10.3.1.3 Operating principle of refrigeration
It has been shown in the context of steam pro-
duction (see Sect. 10.2.2) that the boiling tempe-
rature of water is dependent on pressure and
that it increases with increasing pressure. In or-
der to evaporate the water completely, an addi-
tional amount of heat must be obtained, which
is the heat of evaporation. It is only after every-
thing is evaporated that superheating of the ste-
am can occur on further addition of heat.
These occurrences, with which we are famili-
ar, also apply of course to other liquids and ga-
ses, although with different values. This is also
h'ue of ammonia, which is usually used for ref-
rigeration .
Ammonia is a gas at the normal pressure of 1
bar. At normal pressure it is only liquid at tem-
peratures of under -33.8 0c. At higher tempera-
tures, the liquid state can only be obtained
through increase of pressure. In order to evapo-
rate it, heat must be added at the desired evapo-
ration tempera ture with the appropriate pres-
sure from the surrOlmdings (the medium to be
refrigerated).
Temp. abs. Hea t content (enthalpy) Heat of
Temp. abs. Hea t content (entha lpy) Hea t of pora tion and +35 °C liquidifi er (condensator)
pressure in the liquid in th e steam evaporation r outlet. A ll other areas are of little sign ificance
in °C in bar h' in kJ/kg h" in kJ / kg in kJ/ kg for our consid eration.
15 7.284 269.0 1474.9 1205.9 Fig. 10.6b shows a cross-sec tion from the
20 8.573 291.4 1479.0 1187.6 pressure-enthalpy diagram (log p-h diagram)
25 10.030 314.9 1482.4 1167.5 for ammonia; the (red) curve A is the line of tbe
30 11.669 338.5 1485.3 1146.8 saturated liquid (boilin g tempera ture) and
* The enthalpy h ' for 0 °C is es tab lis hed arbi trarily, in o r- shows tbe beat content of the liquid; the (red)
de r to avoid negative val ues. If the value is established at 500, curve B is the line of the saturated s team and
all h va lues mu s t be increased by 300 kJ/kg. shows its hea t content. Since the diag ram
would be very elongated if all the values of the
The steam table for ammonia provides the heat content to around 1,600 kJ/kg were dis-
necessary values for this: the ammonia boils at played, many of the intermediate values have
the tempera hire which corresponds to the gi- not been shown . This, however, does not effect
ven temperature. To achieve complete evapora- our und ers tanding.
tion, the appropriate amount of heat of evapo-
ration is necessa ry. This is shown in Fig. 10.6 b 10.3.1.3.1 Circulation in the refrigeration plant
as a curve. The curve marking the change in Let us begin with an example: if liquid ammo-
pressure is, however, very elongated in the case nia at -1 0 °C and a pressure of 2.907 bar (OP =
of ammonia, resembling a scimitar, since the 1.907 bar) (see Table) is put into a tank system,
critical point lies at tk 132 °C and pk 113 bar. it begins to boil and evaporates if more heat is
These are values which lie far outside the area added. It takes this bea t out of its surroundings,
shown. The curve is therefore always shown which as a result of this inevitably cool down.
logarithmically shortened (log p), so that the This hea t transfer takes place in evaporators or
decimal powers (0.1; 1; 10; 100) are at equal di- in the pipes or cooling pockets which are wel-
stances on the scale. ded to the CCV (see Fig. 4.42 a). Wbile the eva-
The area which is relevant for the refrigerati- porating ammonia retains its temperahlre and
on plant lies between -10 °C tempera hIre of eva- only cbanges its state from liquid to gas, the
I I
/ I
in bar in "C

and non-aggressive media can be considered pressure in the liquid in the s team evaporation r IS 37 !4-________

for use as cooling agents, in particular in °C in bar h ' in kJ/kg h" in kJ/kg in kJ/kg 10
30
25

glycol, an alcohol-water mi xture and - 30 1.195 64.5 1422.5 1358.0 20

'5
- 25 1.515 86.9 1429.7 1342.8
chlorine-free brine. Fig. 10.6b
10

In both cases they are mostly referred to as - 20 1.901 109.3 1436.6 1327.3
Opernfillg prillciple of n colllpressioll coo-
-15 2.362 131.8 1443.2 1311.3
brine in the brewery. lil/g plnl/t
-10 2.907 154.5 1449.4 1294.9 (A ) lil/e of ti,e sntll rnted liqllid, (B) lille of
·5
c.
The vaporised cold gas must then be recon- · 10

tile sntllrnted stemll "

velted into the liquid state so that it can be eva- - 5 3.548 177.2 1455.2 1278.1 ·15

4.294 200.0 * 1460.7 1260.7 c-o coolillg pel/onl/al/ce, 0-£ cO/llpressi-

porated again. Depending on how this occu rs, a 0 011 , £-F cOl/dellsntiol/, F-C retllmil/g of I
14

distinction is made b etween two types of refri- 5 5.158 222.9 1465.9 1243.0 tile col/del/ snfe, C-C1IIl/l/snble coolil/g I EnlhaJpie in kj/kg
10 6.150 245.9 1470.6 1224.7 pel/onl/nl/ce
geration plant:

I

932
SUlTOLU1dings - i.e. the tank contents - cool down.
The heat content (the enthalpy) of ammonia, on
the other hand, has increased by 1294.9 kJ/kg: the
value of the h ea t content of the steam-heat con-
tent of the liquid (1449.4 - 154.5). This corre-
sponds to the distance from C to D in Fig. 10.6 b.
When the (red) line B is reach ed, the evapora-
tion ends, because the all of the ammonia has
now been evaporated . But if one now adds even
more energy to the evaporated ammonia, while
the pressure remains the sam e, superheated
s team is formed, the enthalpy of which thereby
rises (see table):
-10 °C 1449.4 kJ/kg
1455.2 kJ/kg
1460.7 kJ/kg
lO
1465.9 kJ/kg
Since the ammonia must be reused, it has to be
subsequently returned to the liquid state. In or-
der to be liquefied, the ammonia is compressed.
The pressure and enthalpy of the gas thereby ri-
se and the gas heats up considerably (distance D
- E). This compression is the PaIt of refrigeration
which requires a large amowlt of energy.
The compressed hot ammonia must subse-
quently be converted back into the liquid state
by cooling. For this purpose, liquidifiers (con-
d ensators) are used . The condensators are usu-
ally pipe systems through which ammonia
flows while cold water trickles over it outside
and the ammonia cools; the cooling effect is in-
creased using ventilators.
As soon as the condensator temperature has
reached the line of the saturated liquid (F), the
ammonia has condensed and is liquid again. The
liquid ammonia is now released into the evapo-
rator again via a tlu'ottle valve which only lets li-
quid ammonia tluough. The enthalpy thereby re-
mains at the same value - which is why the path
from F to Cl is a vertical downward line. At the
same time, it can be seen that the diffe-
rence in entllalpy C - Cl is not available for the
cooling circulation, but only tile difference Cl- D.
•
Ways of savillg ellergy nllrillg refrigerntioll
If one wants to save energy, one must consider
at which places of the pressure - heat content
diagram (log p-h diagram) changes can be ma-
de. There are three basic possibilities for this:
decreasing the difference in pressure between
evaporator and condensator,
separating the cooling circulations according
to evaporation temperature and
subcooling the ammonia in the condensator.
10.3.1.3.2 Decreasing the difference in
pressure between evaporator and
condensator
The energy consumption is determined abo-
ve all by the pressure differential (D - E), which
the compressor has constantly to overcome.
One tries therefore to keep the pressure diffe-
rential between the temperature of evaporation
aDd the temperature of condensation as low as
possible. Higher temperatures of evaporation
correspond to higher pressures (see table) :
At 2.410 bar = OP 1.410 bar it boi Is at -15°C
At 2.966 bar = OP 1.966 bar it boils at -10°C
At 3.619 bar = OP 2.619 bar it boils at -5°C.
Because of the higher pressure in the evapo-
rator at a higher temperature of evaporation,
however, the compressor must p erform less
work for the compression. Because of this, the
necessary electrical drive performance is dimi-
nished (Fig. 10.6 c) (C2-D2-E2-F2). Because of
this, it is generally the case that [269]:
a lK lower temperature of condensation
saves 2 ... 2.5% drive output.
a lK higher evaporation temperature saves
3 .. .3.5% drive output.
This makes it possible to increase considerably
the cooling performance of the plant and to redu-
ce the energy requirement, since the compressor
operating time can be considerably reduced.
The aim is direct evaporation cooling of wa-
ter, wort and beer, since in this way one can
933
I
/
p T
in bar
15 37
, ,I E
30
10 25
20
15
10
· 15
Fig .1O.6c
Redllclioll of Ihe pressllre differelliin/
I
/Jelweell evnpora lor nlld cOlldell scr / Enthalpy in kj/kg
E.rp/nllnlioll s ill Ihe text
work with higher temperatures of evaporation,
of the compressed ammonia to the same level
as opposed to indirect cooling using a cooling as the other compressors (Fig. 10.6 d). 10
agent (e.g. glycol).
With direct cooling, only one h eat transfer is 10.3.1.3.4 Subcooling the ammonia in the eva-
required (.0,8 '" 3 .. 4K); with indirect cooling, porative condenser
double the amOLU1t is needed (6 .. .8K). This me- The condensa tion of the amm oni a is ended
ans that indirect cooling, as a result of the lower when the (red) line A is reached. This also gives
temperature of evaporation, requires (.0,8", 3 ..4K the basis for the evaporation path Cl - D in the
x '" 3 % / K) = 9 ... 12 % more electrical energy. evaporator. From here on, one is interested in
10.3.1.3.3 Separating the cooling circulations
according to temperature of evapo-
ration
In most breweries, the ammonia is exh'acted from
a single evaporator. The lowest required tempera-
ture then determines the temperature of evapora-
tion (e.g. -10 °C or -15 °C). The refrigeration requi-
2
rement differs greatly, however: willie one area
only needs -5 °C, anotller needs -10 °C or -15 °C.
If it is possible, one separates tile cooling cir-
culations according to the necessary temperahl-
re of evaporation and throttles the pressure as
far as n ecessa ry. This makes it possible to keep
the temperature of evaporation in the respecti-
ve evaporator as high as possible and thus to
throttle the en ergy consumption. In this case, Fig .1O.6d
Sepnraliofl of tI,C cooliflg cirClf/nliofl S nccordiflg 10 ICfilpcmlfl-
however, one mus t have for each circulation a
re of cvnpoml iofl
separate compressor which raises the pressure E.rp /nflnl iofls ifl lire lexl

934
subcooling the ammoni a still
further, because the condensa-
tion path then shifts to the left
T
in bar In cC
15 37
...t../_ - - - -+7- - - - --/- -- ---, E via line A (Fig. 10.6 e). This me-
ans that a greater evaporation
30
10 25 potential (from C' to C1) is
20
achieved in the evaporator and
15
10 the performan ce of the plant is
improved. The additional coo-
c, ling takes place in evaporative
condensers in cOlU1ection "vith
·15
cooling towers, in w hich the
200 300 400
warmed-up water is cooled
Enthalple in kj/kg
Fig. 1O.6e
down again. The temperature
of the wa ter remains almost
SlIucoolillg of tlte nllllllollin ill tlte colldellser
constant. By using larger heat
o h'ansfer surfaces, finer jets and
lower tlu'oughputs (Fig. 10.6 f), one can, with an
improved interior cooling, achieve a circulation
water temperature which lies about 10 K Lmder
the temperatuxe of condensation of the ammonia
[270]. In this way, one can obtain a subcooling of
the already liquid ammonia. In the SUl1uner, the
extent of this is limited by high air temperatures
and air humidity.
10.3.1.3.5 Attaching a heat pump
When condensed steam is com pressed, the en t-
halpy value rises at the same time as the pressu-
re. If enough energy is added in this process,
the condensate returns to the vaporised state
with a high en ergy content and it can perform
work and release energy again. Such plant muts
4
are known as heat pumps.
The vapour compressor lmit in the brewhou-
2 se (see Sect. 3.4.2.5.2), in which the vapour com-
presses by means of a roots blower, and thus re-
turns to being steam of a higher temperature
capable of hea t exchange, is in principle a heat
Fig.1O.6f pump. This is also true of the compressor in the
SlIucoolillg of tlte nil II 11011 in IIsillg circllintioll wnter refrigeration plant, which raises the enth alpy
(1) nlll IIIDII in frolll tile (2) nllllllollin to tlte tltrottle
value by mea ns of pressure increase. The hea-
vnlve, (3) liqllidifier witlt wnter tricklillg, (4) ndditiollnillent
ted ammonia must be cooled; in the cooling
tmllsfe rerfor slIucoolillg
process, h ot water is formed, which can be reu-
sed. The cooled-down ammon ia can now be
compressed in a second s tage to about 19 bar
(heat pump) and is thus heated considerably.
The hot ammonia steam can be condensed by
the circulation wa ter of the h eating plant and
the conden sa te can subsequently b e cooled
down using service water, w hich itself warms
up to around 50 °C in the process and thus ca n
be used again. Although electri ca l energy must
be used here in the form of the drive for the se-
cond compression, more total heat is m ade
available for heating, in the form of hot water,
than the electrical energy needed.
The op era tion al costs of a h ea t pump plant
are, however, so high that this theoretical solu-
tion is not made use of in practice.
10.3.1.3.6 Other ways of saving energy
Further ways of sav ing energy are possible in
the operation and maintenance of the refrigera-
tion plants; in particular:
mechanically keeping the hea t h'ansfer sur fa-
ces clean, so that an optimal heat transfer is
guaranteed. In particular, coa tings of grown
microorganisms (biofouling) must be remo-
ved . Oil displaces the hea t transfer; a O.lmm
ca lcification of the pipes reduces the heat
transfer by 10%!
operating the refrigeration plants using a ba-
lance storage tank, by m eans of which energy
peaks can be balanced out and
minimising energy losses by using well-
functioning hea t insulation . Coldness insula-
tion must be equipped with a water vapour
diffusion lock (steam brake) (see also Sect.
10.3.5 and 4.4.2.2.5).
10.3.2 Compression refrigeration plants
10.3.2.1 Operating principle
Most refrigera tion plants in breweries are com-
pression refrigeration plants. According to the
935
operating principle explained in the previo us
sec tion, a compression refrigeration plant con-
sists of four devices connected to on e another
by pipes (Fig. 10.7):
,
:5
I
3
:5
I
10
Fig. 10.7 COlllprcssioll refrigemtioll IIl1it (prillciple)
(1) (2) (3) colldellscr (liqll efier), (4)
expn llsioll vnlve, (5) Itent ellergy
Evaporator (1):
The liquid ammonia is fed into the evaporator
and eva porated here - depending on the requi-
rements - at temperatures between -4 and -10
0c. The h eat required for evaporation is with-
drawn fr om the envirOlU11ent which therefore
becomes cooled. The pipe or plate system of the
evaporator is, for this,
immersed in brine or glycol solution or
form s a store of ice in the wa ter by freezing
the water around the evapora tor pipe.
This type of cooling is termed indirect coo-
ling since it is not the cold ammonia but the
cooling age nt (the glycol solution or the cold
water) which is pumped to w here the cooling is
required.
When the evapora tor is located where the
cooling is required, one speaks of direct coo-
 •
936 937

ling. This has already been mentioned in the
description of cooling of CCVs (Sect. 4.4.2 .2).
Direct cooling by the direct evaporation of
ammonia is becoming more and more wide-
spread today.
To achieve a good heat transfer, it is necessa-
ry that the pipes or plates of the evaporator are
kept free on both sides from coatings of all
kinds (oil film, limescale).
C0111pressor (2):
The cold ammonia gas is sucked in by the com-
pressor and compressed to S-10 bar overpressu-
re. This increases the temperature of the com-
pressed NH3 to SO-90 0c.
The compressor is electrically operated and is
)
the machine with the greatest electrical energy
requirement in the brewery.
COlldellSer 01' liquefier (3):
The hot ammonia is cooled to 20-30 °C and is
thereby reliquefied. For better heat exchange
the condenser is built as a plate system or pipe
system.
Expallsioll valve (4) :
The expansion valve separates the evaporator
and condenser. It allows only a small amOlmt of
NH3 into the evaporator and prevents a pressu-
re equalisation between the evaporator and
condenser, which would reduce the cooling ef-
ficiency of the equipment to zero.
The temperature and pressure changes in the
compression refrigeration plant are typically as
follows:
Temp. Over- Heat energy
pressure
in °C in bar
Evaporator +25 to-5 2 energy required
Compressor -5 to +80 2 to 10 mechanical energy
Condenser +80 to +25 10 energy supplied
Expansion
valve +25 10 to 2
When the energy flo w of a compression refri- lar plates and the reby extracts the
geration plant is compared with a steam power heat for evaporation from the sur-
plant it can be seen that they operate exactly rounding fluid or air.
conversely (Fig. 10.S). Two of these evaporators are
described here :
11
Ve rtical t/lbe evapol'l1tors (Fig.
10.9)
Vertical tube evaporators are as a
2 4 2 rule rectangular concrete contai-
ners in which the vertical fall pi-
pes (4) are immersed in brine or a
glycol solution. The liquid am-
a monia (3) supplied evaporates in 5
the vertical pipes (6) and is led via
Fig. 10.9: lIerfienllllbe evapornfor (olrl Iype)
Fig. 10.8 Ell ergy flow a liquid separator (S) to the com- (1 ) evapornfor hOllsillg (illslliaf erl), (2) covel; (3) ill lei sprny, (4) rlOWII pipe, (5)
(a) cOlllpressioll refrigernlioll plnuf cirellif pressor (9). Many evaporators al- liqllirl col/eelioll pipe, (6) evnpornfioll pipes, (7) vapollr col/eelioll pipe, (8) liqllirl
10
(1) collfrol valve, (2) evapornfol; (3) cOlllpressol; (4) COllriC/l- separnfO/; (9) sll elioll pipe, (10) oil relllovnl, (11 ) brille sli"" el; (12) brille
so comprise a stirrer (11) which
ser
improves the heat exchange by
(b) sfenlll ellgill e plnlll cirCllif producing movement.
(1) boilerfeerl PIllIlP, (2) collrlell sel; (3) slealll ellgill e, (4) boi-
ler Sllell alld t/lbe evapol'l1tors (Fig.
10.10) 2
Energy source Energy supplied In the newer models the NH3 is
Steam power distributed by a spray hlbe and I I
plant heat mechanical energy evaporated whilst the pipes are
cooled in the brine . The advan-
Compression mechanical heat from low
I
temperature tages of this construction are:
refrigeration plant energy is brought up to a better heat transfer (smaller,
high temperature cheaper),
easier to control,
A compression refrigeration plant is therefo- smaller subsequent evaporati-
re at the same time a heat pump. on if there is a sudden stop,
smaller amOlmts of NH3 used .
Fig. ID.I0: SI,ell ami fllbe evnpornfor wilh eoolillg lIIerlilllll Irieklillg for liqllirl
10.3.2.1.1 Evaporators A special type of shell and hlbe
coolillg
Evaporators are built in many very different evaporator is the ice-water cooler (1) brille illlel, (2) vrill e ollilel, (3) NH J circlliafioll PIllIlP, (4) oil ex/rne/ioll, (5)
forms . Thus there are vertical tube evaporators, (see Sect. 10.3.2.5). NH J /0 fhe colllpressor
shell and tube evaporators, ribbed tube evapo-
rators, coiled pipe evaporators, plate evapora- 10.3.2.2 Compressors
tors (special design), lamellar plate evapora- The task of the compressor is to compress the screw compressor,
tors, etc. cold NH3 gas. For this various types of com- rolling piston compressor,
The basic principle of all evaporators is that li- pressor are used: rotating piston compressor, or
quid ammonia evaporates in the hlbes or lamel- reciprocating piston compressor, hlrbocompressor.

938
Reciprocating pistOl1 compressor:
The reciprocating piston compressor is the ol-
dest type used in the brewery. These compres-
sors were for a long time built as horizontal
slowly moving compressors and were often
coupled with the steam engine. Nowadays ver-
tical fast moving compressors with a perfor-
mance range of 100,000 to 300,000 kJ/h are pre-
ferred.
Compression is performed in these compres-
sors by the piston moving to and fro in combi-
nation with the opening and closing valves. The
ammonia is thereby heated in the piston com-
pressor to 90-100 0c.
Reciprocating piston compressors mostly
o contain several cylinders, the pistons of which
are fixed to a common crank shaft (Fig. 10.11).
The casing is separated by dividing walls into
crankshaft chamber, suction chamber and pres-
sure chamber.
By using a sub cooling appliance, an additio-
nal performance increase of 5% can be achie-
ved, and by using a desuperheater in the pres-
Fig. 10.11
Reciprocntillg pistOiI call/pressor
•
939
sure pipe, an increase of up to 14 % liquefaction
can be gained .
These compressors can be classified as
open compressors which have a closed casing
subject to the pressure of the cooling medi-
um . The drive is applied from outside to the
crank shaft, which is sealed against NH 3 .
semi-hermetically sealed compressors (mo-
tor compressors) which contain the electric
motor as well as the compressor in a screwed-
on casing, and
hermetically sealed compressors in which the
motor and compressor are contained in a
welded, tightly sealed casing (enclosed com-
pressors, household refrigerators).
Fig. 10.13: Screw call/pressor
Screw compressors
10
Screw compressors (Fig. 10.12) consist of two
rollers moving towards one another (drive rol-
ler and auxiliary roller) which lead the gas flow
against the tightly fitting casing. Because they
only perform a rotating movement they have a
constant output and idle running speed. Mo- Fig. 10.14
reover, they require no valves and are not sen- Fig. 10.12 Rotntizlg pistoll
Screw call/pressor (operntillg prill cipleJ coll/pressor
sitive to the presence of liquid . Consequently
they are continuously adjustable, and this is the
reason for their increasing use, especially in lar-
ge breweries (Fig. 10.13). Screw compressors lar cylinder. The separation of the suction from TlIrbocompl'essol's
are, however, very noisy in operation. When the pressure side is achieved by one or more sli- In turbocompressors the compression is perfor-
one adjusts them the efficiency decreases : since ding plates in the cylinder. m ed by acceleration of the gas flow in an impel-
they work without friction there is a slippage ler and subsequent conversion of the kinetic
and when the rotation speed is reduced the R otatillg pistoll compressors energy of the flow into a pressure increase in a
slippage is disproportionately great relative to In rotating piston compressors the compression diffuser.
the useful flowrate. is obtained by an eccentrically mounted rota- Turbocompressors are used in very large ref-
The slippage is reduced by oil. The oil seals ting piston containing several sliding plates rigeration plants which hardly ever exist in bre-
the two rollers against each other and at the sa- which are pressed by centrifugal force against weries.
me time cools the cooling agent (improvement the cylinder wall. Consequently individual
in efficiency) . compression cells are formed (multi-cell com- 10.3.2.3 Condensers (liquefiers)
pressor) (Fig. 10.14). Rotating piston compres- Condensers are heat exchangers in which the he-
Rollillg pistoll compressors sors are very suitable for large output volumes at removed from the cooling agent (heat of eva-
In these compressors the compression is obtai- with a low pressure difference. They are there- poration and compression) is taken up by a coo-
ned by a piston, eccentrically mOlmted on a fore often used for a low pressure stage in two- ling medium (air or water). The condensation or
shaft, rolling against the internal wall of a circu stage compression. liquefying process proceeds in tlu'ee stages:

940
removal of the superheating heat until the
evaporation temperature is reached,
removal of the heat of evaporation,
cooling down of the liquid (Fig. 10.15).
There are three groups of condensers:
water cooled or flowthrough condensers,
air cooled condensers, and
evaporative condensers.
T
in .(
J
V
2 controlled according to the cooling requirement
) 1/ ------1----
,,----
" Usually float valves are employed for this
Fig. 10.15
LiqlleJnctioll (co l/{/ellsillg)
(1) relllovnl oj tile sliperilentillg ilent, (2) cOlldensn tioll to li-
qllid, (3) sllvcoolillg
Water coolen cOl/nel/sers
The most common type are shell and tube con-
densers. TIlese consist of a horizontal cylinder
with tube plates welded on at both ends between
which internal hlbes are welded (Fig. 10.16).
Shell condensers have a simple construction
and are relatively easy to clean. They are used
when large amounts of water are available rela-
tively cheaply (water from lakes or rivers) .
Air coolen cOl/nel/sers
These basically consist of finned tube systems.
Because air has a low heat transmission coeffi-
cient, it is forced past the fins or lamellar blades
by fans. The heat exchangers are usually arran-
ged horizontally.
•
941
The amOlmts of cold water required for the 4
condensation are considerable. The water beco-
mes warmed by the cooling agent but it cools
thro ugh evaporation. Depending on the exter-
nal humidity, even with high external air tem-
peratures a water temperature of about 25°C is
established.
To reduce the specific energy consumption,
the condensed cooling agent can be further coo-
led in a heat exchanger (subcooling).
f 10.3.2.4 Control valves
TIle amOlmt of liquid cooling medium flowing
Fig. 10.18
out of the condenser into the evaporator must be Higil pressllre Jiont CO il troller
(1) illiet vnlve, (2) olltlet vnlve, (3) draill vnlve, (4) velltilnti-
whilst simultaneously allowing reduction of its al l vnlve, (5) vy-pnssillg level; (6) low pressllre jet, (7) tilrottle
10
Fig. 10.16 Silell nlld tllve colldenser
(Pilato TIl. Witt Kiiltelllnscilillell, Ancilell)
pressure. This regulation is nowadays usually
performed with automatic control valves.
opellillg
Evaporative connel/sers purpose and they are referred to, depending on
If an air cooled condenser is additionally sprayed the connection,
Q with the cooling performance is substanti- on the high pressure (condenser) side as high
ally increased by evaporation of the water, since pressure float controllers, or
the heat of evaporation is also led away. on the low pressure (evaporator) side as low
Evaporative condensers therefore operate pressure float controllers.
A high pressure float controller (Fig. 10.18)
with water circulation using a sufficient excess
of water (Fig. 10.17). Problems with soiling by contains a float ball as control element which
spraying water in an open flow of air are a dis- floats on the liquid ammonia. When the liquid
advantage. level sinks, the ball sinks and thereby closes the
outlet to the evaporator.
The ventilation valve (4) is necessary to drain
l7Iois/tJ r e sep'lfotor ! spray jets
b
off the enclosed air, since otherwise the liquid
infeed is hindered.
/ 1\ ; :\ / j" ,;\ /: \
sre-ominffol'l
10.3.2.5 Ice water storage unit (Fig. 10.19)
In every brewery there are phases in which very
low refrigeration performance or none at all is
/ necessary. This time can be used to store a reser-
I ve of cooling potential. The ice water storage Fig. 10.19
I
ron collection trougll
- -
pvmp
)0 unit is thus the cowlterpart of the hot water
energy storage Lmit (see Sect. 3.4.2.5.3).
lee wnler storage II/Iii , (TIl. Witt Kiiltelllnscilillell, Ancilell)
(1) ice wn ter vnck Jiow
(2) ice wn terJorem l1
-
Fig. 10.17
By ice water storage Lmit is meant a vessel in (3) glycol illJeed (-9 °C)
Evnporative call denser which fresh water (process water) is cooled to (4) glycol vnckJiow (-6 °C)

942
below 0.5 0c. Cooling is performed by continu-
ous recirculation of the water, which is forced
downwards in the central pipe and rises again
laterally, and in doing so, passes plastic pipes
made of high-d ensi ty polye thylene (HDPE),
through which brine cooled to -9 °C is pumped.
In the process, the water cools and slowly free-
zes by forming an increasingly thick crust of ice
arOtmd the pipes.
Consequently, in addition to the ice water at
0.5 0c, a reserve of cooling potential is produ-
ced which can be built up during the night-time
or at appropriate tilnes for storage. The ice wa-
ter removed becomes warmed by passage
tlu-ou gh the external plate cooler or cooling pi-
) pes and is led back slightly warmed illto the ice
storage unit. There it becomes cooled again by
the ice coatillg wh ilst the latter slowly melts.
The maximum ice coating aimed for is 25 mm
thick; if the ice coating becomes too thick or the
ice joins together between the pipes, the evapo-
ration temperature is lowered and the efficien-
cy is decreased.
Ice water is used for cooling open or closed
fermenters and for secondary coolillg in plate
coolers. In contrast to direct refrigeration, the
refrigeration capacity is made up of the dischar-
ge capacity of the storage lmit and the remai-
nillg direct refrigeration. As a result, the capaci-
ty of the compressor can be considerably
reduced. At the same time, all the other compo-
nents of the refrigeration plant can thus be sca-
led down.
10.3.3 Absorption cooling machines
In absorption cooling machines there is no com-
pressor. Instead of the compressor there are
three devices:
an absorber, a temperahtre exchanger and a
boiler.
The condenser, control valve and evaporator
are the same as ill compression coolillg machilles.
•
943
Prillciple of tlIe absorptioll coo lillg machin e
1 ,..-.... - 9
(Fig. 10.21)
--
Ammonia passes through the control valve (6) ill-
to the evaporator (1) and withdraws the necessa-
ry heat for evaporation from the slUToundillgs.
The absorber (2) cOtmected to the evaporator con-
L - - -- -,-,J
-10
6
tains water. Water has a strong tendency to ab-
Fig. 10.21
sorb ammonia gas, the more so the less satmated
the solution is. As a result of conrulUous absorp-
A usorplioll coolillg pin 11 I (prill-
ciple)
13
-, 2
tion of gas the solution becomes more concentra- (1) (2) (3)
l'> "
<..........
ted.TIle heat of solution produced is led away by
!zen l (4) (5)
: <" "
the coolillg medium. TIle dissolved ammonia is
(6) co lllrol vnlve, (7)
5011llioll PlllllP, (8) liqllid sepn-
- .. -t"
......
'> :>
<........ -
driven out agaiIl by hearulg to 120 °C in the boi- (9) coolillg urille, (10) coo- ..- 70
ler (4) and it is liquefied again ill the condenser Iillg (11) slrollg 5011l1ioll,
12 1
(5). Steam is used for the h eating; in smaller
(12) weak SOllllioll, (13) !zenlillg 11
stenlll
plants gas or electricity is also used . As a result of
the evaporation of anullonia ill the boiler the so- many breweries which use brine for indirect Depending on the arrangement of the brille
10
lution becomes less concentrated agaill.TIle wea- cooling. pipes, two groups of coolillg system are distill-
ker solution (12) must be moved from the boiler With indirect cooling (Fig. 10.22) there is guished:
to the absorber whilst the enriched solution (11) a cold medium producillg circuit (a) and
must be moved from the absorber to the boiler for a cold medium distribution circuit (b). Stationary cooling
removal of anUllonia . This movement is perfor- There is therefore a double circuit for brine The coolillg systems through which the brine is
med by the solution pump (7) . cooling, but advantages are: to flow are attached to the ceiling of the room to
The "weak" solution from the absorber needs if there is a leak, no ammonia can escape mto be cooled (e.g. lager cellar, filling hall, storage
to be cold in the absorber. A heat exchange is the workillg space, room). Because the cooled air sinks downwards
performed ill a temperature exchanger (3) con- the evaporator acts as a reservoir of cold me- a natural circulation occurs in this room.
nected between the evaporator and absorber m dium which can be produced using night-ti- TIle coolillg pipes are the coldest places ill the
which the "strong" solution is heated by the me electricity supplies and is also useful if room to be cooled. Moistme ill the air ill the room
"weak" solution, which thereby cools. there are peaks in cold requirements in the therefore condenses on them and they become co-
Absorption cooling machines are not com- brewery. vered with ice whilst the room air becomes drier.
mon in breweries. They are used mainly for
cooling cabinets since almost no mailltenance is
necessary for their operation. b
a
10.3.4 Space and liquid cooling
Space cooling and liquid cooling procedures
used ill breweries depend on the size and lay-
out of the equipment.
10.3.4.1 Cooling of conventional fermentation
and lager cellars
Fig. 10.22 Izldirect coolillg (prillciple)
It has been pointed out that nowadays the trend
(n) prodllctioll of cold llledilllll: (1) (2) (3) (4) colllrol vnlve
is to direct cooling. Nevertheless there are still (u) dislriulllioll of cold llledilllll: (1) coolillg urille ill (2) urill e PlllllP, (3) urille cool illS pipe sy slelll

944
Admittedly to a certain extent th e ice layer on
the cooling pipes forms a reservoir of cooling
power which still acts after the cooling is swit-
ched off; n evertheless:
The ice insulates the pipes and thereby impe-
des heat transfer.
Consequently the layer of ice should be regu-
larly thawed off. Thawed pipes transfer cold
25 % better than hea vily iced pipes. When the
cooling is switched off, the ice on the cooling pi-
pes thaw s and the tha wed water drops off.
When the thawed w a ter drops onto the ves-
sels it soon forms permanent ru st stripes which
m ake a new coat of paint desirable . Conse-
quently the cooling tubes are installed so that
the drips of water cannot drop onto the vessels
) 10
or else diversion cha1U1els are placed under
them .
Air cirCIIlatioll coolillg
In the fermentation cellar, for hygienic and space
reasons, it is not desirable to install cooling pipes
in the cellar itself and if possible they are instaHed
in an adjacent cooling chan1ber (Fig. 10.23).
The cold dry air is forced into the fermentati-
on cellar by a fan and sucked out again from
there by the fan. The fan is of such a size that it
can circulate the air in the fermentation cellar 4
to 6 times an hour. To avoid rheumatic illnesses
Fig. 10.23
Air circulotioll coolillg (prillciple)
(1) coolillg cllOlllbel; (2) space to be cooled, (3) brille pipes, (4)
fall
•
945
the air velocity must remain below 0.5 m/s. The
cooling requirem ent using air circula tion coo-
ling is somewhat greater than w hen u sing sta-
tionary cooling since the energy used to drive
the fan is converted to heat. Both smooth and
ribbed cooling pipes are u sed. In the case of rib- N
bed pipes the surfa ce of the pipe is artificially
increased and as a result there is a greater con-
tact surface with the room air.
Because of the increased surface of the ribbed N
pipes a cooling sys tem made using ribbed pipes
can be much shorter than one made with
smooth pipes. The latter are often 200 m long.
Stationary cooling and circulated air cooling N
U')
are nowadays only found in old, small cellars 's
6
u
and pub breweries.
10.3.4.2 Modern cooling plants "8
""
Modern cooling plants are nowadays construc-
ted as central N H 3 cooling plants to which all ""
equipment using cooling is cOlmected, inclu- 4
.§
ding the CO 2 recovery plant (Fig. 10.24).
Because, on economic grounds, operations
nowadays require different evaporation tempe-
ratures, most modern cooling plants also have M ...-iIII--....
several evaporators.
Liquid ammonia (green) is led via an NH3
collector (3) into one of the evaporators (3).
From there the liquid ammonia at approximate-
ly -6 DC is led into the cooling pipes of the CCVs
and evaporated there (direct evaporation)
(right section). If the CCVs are to be cooled in-
directly, the NH3 evaporates in a separate eva-
porator and thereby cools the brine (pale red),
which is stored in a brine container (6) (middle
section) . To cool the brewing water, an indivi-
dual evaporator is frequently used (left section)
in which, through the evaporation of the am-
monia, the cooling water for the deep freeze sta-
ge of the wort cooler is cooled down to I-2 °C.
In all cases, the superheated NH3 vapour
(blue) is led back into the NH3 separator. (For
advantages and disadvantages of direct and in-
 946
direct cooling, see Sect. 4.4.2.2.2). From there, it
is drawn off by the compressors and compres-
sed to 11 to 12 bar (red). The NH3 is heated by
the compression
in the case of screw compressors to 70-90 DC,
in the case of piston compressors to 90-110 DC.
The compressors switch automatically on
and off with a uniform work load .
In the subsequently cOlUlected condensers -
here there are three double evaporative con-
densers - the hot ammonia gas is cooled by the
evaporating water and liquefied again (green),
so that at the end it can flow into the NH3collec-
tor again at about 25 DC and is available for re-
newed circulation.
Not shown in the diagram are the further sec-
o temperahll'e of 8 DC. The cooling water is there-
tions in which the ammonia evaporates and
thereby withdraws heat from the surroun-
dings; these include, for example,
the cooling pipes on the CCVs,
the shell and tube flowthrough cooler for low
tempera hire cooling of beer,
the shell and hlbe cooler for brewing water
cooling,
a because the well water is not sufficiently cold.
4 ......
3 Fig. 10.26 Wort coolillg by plnte coolers
b (1) coolillg wnter nt 4°C
1. .
the shell and tube cooler for the glycol coo-
ling of the yeast tank and bright beer tank,
the ice water cooler.
In the case of modern cooling plants the CO,
liquefaction (see Sect. 4.4.8) is integrated in the
cooling plant. For this a liquid NH3 pump sup-
plies cold liquid ammonia to the NH3 conden-
ser of the cooling plant for CO 2 liquefaction. On
safety grounds the cascade cold plant in the
ammonia circuit operates separately from the
NH3 cold plant and possesses its own compres-
sor (not shown here) as well as the CO, liquefier
as evaporator.
10.3.4.3 Cooling of liquids
It is necessary to cool flowing wort or beer at
various stages. This concerns in particular
cooling of hot casting wort to pitching tempe-
rature,
cooling the beer after the main fermentation,
deep cooling of beer before filtration, etc.
Cooling is performed by
plate coolers (with a seal) for indirect cooling,
or
pipe coolers (welded) for direct cooling.
If well water at 12 DC is available, the hot wort
can be cooled by a plate cooler to about 3 DC
I
above this temperature, in other words to about
I[
15 DC. A lower temperature cannot be reached
With heat exchange there is inevitably always a
(n) sillgle stnge cooler
(b) two-stnge cooler
(2) hot wnter nt 80 °C
(3) hot wort nt 98 °C
(4) cooled wort nt 8 °C
(5) brew wnter nt 12°C
(6) cOllversioll plnte
small residual temperature difference between
the cooling fluid and and the fluid being coo-
led. If one wants to cool to a pitching tempera-
ture of about 8 DC, cooled water with a tempe-
rahlre of 4 to 5 DC at the most must therefore be
used. To cool well water at 12 DC to cooling wa-
ter at 4 to 5 DC, however, electrical energy is re-
quired.
Cooling can be performed in two possible
ways:
single stage cooling, or
two-s tage cooling.
Sillgle stnge coolillg (Fig. 10. 26, n)
The hot wort at about 98 DC is cooled in COLU1-
terflow to cooled water at 4 DC to the pitching
by heated to about 80 DC and can be reused as
hot water. By increasing the size of the plate
cooler, the temperature of the hot water can be
raised to 94 to 95 DC and this hot water can be
stored in a hot water storage tanl (see Sect.
3.4.2.6.3) for heating purposes .
To be able to perform single stage cooling, all
the cooling water must first be cooled from
about 12 DC to 4 DC. This gives rise to a cooling
energy requirement of
(12 DC - 4 DC) total amOlmt of cooling water
X
x spec. heat capacity
This energy requirement is relatively large.
Two-stnge cooling (Fig. 10.26, b)
In this the hot wort is cooled in the larger pre-
cooling section by well water at 12 DC. No ener-
gy is required for this, since the well water is
available at this temperature. More cooling wa-
ter, however, is required than with single stage
cooling.
In the following smaller deep cooling section
the now precooled wort is cooled by cooled wa-
ter at 4 DC to the pitching tempera hue of 8 DC.
947
The advantage of two-stage cooling is tha t
energy is needed only for the production of the
much smaller amolmt of cooled water at 4 DC.
The cooling energy is therefore needed only
for the amount of wa ter needed for low tempe-
rature cooling in the second cooling s tage.
The cooling energy requirement in a two-sta-
ge cooler is smaller the lower the transfer tem-
perature is at the conversion pla te (6).
The advantage arises because no cooling
energy is required to reach the temperature of
the well water since the cooling potential of the
well water is utilised. Therefore, although in
both cases the same amount of heat energ y
must be removed from the wort, the two-stage
cooler has a lower cooling energy requirement
10
than single stage cooling.
For the second stage shell and hlbe coolers
are often u sed with direct evaporation of am-
monia.
Because of the low water requirement, many
breweries use a single stage cooler, because on
the other hand an additional heat exchange r is
required for the brew water cooling and a stora-
ge tank for the ice water. For this, a temperatu-
re control, pumps and fittings are necessary.
Single stage cooling requires less cooling wa-
ter but more cooling; two-stage cooling requi-
res less cooling but more cooling water.
The decision as to which method is more suit-
able for the firm must be made under conside-
ration of all relevant criteria (above all the costs
of cooling and water).
10.3.5 Advice for economic operation of
cooling plants
Pronllctioll of coolillg potel/tinl
Because the cooling plant is by far the greatest
user of electrical energy, one must always think
about using it cost-efficiently.
For this it is necessary that the compressor,
depending on the cooling requirement, always

948
compresses to the established preset degree .
This is achieved by use of a control device
(Pressostat) which, when the external air tem-
perature is low or there is a smaller usage of
cooling, maintains the condensation pressure
always at the level of the stipulated pressure by
switching off condenser surfaces.
Nowadays central cooling plants for direct
NH3 evaporation are preferably used. Because
different evaporation temperatures are needed at
the suction side of the compressor, vaCUWl1 pres-
sure regulators which malll.tain. the lowest pres-
sure level are employed. The compressors there-
fore always operate with the lowest suction
pressure and the highest condensation pressure.
o 1 °C lower condensation temperature gene-
rates 1 % higher cooling capacity with appro-
ximately 2.5% less effective refrigeration
compressor performance.
1 °C higher condensation temperature gene-
rates 6 % higher coollll.g capacity with appro-
ximately 3 % less effective refrigeration com-
pressor performance.
The efficiency of a plant greatly depends on the
evaporation temperature. As a rule, different eva-
poration temperatures are required on the sucti-
on side. It is therefore advisable to lll.stall several
cycles with different evaporation temperahlres
rather than a central plant, which has to continu-
ally operate at the lowest suction pressure.
As a result of differlll.g tempera hIres and loads
on the plant tlle conditions are always changlllg
but they can be measured and related to one anot-
her. TIlis gives rise to the possibility of optimislllg
operation of the plant by prograI1Ullable compu-
ter conh'ol, as has been lll.h·oduced already lll. ma-
ny brewies. Because the refrigeration plant is such
a large user of electricity, llwestments m elech'ici-
ty savlllg soon pay for themselves.
As has been shown in relation to wort boi-
ling, air in the steam considerably reduces the
•
boiling performance. The same effect occurs
when air gets into the refrigeration system:
Even small amounts of air in the ammonia
cause the condensation pressure to increase
considerably and decrease the efficiency of the
coollll.g plaIlt.
Distributioll of coolillg
When working in cold rooms the following
measures should be observed:
Keep windows and doors closed in warm
seasons of the year. In wlllter the colder outside
temperahtre CaIl. be used by opening the cold
room doors. Walls and doors must be insulated
as well as pOSSible. An interruption of the room
cooling for several hours each day is advisable
to melt the ice on the coollll.g pipes and to remo-
ve the cushion of ice. A better storage of cooling
potential is obtained by use of large volumes of
brllle in the pipes . Smooth pipes contain more
brllle than ribbed pipes . Because the spaces bet-
ween the flllS on the ribbed tubes are often com-
pletely iced up, their efficiency is substantially
impaired . Consequently, m rooms cooled to a
low temperature, such as lager cellars, smooth
pipes are mostly used. Ribbed pipes are restric-
ted to fermentation cellars, filling halls, etc. TIl.e
space to be cooled is decreased by occupymg
the space as tightly as possible. In sections
which are not in use no cooling is used.
Of particular significance in cooling distribu-
tion is the layout design and configuration of
the refrigerant pumps. Since the coolmg loads
are frequently a considerable distance apart,
the pump plants are often equipped with for-
ced recirculation of the refrigeraIlt. In the pro-
cess, liquid refrigerant is led from the sump of
the liquid separator to the evaporator, where
the refrigerant then evaporates.
10.4 Electrical equipment
A substantial amount of the energy used by a
brewery is provided as electrical energy.
Because of the ease of transport of electrical
energy it is the ideal energy source and it is
u sed everywhere in the brewery except where
cheaper sources of energy should obviously be
used.
10.4.1 Supply of electrical energy
Electricity is predomillaIltly produced in power
stations. In Germany in 2005
28.0% of the electricity was produced from
nuclear energy,
24.7% from crude lignate,
21.7% from hard coal,
8.4 % from nahtral gas,
6.2 % from hydroelectricity plants,
0.6% from fuel oil,
2.5% from other heat sources such as burning
of rubbish.
Water and wind powered power stations are
the most envirOlIDlentally sustainable, but lll.
the GermaIl. geographical situation CaIl provide
only a small part of the energy supply.
In all power stations the electricity is produ-
ced by electrical generators in which mechani-
cal energy (rotational movement) is converted
to electrical energy.
A generator consists of a fixed stator all.d a ro-
tating part (rotor), both of which are equipped
with wmdings. As a result of the rotation of the
rotor a voltage is lllduced ill. the stator which
follows the shape of a Sllle curve.
To produce electricity, generators with three
wlll.dlll.g coils at 120 ° SpaClll.gs are used. As a re-
sult, a current is produced m each coil, the volta-
ge fields of which continuously overlap. Such a
current is called a rotary or three-phase current.
The electrical energy from power stations is
still malll.ly supplied by overhead lmes. Becau-
se very thick wires with high transmission los-
ses are required for distributing energy at vol-
tages of 10 to 20 kV, such as are produced by the
generators, the voltage is increased by traIl.sfor-
949
mers ill the power stations to 60 to 380 kV and
traIl.sferred over long distances at this voltage
by overhead cables. For muniCipal supplies the
voltage is transformed by local transformer sta-
tions to a moderate voltage of 10 kV all.d distri-
buted preferably lll. underground cables.
Breweries also receive most of their electrical
energy m this form through one or more traIl.S-
formers supplied with 10 kV or 20 kV, and pro-
ducing a 380 V output voltage. In some other
countries and continents quite different volta-
ges are customary, for example, three-phase 600
V supplies are often used. This voltage can be
used as a three-phase supply or in the form of a
smgle phase alternating current at 220 V.
The energy suppliers charge breweries for
the amOlmt used in kWh. But even when elec-
10
tricity is not belllg used, 50% or more of the un-
used power must be paid for. It is therefore in
the lll.terest of the compaIl.Y to compensate for
the inevitable inactive currents. To be able to
understand this the power factor cos <p must
first be explained.
10.4.2 Power factor cos <p
Two alternatmg currents are in the same phase
when the zero values all.d the maximum values
of their sine-shaped instantaneous values in
each case colll.cide. When they do not occur si-
multaneously the currents are "phase shifted".
The size of the phase shift is expressed III an-
gular degrees; III fact the phase shift angle (<p) is
the time by which the current precedes the vol-
tage.
A phase shift CaIl also occur between the cur-
rent sh'ength and the voltage of one all.d the SaJ11e
alternati..tlg current. TIlis always occurs with lll-
ductive loadlll.g, i.e. when all. alternati..tl.g current
passes through magnet wlll.dlll.g coils, as is the
case with alternating current motors (Fig. 10.27).
In the curves in the Figure the same altern a-
tlllg current is shown with inductive loads of
different magnitudes:

950
cos
voltage Ivave
curve
o (05<1,,0
1. The first curve shows the non-loaded current,
the current strength and voltage of which are
in phase. The dot and dash line is the power
curve of the current. The power curve is the
product of the voltage and current strength;
the average power output (n) is the axis divi-
ding this curve.
2. The second curve shows an inductively loa-
ded current. Because of the phase shifting the
curve of the instantaneous power is partially
negative when the current strength and vol-
tage are of opposite signs. The power curve,
and with it the average power output, beco-
mes increasingly lowered with increasing lo-
ad and approaches the time axis.
3. The third curve shows the current with a pu-
rely inductive loading (qJ = 90°). For half the
time the current strength and voltage have
opposite signs and the average power output
coincides with the time axis, i.e. the average
power output is zero.
The positive values of the power curve (i.e.
those above the axis) represent the power sup-
plied from the generator to the user. The nega-
tive values (i.e. those shaded below the time
4
pOlver
Fig. 10.27
Power curve witll pllnse sllif-
tillg
axis) correspond to the power which the user
supplies to the generator. In the case of purely
inductive loading (qJ = 90 °) the energy thus os-
cillates to and fro between the generator and
user without any useful power being supplied
to the outside .
Consequently the power of all inductively
loaded and thereby phase shifted currents is re-
duced.
The size of the reduction depends on the pha-
se shifting. Fig. 10.28 shows the phase shifted
current broken down into its components which
allow the active current to be determined.
The active current is recorded displaced by qJ
relative to the effective voltage. Drawing the
perpendicular line gives the inactive current
and the active current. The larger qJ is, the
greater the inactive current and so the smaller
the active current.
Expressed as trigonometric functions
Active current Ia = I x cos qJ
and
Active power N a = U x I x cos qJ
and in the case of three-phase current
N = v3 x U x I x cos qJ.
Fig. 10. 28 Active, illnctive nJl(i nppnrwt
C/l rrellt
(1) active cllrrellt, (2) illnctive CIIITellt,
(3) appnrellt cllrrellt
Tile sallie reintiolls npply to tile power.
The factor cos qJ is known as the (electro tech-
nical) power factor. In the case of a phase shift
angle of qJ = 0 0 , cos qJ = 1, whereas when qJ = 90 °,
cos qJ = O.
Tile ecollomic importallce o/the power/actor
cos qJ
To be able to supply a specific power output to
the user, a greater current (I) is required the
smaller the power factor cos qJ is.
For example, if 10 kW active power is to be
transmitted through an alternating current at
220 V, what is the current strength when
1. cos qJ = 0.8 or 2. cos qJ = 0.47
N a = U x I x cos qJ
Na
v x cos qJ
1. I = 10,000 W 57 A
220 V x 0.8
2. 1= 10,000 W = 114 A
220 V x 0.4
This means that for the same achlal power
output twice the cu rrent strength must be used
when the power factor decreases by half.
With poor power factors of electric motors
disproportionately more current is required
951
and thus the efficiency of the equipment is de-
creased.
Apart from this, with a poor cos qJ the cables
10
must be thicker. This in turn means more cable
material must be used, which cam10t be justi-
fied, as well as higher ohm losses.
On average one expects a cos qJ of 0.7 to 0.8.
The power factor can be easily read at any time
by an in-built cos qJ meter.
Improving the power factor cos qJ
A poor power factor frequently occurs because
the motors and transformers are permanently
underloaded. With underloading the cos qJ is
smaller than with full loading. Permanently lU1-
derloaded motors should therefore be replaced
by those appropriate for the required power.
Usually to improve the power factor use is
made of high voltage condensers. The conden-
ser causes in the alternating current a phase ad-
vance of the current strength relative to the con-
denser voltage . These condensers which consist
of two thin metal plates, separated only by an
insulation layer, act as stationary phase shifters .
They produce almost no energy loss and are re-
latively cheap to buy.
In general the cos qJ is not compensated to a
value above 0.9 because above this phase, shif-
ting is relatively lU1important and its improve-
ment brings no practical advantages .

952
10.4.3 Transforming the electric current
As h as been men tioned, the electric cu rren t pro-
vided to the brewery is a three-phase current
with three phases shjfted relative to one an ot-
her. In this form it can only be used directly for
some of the motors and equipment.
In many places the requirements are
voltages of 220 V, for instance for lighting and
smaller items of equipment,
in a few areas, where human contact cannot
be excluded (hand lamps), the low sa fety vol-
tage must be at most only 42 V,
many motors are nowadays operated w ith
direct current,
in the case of many motors, the frequency of
o the alternatin g curren t has to be changed du-
ring operation.
In order to meet these various needs and re-
quirements some specific electrical devices are
necessa ry:
Trans/orll1ers or voltage changers
Transformers change the incoming three-
phase current at a defined voltage and frequen-
cy (50 H z) to a different voltage at the same fre-
quency. By transforming one phase of the tlu'ee
phase supply it can be converted to the custo-
mary single phase 220 V voltage. Through furt-
her transformations other chosen smaller volta-
ges can also be obtained.
Rectifiers and inverters
The conversion of direct current to alterna-
ting current and conversely is performed by a
rectifier or inverter.
A device which converts alternating current
to direct current is called a rectifier.
A device which converts direct current to al-
ternating current is called an inverter.
Rectification to direct current can be perfor-
med in various ways:
By a motor generator; this is an alternating
current motor which is coupled to a direct
'4
current generator and drives this directly and
so produces direct current. The effiCien cy of
such motor genera tors is, however, low (75 to
80%).
A motor and generator are united by a syn-
chronous converter. The converter winding
operates at the sa me tim e as a motor and ge-
nerator winding. The efficiency of this recti-
fier is consequ entl y high (up to 95 %).
Th ese two rec tifi ers have no signifi can ce
today.
Semiconductor rectifiers (dry-plate rectifiers)
are increasingly used nowadays instead of
rotatin g rectifiers and they convert the Cm -
rents silently and almost without loss.
Freqllellcy COHverters
For a number of tasks the rotation speed of mo-
tors must be changed to suit the requirements.
To maintain the full power of the motor in spite
of this, static frequency converters are used
which convert the supply voltage and 50 Hz
frequency to a variable frequency and voltage.
Thereby the rotation speed of three-phase mo-
tors can be adjusted in a step less malU1er.
This meal1S it is easily possible to use motors
economically for purposes such as maintaining
constan t flow rates and pressures, constant tor-
ques and constan t power output.
10.4.4 Safety measures
Electrical equipment and facilities may only be in-
stalled, modified or serviced by a qualified electri-
cian. The releval1t regulations are contained in the
Accident Prevention Regulation 4. Electrical
equipment and facilities (VBG 4) and in the
appendix to the instructions for executing the
Accident Prevention Regulations. VBG 4 (issu-
ed April 1992).
Persons who are not qualified electricians -
which includes brewers and maltsters - may
not lmdertake al1y work on or make modificati-
ons to electrical equipment.
In order to be ab le to work correctly w ith
electrically operated eq uipment, safety m easu-
res must be used for electrical equipment at
over 50 V which ensure
protection to preven t accidents,
protection agains t overvoltages,
that the equipment is insulated properly,
th at the equipment is properly cOlU1ected to
earth.
To prevent accidents electrical equipment
must possess
protection against direct contact al1d
protection agains t indirect contact.
These requirements are sa tisfied by the follo-
wing measures:
protective in sulation,
protective low voltage (below 42 V),
protective grounding,
earthing,
protective piping,
fau lty voltage protection switching,
fau lty current protection switching and
safety insulation (ga lvanised) .
Because of the risk of accidents, voltage car-
rying parts of electrical machines and equip-
ment must not be touched. In addition care
must be taken that no foreign bodies or water
penetrate into them. Dep ending on the location
of the ins tallation and purpose for which it is
used, protection agains t accidental contact, wa-
ter or foreign bodies is necessary.
To avoid any excessive heating of elech"ic ca-
bles an d overloading of connected facilities,
each cable diameter has an associated maxi-
mLUn permissibl e continuous loading which, in
the interest of plant safety, must not be excee-
ded . Monitoring of cables is performed by fuses
and safety switches. If the permitted current va-
lue is exceeded, these devices must reliably in-
terrupt the current. Interruption by a fuse is the
conclusive proof of overload ing of the wiring.
It is the duty of every brewer to observe the
specified instructions for operatin g electrical
953
eq ui pment as closely as possible and so h elp to
ensure that people and plant are not endan ge-
red.
10.4.5 Information concerning economic
use of electrical energy
Electricity usage nowadays is 10 to 12 kWh/h I
of beer. This electricity h as to be bought. The
energy sup ply companies (EVU in Germany)
sell this electricity, but it is to their adval1tage
that the elech'icity should be used at a constant
rate to avoid consumption peaks. This is not
important on mild summer nights, but in win-
ter at the s tart of severely cold Monday mor-
nings the current requirem ent is very high.
To avoid such peaks the suppl y conditions of
the EVU provid e for an amount used price and
10
a supply price.
The amOlmt used price d epends on the kWh
used and - as with domestic supplies - is conti-
nuously measured . The price per kWh is vari-
able.
The supply price is based on the maximum
power consumption in kW (more exactly kVA)
as 15 min peaks. The consumption peak is mea-
sured with a maximum value recorder and the
supply price is fixed accordingly. This basic pri-
ce which is fi xed for a year is often charged in
incremental s teps. Consequently it can happen
that in the end a lot of money mus t be paid for
1 kWh in the current peak.
Consequently, the supply price is a financial
parameter which compels breweries to avoid
current p eaks, otherwise the electri city costs
soon grow end lessly. Therefore the following
basic rules apply, amongst others, in breweries:
refrigeration compressors, as the greates t
electrical energy users, must above all be maxi-
mally operated at night al1d provide reserves of
cooling power.
Large cooling brine con tainers and ice water
tanks act as cooling power stores and must be
fully loaded at night.
 q;z

954 955

Because the power peak is divided by the 10.5 Pumps, fans and compressors
power factor cos <p, it is important to ob tain In many places in a brewery or maltings, li-
high cos <p values for the electric motors by in- quids, pas te-like materials or gases mus t be mo-
stalling condensers. ved . Dep ending on the type and extent of the
The power factor of the entire plant should be movement of these media, pumps, compressors
adjusted by a condenser plant to obtain a high or fan s are used.
cos <po
Saving electricity is a task which involves all 10.5.1 Pumps
employees. For lighting purposes more current Pumps are fluid-moving machines for moving
saving lamps should be used. Fluorescent tubes a fluid from a lower energy level to a higher
use less electricity than filament bulbs to pro- energy level. Thereby
duce the same amOlmt of light. a h eight difference is overcome, or
The maximum current is usu ally recorded the pressu re in the system is increased, or
only after 15 min. To avoid mishaps, despite all liquid is dosed in.
efforts, frequently power con sumption control- In breweries pumps are preferably used for
) lers are installed which, when a preset current moving or dosing liquids and even highly vis-
strength is reached, switch off the equipment cous m aterials such as:
and motors in a predetermined sequ ence, to cold liquids such as beer or water,
prevent the power peak being exce2ded ("auto- hot liquids su ch as wort or hot water,
matic shedding of ballast"). A further way of viscous fluids such as yeast or kieselguhr pre-
saving is by using cheap er night electricity. parations, and
Centrifugal pumps Displacement pumps Jet plU1lpS
ro tating reciprocating
Operation dynamic s tatic static dynamic
Delivery continuous almost continuous pulsating continuolls
goods w hich can be shovell ed, su ch as s pent
grains, can also be pmnped .
There are very many different types of
p umps. In the brewery those most frequ ently
used are
centrifuga l pumps (impeller pumps), and al-
so
positive displacement pumps, and to a lesser
ex tent
jet pumps.
10.5.1.1 Centrifugal pumps
The most frequently used pumps in breweries
are centri fu ga l pumps. Pumps of various sizes
and outputs are used and they are used for va-
rious applications.
Centrifugal pumps work on the principle that
the liquid flowing axially to the impeller w heel
is ca rried rOlmd by the latter aIld is thrown out-
wa rds by the impeller aIld led off from the peri-
phery. The increase in pressu re results from the
acceleration of the liquid in the impeller w heel.
Centrifuga l pumps h ave m any ad van tages
which m ake them indispensable for use in the
brewery:
they deliver at a uniform rate,
they are rob ust and simple in construction,
possessing no valves of aIly kind,
the flow rate is easy to adjust,
they are very flexible because differently de-
signed impellers ca n be llsed.
Depending on their design they are classified
as
radial centrifugal pumps,
side chal1l1el pumps/s tar w heel pumps,
non-clogg ing impeller pumps, and
mi xed fl ow pLUnps (semi-axia l fl ow pumps).
10.5.1.1.1 Radial centrifugal pumps (Fig. 10.29)
Radial cen trifuga l pumps opera te in the man-
ner d escribed above. They are n on self-prim ing
pumps; thi s means that the suction line cannot
be emptied of air by the pump itself. Th e pump
can only develop proper suction when the su c-
tion pipe and pump are filled w ith liquid. They
10
are therefore usually loca ted below the medi-
um to be moved. Depending on the shape and
construction the variollS impellers are cl assifi ed
as (Fig. 10.30):
the closed impeller (a) for liquid s only,
the open impeller (b) for liquids containing
solids, with gentle movement,
the free-flow impeller (c) for gas-containing
liquids, and
the chaImel impeller (d) for specia l purposes.

Principle flow displacement displacement jetting

Pump s truchlre radial centrifugal eccentric piston

type pumps spiral pLUnps pumps
side chaImel lobed rotor membrane liquid jet
pumps pLunps pumps pumps
non-clogging rotating piston membrane
impeller pumps plU1lpS piston pumps
mixed flow gear pumps
pumps internally toothed
displacement pmnps
Fig. 10.29
hose pumps Rndinl cell/rifllgni plllllp (exp loded pic-
/lire)

956
a b
c a
Fig . 10.30
IlIIpellers of radinl celllriJllgnl plllllpS
(n) closed illlpellel; (b) opell illlpellel; (c) freeflow illlpellel; (d)
cilnllll el illlpeller
Radial centrifugal pumps are installed in bre-
o weries principally for wort and beer movement.
For conveyan ce to a great height or use at hig-
her pressures these pumps are bl:ilt as multi-
stage pumps (Fig. 10.31).
The con nection wi th the drive motor (Fig.
10.32) is made in different ways:
by use of an inserted sh aft (rigid coupling) (a)
or
they are both incorporated in on e casing
(block stru cture) (motor shaft = pump sh aft)
(b), or
they are connected throu gh an intermediate
bearing (cOlmection of the shaft ends by flexi-
ble coupling) (c) .
•
957
10.5.1 .1.2 Side channel pumps/star wheel ing v iscous medium (mash) aJld for wet goods
pumps when wet cas ting badey in pneumatic plaJltS.
Side chaImel pumps differ only slightly exter-
10.5.1,1.4 Mixed flow pumps
a b c n ally from radial centrifuga l pumps, but they
develop suction by themselves and are conse- Mixed flow pumps are used preferably as mul-
Fig. 10.32
quently known as se lf-priming centrifugal ti-stage pumps for deep bore h ole wells becau-
Plllllp-drive 1II0lor cOlllleclioll
(a) ill serled silaft, (II) block cO llslm ctioll, (c) bearillg COllllccli-
pumps. se they are characterised by a sma ll impeller
all The su ction connection and pressure side diameter and consequently can be installed in
connection must face upwards, so that the narrow bore hole pipes.
j pump always stops when it is filled with liquid .
1 TIle pumping priJ1ciple (Fig. 10.33) depends 10.5.1.1.5 Screw centrifugal pumps
Screw cenh·i.fugal plilllpS (Fig. 10.34 a) con sist of
on the fact that a star wheel (1) rotates, wi th litt-
le lateral play, in a housing which contains the a specially sh aped scooped impeller (1) which
suction opening (2). A lateral chaJmel (3), wh ich combines the properties of a centrifugal pump
tapers at both ends, and the pressure outlet are with the advaJltages of a positive displacement
located on the other side of the wheel. When the pump. In the suction cone (5) the supply stream
plOup is switched on, the liquid fi lling the plOup from the inlet (2) is accelerated in rotation in the
10
is carried rOlmd by the star wheel and thrown in- spiral wheel element (7). As a result the solid s,
to the lateral ch aJmel. TIle pressure in the plOup
aJ'ises mainly by a pulse h'aJ1sfer in which the li-
quid in the rapidly rotating star wheel repeated-
ly transfers energy to the more slow ly circula-
ting portions of liquid in the lateral chaJU1el (Fig.
10.34). Such pumps are used for su ckin g off ye-
Fig. 10.33 ast aJld taJ1k bottoms, for taking saJuples or as a
Side cilllllll el plllllp (operalillg prillciple)
cleaJung liquid return pump.
(1) slnr wileel blade, (2) sll clioll COIIIICelioll, (3) side cilallll el,
(4) press llre side cOlllleelioll
10.5,1,1.3 Channel impellers
The conveying principle of non-clogging Ch aJl - 2
nel impellers is similar to that of side chaJmel
impellers. They are used preferably for convey-
7 8
Fig . 10.34 a
Screw celllriJllgal plllllp
Fig . 10.31 (1) screw-celllriJllgal illlpellel; (2) ill lei, (3) ollllet, (4) spiral
Mlllli-slage celllrijilgal plllllp ilOII Sillg, (5) sll clioll COliC, (6) plllllp silafl, (7) screw illlpeller
(exploded piclllre) Side cilllllllel plllllpls lnr wileel pllllip (cxploded picllll'c) parI, (8) celllriJllgnl illlpeller pnrl

958
whid1 are heavier than are carried into the
cenh'e of the surrounding liquid.
In the following centrifugal wheel part (8) the
flow of liquid is then carried radially outwards
and led off at the outlet (3).
Because the particles do not undergo any
sudden change of direction, the conveying is
gentle and there are only minimal shear forces.
Substantial advantages of screw centrifugal
pumps mentioned are:
they operate without choking and can pump
even highly viscous materials (up to more than
4000 mPas),
pumping is very gentle,
they have a high efficiency (above 80%),
they have a constant power consumption,
J Fig. 10.38
their NPSH values (see Sect. 10.5.1.3) are low,
and so there is little risk of cavitation.
Screw centrifugal pumps are being increa-
singly used in breweries, particularly because
of their gentle action, as mash and wort circula-
tion pumps and for wort transport. For food hy-
giene reasons they can only be installed in the
hot operations region, in other words lU1til wort
casting.
10.5.1.2 Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps move the liquid
forward by displacing it from the suction cham-
ber to the pressure chamber. The liquid is trea-
ted very gently during the displacement. A di-
stinction is mabe between
continuously rotating displacement pumps
without valves, and
pulsating displacement pumps which move
to and fro and for which valves for closing
and opening the working chambers are ne-
cessary.
10.5.1.2.1 Displacement pumps with constant
delivery
Constant delivery displacement pumps contain
a uniformly rotating drive element which does
•
959
not produce a reciprocal movement. This ensu- this pump almost anything can b e pumped, in- piston and as the size of the operating chamber in
res the constancy of the delivery. This type of cluding paste-like materials. front of the presslU'e outlet decreases it is pushed
displacement pump includes: The stator is a part which is subject to wear into the outlet (Fig. 10.38).
eccentric screw pumps, and is relatively expensive. The pump is not
rotating piston pumps, suitable for dry operations. It can be cleaned
lobed rotor pumps, suitably for foodstuffs.
gear wheel pumps, In breweries such Mohno pumps are used for
internally toothed pumps, transporting spent grains or for transporting
hose pumps. mash or yeast deposits.
10.5.1.2.1.1 Eccentric screw pumps
Eccentric screw pumps (Fig. 10.35) consist of an
outer stator made of elastic material and an in-
ternally located shaft (rotor) made of stainless
steel. As a result of its shape this pump is also
referred to as a single spindle pump or, after the 10
name of its inventor Moineau, it is often called
Rotntillg pistoll pllllip (exploded pictllre)
a Molmo pump or Mono pump.
10.5.1.2.1.3 Lobed rotor pumps
Lobed rotor pumps (Fig. 10.39) operate in a si-
milar way to rotating piston pllinps but each of
tl1e two rotating pistons (rotors) have three lo-
Fig. 10.36 bes which engage in one another with the same
Movell/wt of tlie rotor ill tlie stntor angular velocity and carry the medium to be
pumped with them. The pumping action is
very gentle and, as with rotating piston pumps,
rotor worm housing 10.5.1.2.1.2 Rotating piston pumps paste-like and high viscosity materials can be
stutor A rotating piston plUl1p (Fig. 10.37) contains two gently conveyed .
rotatable pistons which are driven by gear When gaseous materials are pumped the
CClvi ty wheels at the same angular velocity. ll1e medium pumps are usually called rotating piston blo-
to be conveyed enters into the empty operating wers or compressors (also Rootes blowers after
chamber, which becomes larger as the piston ro- their "inventor"); they compress to a pressure
tates, is carried in the direction of rotation of the difference of about 0.5-0.6 bar.
Fig. 10.35
Eccelltric screw plllllp witii cOll veyillg worlll
Fig. 10.37
As a result of the rotational movement of the ro-
Rotntillg pistoll
tor (single flighted) and the long hollow cham- pili lip
ber formed (Fig . 10.36) in the stator (double (operatillg prill-
lead), the liquid is propelled forwards. With ciple)

960
Fig. 10.39
Lobed rotor plllllp
These are used in various forms:
in pneumatic compressed air and vacuum
plants (Sect. 2.1.3.2) or
during boiling for vapour compression in the
brewhouse (see Sect. 3.4.2.6.2).
10.5.1.2.1.4 Gear pumps
Gear pumps operate on the same principle as
lobed rotor pumps. Lobed rotor pumps have
two, three or four lobes, while gear pumps ha-
ve many lobes.
Gear pumps are used - like rotating piston
and lobed rotor pumps - for transporting vis-
Fig. 10.41
Peristaltic plllllp
(1) elastic 1I0se, (2) sqllcezillg roller
...
cous goods such as yeast slurry.
For motors and machines, they
are used as lubrication pumps.
10.5.1.2.1.5 Internally toothed
pumps
In the case of internally toothed
pumps (Fig. 10.40), the rotor with
internal teeth (1) carries the pini-
on sh aft (2) in rotation with it. The
teeth on the pinion shaft are ar-
ranged eccentrical ly.
As soon as the motor hm1s, a gap
(3) is formed between the rotor and
2 . . . . . ._ .
1
*
3
Fig. 10.40:
Illtemall!! tootlled displacelllellt plllllp
(1) rotor witll illtemalteetlI, (2) pillioll siiaft willi extemal
tee III, (3) gap betweell tile teetlI, (4) closillg of a gap, (5) closllre
pinion teeth and the supply stream can enter bet-
ween the teeth. At position (4) the flow sh'eam is
forced out through another gap formed between
the teeth and leaves the pllinp through the pres-
sure side c01U1ection. These pllinps are u sed for
slightly to highly viscous materials.
10.5.1.2.1.6 Peristaltic (hose) pumps
The main component of a peristaltic pump (Fig.
10.41) is an elastic hose or tube (1). By means of
several squeezing rollers (2) the hose is pressed
against the cylindrical casing wall and this for-
ces the goods to be conveyed forwards in front
of the rollers whilst as a result of the reduced
pressure behind the rollers more material is
drawn in (Fig. 10.42).
Fig. 10.42
Peristaltic plllllp
(4) sllctioll clIalllbel; (5) illller challlber of tile plllllp cOlltaillillg tile rotOI; (6) SIlCtiOIl clImllbel; (7) press llre clImllber
1 2
a b
Fig. 10.43
Flexible valle plllllp
(1) rotor 1/OIISillg witii tapered tlIickellcd pnrt, (2) illlpellel; (3) slIctioll side, (4) press llre side
961
10.5.1.2.1.7 Flexible vane pumps
A fle xible vane pump (Fig. 10.43) consists of a
stainless steel or epoxyresin cylinder with a ta-
pered internally thickened part (1) in its cross-
section and contains a flexible, elastic impeller
(2) made of neoprene.
As soon as the flexible lips of the impeller bla-
des change from the bent to the extended posi-
tion a reduced pressure is formed on the sucti-
on side (3). Consequently liquid is sucked in
and moved on further (b) . As soon as the impel-
ler lips reach the tapered part they force the
conveyed goods into the pressure-side pipe (c;
4) . Consequently a constant flow is delivered in
which to a limited extent small solid compo-
nents can be carried.
10 I
c

962
By reversing the direction of rotation, the di-
rection of conveyance can be changed.
10.5.1.2.2 Displacement pumps with
pulsating conveyance
In the case of these pumps the suction and the
pressure increase are produced by a piston mo-
ving backwards and forwards. By means of val-
ves, cOlU1ected to the suction or pressure line, a
pulsating forward flow is achieved and a back
flow prevented. This group includes
piston pumps and
membrane (piston) pumps.
10.5.1.2.2.1 Piston pumps
Piston pumps are the oldest pumps used in bre-
weries. For a long time hand operated piston
pumps were the only possible means for trans-
porting liquid goods within the brewery. Even
lU1til the beginning of the fifties there were still
many piston pLUnps in operation as transfer
pumps and pressure regulators. They had large
air chambers to smooth out the strongly pulsa-
ting operation of the pump. In the "wind cham-
ber", which was partly filled with air, with each
stroke of the piston the air was slightly com-
pressed and this smoothed the pulsation slight-
ly. Hand operated plLmger pumps are still used
in some garden and agricultural businesses to
provide an individual supply of ground water.
Piston pumps operate with valves (suction
and pressure valves, Fig. 10.44), which send the
flow conveyed always in the one direction.
They are sometimes used in breweries as do-
sing pumps for cleaning and sterilising agents.
10.5.1.2.2.2 Membrane pumps
Membrane pumps operate in a similar way to
piston pllinps (so they are also called membra-
ne piston pumps), but the piston is separated
from the fluid by a movable membrane (Fig.
10.45). Membrane pumps are used mainly in
places where particularly high hygienic requi-
..
..
,..............------- T the pumping pressure where-
b are being transported; in addi-
j tion.
Fig. 10.44
Pis tall 1'111111' (operntillg prillcip/e)
(n) expel/illg, (b) drnwillg ill
remen ts must be met. Such a membrane pump
has already been mentioned in cOlU1ection with
kieselguhr dosing.
The membrane can also be
attached to the drive with a positive fit or
actuated by means of an intermediate fluid.
These pumps are used for dosing chemicals,
as well as for transportation of yeast and kiesel-
guhr sludge .
10.5.1.3 Selection of pump size
There are numerous pumps available and it is
necessary to install the correct pump for the
particular application. The main criteria for
pump selection are:
the desired flow rate,
the desired pumping rate,
the power requirement,
the efficiency, and
the rotation speed .
It should be noted that displacement pumps
always deliver at the same rate independent of
963
as the rate of rotary pumps is
very dependent on the pum-
ping height.
Cnvitntioll
During operation of rotary
pumps it can occur that noises
are produced inside the pump
which at first sOLU1d rather li-
ke a quiet sewing machine but
eventually sound as if pebbles
tion, powerful vibrations oc-
cur. This effect is called cavita-
Cavitation is caused by a
10
drop in pressure in the suction
region of the pump resulting
in the boiling point tempera-
ture being reached or excee-
ded . Vapour bubbles are the-
refore formed which, during
Fig. 10.45
passage to the pressure side in Melllbrnlle 1'111111' (operntillg prillcip/e) drivell by COlli pressed nil'
the pump casing, implode
violently as the pressure in-
creases (increased boiling point), and these im- The NPSH value of the plant must be larger
plosions cause the noise. Cavitation produces than the NSPH value of the pump.
shear forces, the adverse effects of which on Cavitation causes a large decrease in flow ra-
mash and wort quality are well known. te and can eventually cause cessation of flow.
This pressure decrease when cavitation oc- Continual cavitation leads to serious material
curs is always due to the fact that the permissi- damages in the pump and causes shear forces
ble suction height has been exceeded or the de- in beer, for example.
livery height is insufficiently high. Too Iowa
delivery height means that the amount deliver- 10.5.1.4 Control of the pump rotation speed
ed is increased and this in turn involves ill1 in- A pump only operates optimally when the
admissible suction height. pump output capacity corresponds to the re-
The feed height (suction height) of the rotary quirement. If the pump is throttled, its output is
pump, which is characterised by the NPSH decreased and the efficiency is reduced consi-
(net-positive-suction-head) value or total retai- derably.
ned pressure height, is closely related to cavita- To be able to adapt to continuously chill1ging
tion. The NSPH value is therefore very impor- operating conditions, frequency regulated
tant when selecting a pump . pumps are often used nowadays. With these

964
frequency controlled PLUTIPS, by step less adj ust-
ment of the rotation speed all other operating pa-
rameters can also be adjusted . It is possible with
a static frequency changer to convert the 50 Hz
frequency and voltage of the supply network in-
to a variable frequency and voltage. nus can be
used for continuously variable adjush11ent of the
rotation speed of a rotary current motor.
A pump can thus be integrated as an ideal
control element in a control circuit and in tlus
way the pump need no longer be oversi zed .
Advantages of frequency controlled pumps are
40 to 50 % electricity saving,
gentle trea tment of the material conveyed,
no pressure shocks on starting (a gen tle start
is made possible by suitable software),
fe wer current surges in the network,
no adjustment fittings.
Frequency controlled pumps are used prima-
rily where, with changing conditions, very ex-
act pressures or temperahlres mu st be obtai-
ned, e.g. for
maintaining a constant volume flo w during
filter coating,
maintaiJling a constant pressure in the KZE
(flash pasteuriser),
maintaining constant pressures in filtering,
bottle and cask filling machines,
maintaiJling a constant filling level in buffer
tanks,
pressure control of cleaning pumps,
maintaining constant press ure differences
and tempera hues in water supplies, etc.
10.5.1.5 Lubricative ring seal
A particular fea ture of pumps is that the fast-
nuuung shaft must be sealed off against the sta-
tionary pump casing, in order on the one hand
to prevent the pumped liquid from escaping
and on the other hand to avoid lubricants from
getting in.
This sealing off used to be done using plug
sockets, in which rings made of packiJlg string
..
woven from textile fibres were ten sed. Thi s
plug socket package must not be tensed too
tightly, because it is not then lubricated and
burns due to the heat of friction.
Nowadays lubricative ring seals (Fig. 10.45 a)
are used for sea ling off. For the function of the
lubricative ring sea l it is important that the lu-
bricative ring (5) can be easily moved to and fro
on the pump shaft (1) and can be pressed
aga inst the counter-ring (6) by means of the
pressure spring (2). In this process, the lubrica-
tive ring is sealed off against the pump shaft by
the sealing ring (4). This sealing ring mus t be
able to be easily moved without leaking. Tlus
sliding is facilitated by silicone grease. Particu-
larly with wort pumps, the sliding surface must
be regularly clean ed . The CIP cleaning proce-
dure is often insufficient, since this area is not
2 34 5 6 7
Fig. 10.45 a
LlIbricative rillg seal (schematic)
(1) pllmp shaft, impeller side, (2) pressllre sprillg, (3) IIllder-
Iyillg rillg, (4) senlillg rillg (rolllld rillg), (5) Illbricative rillg,
(6) cOllllter-rillg, (7) senlillg rillg ill the pllmp casillg, (8)
plll/lp casillg, (9) plll/lp shaft, drive side
easily accessible. The counter-ring is sealed off
aga iJlst the pump casing by the seal (7) .
The lubrica tive ring seal mus t neve r run dry
and mus t always be filled with liquid, in order
to secure lubrica tion in the space between the
lubricative ring and the counter-ring.
Materials used for the lubricative ring and
the cOlmter-riJlg are
hmgsten carbide, silici um carbide, alumini-
um oxide, hard metal, CrNiMo s teels
carbon graphite, bound or impregnated with
synthetic resin ("synthetic carbon" ).
There are various types of cons truction of lu-
bricative ring seals, such as
the simple lubricative riJlg sea l,
the simple lubricative ring seal with Quench,
the double lubricative ring seal constructed
back-to-back and
the double lubrica tive ring seal constructed in
tandem.
Further detail s concerning these seals, which
constihlte additional safety measures, wo uld
go beyond the scope of this book .
10.5.2 Fans
Fans, or ventilators, serve to supply air or ven-
tilate enclosed spaces. Depending on their de-
sign they are classified into
axial fans or ventilators, and
radial fans.
10.5.2.1 Axial fans or ventilators
Axial fans or ventilators are found in many si-
zes in breweries and maltiJlgs and are used for
va rious applications, e.g.
for ventilatiJlg rooms and removing CO"
as germination box ventilators,
for moving cooling air towards motors,
for moviJlg air in evaporative condensers, and
as ceiling or table fans for cooling.
Fan s have 4 to 6 propeller-like blades which
ro tate about a sh aft at up to 1400 rpm and the-
965
reby ca use air movement. In old kilns air was
sucked out by powerful axial fans.
Axial fans must not be opera ted against clo-
sed flaps because then they begin to pump and
rapidly cause d amage to the bearings.
10.5.2.2 Radial fans
Radial ventilators or radial fan s comprise a ra-
pidly rotated paddle wh eel which forces the air,
sucked in axially, radially outwa rds. By means
of a hOUSiJlg the stream of air is directed w here
it is wanted . Very powerful radial fans are built
nowad ays which can move well over 100,000
m 3 of air/h.
The most important area of use for radial fans
is the maltings: powerful radial fans force the
10
necessary amounts of air through the thick
green and cured malt layers. Radial ventilators
are also operated without a casing. Th ey are al-
so used to aerate the bottling plants.
10.5.3 Compressed air plants
At various stages of beer production compressed
air is needed, which must fulfil many different
requirements. In some places, particularly lugh
pressures and large amOlU1ts of air are necessary,
while iJl other places compressed air is needed
wluch is free from oil and contamiJlations.
Compressed air is needed
as a tensing gas to move or displace liquids,
as sterile air to aerate the yeast,
as an energy source in the pneum atic trans-
port of spent grains, malt etc.,
as an oi l- and germ-free rinsiJlg gas to remo-
ve CO, before alkaline cleaning,
as control air for the operation of valves and
as workmg air for pneumatic equipment.
To supply these demands, a compressed air
p lant is n ecessary in the brewery. SiJ1Ce, howe-
ve r, the compressed air has to fulfil different
tasks, the supply of compressed air is generally
subdi v id ed according to the above-mentioned
areas.
 '4'

966 967

The s teril e and oil-free process air puts the Place of application Compressed air CO, SOl',which is se t up for the required transporta - reciprocating pis ton compressors,
highest demand s on the p lant. If even a trace of bar (OP) bar (OP) tion height. Th is air does not have to be dried. rotating pi ston compressors,
oil enters the beer, the foam is destroyed. Even Storage cellar For any necessa ry blowing o ut of CCVs and scroll compressors,
a single contaminant can, if it reproduces, call (filling & emptying) ca. 2 <2 pressure tanks to remove CO" high pressure toothed rotor compressors,
the qu ality of the beer into question. And the Filtration 4 to 6 >6 blowers are suita ble (OP < 1 bar). screw compressors a nd
process air may only come into con tact with the Kieselg uhr removal 4 to 6 The individual components of the compressed tu rbocom pressors.
bee r in two places: Bright beer bearin g <2 air plant require a more detailed explanation.
for intensive aera tion of the wort when pit- Convent. cleaning ca.2 10.5.3.1.1 Reciprocating piston compressors
ching, and Bottling >6 >4 10.5.3.1 Compressors Reciprocating piston compressors are nowa-
to aerate the yeast after the harvest; also In the compressor, the a ir is compressed . When days mostly built as vertical, dry running com-
to empty tanks (under certain conditions). According to the equ ipment used, one needs the air is co mpressed, the volume of gas decrea- pressors
We know that no further contact of air with 4 to 10 m3 of (sucked in) air/hI of sales beer; of ses, while the pressure increases. Because of the as single stage compressors up to 7 bar over-
beer is permissible because of the possible da- thi s, compressing of the gas volume, the tempe ratu- pressure, and
mage to the flavour s tability. 50 to 60% in the bottling plant, re of the compressed gas inevitably increases, as multi-stage compressors up to 10 to 12 bar
There are a number of tasks involving the use 5 to 10 % in the cask plant, too, according to the formula overpressu reo
of working air and control air (air for ins tru- 7 to 10 % for the controlling air, Only sin gle s tage compressors are used for
ments): the rest for the s torage cellar and the
pI x VI = p2 x V2
brewery need s.
10
T1 T2
workin g air for pneumatic transport. In spite brewhouse.
of the relatively high ene rgy requirem ent, A compressed air plant comprises In this formula,
working with compressed air to remove an air filter which frees the sucked-in air from pl = pressure before compression,
spent grains and to transport malt is very wi- contaminations, p2 = pressu re after compression,
despread. No particular demands are m ade a compressor which compresses the sucked- VI = volum e before compression,
on the quality of this compressed air. in air to the required pressure, V2 = volume after compression,
working air for pneLUl1atic drives (production a cooler which cools down the air, which h as Tl = tempera hIre before compression (in Kel-
air), e.g. for pneumatic opera tion of the lifters been warm ed by the compression, vin),
in bottIe filling or keg plants as well as the fit- a dryer which dries the cold air, T2 = temperature after compression (in Kelvin).
tings. a compressed ai r con tainer as a buffer vessel
In the following places in the brewery, com- and Since the pressure continues to rise as the
pressed air or CO, LUlder pressu re is need ed: a branched piping ne twork. temperature increases, it is necessary to cool
The order in which the equipment is set up down the compressed air after compression.
Place of application Compressed air CO, can vary. As the air cools down, its ability to take up
bar (OP) bar (OP) In conh'ast to the established views tha t every moisture decreases. If water then escapes, this
General control 2 t0 4 pressure level should have a separate plant, re- can be very problematic. One is therefore for-
Pneumatic conh'ol 6 t0 8 cent studies h ave show n [198] that it is possible ced subsequently to force the air, by further
Conveying air to save 22 to 23 % of the electrical energy requi- coo ling, to release the water contai ned in it and 2
for malt tran sport <1 rement if, instead, one to remove this water using a dryer.
Pneumatic cleaning installs a central compressor station with a The compressor is the most important com-
with dust filter 2 to 4 .' pressure level of 4 bar and ponent of the plant.
Spent grain h'cll1sport 2 to 3 achieves the necessary pressure increases by In order to prevent oil from the lubricant of
Wort aeration 4 to 6 means of additional smaller, local compres- the compressor from entering the compressed
air during compression, one preferably works Fig. 10.46 Reciprocntillg pistoll cOli/pressor
Fermentation celieI' sors.
(1) II-belt plllley, (2) crallkshaft, (3) collllectillg rod, (4) cylill-
(filling & emptying) ca.2 <2 The compressed ai r for the s pent grain trans- nowadays with oil-free compressors, which are
del' block, (5) pistoll with tefloll rillgs, (6) coolillg water pipe
Yeast cultivation 2 to 4 port should be provided by a separa te com pres- built nowadays as (7) slIctioll filter with lIoise dall/per

968
A dry nmni ng com p ressor (Fig. 10.46) consists
of a d rive element (1) driven by m eans of V-belts
by a p owerful electric motor. By m ean s of a ba-
lan ced cranl<shaft, connecting rod and crosshe-
ad, the rotational movement of the cranl<shaft is
converted to a to and fro movement. The entire
crank d rive mech anism is lubricated by a lubri-
cating oil circuit. A gas plug socke t seals off the
piston rod. The most important p art is, of cour-
se, the piston which moves up and down in the
cylinder and thereby compresses the gas. Becau-
se compressors produce heat, this must be remo-
ved. This is done by w ater or oil cooling.
The air inflow and compressed air outflo w
are controlled by automatic suction and pressu-
re valves. Operation is very noisy and attempts
a re m ade to redu ce the noise by a ttaching a suc-
tion ai r fil tel'.
Reciprocating piston compressors are nowa-
days s till the cheapest w ay of p roducing com -
pressed air.
10.5.3.1.2 Scroll compressors
The scroll principle (Fig. 10.47) involves com-
pressin g the air be tween a fi xed spiral and an
6 1
Fig. 10.47: Scroll prillciple
(n) fixed spiral, (v) rotntillg spiral, (c) ill tnke opell illg, (d) sllctioll cllnl/lvel; (e) col/l pressioll e1,n/llvel; (fJ discllnrge opellillg, (1 -
10) cOll/ pressiol/ plwses
..
eccentrically rota tin g spira l. Th e ai r sucked in
passes into the co mpression chamber on the ou-
ter side of the spiral. As soon as the air is sucke
in, the rota ting sp iral seals off the suction ope-
nin g. The air is then fo rced into an increasingly
small space and lea ves the spiral throu gh the
outlet opening . In thi s way a pulsa tion-free
flow of compressed air is produced.
Scroll compresso rs op era te very quie tly and
are built w ith small power consumptions of up
to 3.7 kW.
10.5.3.1.3 Toothed rotor compressors
In these pumps two very curio usly shaped, but
d ynamically bal anced, rota table "toothed" ele-
m ents (Fig . 10.48) a re m oved in opposite direc-
tions to one an o ther. The rotating teeth neither
touch one ano ther no r d o they touch the hou-
sing wall.
TI,e rotatillg teeth prillciple (Fig. 10.49):
Suction: Air passes into the compression cham-
ber; the secondary ro tor closes the intake.
Start of compress ion: intake and outle t are
closed, the air between the two rotors is com-
10
969
End of compression: the enclosed air is com-
pressed; the intake is opened again fo r the nex t
cycle .
Di scha rge: the outle t opening is Lmcovered
and the compressed air can flow out.
Too thed rotor compressors are often sin gle
stage, but they are mostly two-s tage comp res-
so rs w ith air or water cooling a nd a power ra-
ting of up to 55 kW. Every compression heats
the air to ove r 100 °C and it mus t be cooled af-
ter each compression stage (Fig. 10.50).
10.5.3.1.4 Screw compressors
Screw compressors a re also ca lled air screws
an d are very fr equentl y used . The two screw
elements, which ha ve alrea d y been mentioned
10
in relation to refri gera tion compressors, comb
aga inst one another with their asy mme trica l
screws. Beca use they are ins talled in high per-
formance bearings, and op e ra te without con-
Fig. 10.48
Too tlled rotor elel/lell ts tac ting on e another, they contain no oil (Fig.
10.51).
Screw compressors, lil<e toothed ro tor com-
p ressed as a result of the reduction of the volu- pressors, are usually two-stage, air or water coo-
me of the chamber and the pressure is thereby led compressors (Fig. 10.52). They are built for
increased. minimal motor power ratings of up to 700 kW,
Fig. 10.49
Too t/led rotor prillciple
Ii
 - 971
970

.3

10 l
Fig. 10.50 Fig. 10.52
Two -s tage tootheri rotor colllpressor with air coolillg (Type ZT 18-37) Screw cOlllpressor
Airflow: (1) illstmlllelli pallel, (2) colllpressioll 1I0ise riatllpel; (3) illterllleriiate coolel; (4) electric IIIOto/ ; (5) high press llre stage, (6) COII-
(A) air ill take fill el; (B) sllctioll ellri SOllllri rialllpel; (e) air ill take valve, (0) 10lV press llre elelllellt, (E) illterllleriiate coolel; (F) riellsate sepamtol; (7) after-cooler with collriellsate sepamto/; (8) oil coolel; (9) oil PIlIllP, (10) vel/tillg, (11) low press ll re slage,
high presslIre elelllellt, (G) riischarge ellri SOllllri rialllpel; (H) afler-coolel; (J) 1I01l-retllm valve, (J) cOllriellsate sepamto/; (K) ,wise (12) 1I01l-relllnl valve, (13) riisc/latge coolel; (14) ill take cOlltrol valve, (15) air ill lake filler wilh 1I0ise rialllper
rialllper
Oil flow: (L) oil SIIIIIP, (M ) oil PIlIllP, (N ) oil coolel; (0) oil fill el; (P) by-pass valve
forms a culture medium for contamination water-saturated state into a tank. There it must
nests. pass through a slowly rotating drum which is
but for production of compressed air in brewe- 30,000 m of compressed air/h. Turbocompres-
3
One therefore tries to remove the water con- divided into many small sectors which are im-
ries only much lower power ratings are used. sors are not used in breweries.
tained in the air. For this purpose, air driers are pregnated with a drying agent. The air therefo-
used. re releases its moisture, becomes dried and is
10.5.3.1.5 Turbocompressors 10.5.3.2 Air driers
There are two ways of drying air: removed. The small sectors in the drum have
By turbocompressors is meant compressors The sucked-in air contains water vapour. The
cooling the air down below the desired pres- now taken up the moisture and must be dried .
with the highest output performance. With 500 water vapour content of the air is dependent on
sure dewpoint and For this purpose compressed, but not yet coo-
to 2700 kW coupling power they supply up to the temperature and decreases more and more
using adsorption driers. led air, is taken from the after-cooler (9). Becau-
as the temperature falls (Fig. 10.54, a). The tem-
Absorption driers, on the other hand, are no se it is hot it can take up the mois ture. This is
perahlre at which the saturation pressure in the
longer used . performed by sending it through the upper part
water vapour-air mixture is reached is called
One can regenerate adsorption driers in the of the drum in the other direction, thereby dry-
the dewpoint. When the temperahlre sinks be-
following ways: ing it (Fig. 10.54) . Because the drum rotates
low the dewpoint, moisture is precipitated.
using separately produced hot air, slowly, the air is continuously dried .
When compressed air is expanded, the
using lU1cooled tightly compressed air and
dewpoint decreases in proportion to the change
using dried, expanded compressed air (Heat- In many driers, the compressed air is fed
of volume. This temperahlre in. relation to the
less procedure) along cooled heat exchange surfaces (ribbed pi-
pressure is known as the pressure dewpoint.
Air driers often work as adsorption driers pes) and cooled. At about 0 °C the water is re-
The water which escapes as condensate
(Fig. 10.53). The air, compressed in two stages (3 moved (removal by freezing is avoided) and the
hinders the otherwise smooth procedure,
Fig. 10.51 & 6) is cooled (4 & 9) and passes in this cold and air thereby dried.
Screwelelllellts causes rust formation and corrosion and
 '*
972 973

Hot, unsaturated
air used for Hot, saturated a ir
used for

saturated air

Fig. 10.54 Dry air

Rolalillg adsorplioll drier
Oryillg alld regellernlioll seclor
Fig. 10.53
Adsorplioll drier (opernlillg prillciple) become loose and start to leak. One can expect
COlllpressor: (1) air ill lake fillel; (2) ill lake valve, (3) low press llre elelllelll, (4) illlerlllediale coolel; (5) cOlldellsale discharge, (6)
that these leakage losses [198] amOlmt to
10 '
higll pressllre elellleHl, (7) disc/wrge liaise dalllpel; (8 ) IIOIl-relllm valve, (9) after-cooler
5% in the case of small and new piping sy-
Drier: (10) ejeclol; (11) drive 1Il0101; (12) colldel/sale separnlO/; (13) IIIIDllie valve, (14) dryillg seclO/; (15) regeuernlioll seclioll, sten1s,
(16) regellernlioll coolel; (17) cOlldellsale separnlor wilh safellf valve, (18) dry air ollilel
10% in the case of highly branched piping sy-
stems and
Subsequently the cold, dry air is used in a he- cy. Using this procedure, the re is an energy even 30-35 % in the case of old piping systems.
at exchanger for the precooling of the hot, non- saving of 5 to maximum 10% compared with As the number of leakage points and ope-
dried compressed air. conventional procedures. nings increases, the energy costs inevitably
Using cold drying, dewpoints of only 1 to 2 shoot up. Often one hears the whistling of the
°C are achieved (using adsorption driers, -25 to 10.5.3.3 Pressure containers air from the leakages in the brewery, and one
-40oq. A pressure container is built into every com- can exactly measure the total amount of leaka-
A simple, very effective method for drying pressed air network. The purpose of the pressu- ge by filling the air tank and measuring the
the compressed air is to lead the air tlU'ough re container is to balance out pressure fluctuati- drop in pressure.
water wh.ich is kept at 0 °C (32 OF) by cooling pi- ons in the network through its sufficiently large Modern networks are therefore welded (ma-
pes (direct or indirect evaporation). The air volume and thus to provide for a continuous terial: stainless steel), the branches are installed
cools to 0 0c. At the same time the dewpoint is pressure. At the same time, an overpressure without dead corners, and drainages are atta-
lowered and the excess water separates out (in valve secures against the forming of too high ched at all the low points.
the water); the escaping air is ice-cold and dry. pressure (only necessary with a compressor The modern compressed air network must be
In most plants, the air drier is connected be- which provides higher pressure than is permit- able to be vaporised and ClP compatible! polypropylene
hind the compressor. Nowadays, however, the ted for the equipment) . drainage web
drier may also be connected separately on the 10.5.3.5 Air filters
supporting PTFE polypropylene
intake side. An example of this is the Gossler 10.5.3.4 Pressure piping network Compressed air free from all possible contami- membrane protection web
drier, in which the sucked-in air is cooled to -25 The piping network is the weak point of the nants, in particular free from any microorga-
°C [198] . This means that there is also a lower compressed air plant. The piping network con- nisms, in other words sterile, must be used for Fig. 10.55
intake volume for the compressor. It is necessa- sists of a more or less highly branched system a number of purposes. This applies above all to Sialldard filter call die for slerile f iltrnlioll of air
polypropylClle drnillage web
ry, however, that the equipment is 100% sealed of pipings, which are c01U1ected by flanges, compressed air
sllpporlillg PTFE lllelllbrnlle
off, since inleaked air is detrimental to efficien- sleeves, and couplings. The c01U1ections age, for wort aeration and po!ypropy!Clle proleclioll web
 '*'

974 975

12 solar collector,;
16,0 Use of solar energy

10 14,0

..
2 8
12,0

o Asia Pacific
....
"b 10,0 iii' • Africa energy storage tank

""
(f)
o Middle East
e>
(l)
6
8,0 o Europe & Eurasia
c:
(l)
• S , & Cent. America
c- boUer

§'" 6,0 o North America

Q
4

4,0
heal collsumer,;
hM."ftgtl'JlO(btS:oUn
2
2,0

0,0
0
If)
CD r-
q-
r-
r-
r- g CD
oo
Ol
(x)
N
Ol
If)
Ol
(X)
Ol C; 10
Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol 0 0 brell'flOllSe
Ol Ol Ol Ol N N

Year
hot water

Fig. 10.57
Fig. 10.56
Solnr powered brewery
Developllle/ll of globnl ellergy dellwlld

for conveying crown corks.
Sterile air is obtained by filtering the com-
pressed air tlu-ough filter candles (pore diame-
ter < 0.2 (Fig. 10.55). The view of the con-
struction shows the internal structure of a
standard filter candle. As a result of folding of
the membranes to give a filter surface area of
about 0.75 m 2 per candle, a very effective filte-
ring effect can be obtained with a high flow ra-
te. As many candles as are desired are installed
in the filter candle housing.
Not only are the particles which are larger
than the pore diameter of the membrane, which
is of the order of 0.2 held back, but as a re-
sult of electrostatic forces microorganisms are
also held back which are smaller than the pore
diameter. It can therefore be assumed that air
filtered in this way is sterile.
10.6 The global demand for energy is
increasing
How then can the increasing hLmger for energy
be satisfied without the CO2 content in the at-
mosphere, which bears a lot of the responsibili-
ty for global warming, continuing to rise? Fur-
thermore, it has to be assumed that the global
reserves of natural gas and crude oil, whilst still
lasting a number of decades, are nevertheless
coming to an end. Something therefore has to
be done!
In many countries nuclear power plants have
been and are still being built. In Germany, the
construction of new nuclear power plants and
the prolongation of operations at existing
plants are controversial on ideological grOLmds.
The existing coal fired plants with a relatively
low degree of efficiency of aroLmd only 38%
will in the future be replaced by gas and steam
turbine power plants with a considerably hig-
her degree of efficiency of 50 %, thus saving
substantial amounts of primary energy. For
this, however, special nickel steels will have to
be used to withstand extreme high temperatu-
res and pressure on a permanent basis. Never-
theless, during combustion these power plants
emit fossilised CO2 bound in the gas. This is not
the case with the combustion of biomass, be-
cause here on combustion only the CO 2 is re-
leased which was previously bound in the plant
from the air during photosynthesis. Biomass is
therefore CO, neutral. In Germany, 20% of elec-
tricity consumption is to be supplied from rene-
wable sources by 2020. Particularly significant
with regard to this is the increasing extraction
of bioethanol and biodiesel as fuel for combu-
stion engines. The use of hydrogen as fuel for
combustion engines is also a source of opti-
mism for the near future,
Of increasing importance are offshore wind
parks which are rising up 30 km or more from
our coasts, thus lying in an area where the wind
blows much more constantly and strongly than
on land. These power plants with rotors of over
100 m in diameter calUlot be compared with
windmills in our rural areas, which as a result
of a lull in the wind far too frequently remain
motionless and always require a reserve power
plant.
Photo voltaic plants should also not be forgot-
ten, which can today already be seen on many
roofs and outdoor installations and which abo-
ve all support the heat supply in the buildings,
Increasingly, however, attempts are being made
to convert an ever larger proportion of the ener-
gy into electricity which can be conducted furt-

976
her. More southerly locations with permanent
sW1shine give rise to hope for the more distant
future.
The greatest potential, however, lies without
doubt in the economical use of energy. Here,
everyone has the possibility to save. We are all
ca lled upon to be economical with energy in
our daily life.
Energy is becoming increasingly expensive
due to the rapid increase in the energy demand
in all countries. In breweries, too, we are conti-
nually required to think about energy saving
and a reduction of energy consumption. An ex-
ample is a proposal by the Steinecker company,
..
Freising, for a brewery which obta ins at least a
substantial proportion of its energy from a solar
plant (Fig. 10.57).
The boiler plant would be operated by this
and in combi nation with the brewing plant, the
hot water supply of the brewery would also be
assured . The low temperatures necessary for
the cooling of the CCVs will be provided by an
absorption refrigeration plant connected to the
heat cycle. In the form described, the plant is
not possible in Germany without additional
energy; this approach, however, is in the right
direction and will prove successful in the near
future.
11 Automation and plant planning
(co-written by Dr Hans-Ji.irgen Manger)
Everyone feels the need for a better life and ea-
sier working conditions. Genera lly, large efforts
are required to achieve this aim. These efforts
are the driving force in the development of hu-
man society, and this is also reflected in the de-
velopment of every branch of industry. It can be
clearly seen in the development of beer produc-
tion in the last 50 to 60 years. An old brewer
today mi ght tell his astonished grandchildren
how, 60 years ago, he had to crawl into the sto-
rage tanks in order to clean them with a scrub-
ber, brush and lots of water. It is easier to explain
how tight it was in the sadd le tanks containing
only 15 to 20 hI than to explain the technique
used to drain the remaining water from the
round-bellied tank and fin ally the adventurous
action required to leave the tank head-first wit-
hout tumbling down and landing on his head. At
the end of this, his hard work had enabled him to
clean just 150 to 200 hi of tanks contents, no mo-
re. But the tanks, aI-though they were pretty
clean, were by no means free of contaminants.
Water, scrubber and brush were the dail y tools
of the brewer - all at temperahues of around
O°c. During the nine-hour working day, in spi-
te of wearing several pullovers, the cold seeped
steadi ly through the continually soaked over-
alls. And some workers spent the w hole of their
working life in semi-darkness.
Such a situ ation seems almost tmbelievable
today, but it is not so long ago that that was the
norm, in large and small breweries. Today, no
brewer enters the cylindroconical tank to clean it,
and the water consumption is carefully measu-
red. An intensive development lasting a few de-
cades led to automisation, which is the current
state of teclmology in beer production. It stems
from the desire to make life easier and more plea-
977
sant and to save costs. Automisation relies, how-
ever, on a l1lLillber of preconditions, and compre-
hensive teclul010gy must be installed. This chap-
ter will give information about this.
11.1 Indications concerning the
use of measurement, control
and regulation technology
11.1.1 General indications
The choice of optimal type of meter or measuring
procedure for a particular measming task must
be made very carefully and must always be ma- 11
de for the w hole plant. Althou gh the connecting
dimensions of the measuring h'cll1sducers are to a
large extent normed or standardised, it is always
sensible for the cOlmecting dimensions, effective
range, measm"ing principles and manufacttu'ers
to be standardised within the plant as far as pos-
sible at the plant plamung stage, in order to faci-
litate maintenance and to reduce costs.
The genera l principle for all tecluucal measu-
rements is: "as accurate as necessary" and "as of-
ten as necessary", in order to keep the total ex-
pense as low as possible. In every plamting, one
should ca refully check that each measurement
point is necessary and meaningful. In several ca-
ses, measurement results are only needed when
a plant is inaugurated or w hen adjusting equip-
ment parts.
11.1.2 Requirements concerning the
measurement uncertainty of the
measuring technology used
The measuring teclu1010gy requirements con-
cernin g measurement uncertainty vary a lot.
One can divide the equipm ent, for example, in-
to the following categories:

978
general opera tional meters,
meters or measuring devices which directly
influence the product quality,
meters relevant to business management and
laboratory meters and measuring devices.
The purpose of operational meters is to show
general process data. In many cases, it is only to
show that the machines or equipment are
functioning "normally". The readings should
be within agreed limits. Inacceptable deviati-
ons from measurements relevant to safety or
production should be indicated, or automatic
interventions should be triggered off. Operatio-
nal meters with relative margins of error of 1 to
2 % are sufficient for this purpose.
The measurement is always made only as ac-
curately as necessary, since the margin of error
1 of a meter is usually in inverse proportion to its
price. Meters with larger margins of error are
also often more robust and therefore less likely
to malfunction.
This group includes machine thermometers,
manometers, flow monitors, filling level and
flow meters, conductivity meters, etc.
MeasLU'ing h'ansducers are parts of measuring
devices and generally provide the signals for
conh'ol and regulation equipment. The larger the
demands on the accuracy of the controls or regu-
lators, the greater the effort which must be made
in recording the measurements. With modern
measuring transducers, the measuring signal is
usually digitally processed and any lmwanted
influences are thoroughly compensated, so that
a satisfactory measurement accuracy and long-
term stability of the meters is secured. If measu-
rement signal transducers were in the past the
weakest link of the chain, nowadays it is usually
the adjushnent fittings.
Meters or measuring devices affecting quality
must fulfil higher demands on the measuring
results and the measurement uncertainty. Ex-
amples are the temperature measurement of
mash and sparging water (the malt enzymes
...
have very narrow tolerance levels for the opti-
mum and maximum temperature, and excee-
ding these can lead very quickly to deactivati-
on), exact adherence to the pasteurisation
temperature and time, the measurement of
bunging pressure (the CO 2 content of the beer is
fixed by this, in relation to the temperature), the
measurement of the 0 , and CO 2 content of the
beer, the beer analysis (determination of the ori-
ginal extract and of the alcohol content) or the
malt analysis.
Econoll1ically relevant measurements must
be carried out with the smallest possible mea-
surement uncertainty, in order to be able ex-
actly to record and evaluate the operational
costs. This includes above all meters or mea-
suring devices to record the energy and water
consumption and the consumption of raw and
auxiliary materials.
Where pOSSible, weighing should be used,
because the recording of mass is only subject to
small measurement lmcertainties. Weighing is
also very suitable for calibrating volLUne mea-
suring devices, if the density is known.
The working order of the measuring device
or meter and the meaningfulness of the con-
sumption values or measurement values
should be continually checked using control
measurements and calculations (for example
by comparison with the delivery note figures
and the actual delivery amounts and quality
parameters or by comparison of the indivi-
dual/partial amount measurements with the to-
tal amount measurement) .
Redundant measurements can improve the
certainty of the assessment.
The highest demands are made of quality se-
curity or laboratory meters or measuring devi-
ces, in order to guarantee the meaningfulness
and comparability of the readings. These me-
ters must therefore in some cases be checked,
calibrated or adjusted every day or before every
use.
It is important to document this activity. The
super vision of testing and measuring devices is
a basic element of quality control systems.
11.1.3 Requirements of the place of
installation and cleaning and
disinfecting requirements
The requirements made of the construction of
the measuring technology and the place of in-
stallation for meters or measurers are very va-
ried in the fermentation and brewing industry.
Places of installation can be pipes, containers
and machjnes or apparatus. Basic demands of
the meters or measuring transducers are:
resistance to chemicals,
mechanical robustness,
they must be easy to assemble and to replace
if repairs are needed; the place of installation
must be accessible,
they must be CIP suitable for cleaning and
disinfection,
they must not damage the product,
they must react quickly,
the measurement must not be distorted by an
lUlsuitable place of installation: e.g. distorti-
on because of heat conductivity, coating for-
mation, electric fields.
Resistance to chemicals is guaranteed in the ca-
se of metallic materials by using rust- and acid-
resistant stainless steels (e.g. material numbers
1.4301, 1.4401, 1.4541, 1.4571- see Sect. 6.1.2).
These materials are resistant to almost all media
used in the brewery. Mechanical robush1ess is
usually secured when the above-mentioned ma-
terials are used. Limits are set, if at all, by the wall
thickness, which must be designed to be relative-
ly thin in the interest of quick reaction times in
the case of temperature transducers or high sen-
sitivity in the case of pressure transducers. Me-
chanical demands which exceed the operational
ones can occur, for example, in the case of liquid
strikes resulting from operational errors, vaClllun
formation or assembly errors.
979
Connecting parts are fixed using screws,
clamp connections or tensing ring connections
(e.g. in the VARIVENP system), more rarely
u sing flang e COlU1ections.
The connecting dimensions correspond to the
usual pipe nominal dimensions (preferably DN
50, but also DN 25, 32, 40, 65, SO, 100 - pipe
width in millimetres) .
i- - -
- -i-
i
i
i
11
2 1
Fig.11.1 COlllleclillg pnrtfor sellsors
(Vn rivellf" systelll, GEA TllciIelliIngell)
(1) "0" rillg, (2) tellsillg rillg, (3) collllectillg disc sCllsor
The connecting parts are equipped with the
respective measuring transducers; for example,
thermometer protection pipes are welded on,
or the cOlmecting parts are formed as pressure
transducers, into which manometers or pressu-
re meters of any design can be screwed. Fig.
11.1 shows example designs for attaching con-
necting parts.
For pipes, special transducer casings with 2
cOlU1ections are often provided; their cross-sec-
tion surface increases in order to keep down the
pressure losses resulting from the installation

980
of the measuring transducers. These housings
origina te in the valve lmit construction systems
of the fitting manufac turers and are manufactu-
rer-specific . The housings are welded on or con-
nected with flanges.
The exchangeability of measuring transdu-
cers is facilitated if it is not the measurement it-
self which is given as a proportional signal, but
if the measurement is directly transformed and
amplified and prepared in the form of a nor-
med unit signa\. The measuring d evice then en-
co mpasses meas uring transduce r, amplifier,
trall sformer and measured value indication in
one compac t hOUSing.
Thus there is no more need for the more or less
time-consuming tuning alld adjustment work
after the m easuring transducer has been
chan ged, and the installation costs are conside-
rably reduced.
The unit signal Call be, for example, a voltage
of 0 to 10 V or a current of 0 to 20 mA or 4 to 20
mAoIn the last-mentioned exam pie, a current of
4 mA would correspond to the lowest measu-
red value on the sca le and a current of 20 mA
the highest value. The last-mentioned unit si-
gnal allows a simple function control of the
transmission path. A current of 0 mA, for exam-
ple, indicates a broken wire. Values of < 4 mA or
> 20 mA can similarly be automatically inter-
preted as an indication of error.
Suitability for CIP cleaning and disinfecting
entails, apart from the already-mentioned che-
mical resistance alld lack of dead spaces and
gaps, the requirements of:
complete wettability,
automatic aeration and emptying,
the material surfaces must be as smooth as
possible (average roughness values as low as
possible; electric polish is suitable),
temperature resistallCe up to 100 °C (or 130 °C,
if steaming occurs).
With some pressure measuring transducers,
fluids are used as pressure trallsducers. In the
..
food indu stry, cooking oil and silicon oi l are
used for this purpose. In the brewery, silicon oil
s hould be used for product measurem ents
(wort, beer, yeast, water); in the case of damage,
it does not ca use an y foam impairment.
11.1.4 Operational and equipment
security requirements
The reliable procedure alld security of operati-
ons rely on effiCiently hmctioning measuring
teclul010gy. As well as a high degree of measu-
ring teclmology reliability, the highest possible
long-term signal stability is exp ected, with mi-
nimal maintenance costs.
Newer meters or measurill g devices often
check or tune themselves and are automaticaJiy
calibrated or adjusted . Possible faults are auto-
matically eva luated, and, if necessary, the
equipment is shut down. If very high demands
are made of the operational safety or if the
equipment is run automatically, measuring
transducers or measurillg devices must be ill-
s talled twice, fault detection and switching
over must of course occur automatically, the
fa ults mus t be documented and fault indicators
must be reset.
If quality control or quality mallagement sy-
s tems are used, the supervision of measure-
ment and checkillg devices is all important ele-
ment which mus t be appropriately documen-
ted.
The following are suitable for this purpose:
badges, control s tamps or stickers on which the
nex t inspection date Call be read, or which iden-
tify a measuring point as being dysfunctional
or closed off; cards which accompany the devi-
ce and other meall S of documentation.
It should be taken for granted that all meters
alld measuring devices are recorded ill an index
or database and are appropriately managed .
The basis for this Call be the illdication of the
measuring POilltS on the RI mimic diagram .
11.1.5 Maintenance and upkeep
requirements
Regular m aintenan ce and, if necessary, repair is
important to guarantee the good workillg order
of the measuring technology. The material costs
and staff effort required should of course be
kept to a minimum .
It is therefore important to make sure, during
the plalUlllg or projecting phase, that the work-
ability controls and the calibration of the mea-
surement teclmology Call be ca rried out with as
little effort as possible.
Shut-off fittings or samplillg fittings in the
plant are, ill many cases, suitable cOlUlecting
points for the compmative measurillg devices; al-
ternatively, the measurillg trallsducers Call be ea-
sily taken apart alld checked . It is adValltageous
if appropriate cOlm ecting pieces are available for
the cOlUlection of the available measming illstru-
ments or stalldards of measurement to the above-
mentioned fittin gs throughout the plallt.
In many cases, the measurement devices pre-
sent in other deparhnents in the company can be
used for testing or calibration; for example, flow
measuring devices Call be tested using a cold
wort measurillg system or a flow al1l0LUlt is col-
lected (e.g. ill a road tallker) alld tested by weigh-
ing. The measurement tecimology often present
in CIP plalltS (e.g. inductive flow measurement,
temperature and conductivity probes) Call be
used to control other meters; to a certaill extent,
the CIP media can be included in the test.
Mailltenance costs can be minimised if care is
taken to standardise everything within the
plallt, so that the number of necessary meters,
types of device, effective ranges and connection
sizes are already reduced to the absolutely ne-
cessary in the plarming phase or when the
equipment is bought.
11.1.6 Requirements of automatic controls
Thanks to some considerable reductions in
hardware costs for the indus trial controls
981
known as stored program controls (SPC), but
also tharlks to reductions in software costs and
above all sin ce opera tion of the SPCs has been
improved and simplified, these have been able
to "conqu er" large territory. The end of thi s
very happy development is not yet in sight.
The requirements of a control mus t be drawn
up particularly carefully. The ex tent of the work
performed IllUSt be especially carefull y formu-
lated, also bearing ill mind possible extensions
and future d evelopments.
One must ask the following questions:
Are there alread y automatic controls (SPCs)
ill the firm?
Must/ca n the individual SPCs be interconnec-
ted? What expectations are there about the
desired hierarchy concernillg levels of access,
the fillal construction s tage, operational data 11
collection, use of the d ata?
Is there already an operational stalldard for the
bus system; wirelille or optical waveguide?
Should there be central or decentral SPCs in
the company, deparhnent or plant?
Should automatic regulations of process di-
mensions or plarlt components be carried out
using hardware or software regulators, or com-
billed? What is the maximum rarlge expected
of the SPCs? Which options should there be
for later ex tensions?
How much work is to be put illtO recording
process or operational data and how ex tensi-
vely should this d a ta be archived? Is this
compatible with office software?
Should the recorded data be used for opera-
tional optimisations, for example to control
the automatic shedding of ballast or for the
detection of avoidable faults or breakdowns?
How ex tenSively should the automatic opera-
tional eva luation of these data be carried out?
How can the data be taken over by the opera-
tional sales software?
Should the laboratory and analysis data be ill-
cluded in the documentation (from raw ma-

982
terial to fini shed product, including tra cin g
the product's journey to the point of sale)?
How should this data be entered?
How ex tensive should the process be recor-
d ed, particularly the malfunctions? Which
demands should be fulfill ed rega rding evi-
dential value according to the malfunction le-
gislation, the product liability act, etc.?
Is a manual control level necessary? What ex-
tent of the tasks should be assigned to manual
control? Which safety lock cond itions shou ld
remain intact in the case of manual control?
How sh ou ld the on-the-spot switch ing of
electric drives (repair switching) be carried
out? How should the on-the-spot operation
of pneumatic and electric drives be carried
ou t in the case of repair work or dam age?
Manual control or the use of the manual con-
trollevel with an SPC should always remain an
exception and should be limited to emergencies
or damages. Use must be confined to a permit-
ted gro up of people (password protec tion),
who are suitably qualified, and it must be docu-
m ented.
On the other hand, the manual control level is
considerably easier for particular situa tions, fo r
example when testing the workability of equip-
ment components, when setting up equipment,
when remedying damages and when testing
new procedures.
These concerns must be taken into considera-
tion when setting up the safety locks, which
will also apply to manual control. If necessary,
different lock levels must be set up.
The successful use of an SPC depends on ha-
ving the necessary information concerning the
s tate of the equipment:
using probes for the necessary measurement
and set dimensions,
signals indicating the availability of the patti-
cipating media (for example water, compres-
sed air, CO" steam, R/D mean va lue); "secu-
rity against missing product",
....
"on ", "off" indications for the position of the
fittings or adjustment fittings,
indications of the position or presence of ma-
nually operated connecting elements, such as
hinged elbows,
indications of the switching position of the
drives.
Reqllire111ellts co ll cemillg vislla lisation of th e
procedllres:
The presentation of the process-relevant d ata
on a monitor or display ("operator terminal")
should be made on the basis of the RI mimic
diagram, which can be simplified for this pur-
pose.
The SPCs are usually operated using a "mou-
se" or similar input ins truments (trackball,
touchpad) or by touch-screen.
The graphic design and the colouring should
be crea ted with the aim of opelUless, transp a-
rency of the processes and clarity. The use of
DIN symbols for plant elements such as fit-
tings, pumps, heat transferers and measure-
ment, control and regulation points should be
preferred.
On the visualisation level, the followin g
should be displayed:
the current process data in a form relevant to
the machine and apparatus; in the case of re-
gtllated process dimensions, this includes the
set theoretical values,
selected programmes, current programm e
steps and the time they need, or the remai-
rung time needed for a step. It is also sensible
to give inform ation con cerning !"luming time
supervisions and supervision tim es,
the switch positions of fittings and drives,
shown by different signal colours,
the switched-on flow paths, shown by a co-
lour transition,
the identifications of the fittings, measuring
points and pumps and other equipment parts
on the RI mimic diagram; this information
should be faded out so that it can be faded in
if needed; the same a pplies to the parameteri-
sing level of the software regtl1ator.
the signalisa tion of fa ults (optical, acoustic,
where?, what?, when?)
For visua lisation, large format monitors of
course ha ve advantages in comparison with
sm aller displays - also from the point of view of
recognition hom different angles. There is, how-
a trend towards large-format TFT displays.
The number of monitors set up should be de-
termined by the number of processes which ha-
ve to be supervised at the same time - or by the
l1l1l11ber of linages which are needed simultane-
ously. Although it is possible to switch between
process linages, this takes time w hich cannot al-
ways be taken without disturbli1g the procedu-
res.
The number of opera tli1g seats or monitors
should not be made too small due to a false sen-
se of economy. The number of available opera-
tli1g seats should at least be set so that extra pla-
ces, possibly temporary ones, can be set up if
needed (for example whil e the equipment is
being inaugurated or durli1g necessary optima-
tion works).
An SPC should also be easy to program.
Changes or extensions to the software and the
process images, if need ed by the compan y,
should be able to be carried out by company
staff.
The same applies to the parameterising of the
equipment, the entry and changli1g of formula e
and of other data .
Reqlliremellts of the programme
Programmes must be available for all the desi-
red process steps or procedures which are to be
carried out by the control.
These programmes are generally provided
and delivered by the contractor of the controls.
The programmes themselves are created from
"programme modules" by the software manu-
983
facturers. They are then li1stalled in the finn
and adapted and optimised during the li1augu-
ration p hase.
There are two ways of creating programmes:
The contractor creates the necessary pro-
gramm es from the avai lable programme mo-
dules according to his experience on the basis
of the conceptua l formu lation or description
of the custom er. He also determines the num-
ber and content of the individu al program-
mes at his discretion. Th e customer receives a
standard software package. This can be opti-
mal but does not have to be.
The customer gives the contractor his detai-
led ideas concerning the contents and the
programme procedure of the individual pro-
grammes . The contractor develops from this
the sp ecial software using his programme 11
modules. The customer receives an optimi-
sed software - the more detailed the concep-
tual formula tion, the better the software.
The last-mentioned option is the more deman-
ding, since the creation of the programme can ta-
ke into account sp ecial wishes and demands
from the begim1ing and the customer receives a
"ta ilored" product. The operational optimisati-
on and adaption can then be carried out relative-
ly quickly.
The precondition for this, however, is that the
customer can give the contractor his detailed
ideas for the individual programme steps and
procedures in good time, in the form of a pro-
gramme description and/or a programme pro-
cedure plal1 or function plan.
For practical purposes, the programmes
should be worked out, fin e-tuned and tested by
a team of competent representatives of the cus-
tomer and the contractor, of course before the
test operation starts. In the same way, the neces-
sary formu lae or procedure ins tructions al1d
their parameterising should be worked out al1d
fin e-hmed . The same is also true of the process
images (design, graphics, contents).

984
In order to reduce the amount of data, if possi-
ble, only data which deviate from the theoretica l
values or the prescribed tolerances should be ar-
chi ved . "Data graveyards" should be avoided.
Gelleral illdicntiollS
One should aim for an open software architec-
ture which is independent of the hardware de-
li verers as far as possible. Stand ard operating
systems should be used .
The data should be compatible with the ope-
rational office software.
Decenh'alised, object-related SPCs which are
integrated into a hierarchical structure enable
the process procedures to be optimised without
distmbing the preceding and subsequent pro-
cess steps and are relatively easy to exchange. In
1 the case of damage, only part of the equipment is
shut down. The SPCs can take over the optimi-
sa tion of the process procedures for individual
process steps if the corresponding software is
p rovided (fuzzi logic, fuzzi control) .
The installation costs at the field level for the
control of the drive technology, fittings and po-
sitioning elements and the i.nformation-gathe-
ring by the MRS teclmology can be considera-
bly reduced by using field bus systems (for
example Profibus). The flexibility of the plant
teclul010gy is, moreover, considerably increa-
sed; the BDE is simplified.
The after-sales service offered by the chosen
contractors or suppliers is p ar ticularly impor-
tant. It is desirable to have a bank secmed cus-
tumer service p eriod guarantee for the hard-
ware delivery and software maintenance .
Clear agreements should be made regarding
the availability of the hardware and software and
the time taken by the maintenance service to re-
act.
Remote diagnosis or remote maintenance of
the controls, particularly of the software, by
ISDN modem or in other ways, is increasingly
gaining importance (cost reduction).
'4'
11.2 Plant planning
11.2.1 Introduction
Plant planning is an extensive specialist field, in
which the teclmologist (the brewer, the malts ter,
the beverage teclmologist) and the supplyer of
the plant must work very closely together. The
supplyer of the plant must cover a very compre-
hensive area of work, for exa mple the machines,
app aratus and equipment for the maltings, the
brewery, the bottling of the beverages including
the production of alcohol-free beverages, the
storage and dispatch of beverages, the provision
of the plants with wa ter, hea t and electrica l ener-
gy, compressed air, carbon dioxide, the di sposal
of spent grai.ns, waste wa ter and residues from
bottling.
11.2.1.1 General remarks concerning
plant planning
The extent of the tasks involved in plaIming
and building plants CaIl vary a lot. It depends
on the con ceptual formulation. This can ha ve,
for example, the following aims:
to build a new plaIlt,
to replace individual components of a plant,
to replace an entire plant,
to fulfil official conditions resulting from le-
gislation.
Plants are made up of individual plaIlt compo-
nents (machines, apparatus, pipes, fittings etc.).
They are often cOlmected with special conveYaIl-
ce elements. Plants are complete, functioning or-
ganisations which produce a product. They con-
sist of th e production equipment and the
secondary equipment necessa ry for their opera-
tion.
As well as the machinery and apparatus, the
buildings or struchlfal plants including the ne-
cessary provision plants (water, heating, aerati-
on, air conditioning, sanitary facilities, lighting
etc.) CaIl also be part of a plant. The production
plaIlts in the fermentation and beverage indu-
stry includ e p lants for the intake, treah1lent aIld
storage of raw materials, plants to process raw
ma terials into a sa leable (end) product, for exam-
ple maltings plants, brewery plants, bottling
plan ts, clea ning and disinfecting plaIlts inclu-
ding chemical sto rage.
The second ary plants in the fermentation ind u-
stry include, for example, plaIltS which provide
energy (heat, cold and elech'ica l energy, provisi-
on of compressed air), plants whi ch provide CO"
plants w hich p rov id e and prepare water, waste
wa ter collection and drainage, and sometimes al-
so waste water trea h1lent plants, plants to collect
and prepaI'e by-products (spent grains, CO,) and
waste, as well as any other plants w hich CaIU10t
be counted as production plants.
Plant elements are the sm allest, ftmctional ele-
ments of a plant which generally CaImot be furt-
her subdi vid ed. Examples are pumps, compres-
sors, h eat con veyors, drive motors and
containers.
Apparatus means plant elements which ge-
nerally have no moving parts. Their purpose is
usually to add or remove energy or materials in
connection with goods which are to be trea ted.
Machines are plant elem ents which carry
ou t mechanical work by transferring fo rces
onto the good s to be treated. They have mo-
vin g parts w hich move according to laws.
11.2.1.2 General remarks on the process of
plant planning
The plmming of plants is an iterative process,
the progress of which depends on a continuous
parallel exa mination of the intermediary results
and their consequences.
The following diagram schematically sh ows
the step-by-s tep decision-making process for
plant plalming. This sch em e CaIl aIlalogously
be ap plied to all form s of plant plaIuung and
can also be simplified.
The basis of all planning activ ity is the formu-
lation of the problem which must be solved .
985
Operational development concepts, new p ro-
duct developments, market ana lyses, ana lyses
of the opera tional costs, ana lyses of the teclmi-
cal staIld ard, maintenan ce findings etc. can be
the basis of this.
A con ceptu al formulation is worked out
from these data . This con cep tual fo rm ul ation
is intended to d escribe the problem to be sol-
ved comprehensively a nd fro m all aspects .
The better the con ceptua l formulation, th e
grea ter the probability that the wo rk, plans or
orders resulting from it wi ll produce the ex-
pected res ul t.
On the basis of the conceptual formulation, a
first rough plan can be made, on the basis of which
the feasibility or economicalness CaIl be exami -
ned for the first time. This examination is also
known as a "feasibility study". If the rough 11
plan seems to bring the d esired solution, a pre-
liminary project CaIl be worked out, which in
turn is subjected to all economic study. Parallel
to this preliminary project, the first work to-
wa rd s gaining official approval CaIl already be
s tarted .
The preliminary project must already contain
detailed information concerning the intended lo-
cation, the procedme, the size of the plant, pro-
duction design, suppl y and disposal and the spa-
cial concept. On this basis, quotations must be
gathered from the suppliers and service provi-
ders who come into question. The quotations
must give information, in particular, about the
expected invesh1lent and operational costs.
If the second economicalness test does not pro-
duce any hmdamentally new findings, and the
concept seems feasible, the decision to carry out
the project can be made. This decision can entail
considerable consequences, particLllal"ly of a fi-
naIlcial nature. It must therefore be very carefull y
prepared, in order to avoid bad inveshnents aIld
to minimise the residual risk. Cost maIlagement
must begin with the decision in favolli" of the pro-
ject, at the latest.
 ....
986 987
Schematic di agra m of the planning process
preparation of the test run and the training of sal of energy, water, waste rubbish etc., en-
I
I Formulation of the goal the staff regarding compul sory procedure and vironmen t milllagement etc.
work instructions.
I Drawing up of the conceptual formulation I A not inconsiderable problem in making an
Such plalUung must not take place lUlder ti-
me pressure and mu st be fut ure-orientated. It is
I I
I
I Feasability study r l rough planning offer regarding the extent and price of suppl y important to constan tl y update the data as a
I economic study I I and perform ance is that the person making the precondition for quick reactions to changes to
plan is offer already has to invest a large amOlUlt in de- the initial situation or to the market.
r test
not tailed work in o rd er to justify the attribute "bin- In all phases of plilluling and construction of
. . . . . ... L..{ preliminary project 1+ realised ding" - without knowing whether or not he plants, the enviromllental and teclUlica l secu ri-
I I I I
will receive the contract. On the other hand, an ty issues must be taken into account.
decision on I decision on !I I decision on I I decision on the ;11 decision on exact calculation of th e supply and perfor-
the location the procedure the plant size Iproduction conditions the rooms mance offered ca n only be made if the extent of The legislntive basis of plnllt plmlllillg
I I I
the offer can be clearly demarcated. When planning illld constructing plants, the na-
examination of the I economic study 2 I "d
Project planning comprises all phases or de- tionallegislative guidelines must be taken into
official gUidelines T ring quotations tails of a plan. This includes for exa mple: account. In the member sta tes of the European
examination financial plamung, Union (EU), national law mus t, of course, be in
I authorisation plamung, accordance with EU law (EU legislations, EU
application for preliminary procedural and system planniJlg, guidelines) . In the various c01mtries outside the 11
official examination project decision object and detail plamung, EU, national regulations and rules must be ad-

I I
I
detailed planning I
location plmming,
construction and buildings plamung,
acquisition plalming,
hered to. An importilllt source for the norms,
rules and legal guidelines which mu st be obey-
ed in the Federal Republic of Germany, particu-
official approval I description of the work I preparation planning, larly concerning environmental protecti on on
I quotation comparisons and negotiations I course of events and reali sa tion plamung, an EU, national and communal level, is the

1 I
I
final project examination
I
plmming of provision and disposal,
inauguration planning and training of the
"DIN Ca tal ogue for technical rules".
The size or extent of a concrete plilll determines
staff etc. which laws, prescriptions and administrative
distribution of tasks The project management is in charge of the guidelines must be obeyed. One must therefore
r delivery and performance
contracts realisation and control of the project as a whole start findi.ng out the relevant legal regulations as
I building and assembly and comprises the most importilllt staff of the soon as possible in the planning phase. This

I inauguration/test operation I project group. should be carried out in pal'hlership with tlle re-

1
sponsible authorisation or supervisory authority.
I performance verification I 11.2.2 Basic aspects of plant planning In gen eral, the following legal regulations
Plant planning must be a part of the compmly must be obeyed in Gerlllillly:
rpermanent operation of the plant I plamling and must be based on continuous, sy- environmental law authorisations,
stematic work. building rights authorisations,
The medium illld long-term company, finan- au thorisa tions for plan ts requiring supervision
The next steps are then: negotiating the quotations and subsequen tly cing, inveshllent illld plilllt planning must, for ex- according to the trade regulations,
further detailed implementation planning, selecting the supplier ca refully, resulting in of- illllple, comprise all important aspects and busi- water law authorisations, permission and ap-
the collecting of quotations on the basis of ca- fering a contract for the necessary supply and ness meas, product quality, product rilllge and proval,
refully worked out conceptual formulations performance. design, staff development, operational costs and authorisations for the disposal of residual
or descriptions of the extent of performance, Further important s teps 1Ultil the project is se t profits, location questions, logistics, maintenance materials,
examining the quotations, up are the building and assem bly work, the of the plants and buildings, provision and dispo- other au thorisa tions.

988
EuvirOllll1wtn flnw s: plwpose nl/{i illlportnllt
t erJ/l s
The purpose of envirolUllentallegislation is " ...
to protect hum a ns, animals and plants, the
g rolmd, water, atmosphere and cultural and ot-
h er inanimate goods from damaging environ-
m ental in£luences, as well as from the dangers,
considerable di sadvantages and impairments
which can result from plants which require aut-
horisa tion ". The aim is also to prevent the pro-
duction of ha rmful envirolUllental influences .
This has great significance for the planning
and setting up of plants. In environmental le-
gislation, fWldamental terms are defined for le-
gal purposes . Here are the main ones:
Emissions are air pollution, noise, vibrations,
light, h ea t, radia tion and similar things emit-
ted from a plant,
Immissions are air pollution, nois2, vibrations,
light, hea t, radiation and similar envirolUnen-
tal influences which affect people, animals and
plants, the grOlmd, the the atmosphere
and cultural and other inanimate goods,
Air pollution means changes to the natural
composition of the air, above all smoke, soot,
dust, gases, aerosols, steam, odours,
Plants are industrial premises, stationary
equipment, machines, tools and moveable
equipment, vehicles and land on which stora-
ge or work takes place and from which emis-
sions can occur.
The s tandard for the evaluation of harmful
environmental effe cts, influences or impair-
ments are the recognised rules of teclUlology or
the s tate of teclUlology.
Authorisation procedure for a plant requi-
ring authorisation: schematic presenta tion:
Draw ing up or a conceptual rormulation
for tbe investment object
Preliminary discussion about the
investment object with the authori sation body
I details of the extent of supply and performan ce
..
I
Formulation of the applica tion documents
Handing in of the app lication
Examinat ion of tbe completeness
of the app li cat ion documents,
The responsible authorities check the application
_No te or authorisation, possibly with
Preparation , bui lding and assembl y or tbe plant
Test run/inauguration
Approva l of the plant by the authorisation body
11.2.3 Different procedures for
planning and setting up a plant
The plamung and setting up of a plant involves
at least two parhlers:
the customer, who is usually also the future
operator of the plant, and
the contractor.
The customer is usuall y also the builder and
must take on duties and responsibilities as
such.
Between the two parhlers, there can be, at le-
as t in the case of larger objects, a project leader
or project leadership . The project leader or pro-
ject leadership is responsible for the entire pro-
ject management.
The customer mu st exactly formulate, or em -
ploy someone to formulate, thei r wishes con-
cerning the extent of supply and performance,
for example ill a conceptual formulation. The
synonyms p erformance description or delivery
description, standard specification, statement
of specification and quantity listing can also be
u sed .
It is of fundamental importance that the con-
ceptual formula tion (or the above-mentioned
synony mous term s) is worked out exactly,
conscientiou sly and completely. Any missmg
res ult ill incomplete quo tations or contracts,
w ith the consequ ences of overproportionally ri-
Sillg costs when a given contrac t is later impro-
ved and of plants which d o not work well or ha-
ve faults.
On the basis of the conceptual formulation, a
teclUlical description is written.
The teclUlical description is the basis for the ga-
therillg of quotations with the sa me guidelines or
preconditions for all the suppliers asked. It al-
lows different companies to give a comparable
offer for a clearly defined ex tent of supply and
performance and thus to a pply for the conh'act.
The person writmg the description hopes to
receive directly comparable quotations which
can be examilled and n egotiated at low cost.
Therefore the teclulica l d escription, too, must
be worked out in de tail and conscientiou sly. It
should be transparent and clearly structured. It
must oblige the suppliers makillg the quotations
to go illtO all necessa ry de tails ill the desired or-
der and with the d esired amount of illformation,
Important components of the teclUlical des-
cription are the followill g points:
the supply and performance description of
the requested item . This involves among ot-
her:
a detailed description of the desired article
or plant, if necessa ry sketches of the availa-
ble surfaces or rooms, stock plans, location
plans, demarca ted route plans, R+I plans,
bindillg prescriptions concerning the ope-
rational standards w hich must be adhered
to (materials, surface designs, special deli-
verers for fittillgS, pumps, pipes, electro-
tecrulical equipment, cables, controls, mo-
tors, gear motors, MSR d evices, sw itch
cupboards, colouring, sa fe ty teclUlology,
heat illsulations, painting systems etc.) and
technical details,
establishment of the supply or perfor-
mance limit,
information concerning the capacity,
989
illformation concernillg the characteristic
operation al data and COlUlection values of
the necessa ry m edia (water, was te water,
hea t, cold, electrical energy, worki ng air,
CO" s terile air, ch emica ls, safe ty d a ta
sheets),
information about assembly regulations
and assembly procedures, building site
constructions and building si te rules, buil-
ding site sa fe ty, buildil1g si te supervision,
assembl y supervision, dead lines, required
guaran tees (for example technological pa-
rameters, capacity/outpu t/throughput, spe-
cifi c co nsumption va lu es, scaffolding ti-
mes, staff requirem ents, cleaning require-
ments, mailltenance, aftersales service),
required documentation,
labels and illscriptions, 11
g uidelines for packing and transport as
well as disposal of the package material
and assembly remaills,
general information: for example, de tails of
the company contact person for queries, the
d ate or handmg-il1 deadline for quotations,
the binding deadline for the quotation, the
statem ent that the quotation is free of charge
and not billdillg for the customer and that the
cus tomer can give out a contract at his own
discretion, without beillg bOlmd to the chea-
pest offer,
illformation about the desired contract condi-
tions: for example p aym en t conditions, deli-
very dates, assembly, illaug ura tion, perfor-
mance verification, handing over the project
documents, trailling the s taff, place of deli-
very and assumption of the transport, unloa-
dillg and assembly costs, and the insurance
for transport and assembly,
g uidelines for bank g u ara ntees, asse mbly
a nd compl etion guarantees, m a intenance
g u a rantees, guarantee obligations, safe ty
ag reements and contractual fines for not ad-
hering to the guarantee param eters, the deli-
 r
990 991

very, assembly and inauguration dates, as-
sumption of the costs for performance verifi-
cations, inspection and reports,
general delivery and assembly conditions,
exclusions of responsibility (e.g. for tools, as-
sembly materials etc.).
If plant suppliers are contracted to draw up
the conceptual formulation or the teclmical des-
cription, care must be taken that the service has
no supplier bias, so that one-sided advantages
for one candidate are excluded and the work is
objective.
After suitable offers for the intended extent of
supply and performance have been collected, ex-
amined and negotiated on the basis of the confir-
med conceptual formulation or the technical
description, the task can be allocated and a suit-
able supply and performance contract is drawn
up .
The actual plant planning - the detailed plan-
ning - is generally lUldertaken by the plant sup-
plier after the contract has been made. The basis
for this is the preliminary work which the con-
h'actor had to do in order to work out the quota-
tion.
The contractor must perform work on the ba-
sis of supply and performance contracts. It will
be the goal of the customer to keep the number
of contractors as small as possible, in order to
minimise his own coordination work and to re-
lieve the project management. At the same ti-
me, he must be constantly reminded that this
work also involves his own risk regarding the
consequences of exceeding deadlines and costs.
If a contractor is hired as a head contractor,
who also has to coordinate all the participating
contractor involves costs (these are normally
dependent on the level of investment costs and
are a percental part of this value).
In international plant construction, projects
are usually, for the above-mentioned reasons,
described as "turn-key projects", in which a
possible contractor, the head contractor, offers
and delivers a finished plant ("turn-key plant").
11.2.4 Important documents and files
concerning plant planning
11.2.4.1 General remarks
As well as verbal formulations, graphic files and
doclU11ents are used particularly often in plant
planning, in order to clarify the goals formulated
in the conceptual formulation and to aid com-
mlmication between the participating parh1ers.
These graphic documents should be easy to
understand, adhere to the relevant norms and
rules and be very informative while not being
costly to prepare. The same applies to all furt-
her phases of project planning and realisation.
The documents in question are, above all:
mimic diagrams
schemes
plans and
lists
These developments will generally run as ite-
rative (repetitive) processes . According to the
required level of iniormativeness in the context
of the project preparation or realisation, the fol-
lowing graphs are differentiated:
the procedure scheme,
the basic mimic diagram,
the procedural mimic and
a teclmical/technological procedure descripti-
on, location plans, building plans, installation
plans, pipe plans and drawings for all the me-
dia, route plans for pipes, electrical, news and
bus pipes, assembly sketches and plans, volu-
me mimic diagrams, sometimes designed as
Sankey diagrams, equipment lists for machi-
nes, apparatus, MSR teclmology, pipes, fittings,
assembly material etc., lists of spare parts and
wearing parts, all sorts of construction plans,
staff and training plans, plans for workability
tests and for the inauguration, maintenance
and repair plans, lubrication plans, RID plans,
procedural and working instructions, opera-
ting instructions, winter service plans, anti-da-
mage plans.
The relevant norms must be adhered to when
drawing up basic mimic diagrams, procedural
mimic diagrams and RI mimic diagrams and
other plans.
In Germany, these are mainly the norms ac-
cording to DIN 28004 (mimic diagrams for pro-
cess plants, Parts 1 to 4,) and DIN 19227 (gra-
phic symbols and code letters for process
power system management, presentation and
tasks) .
The methodical process:
As soon as the procedural mimic diagrams are
basically finished, the conceptual formulations
for the other works, particularly for building
work (structural and civil engineering and ex-
tensions), provision and disposal, assembly
etc., can be drawn up.
These are, moreover, the precondition for set-
ting up further plans and schemes mentioned
above (pipe plans, assembly plans) as well as
the lmit lists for ordering the equipment ele-
ments needed for the machines and apparatus
and other materials. If enough building materi-
al is available, the opposite direction is also pos-
sible: the possible procedure scheme is develo-
ped from the available amount of space or
surface.
11
11.2.4.2 The procedure scheme
This scheme is, in principle, the first draft of a
plcumed procedure. It should contain the im-
pOltant procedure steps and show basic relati-
onships and cO!U1ections. Procedure schemes
are also often used for presentations, posters
etc.
Raw mat erials interm ediate
product
main product was te
seconclary materi al
prod uct composition

contractors as sub-contractors, these questions the pipe and instrument mimic diagram
are easier to solve from the point of view of the (RI mimic diagram) .
customer. In the past, the term "technological scheme" Proceclu re En ergy
procl uct Assistent
From the point of view of the customer, gi- was sometimes also used. 'The use of the term material
ving the contract to just one contractor who is "scheme" instead of "mimic diagram" is not per- Fig. 11.2
the head contractor is always desirable. One mitted. £.tnlllpies ofelell/elll desiglls for proce- a: 30 ... 50mm b: 50 ... 70mm c: 40 ... 60mm d: 15 ... 20mm
dll re schell/es e: optional
must note here, however, that the use of a head Further important .doC;lU11ents referred to are:
 -
992 993

Q)
......
m
'-
;;; ::=
s: LL
Q)
:J
treasu re 0 "0
OJ (j) 'Vi
¢ ) c 0)"0
C
Q)
....
'6
c .c_ .-ro 0
:;::;
Dosing Q) (j)
'- m ¢ :2
III
a. 0 Q) '-
::= ro
III "0::=
¢ ) :J
(f)
4= i.L: ....
Milling ;;::

Refrigeration plant
11
Clarifying the wort .. ·· ·4-··· ········ ········· ·:· ··············l

A
Cooling the wort - _.- - - - - - - - "'
Pure yeast cu lture
propagation
Fe,mentation
maturation - -.- - - - - - - - -
Lagering . .- .- .- .- .- .- .- .- .- . \ co 2 \ :
l
. _ "" "" "3} : .
yeast coll ection Filter

yeast storage

c
.2
(;)ro
"''''
'" '"
>-0.
ea.

t::
0
:;:
CIP- 0>
Station
if .r::.
.B
a:
Fig. 11.3 Fig. 11.4
EXnll1ple of n procedure scheme: "beer productiol1 " Exnmple of n bnsic mimic dingrnm
994
B1
y Fig. 11.5
The design is not regulated according to
norms. In Fig. 11.2, examples of the design of the
elements are given. TIle product flow is normally
shown vertically from top to bottom. TIle scheme
can go into as much detail as required. Fig. 11.3
shows an example of a procedure scheme.
11.2.4.3 The basic mimic diagram
TIle basic mimic diagram is the simplest form of
the representation of a procedure or a' procedural
plant. Rectangles connected by lines are used to
represent sections of the procedure, basic opera-
tions, plant parts etc. The connecting lines repre-
sent flow lines for energies or materials.
Basic information and extra information for
the participating materials, the flow paths and
characteristic processes are shown. Fig. 11.4
shows a basic mimic diagram.
11.2.4.4 The procedural mimic diagram
In the procedural mimic diagram, graphic sym-
bols represent plant elements for a procedure;
these are cOJUlected by flow lines for energies and
materials.
(In Germany, the graphic symbols can be deri-
ved hom the norm DIN 28004, Part 3; the repre-
sentation and labelling adheres to the rules of
Norm DIN 28004, Part 2 and Part 4; MSR points
are designed according to DIN 19227, Part 1.)
-
995
The process control technology comprises the
process-related electrical, meas uring, control 0])
and regulation teclmology, the so-ca lled EMSR
technology. The chara cteris tic parameters o f
B2
machine and appara tus equipment are usually
given in list form. TIle charac teris tic parameters
of the pipes (DN, PN, materials, numeration
etc.) and drives are shown . The pipes and fit-
@)
tings, m achines and apparatu s as well as the
MSR p oints should be drawn in with the correct
fLmction, classification and ills talla tion position.
Example of a p/'Ocedllral mimic
diagram
The basic information of a procedural mimic Fig. 11.6 I
®
diagram consists, among other things, of the ne- Examples of lite idelllificalioll of meaSllrelllelll, Call 1/'01 alld
cessary plant elements and their labels with-out reg llialioll poill is ill RlllIilllic diagrallIS
drive machines, the flow paths of the materials
11
and energies, their labels and amOlmts and the QIS
Fig. 11.7
characteristic operational conditions, from the
points of view of cleaning and disinfection, the
ExallIple of all RI milllic diagralll willt basic alld exira illfor-
Illalioll
401 L mS
O,-hee working method, procedural safety, quali-
tative aspects and loss reduction, if necessary in
the form of an explanatory procedure description.
TIle extra information comprises, among other
things, the characteristic flow rates of the partici-
pating materials and energies, the relevant fit-
tings and the measurement, control and regula-
tion points (MSR points), the important para-
meters of the machines and apparatus, usually
in list form, and important height information.
Fig. 11.5 shows an example of a procedural mi-
mic diagram.
11.2.4.5 The pipe and instrument mimic
diagram
The pipe and instrument mimic diagram shows
the technical equipment of a plant: machines,
apparatus, containers, drives, fittings, pipes and
other means of conveyance, the task-related pro-
cess power system management and the MSR
points. TIlese are shown by graphic symbols and
lines. Reserve wuts are represented as well.

996
In Germany, pipe and instnU11ent mimic dia-
grams must be drawn up according to the norms
DIN 28004 Part 1 to Part 4 and DIN 19227 Part 1.
Measurement points are represented by a circle
(or a rOlUlded oblong) which is connected with
the measming position by a line of reference. A
horizontal dividing line shows that the place of
dish'ibution and operation of the measm ement
value or the process power system management
tal<es place in a master display, not on the spot.
The code letters give information about the
measurem ent dimension and its processing;
they are entered into the upper half of the sym-
bol. In Table 1 and Table 2, examples of code let-
ters of important measurement dimensions and
their processing are shown. Fig. 11.6 shows ex-
amples of the representation of MSR positions
in mimic diagrams.
In the lower half of the symbols, a meter
number can be entered, which continually re-
cords the MSR points. The first figures can also
be used to distinguish or localise the measure-
ment dimensions within the plant. Fig. 11.7
shows an RI mimic diagram as an example. As
a supplement to the graphic symbols described
Tnble 1 Exnlllpies of carie lellers for lIIenSll relllClI 1 riil1lell siolls/illilinl riilllellsiolls
(firslleller ill Iile 11IenSllre/Ile111 poilll sylllbol)
meas urement dimensioncode
letter
temperature T position
pressure
flow
filling level
hand intervention/
entry
a b
U rb
Fig. 11.8
Grapilic sYlllbols ns n slIpplelllellllo Ille IIOl"llleri sYlllvols
in the norm DIN 28004 Part 3, some further
non-nonned symbols which are often applied
in the fermentation and beverage industry are
shown in Fig. 11.8.
11.2.4.6 Pipe and assembly plans
Pipe and assembly plans are usually drawn up
isomeh'ically, in order to make them more h'ans-
parent, above all for the assembly workers.
In principle, pipe and assembly plans can be
developed from the pipe and instrument mimic
diagrams, given enough detail and if the instal-
lation plans are observed - or the diagram can
also be used for this purpose.
measurement dimensioncode
letter
G justifying special requirements etc.
P speed S portant Workulg basis for the coordinatu1g pro-
F W
L weh1ess M necessary plant teclmology.
qualitative size or material
quality (e.g. pH value,
H 0 , contents, CO, contents, Q feasibility given the necessa ry teclmological
conductivity)
..
1 Tnvle 2 Exnlllpies of Iile processillg of Iile lIIenSllrelllelll riil1le11siOIl
(secollri nllri sllbseqllellllell ers ill Iile IIIcnSllrelllClI1 poillls sylllbol)
code letter Processing of the
m easurement dimension
I indication
R registration
C automatic regulation
A brea kdown signal
11.2.4.7 The procedure description
The procedure description is drawn up to sup-
plement the proced ural, pipe and instrument
mimic diagrams. Its purpose is to explain tech-
nical/technolog ical colUl ections, in particular
special requirements of the plant and MSR tech-
nology from the point of view of cleaning and
disinfection, procedural safety, quality control
(exclusion of 0 ,), the exclusion of unintended
product mixing etc.
Its main purpose is to aid commLUucation bet-
ween the individual contractors involved in a
project with rega rd to the division of compo-
nents, the fi xing of dividing points, the reasons
Together with the mimic diagrams, it is an un-
ject engmeer, who takes charge of the other con-
tractors working on a project, and it is indis-
pensible for the decision about the extent of the
A detailed procedure description is based on
a thorough analysis of all procedure steps
wluch come into question with regard to their
preconditions.
997
cod e le tter Processing of the
meas urem ent dimension
Q integration of the measure
ment value, s umm ary
E function of a m easuring
transducer, always without
a second le tter
o Yes/No sig nal,
On/Off Sig nal
s switclung
The procedure description demonstrates the 11
system limits and also allows a demonstration
of the flexibility required of the plant compo-
nents or of the plant, parti cul arly the possibili-
ty of simultaneous technolog ical manipulation
and CIP procedures.
Thus it can, at the same time, be the fOlmdati-
on for the drawing up of procedural and work
instructions.
11.2.4.8 The creation of design documents/
graphic procedures
A distinction is made between hand sketches
and drawings.
Drawulgs of every kU1d are increasingly crea-
ted with the aid of a computer. The appropriate
CAD software is fully available.
Comfortable systems (they enab le the entire
plannulg as far as the lUlit list, the orderu1g of
the components, the project controlling and the
virtual depiction of the plant from every angle)
are, however, still relatively expensive and re-
quire some practice from the user, w ith the re-
sult that they are predominantl y used only by
larger plamung offices or companies. Drawings
can be created 2 or 3-dimensionally. In the 2-D

998
picture, the front view, bird's eye view and side
view are often shown.
Of the axonometric projections, it is above all
the isometric representation that has attained
great importance for pipe and assembly plans.
When drawing, normed scales are to be used
(Table 3). Most important are the scales for size
reductions. The scale 1 : 25 and multiples of it
should not be used.
Table 3 Scales for size reductions
(DIN ISO 5455)
1 : 2; 1 : 5; 1 : 10; 1 : 20; 1 : 50; 1 : 100; 1 : 200;
1 : 500; 1 : 1000 etc.
Model projectioll
Model projection is possible with 2-D and 3-D
models. In the case of the 2-D model projection,
two-dimensional shapes (patterns) are used,
which generally correspond to the scaled-down
bird's eye view, simplified, of an element of
equipment.
With these 2-D models, which are reasonably
priced or easy to set up oneself (card, cardboard
boxes, transparencies; self-adllesive or with an
adhesive magnet), variations of the plant de-
sign or the plant layout can be tested or the sur-
face or space use can be optimised with little ef-
fort (for example in the beverage industry for
the layout of complete breweries, maltings,
brew houses, CCT plants, machine houses and
energy centres, bottling plants, filling plants,
stacking halls, full and empty bottle storage,
loading lines etc.) .
Assembly and disassembly processes can al-
so be easily tested with this method.
Thanks to the progress of computing techno-
logy hardware and software, virtual architectu-
re, plant and pipe models, but also ftUlction mo-
dels, are increasingly being set up and used.
The CAD technology offers considerably
greater possibilities than the classical model
projection at comparatively moderate costs.
Function models can also be made .
The models can be u sed ad vantageously - as
plant models, individual models, equipment
models or complete models - for presentations,
competitions and exhibitions, coordination and
training of contractors and assembly staff and
for staff training.
3 4
2
Fig. 11.9
Depictioll of n IIl1it: frollt view (I), vil'ri 's eye view (2) nllri si-
rie view (3, 4)
y nology, which also correspond to the relevant
a:b: c= 1:1:1
z x
Fig. 11.10
Exnlllple of nil isollie/ric represelltntioll: n ClIve
Tools for d1'l1wing lip pi(f/Illillg doclIments,
drafts alld drawillg formats
In the modern phuming office, format drafts are
made on the Pc. The same applies to drawing
drafts or drawings which are edited on the
computer. In the past, duplicable paper (traI1S-
parent paper and transparent tracing paper)
with all appropriate imprint (side edges, wri-
ting fields, headings etc.) was used. The size of
the formats is normed.
The dllpiicatioll of plant doclIlHmtatio/l
The electronically produced plaIming docu-
ments (texts, lists, mimic diagrams, drawings
etc.) are saved on a data carrier (disk, hard disk,
magnetic tape, CD-ROM and further develop-
ments of these), duplicated and passed on. Ap-
propriate output devices (screen, printer, pIot-
ter, beamer) are necessary to read them.
8
d •
9 II
Fig. 11.11
Exnlllple of nil isollletric represelltntioll: plnte lIent trn'lsfcl'l'C/'
Permanently available hard copies can be
produced, according to format, using a printer
or plotter, on paper or film . These "originals"
can then be reproduced any number of times
using xerographic procedures ("copiers") (the
copies are also, not quite accurately, described
as "photocopies"). If necessary, they can be va-
riably enlarged or reduced.
The clarity and meaningfulness of the plan-
ning documents (RI mimic diagrams, pipe
plans) can be conSiderably improved by multi-
coloured CAD pich1l'es, printed out, for exam-
ple, by colour printer, plotter or copier.
The microplan-film teclmique (microfiche) is
still used to archive writing and drawings, but
it requires special recording and reading equip-
ment or re-enlargement machines.
11.2.5 Indications for the drawing up
of contracts
The acquisition of economic goods and services
takes place on the basis of '!. contract made bet-
r
999
ween cus tomer and contractor, after the object
of the contract has been fi xed on the basis of a
conceptual formulation, quotation aIld evalua-
tion which are as exact as possible. The object
and conditions of the contract must be negotia-
ted aIld fixed in detail, since these can have con-
siderable economic consequences for both cus-
tomer and contractor.
The object of the contract must be described
clearly in all its parameters. These include, for
'
example: deSign, extent of supply, supply limit,
agreed performance aIld performance descrip-
tion, guaraIltees, lack of defects of title, quali-
ties, qUaIltities; the supplier's obligation to sup-
ply objects or equipment manufactured ac-
a
cording to the current state of science and tech-
environmental aIld food law guidelines, the le- 11
gal regulations, TR, norms aIld UVV; all sorts of
accessories, documentations and plans for the
plant as well as the operational handbook,
maintenance handbook, operation instructions,
operation, inspection and maintenaIlCe instruc-
tions; spare parts to be delivered with the
equipment, upkeep instructions, guaranteed
provision of spare parts for a fixed period
(maintenance guarantee), rules about "After-
Sales" service; garage books, spare parts lists;
training of the staff; rules about special designs,
sub-companies or suppliers, materials, lubri-
CaIltS, surfaces, colour; safety data sheets etc.
The conditions of the contract must be laid
out in great detail. Among these are the follo-
wing:
deadlines and responsibilities for permitted
building or assembly work,
deadlines for delivery aIld for the begitming
and end of builditlg or assembly work,
deadlitles aIld responsibilities for workability
tests, inauguration, the begitming and end of
the test run,
responsibility for the costs of the workability
tests and the test nUl,
1000
responsibilities, begilming and conditi ons of
the performance run or approval, assumpti-
on of the costs for ex ternal reports,
possible sanctions if d eadlines are exceeded
or agreed para meters are n o t reached,
d etails concerning improvem ents and gua-
rantees, g uarantee d eadlines,
mainte na nce guarantees and inform a tion
about After-Sales serv ice,
commercia l agreements su ch as prices (fixed
price, hig hest price, ca lcula tio n according to
expen se o r confirm ed dimensions, va ri able
price clau ses e tc.), reduction of the contrac-
tual price if the contract is no t fulfilled ("pe-
nal clause"),
payment conditions (payment d eadlines, da-
tes, cash discOlmt etc.), (a positive pay ment
philosophy should be one of the contractual
obligations of the customer when the contract
has been fulfilled!),
rules about customer security in the case of
any pre-payments or part-payments in the
form of bank pledges which are fre e of char-
ge for the customer or security transference
of ordered economic good s,
completion pledges from the contractor,
safety clauses in the case of possible reduc-
tion of the work or not fulfillin g the guaran-
tee values,
assumption of the packaging, transport, crane
and lmloading costs,
removal of the p ackaging,
supply or performance location, etc.
The object and conditions of the contract must
above all be exactly formulated and confirmed
in case of possible regression claims. Insurance
questions (building, assembly and liability insu-
rance, fire insurance) and the exclusion clause
for destruction or damage of tools and materials
must be regulated in the contract. The aim must
always be clarity in the formulation of the con-
tract as far as object and conditions are concer-
ned .
- 1001
11.2.6 Inauguration and performance run
The inau g ura tion of a plant mus t be prepared
in good time. The plant itself mu st be ready to
be operated; the m edi a required for operation
mu st be ready. This also includes the readiness
for operation of the MSR technology and possi-
ble controls .
Workability tests, the cleaning of the plan t and
safety-related tests must be completed, valid test
certificates mus t be ava il able (for exa mple from
TUv etc.). The realisa tion or m aintenance of pos-
sible conditions must also be checked.
The operating staff mu st be familiar with the
plant and its operation, cleaning and disinfecti-
on and maintenance. The condition for this is
generally appropriate training of the staff by
the plant supplier and the presence of operati-
on and m aintenance h andbooks. These conditi-
ons should always be pa rt of the contract.
It is always recommend able to document that
assembly work has finished and that the plant
is ready for inauguration and the s tart of the
test Hm.
Relevant, detailed checklists, on the basis of
which the bas ic indi vidual ac tivities can be
checked and confirmed, are helpful for the pre-
para tion. The tested or reached parame ters
mu st of course be documented (who?, when?,
result) and the relevant measures, deadlines
and responsibilities mus t be fixed in order to re-
medy possible faults.
The more conscientiously these checks are
carried out, the sooner the plant will reach its
projected parameters.
If possible, all indiv idual s teps of the process,
the cleaning and disinfection and the fW1Ction
of the machine and apparatus-connected
equipment must be checked.
If the check-lists are already written during
the pl31ming phase, possible faults C311 be re-
cognised 311d remedied in good time.
The test rLu1l1ing time which follows the inau-
guration should be d etermined in the contract.
Of course, it always lasts until the agreed para-
meters of the pl311t are con stan tly reached. Fi-
n311cial compen sa tion if the test rmming time is
exceeded must be laid down in the contract.
As soon as the plant has reached the contrac-
tually sec ure d p erfo rm a nce pa ram eters or
w hen the customer and contractor have ag reed
on this, the perform ance verifica tion or appro-
val of the plant can be prepared and written on
the basis of the supply 311d performance con-
tract.
The pers011l1el involved in the performance
run or inspection of the plant or service is fixed
before the contract is completed. This can con-
sist of customer 311d contractor staff. It can, ho-
wever, also be an ex ternal, "n eutral" company
(engineering office, university ins titute, experts
e tc.). External tes te rs can be brou ght in to give
judgem ent if no consensual eva lua tion of the
results can be reached by customer 311d contrac-
tor.
The results of the performance run or of the
inspection are documented and eva lua ted. Re-
sidual work or improvem ents res ulting from
this are fixed in content and time-scale. At the
time of the successful performance Ilm, the da-
tes for the agreed gu arantees begin, lmless a
different agreement h as been made.
11.2.7 End of the project
The end of the project is reached, among other
things:
after the successful and documented p erfor-
m311Ce rLm,
after the fulfilment of all the contractu ally
agreed work including docum ented residual
work and improvements as well as keeping
to the authorisation procedure and work pro-
tection cond i tions,
after all faults have been remedied,
after all agreed paym ents in kind (pl311t, sp a-
re parts, wearing parts) are handed over; it is
documented that they have been h a nded
over ready for operation,
after all agreed documentation for the plant,
particularly the revised drawings, plans and
li s ts, mate rial attestations, test certificates,
particularly with regard to sa fety technology,
the vario us handbooks and ins tructions have
been hand ed over,
after the s taff h as been su ccessfully tra ined
and ins tru cted, in cluding regarding accident
protection. It is sensible to h ave the staff con-
firm the ins tructions given to the m w ith the ir
signa tures,
after all work has been paid for.
A t the end of the project, the con tractor can
have the su ccessful inspection of the plant and
the handing over of the plant to the customer or
u ser confirmed (handing-over protocol). This
m eans tha t the plant o r object of the contrac t 11
h as been ins talled .
Every contractor will certainly push for the
customer to install the plant as soon as possible.
The custom er is, however, well advised to ag ree
to the completion of a project only when all the
contractuall y agreed work h as ac tually and ve-
rifiably been carried out without fault, i.e. after
it h as been documented that the plant has been
" h311ded over without complaint".
11.2.8 Documentation of the project
Project d ocuments of every nature which have
been worked out w ith the preparation and exe-
cution of a project are important d ocuments for
the comp311y.
Particularly important are the design docu-
ments, for example the proced ura l mimic dia-
g ram s, RI mimic dia gra m s, the building and as-
sembly drawings, operation h andbooks, main-
tenance h andbooks, operation and mainten311-
ce instructions, spare par ts li sts, m a terial a tte-
s ta tions, welding a ttes ta tions, company attesta-
tions, examination and inspection docum en-
tation for pressure containers, sa fe ty fittings
e tc., th e fo undation plans, reinforcement

1002
plants, s tructural engineering and solidity pro-
ofs and the building and operational authorisa-
tions given. These are mostly lmique speci-
Inens.
Quotations, documents concerning negotiati-
on of quotations and assigned tasks, cost calcu-
lations concerning the project as a whole and
the components etc. should also be archived, at
least for a substantial period.
It is particularly important to update and re-
vise the files when the project is ended. This is
especially true of the building and assembly de-
sign sketches, piping plans, electrical and MSR
installations, electrical current, cable and clam-
ping plans, and the up-to-date software for the
available controls or regulations, channel plans,
and route plans.
Measurement values of the performance run
should also be collected.
Project documentation should therefore be
archived in a clear and orderly way.
The archive room should fulfil safety require-
ments (for example concerning fire protection,
theft protection, protection against water dama-
ge).
There must not be any undoclilllented removal
of written docLUnents or sketches! If possible, on-
ly copies of the original documents should be
used in the company. The constant, lll1COmpro-
mised up-dating of the company files (procedure
descriptions, formulae, work insh'uctions, opera-
tion insh'uctions) is an important task of the com-
pany executive, and it must rlm according to cle-
ar rules.
11.3 Plant design and the
requirements of the plants
11.3.1 General indications
The plmming, design and building of plants
must always be carried out in adherence to the
relevant legal foundations, norms and the re-
cognised rules of technology. An important
•
source of inform ation for this is the "DIN Cata-
logue for technical rules". (DIN = German In-
s titute for Norms eV) The "recognised rules of
technology" represent the generally applica-
ble, applied and tried and tested expert
knowledge.
The next section contains some indications for
the practical design of equipment elements and
plants and for the requirements of plants partiCll-
larly in the fermentation and beverage industry.
The aim of these indications is also to draw
attention to important issues which are someti-
mes forgotten or not given much attention.
The issues concern the following areas:
the practical design of the plant,
the contamination-free working method,
the oxygen-free working method,
procedural, plant and operational safety.
11.3.2 Preconditions for the
automatisation of modern plants
In order to automate plants in the fermentation
and beverage industry, the following precondi-
tions must be fulfilled:
to carry out the plalmed procedure or pro-
cess,
an algoritlun must be available, according to
which a process plan can be worked out;
all plant components must be remote control-
lable;
the plant components must be cOlmected by
firmly installed pipes and fittings;
the plants must be suitable for CIP cleaning
and disinfection;
the plants must contain sensors for all rele-
vant measurement dimensions, which enable
time-plan controls to be made for the process
or which allow the process quantities to be re-
gulated and the process to run optimally;
the materials of the plant must be corrosion-
resistant.
The above-mentioned conditions can be ful-
filled in accordance with the current require-
ments (the development of the equ ipment ele-
ments necessary for this began arowld
1965/1970).
Because of the resulting costs for equipment
technology, even mod ern plants are not fluly
equipped for automati c operation. The parts of
the plant which only need to be operated at re-
latively large intervals (e.g. filling or emptying
a CCT), in particular, are opera ted semi-auto-
matically or manually.
11.3.3 Requirements of pipe and plant de-
sign with respect to contamination-
free work
Contamination-free work in a plant and the ful-
filment of the machine- and apparatus-COIU1ec-
ted preconditions for this are important aims
which must be taken into aCCOlll1t in plant plan-
ning and must be consis tently continued when
selecting, acquiring and processing components.
Important aspects of the design of pipes, fit-
tings and plant components for contamination-
free work are:
the choice of m aterials: sta inless steel, rus t-
free<D with corresponding corrosion resstance
for the task required,
seals: suitable sea ling materials, static seals
with defined pretension and minimal surface
touching the product, dynamic seals with a
clear separation between product and envi-
rOlunent,
the material surface: average roughness va-
lue Ra < 1.6 pm (according to DIN 4762) for
sur-faces touching the product,
the processing of the materials: qualified ten-
sing gas welding procedure with gap-free
for-mating, passivation of the material surfa-
ce after welding,
no gaps and d ead spaces, no thread with con-
tact to the medium,
complete wettability by CIP media,
accessibility of all surfaces for cleaning and
disinfection, no corners and angles, no open
1003
hollow profiles,
cons istent separa tion of shaft bearing and
sea l,
complete emp tiability, no product or CIP me-
dia residues,
prevention of contact of contaminated surfa-
ces with the product,
all kinds of covers, passageways and machine
housings must be design ed in a CIP suitable
form, resistant to soaking and jetting,
avoidance of the uptake of unster ile surroun-
ding air during CIP procedures or w hen
emp-tying containers. It is advantageous to
secure a constant slight overpressure in the
plant.
Success can only be ensured if the maintenan-
ce of the above-mentioned criteria and conditi-
ons is constantly tested during the planning 11
and assembly phase and when choosin g the
supplier or acquiring the parts.
11.3.4 Operational safety requirements of
the plants
11.3.4.1 Separation of media
Any unintentional mixing of media must be
avoided at all costs. The only secure ways of
cOlUlecting "enemy" pipes are therefore:
manually operated hinged elbows or other
connecting elements. These are only activat-
ed when n ecessary and should only occur in
one place. If possible, they should be unmi-
s takable. The cOlUlection should be supervi-
sed by sensors (Fig. 11 .12).
a leakage fitting combination, consisting of
three fittings, the position of which is super
vised by sensors ("block and bleed" installa-
tion) (Fig. 11 .13) .
double sea t valves with a suitabl e design,
with shock-resis tant operation or installation.
The hinged elbow is the simplest and most
cost-effective solution; however, it is not suitab-
le for automated plants. It is recommended that
 -
1004
The "hinged elbow" with length compensati-
on ("articulated shears") mList have an additio-
nal joint. It can be used more or less universally
as a COlUlection between parallel pipe ends ly-
ing on a level.
To fit the connecting element within the avai-
lable space, it must possess at least four
"joints"(screw fittings). It can be made up with
little effort, for example, from five 90° screw el-
bows, and sometimes needs linear lengthening.
Fig. 11.12
The leakage fitting combination is the most
Exnlllpies of tile stl'lictlil'e of Ililiged elvow collllectiolls
cost-effective solution to the problem of separa-
the controller should check that the hinged el- ting different media, excluding mixing, in auto-
bow is positioned in the right place using a sen- mated plants. The nominal dimensions of the
sor. The position of the cOlUlected fittings can leakage fitting can be relatively small. It is im-
also be recorded. portant to activate this combination during all
The rigid hinged elbow can only be fabricated CIP processes . The leakage fitting can be arran-
as a 180° elbow, since it allows almost no tempe- ged in such a way that the space between the
rature-dependent length compensation. The two lock fittings empties automatically. In the
strict requirements that the screw fittings which case of plants where it is important to work free
are to be cOlmected should be parallel necessita- of 0 " this automatic emptying must be preven-
te careful installation. To compensate the error if ted - for example, by arranging the leakage
they are not quite parallel, at least one additio- drain-pipe vertically at the top or on the side
nal screw fitting in the 180° elbow is needed. with a swan neck.
.'
- ---r- - - - Medium 1
.
. .-
a
b Y
Medium 2
_ _ _L -_ _ _ _
Fig. 11.13
EXnlllple of pipe nttncillllellt li sillg n len-
air pressure knge fittillg colllvillntioll ("vlock nlld
vleed" cOllllectioll)
t --..------ (n) lenknge fittillg cOlllvillntioll,
scilclllntic,
(v) nlltolllntic elllptyillg of tile
lenknge spnce,
: Q
- (c) joillt cOlltrol of tile fittillg
... collivillntioll,
- ----'- - - - - (d) sepnrnte cOlltl'ol of tile fit
c d tillg cOlllvillntioll,
(P) pilot vnlve (two-wny vnlve)
In principle, the three fittings can for econo-
mic reasons be activated jointly; individual con-
trol is, however, preferable (advantages in the
case of a fau It).
The considerable disadvantages of the leaka-
ge fitting combination as opposed to the double
seat valve are that it takes up more space and
that an amount of liquid remains between the
shut-off fittings when working without 0 ,. The-
se disadvantages occur above all when a pipe
matrix is cOlUlected in a very small space ("val-
ve knot"). For this type of application, double
seat valves have obvious advantages.
The application of a ball cock is a special case.
The ball cock can be used as a shut-off fitting in
the eIP admission and return pipes, if the hou-
sing is equipped with a rinsing and leakage at-
tachment. Ball cocks are more cost-efficient than
double seat valves even with large nominal di-
mensions, and are sometimes even less expensi-
ve than leakage fitting combinations. The ball
cock is shock-resistant. The double seat valve is
certainly the most practical fitting to COlmect two
pipes with no danger of mixing and separate con-
trols. In principle, the relatively high costs of ac-
quiring and repairing the double seat valves are
the only disadvantage (see Sect. 4.4.2.1 .1).
Successful use of a double seat valve is, ho-
wever, dependent on using the appropriate de-
sign for the given application:
double seat valves with a shock-resistant de-
sign or with pressure-relieved valve plates,
double seat valves with separate valve seat
aeration in the case of eIP processes,
double seat valves with a rinsing attachment
to the valve shaft seals,
double seat valves with folding bellows or a
membrane as a gap-free seal for the valve
shaft for sterile operation.
The appropriate choice must be made in or-
der to prevent the valves from opening automa-
tically as a result of the pressure of the medium .
In many cases it is sufficient to install the valves
1005
in such a w ay that the medium closes the valve
with the highest possible pressure (particularly
in the case of damage), or that the pressure of
the liquid pushes in the direction of the closing
force or the direction of closure.
Double seat valves are fabricated with one
flow path being shock-resistant (one valve plate
is pressure balanced or the valve plate is placed,
form-held, on the seat) or with both flow paths
being shock-resistant (both valve plates are pres-
sure balanced). Shock-resistant fittings cannot be
opened by the pressure of the medium.
The space between the two valve plates of the
double seat valve can be rinsed out separately.
Possible leakages are drained off without pres-
sure through this space.
The liquids resulting from eIP valve seat
cleaning procedures and the switch leakages 11
are drained off via special pipes (with an inlet
cone or flUmel) or via collecting tanks (flat
sheets with a rim and storage function).
Separate valve seat aeration by means of a se-
pal'ate lift drive (the piston should be variable to
limit the amOlUlt that comes out) is highly re-
commended for pipe circulations with greater
requirements regarding low-contamination or
contamination-free work, for example in the
area of filtrate or wort and yeast. The only alter-
native is eIP cleaning with temperatures> 85°C.
The area of the skid surfaces of the valve rod
seals and the body of the valve is a problem zo-
ne; its condition depends on the wear and tear
of the sealing materials. Here, too, hot cleaning
reduces the problem. If the requirements are
higher, these sealing zones must be designed so
that they can be rinsed, or sealed with folding
bellows or a membrane. They can also be equip-
ped with a disinfectant lock or a steam lock.
11.3.4.2 Securing the plants against
unauthorised pressures
All components of the plant must be operated
in such a way that the authorised operational

1006
pressure is not or camlot be exceeded. For this
purpose it is necessary to equip the plant with
automatic safety devices, which reliably pre-
vent the occurrence of unauthorised operating
conditions. It must be borne in mind that the
safety precautions must also be effective if the
supporting energies (electrical energy, com-
pressed air, control air, hydraulics) or the con-
trols fail. They should be autonomous.
Secllrillg the plnllts ngnillst IIlIautilOrisen over-
pressllre
The plant (these plants generally require super-
vision) must be secured against overpressure
according to the regulations of the relevant fra-
mework of rules . For this purpose, the equip-
ment must be provided with automatic safety
or overflow valves. These are operated by
spring force or mass force.
It is important that the diameters of these
safety fittings are measured sufficiently.
Safety fittings must undergo a construction
check and their working order must be checked
and documented at regular intervals.
For example, it must be observed that if the
overflow fuse fails, the volume of liquid l'lU1-
ning out of containers which are filled by
pumps must be drained by the safety fitting
without unauthorised increase of pressure . The
design of the safety fitting must therefore cater
for the highest possible liquid flow rate.
The pressure relief pipes or overflow/flow-
off pipes must be sufficiently measured . They
must be laid in such a way that if they are made
use of, no dangers can occur. Product pipes
must be CIP suitable. Therefore, safety fittings
are designed so that they can be aerated and are
activated during Clr processes.
A contribution to the improvement of the
operational safety of the equipment can be ma-
de by equipping fittings with drives which, if
the supporting energies or control fail, close of
their own accord by means of spring force.
- 1007
One-way safety measures (for example bur-
sting discs) can also be used .
Secllrillg the plnllt ngaillst IIlInlltilOrisen IIlIner-
pressure
Securing the plant against lUlauthorised lmder-
pressure is the task of the operator. Since dama-
ge or danger to staff health are not generally cau-
sed by lmderpressure, the plant does not need to
be supervised in relation to this.
Large containers (storage tanks, CCTs) are par-
ticularly sensitive to lmderpressure. Generally,
pressure containers are also in danger, even with
very small overpressures (a few water COllU1Ul
millimeh'es high), lUlless they have a vacuum-
proof design.
Underpressure in a system can occur as a re-
sult of:
emptying containers without compensating
the drained medium, for example with gas,
a lifting effect when containers overflow,
the container contents cooling down without
compensating the change of volume,
a chemical reaction of the container contents.
Pressureless containers must have a suffi-
cient cross-section in contact with the atmo-
sphere. Overflows on containers must possess a
relief drill-hole or a stand pipe open at the top,
in order to prevent a lifting effect (vacuum
stress on the container).
The follow-up gas flow rate required to cool
down hot or warm containers is dependent on
the cooling speed of the container (flow rate of
the cooling medium, container mass, container
size, specific heat capacity, temperature diffe-
rences) and can be controlled with these para-
meters. Vacuum valves must be designed for
the highest possible necessary flow rate, taking
into accolmt the usable differential pressures.
The hot CIP cleaning of CCTs can be carried
out advantageously if the cold container has a
slight overpressure and in order to prevent gas
from flowing off during cleaning. The imler
pressure of the container should be supervised
by the controller.
If hot cleaned containers are not cooled down
(rinsing with hot water; autonomous post-ten-
sing with sterile gas during slow cooling, e.g .
when the container is being filled), installations
are relatively simple.
11.3.5 Indications for pipe design
11.3.5.1 General indications
The nominal dimensions of the pipes are nor-
med. In the case of product pipes, the nominal di-
mensions DN 10, 15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65, 80, 100,
125 and 150 are almost exclusively used (the no-
minal dimensions are given in millimetres).
The nominal pressure (abbreviation: PN) of
product pipes made of stainless steels is, de-
pendent on the nominal pressure of the stain-
less steel fittings used, limited to PN 16; some of
the fittings, too, are only permissible for PN 6 or
10 (e.g. looking glasses).
Generally, the lll1iversally applicable materi-
als with material numbers 1.4404 and 1.4571 are
used (these qualities correspond in English-
speaking areas to the qualities AISI 316 and 316
Ti) - for more on this, see Sect. 6.1.2.
For less demanding applications as far as cor-
rosion is concerned, material nmnbers 1.4301,
1.4550 and 1.4541 can be used (they correspond
to the quality AISI 304). At higher temperatures
(8 30°C), pH values < 8 and in the presence of
halogens - mainly chloride ions 50 mg/l- the-
se material numbers are no longer usable, since
corrosion is to be expected.
Pipes should be labelled according to the
flow medium, as should fittings and sensors, to
correspond to the RI mimic diagram.
11.3.5.2 Pipe connections
IllsepaJ"llble pipe cOl1l1ectiolls
Product pipings made of stainless steel should
be fixed in place as far as possible. Suitable in-
stallation welding procedures are the WIG hand
welding procedure and the automated orbital
welding procedure. The inert gas is argon; the
pipes must be thoroughly rinsed ("formed")
with inert gas. Argon or "forming gases" (for ex-
ample forming gas 90/10 with 90% nitrogen and
10% hydrogen) are used for this purpose.
After welding, the welding places must be
passivated (by brushing and/or scouring). To
scour, scouring solutions or scouring pastes are
used; their important components are HF,
HNO, and HCl, mostly mixed .
The ilUler sides of pipe seams are usually
inaccessible. Therefore, the pipes must be tho-
roughly formed before welding. Running co-
lours CaIUlOt, or only to a limited extent, be re-
moved - even with high percentage HN03 !
Abrasion of WIG inert gas welding seams 11
usually brings disadvantages for the surface
aIld should therefore be avoided, unless R., va-
lues of 1.6 pm CaIl be secured. The surface of
the welding seam is generally smooth, since the
melt solidifies without any rougluless as a re-
sult of the surface tension. Specialist welding
caterpillar tracks do no harm. Abrasion and
electrolytical polishing improve not only the
outward appearance but also the resistaILCe to
corrosion.
Separable pipe cOllllections
Separable pipe cOlUlections and connections
between pipes aIld apparatus or machines can
be made using the following types of connecti-
on:
screws,
flanges,
clamps,
tensing rings.
The screw cOlUlection consists of cone nozz-
les, thread nozzles, sealing ring aIld cap-nut.
The cOlUlection of the two nozzles with the pi-
pe is made using suitable welding procedures
(see above).

1008
Preferably, only screws in which the seal is
pretensed with definition and the con e and
thl'ead nozzles are form-colU1ected and centred
should be used (sterile model screw cOlU1ection
according to DIN 11864-1; see also Fig. 11 .14).
Fig. 11.14
Screw colllleetioll,
sterile lIIodel
Screw connections are fabricated in the nomi-
n al dimensions ON 10 to 100 (150) .
The disadvantage of screw connec ti ons is
that their ends must be slightly axially dis-
placed when they are taken apart. If this displa-
cement is not possible, problem s occur. Screws
should not be used for pipes s tanding lmder
mech anical tension or w hich are exposed to fre-
quent temperature changes. The same is true of
screwed fittings.
Screw cOlU1ections can only be used without
disadvantages if the screw components are wel-
ded absolutely parallel to each other. Possible
deviations, caused by inaccuracies during in-
stallation, cannot be compensa ted by the seal.
In the case of older screw models, a slight com-
pensation was made possible, against the regu-
lations, by an asymetrical "squashing" of the
seal.
The cap-nut (groove nut) is put on using a
hook wrench. No particular exertion of force is
n ecessary for this. If, this is the case,
this is a clear sign of ins tallation error. The con-
-
sequences of an enlarged lever effect of the
hook wrench are increased seal wear and the
danger that the thread will be "ea ten up". Mo-
reover, the tlu'ead should always be lightly lu-
bricated with silicon grease of food stuff quality.
Th e sealing materials used should only be
EPDM (ethyl-propyl-diene-mixed polymerisa-
te, coloured black) or silicon (coloured red, so-
metimes also translucent). Th e blue-coloured
NBR (nitrile-butadiene-Iatex) is generally LU1-
suitable for applica tions which are hot-cleaned
using the CIP procedure (see Sect. 6.1.3) .
The flange cOlUlection is preferred if possible
for qualified pipe cons tru ction. Flange COlUlec-
tions for the fer mentation and beverage indu-
stry are fabrica ted predominantly as so-called
light construction flanges for the nominal di-
mension PN 16 (more rarely PN 10). The flan ge
length should be chosen so that orbital welding
procedures are ap plicable. One must, ho wever,
sometimes deviate from this rule if it is impor-
tant to ensure minimal dead spaces, for exam-
ple in the case of pipe jLU1ctions.
Fig. 11.15
Flnllge,
ligilt collst1'1letioll de-
sigll
The nominal dimensions of the light con-
stru ction flan ge are in the region of ON 10 - 150.
The seals are mostly, in observa nce of the
VDMA 11851, d esigned as a round ring ("0"
ring), but sometimes also as a profile seal. In this
case, one flange is a so-called smooth flan ge,
while the other carries the seal. In other word s,
pairs of flan ges are used. The amoLU1t of seal sur-
face touching the product sh ould be minimal,
and the seal should have no dead sp aces. It is
pretensed with definition. Th e flanges are scre-
wed on form-held with no space in between.
They can be centred, but the screws, too, can cen-
tre the flanges.
The measurements of the flan ges are not n or-
med; the designs of the individual manufactu-
rers are not interchangeable.
Aseptic flange cOlU1ections al'e normed accor-
ding to DIN 11864-2 (ON 10 - 150). They are ma-
nu fac tured with "0" ring seals and profile sea ls.
Fittings, espeCially shut-off valves, are often
used in the so-called between-fla nges d esign.
The fittings are wedged between two smooth
fl anges. They are generall y sealed off by the
sea ls appropriate for the respective fitting.
The basic advantages of flange connections as
opposed to screws are that the flange COlUlecti-
on is more functional, its ins talla tion and dein-
stallation are simpler and it is more reason ably
priced. With a flange cOlU1ection, slight installa-
tion errors can be more easily compensa ted
than with a screw.
Whenever flange colUlections are used, particu-
larl y with flat gaskets which are not installed
form-held, the jet protection of the flange COJUlec-
tion must be secured, for example with appro-
priate housings or sleeves. This is h'ue of all d311-
gerous conveyance media (for eX3111ple elP pipes,
chemical pipes) which must be conveyed lU1der
higher pressures. The clamp cOlUlection (Norm
ISO 2852) is used more or less internationally, but
seldom in Genn311y. It is in principle a tensing
ring connection with a profile seal (Fig. 11.16).
The adv311tages are that the cOlUlection is easy
to install 311d reasonably priced, 311d there are no
disadvantages concernin g its ability to be
cle311ed.
1009
Fig. 11.16
Clnlllp colllleetioll
(n) sheet lIIe/nl desigll, (b) ens t desigll
11
The tensin g ring type of COlUlection is used
mainly to COlUlect fitting components (for ex-
ample, for the installation of double seat va lve
hou sill g parts) 311d senso rs w ith their equip-
ment, for example w ith a piping system . An ex-
ample of this is the VARIVEN1'" system made
by the Tuchenhagen company.
11.3.5.3 The laying of piping systems and
the construction of pipe holders
In pl an nin g and laying piping systems, the
change of length ca used by tempe rature
ch an ges is an important aspec t which must be
taken into account. The pipes must be laid in
such a way that the ch anges in length do not
lead to mechanical tensions. This is true both of
the piping systems themselves and of cOlUlecti-
ons between the pipings and the fixed connecti-
on points of the equipment parts.
Piping systems are normally laid with a gra-
dient of 1 to 2 %. In m311Y cases this is not possi-
ble; in these cases, the pipes are laid hori zontal-
ly. When laying them, one must make sure that
the pipe can, if necessary, be completely emp-
1010
tied. Possible changes to the cross-section must
be carried out using eccentric tube tapers.
The distances for pipe holders or supports
must be carefully chosen so that the pipes do
not "hang".
Moreover, it is desirable that pipes, if required,
are laid constantly rising, in order to facilitate
venting. Since this requirement CaIUlot always be
fulfilled, particular measures must be taken for
venting. Pipe junctions should be horizontal.
With this design, no product residues or gas
bubbles remain in the pipe (see Sect. 6.5).
Pipe holders are designed as fixed bearings
or slide bearings. The position of the fixed be-
aring should be chosen in such a way that heat-
caused changes in length are symmetrically
distributed . The pipe must be able to stretch
freely between two fixed bearings.
The one- and two-part pipe clamp aIld parti-
cularly the pipe handle are suitable as fixed and
slide bearings. If a slide bearing is used, fue pipe
must be able to be moved without daIlger of dis-
placement or jamming as a result of frictional
forces aIld self-hindraI1Ce. The holder must be
firmly screwed on and have a small gap facing
the pipe. Prefabricated pipe holders, which en-
able the pipe to be justified even after installati-
on, are desirable. In most cases, the pipe holders
are fabricated on the spot or prefabricated ele-
ments aI'e fitted. The holders should be adjusta-
_._ ! ' _.
ble aIld facilitate installation. The material for
Wall aIld ceiling passageways must be for-
the holders must, as far as possible, be identical
med with particular care. Particularly in the ca-
with the pipe material, in order to avoid corrosi-
se of ceiling passageways, protective pipes with
on. Therefore only stainless steel profiles come
the appropriate nominal dimensions (taking in-
into question.
to account possible hea t illslilations), liquid-re-
SiStaIlt on the construction side, must be used .
8 7 The passage pipes are then fle xibly sea led off
against jet water by welded pipe bells. If the re-
g ion is dry, simpler pipe shafts or ridges, which
can also be covered, can be sufficient for the cei-
ling passageway.
1 Therlllally callsen c1wIIges ill /ellgtli
All materials ChaIlge their length when the tem-
perature changes. If this s tretching were to be
prevented, this would result in considerable
tensions, or bending or torsion moments.
It is there fore very important to guarantee
that a pipe can stretch out freely. The possibili-
ties here are:
using slide bearings so that the pipe CaIl mo-
ve freely (see above) (this also includes han-
ging bearings/ the hanging of pipes),
o using compensators,
Fig. 11.18 llsing several bends in the piping aIld instal-
COII/pel/sniorfor pipes wilh n sm lilnry desigll (GEA TIle/lell- ling suffiCiently long pipe shanks, which
hngell)
compensate the change of length by bending.
(1) Gnpless senlillg (2) pipe level, sll/oolh pnssnge (3) VARI-
VEN T" f1mlge (4) f1nllge to fix the cOlI/pel/sntor e1ell/ellt The last-mentioned variation is only usable if
(5)rolllld wire rillg (6) Illetnllic strike (7) fixizlg of tile COlll- there is a sufficiently large installation surface-
pellsnlioll e1ell/elll (8) strike to /ill/it the pnssnge (9) rolllld that is, generosity in the pipe planning. The pi-
rillg (10) lenknge izu/icnlor
p e shank mlls t be a few metres long, in order to
limit the bending or torsion tensions which oc-
cur. Creating the extension compensation by
laying the pipes in a U form is only possible in
a few cases. This variation is practised, for ex-
ample, in the case of remote heating pipes. This
form of stretching compensation can also be
used when pipes are laid underneath CCTs or
Fig. 11.17
pressure taIlks.
Exmllples of pipe holders Stretch compensators are often used for me-
(1) two-pm·t pipe c1nll/p dia pipes. The following designs are usually
2
(2) tell sillg IWlldle used :
(3) split venrizlg shell
elastomer/folding bellows compensator (ma-
1011
terials: rubber, PTFE, PE),
metal/folding bellows compensator,
coaxial pipe compensators, sea led by a plug
socke t or sea ling rings,
co mpensa tors with a sanitary d esign.
The stretch compensation between the pipes
and the fixed attachment points is usually and
preferably secured using joint hinged elbows;
in the case of smaller nominal dimensions, tu-
bes are also used. These are applied combined
at 90° bends in order to avoid narrow tube radii
or the snapping of the tubes.
11.35.4 The flow velocity in pipes/
pressure losses
When the flow velocity in pipes is fixed, pressu-
re losses aIld inves tment costs should be taken
into consideration. A further relevant point is 11
the CIP suitability of the pipe.
The importaI1Ce of shear forces is often poin-
ted out, aIld the lowest possible flow velocities
for wort aIld beer are recommend ed. The data
with regard to gel formation and other
influences on quality as a result of high shear
forces should be taken very seriously, but not
overrated, as long as, for example, circulation
pumps as conveying machines, double seat val-
ves or centrifugal separators remain acceptable
for the clarification of beer.
In the case of longer pipes, for example wort
pipes, the operational costs are mainly influen-
ced by the resulting loss of pressure. Limits are
therefore set to the flow velocity which can be
sensibly u sed. It is always desirable to keep the
total costs to a minimum; these are made up of
the investment costs and the opera tional costs.
With short pipe lengths, considerably higher
flow velocities can also be tolerated . For exam-
ple, hinged elbows can be designed with smal-
ler nominal dimensions than those of the pipe,
in order to facilitate handling. In suction pipes
in front of pumps, on the other haIld, low flow
velocities and therefore minimal pressure los-
 -
1012 1013

ses mus t be guaranteed, in order to rule out ca- of temperature and CO, content) at any point = gravitation al accelera tion = 9.81 mis' 6p = r' g' Hv
vitation. This s tatement is particularly true of on the flow path. = pressure loss height as a liquid 6p = 1000 kg/m3 . 9.81 mis' . 48 m = 470,880
the conveyance of hot and gas-containing me- The flow velocity during e IP processes must, column in m N/m' = 470,880 Pa = 4.7 bar
dia with a low initial pressure or coming from depending on the tempera ture and nominal di- The pressure loss is 4.7 bar.
pressureless containers. In many cases, a parti- mension, be fi xed in such a way that a sufficient A good estimation for water can be:
cular inflow height into the pump can be n eces- mechanical component of the eIP media is se- H ,. = 10 m If, however, we enlarge the nominal dimension
sary; i.e. the pump must be set up as low as pos- cured (the gauge of the dividing layer is, among 6p = 1 bar (more exactl y 0.981 bar) of our pipe to ON 65 (65 mm), retaining the sa me
sible or the container outlets must be raised . other things, a function of the Reynolds' num- The pressure loss height is given on the ordi- flow rate of 40 m 3/h, the resulting pressure loss
Important information concerning the req ui- ber; see also [1]). nate in water column metres per 100 m of pipe height is only 22 m (dotted line) and the flow ve-
red inflow height is given by the so-called The flow velocity in a pipe can be calculated length, and the flow rate is recorded on the ab- locity is 3.4 m/s (diagonal line rising to the left).
NPSH value (net positive suction head) of the from the flow rate and the nominal dimension scissa. This results in a pressure loss height of 22 x 60 :
pump; this plays a large role in plamling the (equation 1): The principle of the simplified determination 100 = 13.2 m and consequently a pressLll'e loss of
equipment. The NPSH value can be obtained of pressure loss consists of the following steps: 1.3 bar.
from the data sheet of the pump; more informa- v= w . A = w . 11: . d' record the actual pipe length in metres,
4
tion is given on this in Section 10.5.1.3. convert the existing pipe components or fit- 11.3.5.5 Measures against liquid strikes
In pipings and fittings, according to the lite- (1) tings into an equivalent pipe length, and vibrations
rature, the following flow velocities are desira- v =flow rate in m 3/s ascertain the apparent pipe length from Pos. 1 Liquid strikes occur when the kinetic energy of
ble, taking into consideration the resulting w = flow velocity in m/s and 2, a liquid flow in a pipe is transform ed in a short 11
pressure losses: A = pipe cross-section surface in m' determine the pressure loss height of the pipe space of tim e into potential energy and vice ver-
mash for lmltering vessels 1.5 m/s d = pipe diameter in m with the given nominal dimensions and the sa, for example as a result of abrupt closing or
mash for mash filter For practical purposes, calculations of this given flow rate in pressure loss metres p er opening of fittings at large flow velocities or
and in the distillery 2.5 m /s kind can be made using a nomogram. Interme- 100 m of pipe length using the nomogram, high pressures (operating errors!).
wort and beer m/s di-ary values can easily be interpolated. In ma- calculate the pressure loss height from Pos. 3 In order to avoid liquid strikes or unauthori-
water 4.0 m /s ny cases, these nomograms also enable an esti- and 4 and convert into pressure loss using the sed pressure peaks, the flow velocity in the pi-
water in long pipes 2.0 m/s mation of the expected pressure losses. equation. pe should be as low as possible, and the swit-
thick pulpy yeast suspensions 1.0 m/s ching times of the fittings should not be too
suction pipes for plUnps, cold media 1.8 m/s Esti1llatioll of pressllre losses IIsillg a 1101110- Example: short.
suction pipes for pumps, hot media gmm for liqllids A flow rate (water) of 40 m 3/h is conveyed in It is very difficult to fulfil the last-mentioned
without preliminary pressure 1.0 m /s As an alternative to calculating the dynamical- a pipe of nominal dimensions ON 50 (50 mm) condition manually with shut-off fittings with a
cooling agents (gycol, brine) 2.0 m/s ly caused pressure loss of piping equipment, it for 60 m. How large is the pressure loss? closing angle of 90° (shut-off valve, ball cock)
ammonia, liquid 1.6 m/s is possible to estimate it to an accuracy which is and it is always dependent on the subjective in-
anunonia, gaseous 20 m/s sufficient for the fermentation and beverage in- From the nomogram, we read on the abscissa fluen ces of the staff.
compressed air, CO, 10 - 25 m/s dustry by using a nomogram. (example in orange): 40 m3/h, and pursue this li- But the use of remote-controlled fittin gs with
control air 10 m/s With a nomogram, a so-called pressure loss ne as far as the ON 50 line rising diagonally to the pneumatic drives also has its problems. The in-
steam at £ 3 bar 15 - 25 m/s height 6Hv is ascertained, in relation to a pipe right. There we can read off the flow velocity on itial torque required is relatively large and, on
steam at 10 to 40 bar 20 - 40 m/s length of 100 m . The pressure loss proportional the line rising diagonally to the left at a height of opening, an excess torque occurs, which leads
gases in suction pipes 6 -10 m/s to the pressure loss h eight is established accor- 5.7 m and, at the left edge of the nomogram, the to rapid opening. On closure, a large part of the
condensate 2 m/s ding to the equation: pressure loss height of 80 m/100 m pipe length. closing angle has more or less no influence on
With media containing CO" care mus t be ta- 6p = r · g. H ,. If the pressure loss height is 80 m with a pipe the liquid flow. It is only in the very las t part of
ken when fixing the flow velocity that the pres- (2) length of 100 m, with a pipe length of 60 m it is the angle that a sharp deceleration occurs.
sure does not go below 1 1/2 times the value of Here, 48 m. Adjustable tluottle valves in the pneumatic
the CO, partial pressure (this corresponds to 6p = pressure loss in N/m' Putting this information into the above for- pipes could go some way toward s solving this
the CO, equilibrium pressure and is a function l' = gauge in kg/m3 mula: problem .
1014
- 1015
In the case of d ou ble seat valves, the liqui d
Flow rale V in m'n, ___ flow can even raise the closure speed even mo-
re. Installing the va lves in acco rdance w ith the
flow can be of assistance here.
A further desirable method of operation is, in
the case of autom ated equipment, operating the
fittings in a pressureless state. Th e pumps are
only hlrned on after the fl ow p aths are opened,
for practical purposes using a frequen cy con-
vetter with an adjus table starting ramp. The
switching-off process occu rs the other way
rolmd.
The operation of pumps using frequen cy
1 1 converters, or at least using a "gentle drive"
mode, can of course also be u sed to advantage
when working manu all y.
t
ID In cases where the pressure p eaks cannot be
E fully compensated using the control system,
g
cotU1ected or indep endent overflow valves can
be used, which, mus t be op erated in
cycles during CIP p rocedures. Vibrations or
pulsations can be ca used by pumps, compres-
sors or throttle valves. Buffer tanks or gas cus-
hion s (with a p ressure vessel ftmction) can be of
assistance, but always entail ex tra expense, p ar-
ticularly for CIP procedures . Decoupling the pi-
p es and pumps by means of compensators or
h oses etc. can also lessen the vibrations. In or-
der to mute the vibrations (noise absorption),
the pipe holders are sometimes housed in rub-
ber.
0.1 0.1
0.08 0.08 11.3.5.6 Venting the pipes; oxygen
0.06 v (; 0.06
removal
0.05 -?J/S'J h 0.05
The ideal of a continuously rising pipe is tech-
nically very difficult to fulfil. Differences in
height determine that the pipe CatU10t vent it-
self automatically.
0.01 L.l....Ll.1L.LL.J..LL...I-Ll..Uu.....w...Ll.l.....L.LLJ.J-.J......L..J...J Automatic or controlled venting fittings at
0.5 3 4 5 6 810 20 30 40 60 60100 200 300 500
Flow rate II in m'th ___
the respectively highest p art of the pipe can
provide assistance. In the case of product pipes,
however, this typ e CatU10t generally be used for
cleaning and disinfec ting reasons.
Degass ing/oxygen removal is in man y cases
an im portat1t precondition to guara ntee quality.
It can be carried out by:
d isplacing or dissolving the oxygen using
oxygen-free water,
d isplacing the oxygen using CO 2 ,
The a pplication of d e-gassed water presup-
p oses sufficient supplies and su fficientl y large
flow velocities. As long as the gas bubbles can -
not be displaced by the fl ow, oxygen can only
be removed by being dissolved in wa ter. This
process is dependent on time and is limited by
the partial pressure difference.
For this reason, oxygen also ca nnot be remo-
ved by air-sa tu ra ted water. The disadvantages
of this option are the relatively high costs for
the prep ara tion of oxygen-free water and of the
wa ter itself. Considerably cheap er for the com- 11
pl ete removal of oxygen is rinsing the pipe with
inert gas, preferably CO" which can at the same
tim e be used to pretense the pipe.
The pressure of the rinsing gas mus t be about
0.4 - 1.5 bar larger than the maximlun possible
static pressure of the liqltid column . With a lower
overpressure, a relatively large rinsing time is
needed .
The rinsing gas Cat1 only be pa rtially used to
remove residual liquid, since the liquid residu-
es are "rinsed over" in h orizontal pipes.
11.3.5.7 Creating heat insulations in
pipes
In the case of heat insulati on (also known sim-
ply as insul ation), the thickness of the insula-
ting layer is fixed according to economic crite-
ria : the ex pense mus t be in rela tion to the
energy cos ts which are to be saved . Future cost
developments must also be taken in to account
here.
Important insulating materials are PUR hard
foam, preferably processed into in situ cellular
plas tic, at1d prefabricated elem ents (split be-
aring shells) m ade of PS-foam or foam glass for

1016
cold numing pipes ("cold insulations "). For the
sam e purpose, foamed plastics (soft foam, ela-
stomers) are used (e .g . trade name "AF/Arma-
fle x" ).
For insulations at temperatures above room
temperature, mineral wool is mainly used, and
more rarely g lass wool.
With all cold rLUming pipes (product pipes, ice
water, cold water, cooling agents, refrigerants),
vapour diffusion must be reliably elimina ted.
This considerably deteriorates the heat conducti-
vity coefficients of the insulation ma terials and,
when the dewpoint is readled, results in conden-
sation or soaking of the insulation material.
Since there are no diffusion-resistant plastics,
metal barrier layers (so-called "vapour brakes")
must also be used to seal off the insulation layer.
TIle vapour barrier is generally combined with
mechanical protection of the insulation. The m e-
chemical protection usually also protects against
weather conditions.
The m e tals used are mainly aluminium steel,
reinforced steel, galvanised (sometimes with
additional plastic coating) and stainless steels,
partly with a structured surface, in order to im-
prove the outward appearance. Smooth or po-
lished surfaces show up imperfections, dents,
scratches e tc. very clearly. One can also protect
against vapour diffusion using Al-/PE wrap-
ping foil, which is glued or welded on and pro-
tected by a suitable hard coating. The use of bi-
tumen products as a vapour barrier is
out-of-date.
The vapour brake, then, must be made va-
pour-resistant (by using sealing masses or wel-
ding the steel sheets). The end pieces must be
form ed very carefully. A welded end disc is pre-
ferable.
The holders or bearings of the heat insulated
pipes must be form ed in such a way that the va-
pour brake is not interrupted. It is therefore ad -
vantageous to use split bearing shells, on which
the hard coating lies flat (see also Section 12.6).
..
Heat insula ted pipes should be laid in su ch a
way that they camlo t be damaged during main-
tenance and repair work (designs using PUR
hard foam, sp ecia lly processed as in situ cellu-
lar plastic, have an advantage in this respect;
heat insulations mus t not be trodden on).
11.3.5.8 Shaping of pipe outlets
Flushing pipes and overflow pipes from safety
valves, venting pipes, drainage pipes, rinsing
pipes, CIP outlet pipes, e tc ., which ha ve to
drain a medium under pressure, should nUl in-
to containers or pipes, in order to prevent the
m edia from being sprayed onto the floor and to
run them off without d anger (danger of scal-
ding, corrosion). It is always prefe rable to have
a direct, pressure-proof integ ration into the se-
wage system .
If these pipes have to end in the air above the
they should be ca rried as far down as pos-
sible and have a s table holder. The pipe end
should be a so-called baffle pot, which breaks the
jet before it lands on the floor, in order to prevent
spraying.
11.3.5.9 Securing the pipe against frost
and blockages
Pipes can be equipped with an accompanying
hea ting system to prevent freezing. The heating
is usually electric and is controlled by a thermo-
stat. The resis tan ce hea ting bands are wrapped
arOlmd the pipe and protected by the already
present heat insula tion.
Other heating media can be condensa-
te and water. The working order of the accompa-
nying heating systems must, of course, be super-
vised.
In an emergency,
a pipe can be pumped in circulation,
the flow rate can be lowered (continuous cir-
culation),
• the pipe can be drained. If it is not possible to
drain the pipe completely, the pipe can be
flu sh ed w ith ten s in g gas or a small gas
flowrate is m aintained.
Media w hich crystallise if they go below a par-
ticular temperature (for example caustic soda or
sugar solutions), or considerabl y increase their
viscosity, must be either diluted or thermostated.
1.3.5.10 Dead spaces in pipes
As a matter of principle, the re should be no d ead
spaces in product, crr or water pipes etc. in the
fermentation and beverage indushy For all other
supply and disposal med ia, a complete absence
of dead spaces is also desirable (see Sect. 6.5).
The ideal situation is a pipe which nms straight
without jlUlctions, i.e. only one track. Similarly to
electroteclmology, therefore, pipes are "rubbed
tlu'ough" if necessary, to avoid dead pipe secti-
ons.
In cases requiring junctions, for example for
the attaclunent of a CCV to a product pipe, the
junction is closed with a shut-off fitting .It is im-
portant that the fitting should be placed as near
to the pipe as is teclmicall y pOSSible, in order to
minimise the occmring dead space. It is desirable
tllat the maximum distance to the jlmction end
should be shorter than the pipe diameter. 11us al-
so applies to the cO!mection of pipe circuits with
crr admission and return pipes: tlle cOlmecting
points should be fitted as close as possible to the
Table 4 IlI slIlatioll lIIaterials alld I,eat colldllctivity coefficiell t A
Insulation materials
PS-foam (polystyrene foam)
PUR-hard foam (polyure thane h ard foam)
CFC-free (chlorofluorocarbon-free)
in situ cellular plastic
foam glass
mineral wool mats
glass fibre mats
"Armaflex" soft foam
1017
shut-off fitting. Forks are usually positioned ho-
ri zontally to the pipe axis. In this way, p rod uct re-
sidues and gas bubbles are avoided . The pipe
forks are, for practical purposes, closed with a co-
and the shut-off valves are opened . In this
way, they are continually clean ed w ith the pipe
when it is cleaned using the CIP procedure.
11.3.5.11 Steam pipes
It mu st be g uaranteed that s tea m pipes can
stre tch out without hindrance. Ll order to avoid
condensa te s trikes, the pipe mus t be laid in
such a way tha t the inevitable condensa te can
be coll ected and drained off at regula r intervals .
The drains must be equipped with a buffer volu-
me wluch has the nominal dimension of the pipe
(T-piece), wludl is later reduced to the DN of con-
d ensate pipes. Ll order to drain off condensate, 11
suitable condensate drainage systems must be ap-
plied. They are combined witll pipe sieves. The
condensa te is coLlected and retlll'ned to the tank
with as little loss as possible. Closed condensate
system s are desirable. Any expansion vapours
wluch occur should be used . Forks on steam pi-
pes are positioned on tlle top side of the pipe.
Cold steam pipes must be put into operation
slowly. Steam and condensate pipes must be
equipped with a heat insulation. Heat bridges on
the pipe holders are to be avoided.
A inW/(m'K) Thickness in kg/m3
0.04 22 - 25
0.03 - 0.035
;:: 45
0.038 at 20 °C
0.44 150
0.03 ;::110
0.03 - 0.045 55 -130
0.034 at -20 °C
0.036 at O°C ca. 90

1018
11.3.6 Indications for the creation of
heat and cold insulations
11.3.6.1 General indications
In order to reduce energy losses, machines, de-
vices, pipes and equipment, including fittings,
are equipped with a heat insulation. The heat
insulation is intended to increase the resi-
stance to heat conductivity in order to reduce
losses.
The driving force of heat h',\l1sfer - preferably
by heat conductivity and convection, sometimes
also by radiation - is a temperature difference.
Since the causes of convection and radiation can
scarcely be influenced, an attempt is made to re-
duce the heat flow by reducing the conductivity.
The prevention of condensation in cold rwming
pipes and on apparatus surfaces is also the task of
heat insulation.
The necessity of heat insulation is justified by
the reduction of energy losses, a cost factor
which can be considerable, and which is direct-
ly influenced by energy prices. In other words,
this factor is dynamic. The foreseeable changes
in energy prices must therefore be taken into
consideration when planning the extent of the
heat insulations. An economic insulation mate-
rial thickness is aimed for, taking into accOlU1t
the continually rising costs of energy and heat
insulation. The "life-span" of a heat insulation
and the maintenance of the calculation princi-
ples playa large role here.
According to this, for CCTs, for example, the in-
sulation layer thickness is ;::: 100 mm. At present,
layer thicknesses of 120 - 150 mm are produced.
Pipes are insulated with 40 - 60 mm thickness.
11.3.6.2 Avoidance of vapour diffusion
and condensation
Cold rwming pieces of equipment (they are
operated under room temperature or SUlTOlU1-
ding temperature) have a tendency to form con-
densation. The reason for this is that they have
reached or gone below the dewpoint of the air.
-
The same is true of heat insulations which ha-
ve a lower surface temperature than the sur-
rounding temperature. The thickness of an in-
sulation layer must therefore be measured in
such a way that the dewpoint will definitely not
be reached on the surface.
For the same reason, it is important with a he-
at insulation layer to prevent vapour from con-
densing at the places of dewpoint temperature
because of vapour diffusion in the insulation
material. The condensate would soak the insu-
lation material and considerably increase the
heat conductivity coefficient.
Vapour diffusion can only be prevented with
metal barrier layers (steels, metal wrapping foils)
or with bitumen coats or bitumen cardboard co-
vered with allU1linilU1l foil. TIle vapour barrier,
also known as a steilln brake, must always be ap-
plied on the side with the higher temperature.
11.3.7 Indications concerning pipe
connection, application of
fittings and sampling
11.3.7.1 General indications
The number of fittings used should generally
be minimised in order to save costs illld elimi-
nate possible sources of faults, particularly with
respect to possible contaminations.
In the fermentation illld beverage industry,
two basic variants of the cOlmecting tecluuque
for pipes and apparatus or equipment are used:
manual cOlUlection using a passing piece or
hinged elbow and
fixed piping.
Between these two extremes, all the interme-
diate variants are of course possible .
If the equipment is automated, the manual
cOlmecting tecluuque is no longer possible. The
manual cOlUlecting teclmique is mainly suitab-
le for cases
where the operating frequency extends over
longer periods of time or
where the time-scale can be flexibly arrilllged
illld
where it is important to keep installation illld
maintenance costs down.
For example, a CCT department for fermen-
tation and maturation provides relatively large
room for millloeuvre for bottling, emptying and
CIP. Similarly, distributors for CIP admission
and return pipes Cilll be made using panelling
teclmique at a reasonable price.
The condition for the millmal cOlmecting tech-
nique is that 0 , entry via hinged elbows or other
cOlU1ecting elements is prevented, for example
by rinsing the cOlulecting elements with CO,.
This condition also applies, of course, to fixed pi-
ping.
COlmecting a filter plant with the pressure till1k
deparhnent or cOlUlecting the pressure till1k de-
pill'hnent with various filling plillltS can, at least in
larger firms, scarcely be aclueved milllually any
more.
11.3.7.2 The manual connecting
technique
The milllual cOlUlecting techniqu e and manual
control of the fittings!flow paths demands qua-
lified, careful work from the operating staff.
The demands on the staff regarding low-conta-
mination or contamination-free work are consi-
derable, but milllageable.
Great attention must be paid to the condition
of the surfaces of the elements to be cOIU1ected.
These must be free of contamination. They
must therefore
be rinsed and disinfected after use or
be integrated without interruption into the
CIP cleillung and disinfecting process and
the contamination-free state must be maintai-
ned, for example by meilllS of screwed-on co-
vers, storing in disinfectant solution or spray-
ing/brushing with it.
Shut-off valves on pipe forks are, for practical
purposes, closed with a cover and remain in the
open position. This enables the pipe forks to be
1019
included in the CIP procedure. Pipe screws illld
clamp cOlUlections CillUl0t compensate any de-
viations in axis or illlgle. The parts wluch are to
be connected must therefore be fitted absolute-
ly parallel with each other.
The panelling teclmique using a lunged el-
bow connection can only be operated milllually.
The advantages, however, are:
the low costs,
the high level of operational safety or expli-
citness of the COlU1ection.
If several joints have to be made on a pipe, the-
re are two possible variations of the panelling
teclulique which differ in the expenditure re-
quired for the fittings (see also Fig.11.20).
The hinged elbows or hinged elbows with a
joint Cilll be designed with smaller nominal di-
mensions than the pipe, in order to improve ma- 11
nageability. TIle pressure losses resulting from
the smaller nominal dimensions can generally be
ignored.
11.3.7.3 Fixed piping
If equipment has fixed piping, all the necessary
flow paths are made use of. The activation of
the flow paths is undertaken using fittings
which are switched on manually or by remote
control. Here, too, the indications of the fitting
positions are illlalysed by the control. Any oc-
curring faults are signalised and the equipment
then switches of its own accord to a defined, fi-
xed state.
Fixed piping systems ensure, relatively reli-
ably, illl lUlillnbiguous, transparent and docu-
mented operational procedure. Switching er-
rors can be avoided if a certain expenditure for
sensors illld controls is taken into account.
The preconditions for uncompromised ope-
rational procedure are, among other things:
optimal design of equipment illld pipes,
the flow-path must have no dead zones,
prevention of lUlintentional media mixture,
efficient, serviced fittings and pipe connec-ti-
1020 1021

ons, ftmctioning seals,
leakage supervision of the fittings,
the pipe and fitting installation must be pro-
perly carried out,
regular elr procedures,
tested, secure procedures as well as reprodu-
cible procedure parameters for all production
and cleaning phases,
a workable quality checking system.
This form of pipe cOlU1ection is a necessity for
automated equipment and should always be
preferred if
high security against contaminations is requi-
red and if
the frequency of operation is high enough.
Double seat valves in various designs - for
example, container outlet valves, double seat
valves with valve seat aeration, shock-resistant
double seat valves, sterile double seat valves -
possess considerable advantages, particularly if
the pipe cOlU1ection is designed as a matrix on 2
levels ("pipe knots") . It is of eminent importan-
; -0-
ce here that the valve design is fixed according
to its ftmction; see Sect. 4.4.2.1.
This space-saving fitting arrangement has the
advantages of the small space required and the
possibility of prefabrication and fLU1ction testing
of the entire fitting combination, meaning that it
is easily and quickly assembled and put into ope-
ration. It is, of course, important that the fittings
are easily accessible for maintenance and repair
purposes.
The valve housings are generally welded into a
matrix. It is important here to allow the pipes to
stretch if temperature change causes a change of
length (for example one pipe hot, one cold). This
requirement limits the nlU11ber of valves that can
be arranged in a row, forming a knot; alternative-
ly, it necessitates the use of compensators (this is
often disregarded in practice).
Modern double seat valve designs have inte-
grated pilot valves and bus triggering which
enable considerable reductions in the assembly
expenditure.
11.3.7.4 Fittings for pipes and equipment
parts
When fittings for product pipes in the fermenta-
tion and beverage industry are selected, particu-
lar attention mus t be paid to the following
aspects:
the flmction of the fittings,
fLU1ctional security, particularly the exclusion
of product mixing,
avoidance of contaminations,
expense,
CIr suitability.
The following types of fittings for product pi-
pes are produced:
shut-off fittings (designs : shut-off valve (see
Fig. 4.31), double seat valve (see Fig. 4.32);
the tap is outdated); the modern ball cock is
also used for elr circulations,
container drainage fittings (special type of
shut-off fitting),
sample fittings (see Fig. 11.21),
multi-way fittings used as multi-way valves
(two-way valves/flipped valves, valves with
2, 3 or 4 housing connections; usually desi-
gned as a double seat valve) or sometimes as
multi-way taps (outdated),
safety fittings (valves used as overpressure
tromechanically. The piston or rotary an gle dri ve
can be opened with compressed air and closed
with spring force or vice ve rsa . It is also possible
to open and close it with compressed air.
The current position of the fitting must be
commlmicated to the control via sensors. It is
desirable that both end positions should be si-
gnalised. It is often the case that, for cost saving
reasons, only the active state is recorded.
The construction of the fittings must enable
the work to be almost or completely free from
contamination. Gaps and dead spaces should
not be present; static and dynamic seals must be
formed appropriately for the required ftmction.
The material expense, in other word fitting
costs, are considerably influenced by the requi-
red nominal dimension, nominal pressure, ma-
terial and construction. The selection of fittings
and the fixing of parameters should therefore
be made with care.
elr suitabili ty requires suitable materials
and an appropriate surface quality (rouglmess)
as well as an appropriate design.
The desired average rouglmess values of the fit-
tiJ1gS, pipes, machines and apparatus should be
adapted to ead1 other. ll1e evaluation of the sur-
face constitution of all equipment components af-

,--
w
-0" : " .'
1
valves, overflow valves, vacuum valves or
vacuum flaps),
fected by the product must be Lmdertal<en accor-
ding to lU1iform criteria and requirements.
A A • control or regulation fittings (usually desig- In this context, it is relevant to adapt the err
' r, ' - ·3. .
\,
., ._._._......./
I
.I
b ned as a valve, more rarely as a ball cock). parameters to the given material surfaces; hot
.. .
The functional security encompasses, above cleaning is in any case desirable.
'm
-W- --{S}{j)-- < - all, the resistance of the materials and sealing

'--8- materials to temperature, corrosion and chemi-

cals, that they are hermetically sealed within
the nominal pressure area and their shock-resi-
'0 ! Fig. 11.20 stance. Security against unintended product
11.3.7.5 Sampling fittings
Sampling fittings at the right place are essential
in order to secure quality in the fermentation
and beverage indus try.

\. . . ._-_.- .-._... /
£?3 -+-<ViSJ- ;
Pipe forks Ollri pOllcllillg teclllliqlle ill vo-
riolls forllls:
n) pipc riivisiollwitilOlltfittillgs
b) pipe riivisioll witll fi ttillgs
mixing is also included.
Also included is the defined behaviour of the
fitting if the drive's supporting energy fails.
The applied fittings must allow a representa-
tive, unadulterated sample to be taken and
must not become a source of contamination
;

c) fork off 0 pipe witil fitt illgs Drives are almost exclusively powered by pneu- themselves.
a c
1) sellsor illriicotillg tile positioll of tile matic supporting energy (Po;::: 6 bar) - and in so- In many cases, it must be possible to tal<e a fo-
ilillgeri elbow me individual cases also hydraulically and elec- am-free sample even with media containing CO2 ,

1022
The requirements of a sampling fitting are as
follows:
it must be guaranteed that the sample is taken
under aseptic conditions,
no product residues should remain in the fit-
ting; they should be rinsable,
manual or automatic cleaning/disinfection/
sterilisation of the fitting before and after the
sample is taken must be possible (singeing),
the fitting should be CIP suitable; manually
operated fittings run constantly with a low
flow during the CIP programme and should
be opened and throttled at intervals; fittings
driven on the spot run in cycles.
Automatic samplers generally fulfil these re-
quirements; the sample is collected in a sterile
vessel. They are cleaned using the CIP procedu-
re.In this way, average samples can be gained re-
latively easily over a predetermined timespan.
If the requirements concerning contaminati-
on-free work are higher, the samplers can be
operated with a vapour barrier.
Manually operated fittings must be rinsable
and should contain two lockable cOlU1ections
(thread nozzles, hose spouts, plugs). After the
sample, they are rinsed and filled up with dis-
infectant (peracetic acid solution, ethanol solu-
tion etc.) .
The preconditions for rinsing after sample-ta-
king must be given, for example water COlUlec-
tions with a suitable nominal dimension.
Fittings with only one outlet can only remain in
a filled state after the CIP procedme and the first
sample. After rinsing, the outlet is put into a con-
tainer filled with disinfectant, so that contamina-
tions can be excluded. Pressure compensation
spirals are also suitable for this. Alternatively,
there is a limited possibility of rinsing and disin-
fecting; tlus, however, requires a qualified wor-
king method and staff willingness to perform re-
sponSible exh'a work.
Sampling fittings are consh'ucted as membrane
valves (elastomer/metal seal) or as needle valves
-
(metal/metal or metal/elastomer seal) . The sam-
pling chick taps which were widely used in the
past are ftmdam entally unsuitable for microbio-
logical reasons. Modern taps specially designed
with "0 " ring seals in DN 2 - 4 can sometimes
provide a usable compromise for hot cleaning.
Ball cocks in DN 6 (R %) or 10 (R 3/8) are not the
first choice, but are reasonably priced, hermetic
and, if handled appropriately, can certainly be a
usable compromise. During CIP cleaning, which
is always hot, these ball cocks must be operated
several times and must nm continuously thrott-
led (lost cleaning). The outlet should already be
cOlU1ected to a pressure compensation spiral be-
fore sterilisation (see above).
The usual singeing of the sampling fitting can
only improve the level of contamination on the
surface. A thermal effect is illusory in the case of
fittings/pipes covered by the product, on the
grounds of heat conductivity. In the case of
taps, moreover, the lubricant is removed! For
this reason, prophylactic chemical decontami-
nation of the flow paths is preferable in any ca-
se, and the sampling utensils must be stored in
disinfectant solution.
In Fig. 11 .21, various sampling fittings are de-
picted.
11.3.7.6 Types of fitting designs
There is a general distinction made between the
following fitting design types:
the shut-off valve,
the valve,
the double seat valve,
the slider,
the tap.
The shut-off valve is becoming increasingly
widespread even with large nominal dimensi-
ons, because of its advantages (reasonably pri-
ced, reliable). It is operated by hand or by me-
ans of a pneumatic drive (Fig. 11.23).
Shut-off valves are manufactured with the
following connections: screw, flange, welded
1023
Fig. 11.21
Snlllplillg fittillgs: exnlllpies
(n) KEOFTTT COillpnll!] (OK) 2 3
snlllplillg fittill g 5 4
(d, = 5 or 8 111111, d, = 4 or 9111111,
dJ = 25 111111 or cOllllectioll for Vnri-
vell t®, rillsnble
(b) VARWENT® snlllplillg
systelll: GEA -TU CHENHA GEN
cOlllpnllY, IIInllllfnctllred for pipes of
ON 10.125 (1) cOlllpressed nil;
(2) VARJIIENT® 1I0ll sillg,
(3) snlllple
(c) SLiOMO colllpnlly sa/llplillg vnlve
(1) prodll ct pipe (1I0t to scnle),
(2) snlllple ON 15, 11
(3) PTFE foldillg bellows
(d) NOCAOO cOlllpnlly snlllplillg
vnlve
end. A practical form of assembly is the inter-
mediate flange assembly. Shut-off valves are
the preferred fitting in the brewery and bevera-
ge industry for water and all sorts of products.
The valve is the classic shut-off fitting for al-
most all media (Fig. 11.27a). The valve seat is si-
tuated vertically to the valve spindle, the valve
is operated by a thread spindle (by hand or
with a drive motor) or by a pneumatic drive.
The valve rod is sealed with a stuffing box or
folding bellows. The COlU1ection to the pipe is a
made using a screwed or welded flange or
using a screw. The membrane valve is a modern Fig. I1. 23n + b
construction type. SlllIt-off vnlves
(n) witll p"ell/"ntic drive, (b) IIWIIIWI operatioll
The single seat valve with a pneumatic drive
is used for simple tasks in which product mi-
xing can be excluded, for example on CIP con- ve to be variably cOlUlected in a small space
tainer outlets (Fig. 11.24). ("valve knots"). The drive is almost exclusively
The double seat valve is, after the shut-off pneumatic.
valve, the preferred fitting of the brewery and Double seat valves are produced as shut-off
beverage industry. Its use is preferred if pro- fittings, container outlet fittin gs, COlulection fit-
duct mixing has to be excluded and if pipes ha- tings with 2 to 4 connections, double seat valves
1024
- 1025

with a balancer and flipped fittings (two-way The slider (Fig. 11.27b) has been displaced,
valves). mainly by the shut-off va lve. The sealing surface
2
The valves ca n be additionally equipped with is ver tica l to the product flow. For bulk m a te ri- Fig. 11.27
lifting drives, which enable separate aeration of als (silo outlets) and spen t grains, flat sliders or IInlve (n) nmi slider 3
4
the two valve plates during CIP cleaning m aterial sliders are used. (v)
(1) IInlldwheel,
(cleaning of the sealing surfaces). Double sea t The tap, des igned as a passage tap or multi- 4
(2) vnlve spill rile,
valves can be made shock-resistant by being de- way tap, was the classic fitting in the brewing
(3) threnri,
sig ned with a "balancer" (Fig. 11.25) (product indus try 1mtil the 1950s (Fig. 11.28). (4) st ltJJillg vox,
5
pressure cannot unintentionally open the val- The ball cock is a modern construction which 3
(5) vn l ve COile,
ve). This compensa tes the forces which ac t on is very suitable for water and e lP circula tions. 8
(6) vnlve sent rillg, 6
the valve plate. Double seat valves are a basic Ball cocks are shown in Fig. 11.29 and 11.30. (7) 1lOllSillg, 9
7 7
preconditi on w hen setting up automatic plants. (8) slider senlillg,
(9) slider
For mo re on the hmction of double seat val- a
ves, see Sect. 4.4.2.1. In Fig. 11.26, the rinsing of
the leakage room is depicted schematica lly.

11
. :-.,: ' (j) Fig . 11.26
Lenknge IOOlllllllSlIlg
(1) ClP nrilllls
51011,
2
_ J
(2) e lP letllill
pipe
k max. tit'

Fig. 11.25 Fig. 11.29

DOl/vie sent -, Bnll cock (APII) w i th
Fig. 11.24 vn l ve pllel/lllntic ririve
Sillgle sen t vnl ve
(GEA TI/ch el/I,ngell)
willi vnlnllcer
(GEA Tl/chelllIngell)
Fig. 11.28
Tnp - two-wny desigll
ntld ril/ sillg COl/llec-
tiol/ a
1026
Fig. 11.30
Bnll cock for gel/ernl pl/rposes willi c1nlllp c10sllre
11.3.8 Indications concerning the
arrangement and operation
of CIP stations.
Precollditiolls for automatic clealling alld dis-
illfectioll
See Section 6 for more on this.
When planning the plant, one must decide,
among other things, whether to use a central
eIP station or decentral equipment. Here, one
must remember that the eIP requirements of
the individual departments are often determin-
ed by time, meaning that several optimised
plants are practical, for example for the follo-
wing areas: brewhouse incl. wort cooling, fer-
mentation/maturation/yeast, filtration and pres-
sure tank mea, bottling. The allocation can only
be made with knowledge of the operational de-
tails (operational rhythm, batch required
err intervals, time needed per eIP programme
and possible preparation times (purging of
eeTs), pipe lengths etc.).
From the point of view of investment costs, a
central plant is desirable, at least for the chemi-
cal warehouse. The basic questions regarding
the arrangement or requirements of a CIP plant,
which have to be answered during the planning
phase, are :
the number of storage containers and their
specification (interior cleaning with spray
balls, heat insulation, geometry of the contai-
ner, gross and net volume), overflows, aerati-
on and venting, fibre removal with water se-
paration,
. the decision concerning hot or cold cleaning,
storage cleaning or lost cleaning, alcaline or
acid cleaning, combined or separate cleaning
and disinfection,
installation of a heat transferer to heat up the
main or secondary flow,
the preparation or re-sharpening of the eIP
media,
manual switching of the CIP admission and
return pipe using panelling teclmique, or fi-
xed piping and automation,
manual control of the eIP programme or use
of an SPS,
the extent of the MSR,
should the admission and rehlrn pipe pumps
be operated using a frequency converter, if
necessary regulated in the flow rate, or
should only a gentle drive be used,
the necessary flow rate for the individual ap-
plications,
the observation of the pressure losses of the
pipes and apparahls. The storage container
outlets and the suction pipes of the pumps, in
particular, must be optimised in order to
avoid cavitation,
sufficiently measured sewage inlets, corre-
sponding to the accruing reject flow rate .
Batch cleaning can be used to advantage for
pipe cleaning, particularly with long pipe sy-
stems. "Lost" cleaning is advantageous for con-
tainer cleaning, particularly if only cold
cleaning is possible. The CIP station should ide-
ally be equipped for both cleaning options, in
order to be able to use the advantages of both
systems.
The net volume of the eIP batch containers
should always be minimised, in order to lower
the heating, chemical and water costs.
eIP cleaning of containers always constitutes
an open circulation, which requires the media
to be returned. If the CIP plant can be installed
on a lower level than the equipment which is to
be cleaned, the rehm1 pump may be rendered
Ulmecessary by the use of gravitational convey-
ance.
Particular attention must be paid to avoiding
or minimising media mixing when changing
the media within the CIP container cleaning
programmes. The rule must be:
• first displace the "old" medium as far as the
container,
• then return the rest of the "old" medium out
of the container and
only then pump the "new" medium.
The above-mentioned gravitational conveyan-
ce is suitable for this problem. Intermediate rin-
sing stages can be made relatively short in order
to save water, especially in the case of pipe
cleaning: the rinsing water is only sent through
the pipe as a water stopper. Mixing within the pi-
pe is very slight, even if, for example, heat trans-
ferers (HT) are integrated. The media can then be
separated at the end of the pipe.
The displacement of a medium using tensing
gas can also be an option to reduce media con-
sumption.
1027
Hot cleaning of the equipment has many ad-
vantages. As a result of the lower surface tensi-
on of the hot fluids, the surfaces are more easi-
ly wetted, the cleaning effect increased and the
media also reach gaps, for example the gaps
between HT plate and seal, the seals in pipe
screw or flange connections, and the seals of
shut-off covers and valves.
In the case of gaps and dead spaces, thermal
reduction or killing of germs is the only possi-
bility, particularly as surface-active disinfec-
tants have not only the problem of incomplete
wetting ability but also the problem of incom-
plete removal by rinsing (backlog problem).
In this context, the advantages of disinfecting
with acidified hot water (8 ;::: 90 o e, pH value s; 4
to avoid carbonate secretions) must be pointed
out. The CIP return pipe should be laid in such 11
a way that e0 2 ca1U10t escape. This preconditi-
on makes it possible, for example, to detense
eeTs above the cone nozzles and the eIP return
pipe, to remove possible residues and above all
to remove eo,.
11.3.9 Indications for the chemical
warehouse
The rooms and particularly the floors and batch
tanl<s of the chemical warehouse must, in Ger-
many, correspond to the regulations of the wa-
ter economy law (WHG); this means that they
must undergo a design test. This also applies to
the delivery points for tank goods.
In many cases, the batch tanks and the deli-
vered containers (tank palettes, kegs, canisters)
must be placed or stored in so-called acid cups.
These must be large enough that, in the case of
accident, they are able to absorb at least the con-
tents of the largest container. Double-walled
containers can also be used instead of the cups .
The protective container is pressureless and
should possess a leakage indicator. Possible mi-
xing, and the corresponding reaction of the par-
ticipating chemicals, must be excluded; if ne-
1028
cessary, separate rooms or collecting cups must
be erected (an example is the separate storage
of the components which make up chlorine di-
oxide: sodium hypochlorite and hypochloric
acid).
The water inlets must lead to the production
waste water and they must not have any con-
nection to rainwater collecting chcumels.
The chemical costs can sometimes be consi-
derably reduced if larger amow1ts are acquired,
preferably using road tankers (bulk reduction;
loose goods are cheaper) . This is of particularly
interest for larger companies.
The batch tcu1ks must be large enough that
one road tcu1ker chamber can be emptied (road
tankers are not allowed to be moved with part-
ly emptied chambers) . The batch tal1ks must, of
course, possess CU1 overflow safety device; the
filling pipe should have a free outlet and should
drain of its own accord.
The up-take fittings should be wunistakeab-
Ie. The up-take place must be designed as an
acid-resistcu1t sloping cup with an inlet into the
production waste water. Winter operation must
be guaranteed. If concentrated caustic soda is
taken up, the concentration should be diluted
with water to around 25% (mixing container or
cross-section proportional to the volume), in or-
der to avoid cristallisation caused by cooling.
Chemical warehouses must be aerated and pro-
tected against corrosion.
The stock-taking of consumption and the rec-
ording of delivery amow1ts is carried out using
the installed MSR teclmology; in the case of loo-
se wares, weighing is appropriate.
Pipes conveying chemicals must fulfil the
work cu1d health protection regulations. They
must, if necessary, be designed with jet protec-
tion, a drip gutter, or double walls. Free draina-
ge of the pipes into the containers is always de-
sirable, in order to avoid pressure build-up.
Any shut-off fittings present must be secured
against unintentional closure.
1029
11.3.10 Indications concerning (the influences of water flooding and jetting). should be sealed off with cap nuts. Open drill-
the surface constitution of Smooth, gap-free surfaces are a basic precon- holes, screw or bolt connections are not permit-
machines and apparatus dition here. Liquids must drain without for- ted, nor are spot-weldings and open seam ed-
Surfaces touching the product should possess ming puddles. Material transitions and assem- ges. Metal strikes from hea t insulation linings
as smooth, pore-free and corrosion-resistant a bly gaps should be avoided; welding on all must be done in a waterproof way in areas af-
surface as possible, to facilitate cleaning cu1d sides is to be preferred. fected by liquids. The surface of metal linings
disinfecting with the CIP procedure, but also Full, pipe or crate profiles should generally cu1d thin materials should be structured in such
for mcu1ual cleaning. be preferred; they must be sealed at the ends, a way that mechanical damage (scratches, dents
Cold rolled stainless steels partly fulfil these preferably by welding. Open profiles (angle, etc.) does not show. Polished and matt polished
demands; for special requirements, the surface U-, double, T-profiles) should not be used. surfaces are very sensitive; circular ground sur-
rouglmess of these materials must be altered by Clamp joints with slits and lowered inner six- faces and blasted surfaces (glass bead blasting),
abrasion or polishing. edged screws are to be avoided. Screw ends on the other hand, are relatively insensitive.
The average rouglmess value of surfaces tou-
ching the product should be R ::; 1.6 desit'a-
ble values cu'e ::; 0.8 pm (see Sect. 4.4.1).
Seamless stainless steel pipes are produced
with an average rouglmess value of R ::; 2.5 pm
cu1d ::;1.6 welded pipes are produced with 11
an average rouglmess value of R., ::;1.6 and ::;
0.8
For various reasons, it is not sensible for indi-
vidual elements of equipment to place larger
demands on the surface constitution thcu1 the
"weakest lil1k of the chain" can fulfil - unless
these demands CCU1 be justified with other argu-
ments (for example the cone surface in the case
of CCTs to improve the removal of sediments) .
The crp parameters must in CU1Y case be adap-
ted to the maximum rouglu1esses which occur.
The surface constitution of the welded seCUl1S
should be the SaIne as that of the materials; slight
differences are permissible. One should, howe-
also take into accOlmt that the costs of the
materials cu1d their processing are considerably
influenced by the demands on the rouglu1ess.
Therefore the maxim "only as much as necessa-
ry!" must apply here, too. There is almost always
the alternative possibility of limiting the
rouglmess demcu1ds by fixing the crr paI"cune-
ters in a suitable way. The outer surfaces of the
machines cu1d apparahls must of course also be
seen from the point of view of cleaning and dis-
infecting, corrosion behaviour and rinsability
 1031

Conversion of legally defined and commonly used measurement units

In most eOLmtriesthe m eh'ie system of milts is Area

used. Consequently, in this book SI lmits are 1m 2 = 100 dm 2 = 10,000 em 2
used when referring to mmlerieal figures. The m2 sq in sq £t sq yd
commonly used alternative English units are 1 m2 1 1,550 10.76 1.195
quoted in brackets. 1 sq ft 0.092 144 1 0.111
When not otherwise stated, the values used are 1 sq yd 0.836 1,296 9 1
- meh'ie ton (or tOimes) = 1,000 kg and
- beer barrel = US bbl = 117.3 litres Volume
1 m3 = 10 hi = 1.000 I = 1.31 eu yd
Lenght 1 hI = 100 I = 3.53 eu ft
1m =3.2808 ft = 1.0936 yd = 39.37 in 1I = 61.02 eu in
1em 0.39 in 1 m3 = 35.314 eu ft
1 ft 12 in = 30.48 em 1 in = 2.54 em 1 cu ft = 1,728 eu in = 28.3 I
1 yard = 3 ft = 0.9144m 1 eu yd = 0.764555 m 3 = 764.555 I

US Capacities UK capacities

US liquid US dry British imp liquid

measure measure and dry m easures
1 US bushel bu (4 peck) 35.238 I 1 imp bushel bu (4 p ecks) 36.3687 1
1 US peck pk (8 quarts) 8.8091 1 imp p eck pk (2 gallons) 9.09221
1 US gallon gal (4 quarts) 3.785 I 1 imp gallon gal (4 quart) 4.54611
1 US quart qt (2 pints) 0.9461 1.101 I 1 imp quart qt (2 pints) 1.1366 1
1 US pint pt (4 gills) 0.473 I 0.550 I 1 imp pint pt (4 gills) 0.5683 I
0,5 US pint (2 gills) 0.237 1 0,5 imp pint (2 gills) 0.28411
1 US gill gi (4 fl oz) 118.291 ml 1 imp gill gi (5 fluidOLUlees) 142.066 ml
1 US fluid oUllce fl oz 29.573 /Ill =128 oz/ga/ 1 imp fluid Ollllce fl oz 28.416 1111 = 160 oz / gal
1 US fluidram fl dr 3.696 ml 1 imp fluidram fl dr 3.552 ml
1 US minim mi 0.0616 ml 1 imp minim mi 0.059 ml

Barrel beer (bbl) Barrel beer (bbl)

1 US bbl = 31 US gallolls = 117.348 1= 1.173 111 1 UK bbl = 36 UK gallons = 163.659 1= 1.636 hI
1 hI = 0.85217 US bbl 1 hi = 0.61103 UK bbl
1 US bbl = 25.8129 imp. gallons = 0.717 UK bbl 1 UK bbl = 43.2342 US gallons = 1.394 US bbl
1 US gal / eu ft = 0.13368 1/1 1 kg/hi = 2.5870 Ib/US bbl = 3.6080 Ib /UK bbl
1 US gal/min = 0.227m 3/h = 0.063 l/s
1 Us gal/ton = 4.1731/t
1 US grain / gal = 0.0171 g/I
1 US pOLUld (Av)/ gal = 119.83 G/I
1032 1033

Weight Work, Energy

1 leg = 2.20462 Ib = 0.0787 qt 1 slIort tOil = 907.185 leg = 2,000 Tb IJ = 1 N' III = 1 Ws 1 BTU = 1.055 1(J = 0.293072 WI!
lib =453.59237 g 1 Ztr = 50 leg = 110.231 Tb lWl1 = 3,6 leWs = 3.6 leJ = 252.165 Calories TH
Imetr;c tOil = 1,000 leg 1 rlz (rlt) = 2 Ztr = 100 kg = 220.462 Ib lleWl, =3.6 MJ = 860 kenT lleJ = 0.995 BTU
1 10Hg tOil =1,016.05 leg lleenl = 4.19 leJ BTU = British Tllermal Ullits

kg Ztr d z (dt) meh'ic t

1 kg 1 0.02 0.01 0.001
lib 0.454 0.009 0.0045 0.00045 kJ kWh kcal BTU
1 short ton 907.18 18.14 9.07 0.907 1 MJ 1000 0.278 239 948
liang ton 1016 20.32 10.16 1.016 1 kWll 3600 1 860 3,412
1 meh'ic ton 1000 20 10 1 1 kcal 4.19 0.001 1 3.968
1 dz (dt) 100 2 1 0.1 1 BTU 1.055 0.00029 0.252 1

1 Grain (1 gr) 0.0648 g 1 g/kg 7.0 grain Ib

1 drams (1 dr) 1.7718 g 1 g/m3 0.437 grain/cu ft Force
1 Ounce (1 Oz) 28.3495 g =16 dr 1lb/cu ft 16.0185 kg/m3
1 Pound (lib) 453.559237 g = 16 Oz = 256 dr 1 gr/lb 0.1426 g/kg 1 Pa = 1 N / m 2 = 0.02091b / ft2
1 ton/sq mile 0.3503 g/m2 1 bar = 0.1 Mpa = 1kg / m 2;; 1 at = 10 m WS (water column)
1 gr/cu ft 2.2884 g/m3 0.1 bar = 0.1 at = 1 m WS = 0.1 kg/cm2
lib / in 2 (psi) = 6895 N / in2 = 68.95 mbar
1 Ib / ft2 = 47.88 N / m 2 = 0.4588 mbar

Power Refrigera tion

1 kp ' m/s =9.81 W 1 BTU/h = 0.29307 W 1 Refdgerntioll tOil = 3.51685 leW 1 Refriger(ltioll tOil = 4,716.17 HP
1 kcal/s = 4.19 kW 1 hp Horsepower (UK) = 0.745700 kW 1 leW = 0.2843 Refl'. tOilS = 2,009.1Ib ice melted per day
1 kcal/h = 1.16 W 1 HP Horsepower (metr) = 0.735499 kW = 228,000 BTU / rlay = 37.971 kg ice melted per hour
lleW = 1.36 PS (HP metr) = 12,000 BTU / 11
1 PS =0.735 leW
1 Watt =3.41212 BTU/h
1 leW = 3,412.13 BTUl1I Prefixes for metric units (Multiples and fraction of wlits)

1012 Tera T 10-1 Dezi d

109 Giga G 10-2 Zenti c
kW MW HP (metr) hp kcal/h BTU/h 106 Mega M 10-3 Milli m
1kW 1 0.001 1.3596 1.34 859,845 3,412 103 Kilo k 10-6 Mikro m
1MW 1000 1 1,359.6 1,341 3412,142 102 Hekto h 10-9 Nano n
HP metr 0.735 1 0.986 632,415 2,509 10 Deka da 10-12 Pika p
hp 0.746 1.01 1 641,186 2,544
 -
1034 1035

List of Advertisers
Reference to diagrams and documents used
Alfa Laval, Process Technology Division, Soborg, Denmark, www.alfalaval.com 607
Anton Paar, Graz, Austria, www.anton-paar.com 885 I would like to thank the following listed engineering works and supplier companies for the
Aspera Brauerei Riese, Muelheim-Ruhr, Germany, www.aspera-riese.de 219 comprehensive material which has been made available to me for the revised version of this
Joh. Barth & Sohn, Nuremberg, Germany, www.barthhaasgroup.com 221 book. Of the large amount of material, however, it has only been possible to u se a small propor-
BASF SE Nutrition Ingredients, Limburgerho£, Germany, www.crosspure.basf.com 603 tion. In the selection of templates used for diagrams, preference has always been given to those
E. Begerow, Langenlonsheim, Germany, www.becopad.com 607 depictions best suited to promote the process of understallding. Furthermore, for the sake of cle-
Bitburger Braugruppe, Bitburg, Germany, www.bitburger.com 4 arer illustration, many diagrams have been Challged, simplified and sequence of movement or
BUhler, Uzwil, Switzerland, www.buhlergroup.com 215 flow of materials clarified by use of a second colour. Those diagrams which have been left main-
Dr. Thiedig + Co, Berlin, Germany, www.thiedig.com 887 ly unchanged, are listed below next to the respective companies with their Figure numbers; the
DSM Food Specialties, Delft, The Netherlands, www.dsm-foodspecialties.com 601 authors of the photos are referred to in situ.
EUWA H.H. Eumalm, Gartringen, Germany, www.euwa .com 217 I am particularly grateful to all the employees who have contributed personally in helping me
FILTROX, St.Gallen, Switzerland, www.filtrox.ch 605 fulfil my frequently not exactly modest requirements with regard to the graphic design of the book.
GEA Brewery Systems, Kitzingen/Biichen, GermallY, www.gea-brewery.com 599 The documents listed here have been made available to me by the companies listed below. A
GlobalMa lt, Osthofen, Germany, www.globalmalt.com 221 number of the companies listed are meanwhile no longer in existence, have been integrated into
HVG Hopfenverwertungsgenossenschaft, Wolnzach, GermallY, www.hvg-germany.de 213 other compalues or now operate under a different name.
KHS, Dortmund, Germany, www.khs.com 799
KASPAR SCHULZ Brauereimaschinenfabrik & Apparatebauallstalt, Bamberg, GermallY, Alcoa, CSI Europe, Worms (5.62; 5.64)
www.kaspar-schulz.de 412 Alfa Laval GmbH, Glinde (4.110; 10.42)
Landaluce, Torrelavega, Spain, www.landaluce.com book marker Alltec GmbH & Co. KG, Uibeck
Mettler-Toledo Process Analytics, Urdorf, Switzerland, www.mt.com/beer 887 Amcor PET Packaging Deutschland GmbH, Mendig
Norit Haffmans, Venlo, The Netherlallds, www.haffmans.nl 883 Apparatebau Nordhausen GmbH (8.1)
Novozymes, Bagsvaerd, Denmark, www.ondeabrewing.com 413 APV Rosista GmbH, Unna-Konigsborn (4.108; 4.109)
SCHAFER WERKE, Nelmkirchen, Germany, www.schae£er-container-systems.de 799 Atlas Copco Kompressoren GmbH, Essen (10.47; 10.48; 10.49; 10.50; 10.52; 10.53; 10.54)
Schmidt-Seeger, Beilngries, Germany, www.schmidt-seeger.com 217 Bactria GmbH & Co. KG, Kirchheimbolanden
Siemens, Industry Sector Food & Beverage, Nuremberg, GermallY, BAM Apparate- und Maschinenbau GmbH (Freising) (3.89d)
www.siemens.com/food-beverage 2. cover page Barth, Joh. & Solm, Hopfen und Hopfenprodukte, Nlirnberg (1.12; 1.13a)
Weyermalm Brau-, Rost- und Caramelmalzfabrik, Bamberg, Germany, Beca ProzeBanlagen GmbH, Neuwied
www.weyermaml.de book marker Begerow, E., GmbH & Co., Filterteclmik, Langenlonsheim
Beraplan Harter GmbH, Mlinchen (3.89b; 8.1; 8.3; 8.4)
Bier-Drive Kellertanksysteme GmbH, Massenbachhausen
Blefa GmbH & Co.KG, Kreuztal
Brigl & Bergmeister Papierfabrik GmbH, Niklasdorf
BTE Brauereitechnik Essen GmbH (3.34a; 8.2; 8.5; 8.6)
Blihler GmbH, Braunschweig (2.2; 2.6; 2.7; 2.9; 2.10, 2.11; 2.17; 2.28; 2.31; 2.32; 2.41; 2.43; 2.44;
2.50; 2.50a; 2.52; 2.52a; 2.52b; 2.59; 2.60; 2.61; 3.5; 3.7; 3.13; 3.14; 3.15; 3.21)
Butting GmbH, Wittingen-Knesebeck
Carl, Jakob, GmbH, Goppingen (2.22)
CC Kontro ll anlagen GmbH, Freudenberg
Centec GmbH, Bruchkobel
Cool-System Bev. GmbH, Fiirth
CPM, Carl Prandtl GmbH, M iinchen
Crown Bender GmbH, Frankenthal (5 .63)
Danbrew Ltd. A/S, Frederiksburg C/DK
1036 1037

Diessel GmbH & Co., Hildesheim Intralox Inc. Europe, Amsterdam (5.98)
Diversey GmbH, Wiesbaden (6.2) Joha - Hartenstein KG, Joha1Ules Arno, Hof
Ecolab GmbH % Co.KG, DUsseldorf Jolmson Pumpen GmbH, Herford
Endress + Hauser MeBteclmik GmbH + Co., Wei! am Rhein JolmsonDiversey Deutschland GmbH & Co.OHG, Malmheim
Esau & Hueber, Schrobenhausen-Steingriff (3.114; 4.8; 4.17; 4.25) Kaeser Kompressoren GmbH, Coburg
Euwa, H. H. Euma1Ul GmbH, Gartringen (1.20; 1.21) Katadyn Produkte AG, Wallisellen/Schwei z (1.21a)
Feichtenschlager GmbH, Industrieanlagen, NeusalS Keggy drink systems Gm bH, Nemlkirchen/Siegerland (5.95)
Filtec Inspektions-Systeme, Hamburg KHS Maschinen- und Anlagenbau AG, Dortmund: 4.92; 5.5; 5.6; 5.8; 5.10; 5.12; 5.20; 5.23; 5.24;
Filter- und Verfahrenstechnik, Karlsruhe (2.33; 2.33a) 5.25; 5.29; 5.33; 5.37; 5.39; 5.40; 5.42; 5.43; 5.43a; 5.48; 5.50; 5.53; 5.54; 5.55; 5,56; 5.61; 5.67; 5.72;
Filtrox-Werk AG, St.Gallen/Schweiz (4.73; 4.76; 4.78; 4.79; 4.80; 4.82a; 4.96) 5.78; 5.79; 5.81; 5.108; 5.113
Fischer & Porter, GmbH, Gottingen Kieselmann GmbH, Knittlingen (4.24; 4.30; 4.36)
Fischer, Ernst P. Apparatebau GmbH, Erbreichsdorf Krones AG, HermaIlll Kronseder Maschinenfabrik, Neutraubling: 5.2; 5.2a; 5.3; 5.4; 5.7; 5.11.
Flexon GmbH, Wilnsdorf (5.97) 5.14; 5.15; 5.16; 5.18; 5. 19; 5.22; 5.22a; 5.26; 5.27; 5.28; 5.49; 5.59; 5.60; 5.65; 5.73; 5.74; 5.75; 5.76;
Fristam Pump en F. Stamp KG (GmbH & Co.), Hamburg (10.29; 10.31; 10.34; 10.38) 5.77; 5.82; 5.86; 5.94; 5.96; 5.99; 5.100; 5.l01; 5.102; 5.103; 5.104; 5.105; 5.l06; 5.107; 5.110; 5.111;
Fromm, Mayer-Bass GmbH, Handelsgesellschaft OHG, Mi.inchen 5.112
GEA Ahlborn GmbH, Sarstedt/HaImover KUnze!, WiUlelm, Maschinenfabrik, Mainleus (3.81)
GEA Finnah GmbH, Ahaus Landaluce S.A., Torrelavega/E (3.65; 3.65a; 3.65b)
GEA Till GmbH & Co., Kriftel Laporte ESD, Ladenburg
GEA Tuchenhagen, Otto, GmbH & Co. KG, Biichen (3.115; 4.31; 4.32; 4.33; 4.34; 4.35; 4.37; 4.38; Lausma1Ul, Gebr., KG, Regensburg (2.55)
4.39) Loos, Th., Dampfkesselsysteme GmbH, Gunzenhausen (10.2; 10.3)
GEA Wiegand GmbH, Ettlingen MCK Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG, Koln
Grassle adVaI1Ced teclmologies; Pfinztal-Berghausen (5.57; 5.58) Mehrer, Josef, Maschinenfabrik, GmbH & Co., Balingen (10.46)
Haffmans B.Y., Venlo/Niederlande (4.98) Mettler-Toledo GmbH, ProzeBanalytik, Steulbach
Hafner, Kalte + Klimatechnik, Balingen (10.19) Meura S.A., Tournai/Belgien (3.63; 3.63b)
Hager + Elsasser GmbH, Stuttgart Micro Matic GmbH, Grafelfmg (5.91; 5.92; 5.93)
Hallertauer Hopfenveredellmgsgesellschaft mbH, Mainburg Monitek GmbH, Di.isseldorf
Handtmann, Albert, Armaturenfabrik GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach-Riss (4.24; 4.30; 4.36; 4.89; Nerb, Hans, GmbH & Co. KG, Freising (3.29a)
4.89a) Novo Nordisk A/S, BagsvaerdlDK
Hauner, Be1Ulo, Maschinenfabrik Diespeck (2.55a; 2.55b) Nordon & Cie, Nancy Cedex; Frankreich
Henkel Hygiene GmbH, Di.isseldorf Norit Process Teclmology B.Y., Enschede/NL
Heuft Systemteclmik GmbH, Burgbrohl (5.38a) Optec-Danuta GmbH, Essen
Hidrostal Pumpenbau, Wiehl-Bielstein (10.34a) Orbisphere GmbH, GieBen
Hilge, Philipp, GmbH, Bodenheim/Rhein (3.36; 3.36a; 4.26) Paar, Anton, Graz/A (7.3a; 7.3b; 7.5)
Hoesch & Solme, Eberhard GmbH, Di.iren (9 .6) Pall Filtrationstecllllik, Dreieich (4.87; 4.87a)
Holvrieka Ido B.Y., Emmen NL Pall SeitzSchenk Filtersystems GmbH, Waldstetten
Horst Company GmbH & Co. KG, Mainburg Physica MeBteclmik GmbH, Stuttgart (3.28)
HUppmaIlll, Hrch., GmbH, Maschinenfabrik, Kitzingen (3.19; 3.20; 3.32; 3.33b; 3.37; 3.37a; 3.48; P01Uldorf Maschinenfabrik GmbH, Kassel (3.66; 3.67)
3.49; 3.50; 3.51; 3.52; 3.53; 3.53a; 3.68a; 3.73; 3.75; 3.75d; 3.75e; 3.84; 3.86; 3.97; 3.117; 4.47a; 4.56; Pi.Uller, Karl, jr., KG, Bergneustadt
10.24) Reillnann Process Engineering GmbH, Freiburg
Ingold MeBteclmik GmbH, Steinbach/Taunus Sabroe Industriekalte GmbH, Flensburg (10.11; 10.13)
Inoxpa Stork Pumpen GmbH, Bad Oeynhausen (10.39) Sartorius AG, Gottingen (4.88; 10.55)
INPE, Industrieanlagen, Mi.inchen (3.89c) SCaIldi-Brew A/S, Soeborg/Danemark (4.7)
1038 1039

Literature references
In the text numbers in square brackets, [], indicate literature references, mostly in German,
which the reader can consult for more detailed infonnation. The numbers refer to:
Schenk Filterbau GmbH, Waldstetten (4.54; 4.64; 4.81; 4.82; 4.90a; 4.90b)
Schmalbach-Lubeka AG, Braunschweig (5.69; 5.70; 5.71; 5.80) [ 1] SCHULTZE-BERNDT, H.-G: personl. Mittlg. S. 1012
Sclmlidt-Bretten GmbH, Bretten [ 2] Wochenschrift fi.ir Bl'auerei (1893) S. 79
Schmidt, Gebri.ider, AG, Beilngries (2.18) [ 3] KRAUSS, COOK und VERZELE: Mon. f. Brauerei 22 (1969), S.209
Schott Engineering, Mainz (4.57; 4.58) [ 4] Hopfenrundschau Aug. 1992, S.50
Schulz, Kaspar, Brauereimaschinenfabrik, Bamberg (8.1) [ 5] HACKEL-STEHR, K.: Diss. TU Berlin 1987
Seeger GmbH, Pli.iderhausen (2.42; 2.51; 2.51a) [ 6] FORSTER, A : Hopfenrundschau Aug. 1992, S.41
Seitz-Filter-Werke GmbH & Co., Bad Kreuznach (4.83; 4.84; 4.85; 4.86; 4.91) [ 7] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 23 (1992), S.1072
Sensor-Teclmik Wiedemann GmbH, Kaufbeuren [ 8] BERDELLE-HILGE, PH.: Brwlt 38 (1992), S.1759
Sidel GmbH, Viernheim [ 9] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 37 (1992), S.1696
Simonazzi Germany GmbH, Hamburg [10] WAGNER, 1., ESSER, K. D., KRUGER, E.: MfBrauwi 41 (1988), S.384
StabifLx Brauerei-Technik GmbH & Co . OHG, Griifelfing [11] HERRMANN, H.: Brwlt 28 (1991), S.1227
Standardkessel, Duisburg (10.4) [12] WACKERBAUER, K., EVERS, H ., ZUFALL, c., HOLSCHER, K.: Brwlt 41 (1992),
Steinecker, Anton, Maschinenfabrik GmbH, Freising (3.18; 3.54a; 3.75c; 3.85d; 3.85k - p; 3.98) [13] KOLLNBERGER, P.: DBMB 5/1984, S.186
Steiner, Simon H., Hopfen GmbH, Mainburg (1.13a; 1.14a) [14] KOLLNBERGER, P.: Brwlt 7 (1987), S.254
Steinfurth Mess-Systeme GmbH, Essen [15] KIENINGER, H.: Brwlt 76 (1977), S.1714
Stora Papyrus Deutschland GmbH, DUsseldorf [16] NARZISS, L., MIEDANER, H., KUSTNER, M .: Brwlt 106 (1966), S.394-404
Si.idmo Schleicher AG, Riesbi.irg [17] WACKERBAUER, K., ZUFALL, c., HOLSCHER, K.: Brwlt 29 (1992), S.1366
Sulzer Escher-Wyss GmbH, Kiiltetechnik, Lindau/Bodensee (2.35) [18] MICHEL, R: Brwlt 24/25 (1992), S.1133-1140
Sulzer, Verfahrens- und Kiilteteclmik, Winterthur/CH (3.115a) [19] WEINFURTNER, F., WULLINGER, F., PIENDL, A: Brwlt 106 (1966), S.405
Thiedig, Dr. + Co, Berlin (7.7) [20] DENK, v., und MULLER, H.: Brwlt 15/16 (1990), S.568-576; DENK. v.: Brwlt 28 (1991),
Topfer Kulmbach GmbH, Kulmbach S.1219-1225
Videojet Systems international., Inc. Wood Dale, IL USA (5.87) [21] EISELE, J.: Brwlt 24/25 (1992), S.1142-1146
Weissheimer, Friedrich, Malzfabrik, Andernach (1.0; 2.43b) [22] LITZENBURGER, K.: Brwlt 10 (1990), S.329
Westfalia-Separator AG, Oelde (3.106; 4.55; 4.97a) [23] FELGENTRAEGER, W: BrforWll 20 (1993), S.169-172
Wiesner Anlagenbau GmbH, Bayreuth (2.57a) [24] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 6 (1990), S.178-184
Wigol W Stache GmbH, Worms [25] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 27 (1992), S.1287-1288
Witt Killtemaschinenfabrik, Aachen (10.10; 10.16; 10.18; 10.20) [26] WEINFURTNER, F., WULLINGER, F., PIENDL, A: Brwi 19 (1966), S.390
Zeppelin-Metallwerke GmbH, Achim bei Bremen (10.6) [27] WEITH, L.: Brwi 13 (1960), S.214-218
Ziemann + Bauer GmbH, Tank- und Apparatebau, Bi.irgstadt/Main (4.28; 4.29; 4.42a) [28] SCHMUCKER, F.: Brwlt 3 (1993), S.69
Ziematm - Hengel S.A, Sane-Union, Frankreich [29] Deutscher Brauer-Btmd e.v.: Statist. Bericht 1992-1995
Ziemann, A, GmbH, Ludwigsburg (3 .48a; 3.65b; 3.65c; 3.74; 3.74a; 4.47) [30] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 36 (1991), S.1523
Centrale Marketingges. del' deutschen Agrarwirtschaft (CMA) (1.11a; 1.11b) [31] LAUFFENBERG, A : Brwlt 40 (1992), S.1891
sowie die Ubernalm1e folgender Zeiclu1tmgen aus Arthur W. Rohner, Maschinenkunde fi.ir [32] HOUGH, J. S., BRIGGS, D. E., STEVENS, R : Malting at1d brewing Sc.1971
Mi.iller, [33] WACKERBAUER, K. : ref. Brwlt 32 (1987), S.1419-1421
Verlag Schweizerische Berufsbildtmgskommission fi.ir Mi.iller (1.12; 2.3; 2.4; 2.21; 2.36; 3.2; 3.4; [34] ANNEMULLER, G: Lehrbriefreihe Bier, Heft 2
3.10; 3.11; 3.12) [35] Festschrift 75 Jal1l'e Hoisten-Brauerei: Hamburg 1954
[36] KOHNKE, H.-V.: Brwlt 23 (1991), S.975
[37] HODENBERG, G W: Brwlt 15 (1991), S.565-568
[38] DONHAUSER, S., GLAS, K., MULLER, 0.: Brwlt 15 (1991), S.548-556
[39] WACKERBAUER, K.: ref. Brwlt 32 (1987), S.1419-1421
1040 1041

[40] HUG, H.: Brauerei- w1d Getrankerundschau 7/8 (1992), S.123 [81] Seitz-Enzinger-Noll: Hauszeitschr. Laugenbehandlung, S.24
[41] LETTER, R: EBC-Proceedings Congr. 1977, S.211-224 [82] MAYER, E. S.: Brind 4 (1993), S.278-281
[42] NARZISS, L., WOLFINGER, H., STICH, S., LAIBLE, R: Brwlt 51/52 (1992), [83] SCHUMANN, G.: Brwlt 29 (1993), S.1272-1277
[43] PLETT, E.: Brind 6 (1991), S.531-533 [84] FLAD, W: Brwlt 25 (1993), S.1100-1104
[44] UJDERS, J.: Brwlt 3 (1994), S.57-62 [85] MULLER-BLANKE, N.: Getr.technik Feb. 93,1.13-17
[45] N.N.: ref. Brwlt 7/8 (1993), S.302-306 [86] SCHILDBACH, R: 2.Dresdner Brauertag, ref. Brwlt 25 (1993), S. 40
[46] UNTERSTEIN, K: Brwlt 27 (1992), S.1280-1285 [87] KUMPEL, G.: Brind 6 (1993), S.486-492
[47] RIESS, S.: 80.VLB-Taglmg Siegen 1993 [88] RUSS, W, MEYER-PITTROFF, R, FEIX, R, KIRNBAUER, P.: Brwlt 30 (1993), S.1328-
[48] ESSLINGER, H.-M.: Brwlt 23 (1991), S.971-973 u.a . 1334
[49] KRIBBE, J.: Brwlt 12 (1993), S.524-526 [89] MAYER, A. F.: Brwlt 14 (1992), S.616-622 u. Brwlt 46 (1992), S.2427-2432 sowie Brwlt-
[50] MANGER, H.-J.: LelU'briefreihe Masch. lmd Apparate der Ferm. Brevier 1996, S.371-394
[51] SCHOFFEL, FR: Brwlt 110 (1970), S.1479-1501 [90] LUDWIG, H.-H.: Brforum 30 (1991), S.251-254
[52] ANNEMULLER, G., MANGER, H.-J., MUKE, 0.: Handbuch der Brauerei, S.435 (nicht [91] HILGE: Brauerei-Pumpen-Taschenbuch 11/90, S.27-31
veroffentlich t) [92] BACK, W: Brind 73 (1988), S.118-1195
[53] SCHUR, F.: ref. Brwlt 30 (1983), S.1281 [93] ANGER, H.-H. : Brforum 23 (1993), S.193-196
[54] DONHAUSER, S., WAGNER, D.: Brwlt 27 (1992), S.1286-1300 [94] BACK, W: Brwlt 122 (1982), S.2090-2102
[55] NARZISS, L. : ref. Brwlt 9 (1993), S.375-376 [95] Hopfenmarktbericht: Brwlt 37 (1993), S.1733
[56] GIRR, M., BARTELS, H.: Brwlt 7 (1990), S.220-227 [96] SCHOTT-Engineering: Sonderdruck 600 33 d
[57] LAACKMANN, H.-P.: Brwlt 14/15 (1993), S.620-623 [97] MANDL, B., GEIGER, E., PIENDL, A: Brwi 27 (1974), S.57-66
[58] FINIS, P, GALASKE, H.: Brwlt 128 (1988), S.666-669 [98] RATH, F.: 22.Intern. Braugerstenseminar der VLB, 13.0ktober 1993
[59] CHAPON, L.: Brwlt 108 (1968), S.1769-1775 [99] BACK, W, BOHAK, I., ACKERMANN: Brwlt 39 (1993), S.1960-1963
[60] ESSLINGER, H.-M.: Brwlt 5 (1993), S.208 [100] BEHMEL, U, MEYER-PITTROFF, R: Brwlt 42 (1993), S.2126-2136
[61] LITZENBURGER, K: Brwlt 16 (1993), S.659-668 [101] SCHILDBACH, R: 3.Dresdner Brauertag, 22.April 1994
[62] ANNEMULLER, G., MANGER, H.-J.: 2.Dresdner Brauertag 23.Apri11993 [102] BetriebsinfOl'mahon Schmalbach-Lubeca
[63] GEIGER, E.: Brwlt 16 (1993), S.646-649 [103] KLEMM, W, GROSSHANS, D.: Ki Klima-Kalte-Heizlmg 3/92, S.78-83
[64] KRIBBE, J.: Brforum 12 (1993), S.95-97 [104] WEINFURTNER, F., WULLINGER, F., PIENDLA, A: Brwi 19 (1966), S.390-395
[65] WACKERBAUER, K: Brforw113 (1988), S.264 [105] WEITH, L. : Brwi 13 (1960), S.214-218 u. S.262-267 u. S.288-294
[66] Deutscher Brauer-Bund e.v.: 20.Stat. Bericht 1992, S.55 [106] MIEDANER, H .: ref. Brwlt 44/45 (1993), S.2264
[67] WIEST, A: Brwlt 20 (1993), S.880-881 [107] SCHMIDT, H.-J.: Brwlt 44/45 (1993), S.2254-2260 u. 2269-2277
[68] HACKSTAFF, B.W: MBAA Techn.Quart 15, 1-7, 1978 [108] BACK, W, BREU, S., WEIGAND, c.: Brwlt 31/32 (1988), S.1358-1362
[69] WACKERBAUER, K., KAAMPER, P, TOUSSAINT, H.-J.: MfB 33 (1980), S.91-99 [109] KIEFER, J.: Brind 11 (1993), S.1150-1158
[70] ESSLINGER, H.-M.: Brwlt 9 (1993), S.379 u. 13 (1993), S.577 ft. [110] FORDEMANN, K.: Brwlt 39 (1993), S.1964-1968
[71] GUTKNECHT, J.; Brind 4 (1993), S.272-276 [111] MANDL, B., GEIGER, E., PIENDLA, A: Brwi 27 (1974), S.57-66
[72] Patentschrift: ref. ESSLINGER, H.-M., Brwlt 22/23 (1993), S.999 [112] NARZISS, L., MIEDANER, H., KERN, E., LEIBHARDT, M.: Brwlt 19/20 (1991), S.784-
[73] NARZISS, L.: Teclmologie del' Wlirzebereitung, 7.Aufl., S.l96 805
[74] PIENDL, A: Brind 10 (1991), S.959-970 [113] SAIER, H.-D.: Brwlt 51/52 (1993), S.2578-2581
[75] ESSLINGER, H .-M.: Brwlt 18 (1993), S.789-791 [114] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 26 (1993), S.1136-1143
[76] WOLF SEDER, A: Brwlt 27/28 (1989), S.1180-1181 [115] DUCHEK, P: Brwlt 24 (1993), S.1053-1059
[77] KOCH, P.: 2.Dresdner Brauertag, ref. Brwlt 25 (1993), S.1118 [116] DUCHEK, P: 81. VLB-Tagung, Miinster, 15.3.94
[78] MOSSIN, B.: Brwlt 12 (1993), S.528-529 [117] WACKERBAUER, K., EVERS, H. : 81. VLB-Tagung, Miinster, 15.3.94
[79] Deutscher Brauer-Bund e.v.: Die deutsche Brauwirtschaft 1992 [118] MEYER-PITTROFF, R: 39. Brauwirt.-Taglmg, Weihenstephan, 28.4.94
[80] SCHUMANN, G.: Brwlt 11 (1988), S.408-412 [119] SCHU, G.F.: Brwlt 19 (1994), S.881-890
1042 1043

[120] ZIMMERMANN, H: 23.Intern. Braugerstenseminar del' VLB, 12.10.94 [161] RATH, F.: Weissheimer Malz; Nelles aus del' Forschung 1
[121] SACHER, B.: ref. Brwlt 22/23 (1995), S.1111-1114 [162] RATH, F., MANKE, w., u . SARX, H . G: WeilSheimer Malz; Nelles aus del' Forschtmg 2
[122] KRUGER, E.: 81 .0ktobertagung del' VLB, 12.10.94 [163] STUKE, H: Brind 8 (1996), S.602-607
[123] EISELT, G: Dissertation TU Berlin 1995 [164] FORSTER, A. : Brind 9 (1995), S.725-730
[124] LINEMANN, A.: Dissertation TU Berlin 1995 [165] Biebelrieder Kreis; Reinigtlilg von Mehrweg-Glasflaschen, VLB 1997
[125] SCHILDBACH, R.: Brwlt 45 (1994), S.2436-2456 [166] ROTHKIRCH, H: 83.Brau- und Masch .teclmische Tagung del' VLB 1997, Braunschweig
[126] DEWAR, J.: lOB Afrikan. Convention, ref. Brwlt 28/29 (1995), S.1396 [167] KOLBACH, P.: Mon.f.Br. 6 (1953), S.49
[127] MIEDANER, H.: 40.Brauwissenschaftl. Taglmg Weihenstephan, 28.4.95 [168] WACKERBAUER, K, u. HARDT, R.: Brwlt 40/41 (1996), S.1880-1889
[128] MOBIUS, J.: 82.FriihjalU'Stagtmg del' VLB Dresden, 14.3.95 [169] KLUTHE, R., u. KASPER, H: Alkoholische Getranke und Ernahrungsmedizin; Georg[
[129] TAYLOR, J.: lOB Afrikan. Convention, ref. Brwlt 28/29 (1995), S.1396 Thieme Verlag Stuttgart + New York, 1998
[130] BACK, W. : 40.Brauwirtschaftl. Tagung Weihenstephan, 28.4.95 [170] PIENDL, A ., LANGFELD, F., u. SCHWINGSHANDL, L., Brwlt 21/22 (1997), S.828-840
[131] SEIDL, P.: Brwlt 16/17 (1992), S.688-700 [171] DENK, V: Brwlt 33/34 (1997), S.1311-1321
[132] MEYER-PIETROFF, R.: Brwlt 33 (1995), S.1618-1627 [172] HERRMANN, H.: Brind 1 (1995), S.24-27
[133] VDI: Meehan . Briidenkompression, 1990 [173] STIPPLER, K, WASMUTH, K, u. GATTERMEYER, P.: Brwlt 31/32 (1997), S.1265-1267
[134] MEBAK: Brauteclm. Untersuchtmgsmethoden Bd.l, S.18-19 lind Brwlt 35/36 (1997), S.1386-1397
[135] HOFMANN, H: Brwlt 44/45 (1993), S.2275-2277 [174] DELGADO, A., NIRSCHL, H., u. DENK, V: Brwlt 7/8 (1997), S.232-235
[136] BACK, w.: Brwlt 39 (1994), S.1936-1942 [175] WACKERBAUER, K , TAYAMA, T., u. KUNERTH, S.: MfBrwi 7/8 (1997), S.132-137
[137] BACK, w.: Brwlt 42 (1995), S.2068-2076 [176] WACKERBAUER, K, TAYAMA, T., FITZN ER, M ., u. KUNERTH, S.: Brwlt 3 (1997),
[138] BACK, w.: Brwlt 16 (1994), S.686-695 S.80-86
[139] ESSLINGER, H-M.: Brwlt 24/25 (1994), S.1147-1152 [177] MONCH, D., KRUGER, E., u . STAHL, u.: MfBrwi 9/10 (1995), S.288-296
[140] Del' BARTH Bericht Hopfen 1994/95; 1995/96; 1996/97; 1997/98 [178] SCHUCH, c.: Brwlt 44 (1996), S.2022-2027
[141] PENSCHKE, A., RUSS, w.: Brwlt 22/23 (1995), S.1108-1109 [179] YANAGI, K, ISHIBASHI, Y, KONDO, H ., OKA, K, u . UCHIDA, M.: Brwlt 21/22 (1997),
[142] KREMKOW, K : MfB 24 (1971), S.25-32 S.841-859
[143] NARZISS, L. : Brwlt 45 (1995), S.2286-2301 [180] MANGER, H-J., u . AN NEMULLER, G: Brwlt 45 (1996), S.2160-2170
[144] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 49 (1995), S.2576-2606 [181] NARZISS, L.: Brwlt 9 (1996), S.409-411
[145] NARZISS, L.: Intern . Beer marketers symposium Denver, Okt. 1995 [182] WACKERBAUER, K, EVERS, H, u. KUNERTH, S.: Brwlt 37 (1996), S.1736-1743
[146] KALINOWSKI, R.: Brforum 20 (1995), S.315-317 [183] FORSTER, c.: Arbeitstagg. Bund del' osten. Brmstr. Maria Tafer!, 11.09.97
[147] RATH, F., MANKE, w., SARX, HG: Neues aus del' Forschwlg, Weissheimer Heft 2 [184] EVERS, H .: Bdorum 19 (1997), S.297-298
[148] WACKERBAUER, K: 83.Arbeitstagung del' VLB Marmheim, 18.-21.3.96 [185] SCHAPER, M.: Bdorum 18 (1997), S.278-280
[149] LINEMANN, A., KRUGER, E.: Brwlt 27 (1996), S.1266-1272, und 37 (1996), S.1748-1752 [186] FORSTER, c., NARZISS, L., u . BACK, w.: EBC-Proceedings 1997 (67), S.561-568
[150] The Emerging Markets Brewery Fund Company-Book 1998, ref. Brwlt 28/29 (1998), [187] WACKERBAUER, K, u. ZUFALL, c.: EBC-Proceedings 1997 (76), S.639-648
S.1278 [188] GUNKEL, J.: FI fiir Rohstoffe der VLB, ref. in Brforum 1 (1998), S.4-6
[151] BACK, w., FORSTER, c., KROTTENTHALER, M., u.a.: Brwlt 38 (1997), S.1677-1692 [189] HERTLEIN, J., BORNAROWA, K, u. WEISSER, H: Brwlt 21/22 (1997), S.860-866
[152] MANGER, H-J.: Brwlt 18 (1997), S.696-701 [190] FOHR, M., u. MEYER-PITTROFF, Brwlt 12 (1998), S.460-464
[153] HAFFMANS, B.: Brwlt 27 (1997), S.1084-1088 [191] MULLER, c., u. SCHILDBACH, R.: Brwlt 6 (1998), S.220-221
[154] WACKERBAUER, K, u. HARDT, R.: Brwlt 40/41 (1996), S.1880-1889 [192] ZIMMERMAN N, H .: Brwlt. 6 (1998), S.190-194, 207-209
[155] FORSTER, A.: Brwlt 31/32 (1996), S.1474-1475 [193] BACK, w., KROTTENTHALER, M., u. VETTERLEIN, K Brind. 2 (1998), S.81-86
[156] MAIER, J. u . NARZISS,L.: Brwlt 6 (1997), S.188-192 [194] GROMUS, J,: Friihjahrstagung del' VLB, 9.-11 .3.98; ref. Brwlt 13 (1998), S.529
[157] MOBIUS, J.: Brind 1 (1997), S.26-27 [195] European Brewery Convention; Marlual of good practice; Hops and hop products, S.55
[158] BACK, W.: 42. Brauwirtsch. Tagung Weihenstephan, 22.4.97 [196] SCHWILL-MIEDANER, A., EINSIEDLER, F., u. SOMMER, K : Brwlt 12 (1998), S.466 - 471
[159] EUMANN, M.: Brwlt 6 (1997), S.197-200 [197] WASMUTH, K , u . GATTERMEYER, P., Brwlt 12 (1998), S.472-477
[160] KEIL, H: Brind. 4 (1997), S.216-218 [198] EVERS, H .: Friihjahrstagung del' VLB, 9.-11 .3.98 Monchengladbach
1044 1045

[199] ElLS, H .-G., u. HERBERG, W-D.: Brwlt 14 (1998), S.601-607 [235] SCHU,G.F., STOLZ,F., JORDAN,U., KANSY,R. Brwlt. 4 (2001) S. 116 - 17
[200] ANGER, H-M.: Jahrbuch del' VLB 1996 S.247-272 [236] AHRENS,A Oktobertagung der VLB 2002, ref. Brforum
[201] BACK, W, DIENER, C, u . SACHER, B.: Brwlt 28/29 (1998), S.1279-1284 [237] FAO Production Yearbook; Vo!.53; 1999 S.67-68
[202] WACKERBAUER, K., u . ZUFALL, C: Dresdner Brauertag, 17.4.1998, ref. Br.forum 5 [238] LUTJE,H 31. Internat. Braugerstenseminar 2002
(1998), S.133-134 [239] Deutscher Brauer-Bund e.Y. 23. Statistischer Bericht Mai 2001
[203] KOCH, P: Dresdner Brauertag, 17.4.98, ref. Brforum 5 (1998), S.134 [240] Brforum H. 11 (2002) S. 309 - 311
[204] LEHMANN, J., u. BACK, W: Brind 4 (1997), S.225-227 [241] EVERS,H. Oktobertaglmg del' VLB 2002, ref. Brforum
[205] WACKERBAUER, K., u. BECKMANN, M.: Dresdner Brauertag, 17.4.1998, ref. Brforum 5 [242] ANGER,H.-M. Analysen 2000, Jalu'buch VLB Berlin 2000 S.233 - 261
(1998), S.133 [243] KRAUS-WEYERMANN, Th. Brwlt 5 (1996) S.213 - 216
[206] BACK,W : 43.Brauwirtschaft!. Taglmg Weihenstephan, 27.4.98 [244] Produktspezifikationen del' Fa. Aspera Brauerei, Riese GmbH
[207] PIENDL, A: Brwlt 20/21 (1998), S.922-929 [245] FORSTER,C Brwlt 21/22 (1999) S.995 - 997
[208] FORSTER, C: 31. Teclmologisches Seminar Wei hen stephan; 4/1-2 [246] KROTTENTHALER,M. 35. Teclmologisches Seminar Weihenstephan 7/4
[209] KELCH, K.: Brwlt 24/25 (1998), S.1050-1051 [247] ANGER, H.-M. Analysen 2001, Jahrbuch VLB Berlin 2001 S. 234 -261
[210] DE MAN, TH. A 43 .Brauwirtschaftliche Tagung Weihenstephan, 28.4.98 [248] BAMFORTH, M . et al; Journal of the Institute of Brewing, H.4 S.235 - 239
[211] MANGER, H.-J.: Brforum 22, 24 (1996) lmd 2, 4 u. 6 (1997) [249] SARX, HG. Brforum 1 (2003) S. 4 - 6
[212] VOGESER, G., u. GEIGER, E.: Brwlt 24/25 (1998), S.1060-1063 [250] ZURCHER,A, WUNDERLICH,S., BACK,W 36. Teclmolog. Seminar Weihenstephan
[213] Deutscher Brauer-Blmd e.Y.: 22.Statistischer Bericht 1997 [251] BACK,W. 36. Teclmologisches Seminar Weihenstephan 1/2
[214] BACK,W.: 35. Technologisches Seminar Weihenstephan; 1/3 [252] KREISZ,S. 35. Teclmologisches Seminar Weihenstephan 5/5
[215] SCHILDBACH, R. : 31. Internationales Braugerstenseminar 2002, Berlin 8.10.02 [253] WACKERBAUER,K., MEYNA, St., PAHL,R. Brwlt 48 (2002) S.1826 - 1833
[216] LINNEMANN,A: Dissertation 1995 TU Berlin [254] MEZGER,R., KROTTENTHALER,M., BACK,W Brwlt 4/5 (2003) S. 93 - 99
[217] Hopfen - Der Barth Bericht 2001/2002 [255] KROTTENTHALER,M. 36. Teclmologisches Seminar Weihenstephan (2)
[218] AHRENS, A Die Trinkwasserverordrlwlg ab 1.1.2003, VLB 2002 [256] ZURCHER, A 36. Teclmologisches Seminar Weihenstephan (10)
[219] SCHWILL-MIEDANER, A u. MIEDANER,H Brwlt.18 (2001), S. 670 - 673 [257] ANGER, H.-M. Analysen 2002, Jahrbuch VLB Berlin 2002 S. 294 - 356
[220] EVERS, H. Brwlt. 5 (2001) S. 148 - 155 [258] ANNEMULLER,G., Lehrbriefreihe Bier, Heft 3 S.99; Staat!. Getrankekontor 1979
[221] HAHN,AF.; BANKE,F.; FLOSSMANN, R.; KAIN.J.; KONIGER.J; Brwlt 24 (2001) [259] WAGNER, P 90. Brau- und maschinenteclm. Arbeitstagung del' VLB, 10.-12.03.03
S.892 - 897 [260] COLESAN,F. und PETERSON,S., Brwlt 8/1999 S. 300 - 302
[222] HACKENSELLNER, Th.; Brwlt 46/47 (1998) S. 2282 - 2288 [261] STAHL, u., TWA der VLB Garung, Lagerung, Abfi.illlmg, 10.03.03
[223] SCHWILL-MIEDANER,A.; Brwlt 17 (2002) S.603 - 606 [262] HERBSTER,Th., BAARS,A und DELGADO,A 36. Teclmologisches Seminar
[224] MANGER, H; Brforum 1 (2002) S. 12 - 14 u . Brforum 2 (2002) S.43 - 45 Weihenstephan (6)
[225] KOLLER,A; Brwlt 17 (2002) S. 607 - 609 [263] LEHMANN, J., 10. Dresdner Brauertag; 9.05.03; ref. Brforum Nr.6 (2003) S.169-170
[226] WEINZIERL,M., STIPPLER,K., WASMUHT, K., MIEDANER,H., ENGLMANN,J. Brwlt 5 [264] HAUSER,G., EBC-Kongress 2003, L45
(1999) S. 185 - 189 [265] ZURCHER, ChI., 10. Dresdner Brauertag; 9.05.03
[227] WEINZIERL,M., STIPPLER,K., FELGENTRAGER,J., MIEDANER,H., ENGLMANN,J., [266] KROTTENTHALER, M ., LEHMANN, J., MIETH, R., Brwlt 30 (2003) S. 953- 960
Brwlt 13/14 (1999) S. 600 - 606 [267] WASMUTH,K., STIPPLER, K., GATTERMEYER,P., Brwlt 30 (2003) S. 948 - 952
[228] STIPPLER,K., FELGENTRAGER,J. Brwlt 35 (1999) S. 1556 - 1558 [268] KAIN,J.,HAHN,F., KRIEGER,J. Brwlt 36/37 (2003) S. 1133 - 1145
[229] JAKOB,E., KRIEGER,R., WAHL,R. Brwlt 5 (2001) S. 166 - 170 [269] FELGENTRAGER,W Hrch. Huppmann, Sonderdruck Sept. 1993
[230] KROTTENTHALER,M., HARTMANN,K., BACK,W Brwlt 39 (2001) S.1690 -1693 [270] SCHU, G.F.,: Brwlt 19 (1994) S. 881-890
[231] COORS,G., KROTTENTHALER,M., BACK,W Brwlt 42/43 (2000) S. 1696 - 1699 [271] AHRENS.A, 89. Brau- wld maschinenteclm. Arbeitstagung der VLB, 11.-13.03.02
[232] BACK,W, FORSTER,C, KROTTENTHALER,M., LEHMANN,J., SACHER,B., THUM, [272] METHNER,F., 90. Oktobertagung del' VLB, 6.-8.10.03
B. Brwlt 38 (1997) S. 1677 - 1692 [273] GAUB,R., 90 Brau- lmd maschinentechn. Arbeitstagung del' VLB, 10.-12.03.03
[233] KANTELBERG,B., HACKENSELLNER,Th. Brwlt 34/35 (2001) S. 1290 - 1303 [274] BROENS,L., 90. Oktobertagwlg der VLB, 6.-8.10.03
[234] SCHU,G.F., STOLZ,F., JORDAN,U. Brwlt. 26 (1999) S. 1183-83 [275] ANGER,H.-M., Jahrbuch del' VLB 2002, S.294 - 324
1046 1047

Index of technical terms

[276] BRANDL,A., TENGE,E. u . GEIGER,E., Brwlt 39 (2003) S.1690 - 1692 For easy reference, in the case of compounds which begin with a number, this number has been
[277] VOGELPOHL,H., Getranke H.4 (2002) S.30 - 33 omitted in the index . Example: instead of 4-vinyl-guajakol, refer to vinyl-guajakol.
[278] HUMELE,H., Krones Magazin 4/2003 S. 70 - 71
[279] FISCHER,S., Krones Magazin 4/2003 S.66 -69
[280] RUST,U. u. MONZEL,A., Brforum 12 (2003) S. 329 - 332 a-acid 64,282,324 - driers 970 aroma 824
[281] WACKERBAUER,K., EVERS,H. u. SOLTAU,I<., Brwlt 51/52 (2003) S. 1756 - 1761 54 - filters 973 - hops 61
[282] SCHMIDT,G. Brwlt 3 (2004) S. 63 - 66 a-aluminium oxide 520 - pollution 988 aromatic detection 724, 725
[283] BAARS,A., HERBSTER,T., SCHMIDT,T., DELGADO,A. 37. Teclmologisches a-amino acid 257 air-free grist and aspirator 106
Seminar, Weihenstephan 20. - 22.01.04 (26) a-amylase 156, 183, 248 mash preparation 276 assimila tion proced me 451
[284] KROTTENTHALER,M., REITER, T., BACK,W. 37 Technologisches Seminar, 157, 183, 248 alakine hot caustic attaching a heat pump 934
Weihenstephan 20. - 22.01 .04 (25) 66 cleaning 811 attenuation limit 434
[285] BACK,W. 37. Technologisches Seminar, Weihenstephan 20.-22.01.04 (29/1) 46, 252, 278, 821 alcohol removing 585 Aureo-basidium 152
[286] BACK,W., POSCHL,P., Brwlt 46/47 (1998) S. 2312 - 2315 - content 161 alcohol-free beer 848 automatic controls 981
[287] EVERS,H. 89. Oktobertagtmg VLB - gel 279 alcoholic automation 977
[288] TENGE,C., GEIGER,E., WALLERIUS,D. Brwlt 12 (2004) S. 336-338 -layer 43 fermentation 418, 419 available heat price 919
[289] BLUML,S., FISCHER,S. Handbuch der Fiilltechnik, Krones 2004, S. 264 - solubilase 156, 157, 158, 253 aldehydes 432 axial fans 965
[290] BARTELS,H., 11. Dresdner Brauertag, 30.04.04 433 Ale 842
[291] BACK,W. Handbuch der Fiillteclmik, Krones 2004, S.218 y-rays 677,750 aleuron layer 48 B
[293] Der Barth Bericht; Hopfen 2003/2004 S. 24 alginates 832 Bacterium escherichia coli 84
[294] MANGER, H.-I., Brforum H. 7,9 u. 10 (2003) S. 193-195; S. 246-249; S. 275-279 A alkaline cleaning agents 805 ball cock 1005,1013
ability to form spores 833 Altbier 841 Balling 466
Die Abkiirzlmgen bei den Literaturstellen bedeuten: absorption cooling aluminium rolled-on - formula 865
Brwlt. BRAUWELT, Zeitschrift fiir das gesamte Brauwesen und die Getrankewirtsch. machines 942 closure 716 band lubricant 769
Verlag Hans Carl GmbH & Co. KG Niirnberg; ISSN 0724-696X acetaldehyde 432 aluminium vessels 801 barley 39, 107
Brforum BRAUEREI FORUM, Fachzeitschrift fiir Brauereien und Malzereien, acetoin 340 amino acids 48, 423 - cell walls 43
Getrankeindustrie und deren Partner, Informationsservice der VLB Berlin acid malt 204 ammonia 929 - cleaning and grading 116
Herausgeber Versuchs- lmd Lehranstalt fur Brauerei in Berlin (VLB) acidic one-phase - detection 724,724 - cooling 139
ISSN 0179-2466 cleaning 812 - in water 89 - cultivation 41
Brind BRAUINDUSTRIE, Magazin fiir Management, Braupraxis, Markttrends, acrospire 154 amyl alcohol 820 - drying 138
Technologie, Teclmik, Verpacktmg, Logistik, Marketing addition of yeast 460 amylopektin 37,38 - storage 138
Herausgeber u . Verleger W. Sachon, Mindelheim adenosine diphosphate amylose 45,46 - endosperm 43
MfBrwi MONATSSCHRIFT FUR BRAUWISSENSCHAFT; das wissenschaftliche Organ der (ADP) 97,418421 anaerobic waste water - enzymes 55
Fakultat fiir Brauwesen, Lebensmitteltechnologie wld Milchwissenschaft, adenosine triphosphate treatment 906 - evaluation 55
Weihenstephan, (ATP) 97,418,420 analysis machines 867 - germ region 43
Versuchs- lmd Lehranstalt fur Brauerei in Berlin (VLB), adjuncts 105 animal pests 142 - germination 154
Wissenschaftlichen Station flir Brauerei in Miinchen adsorption drier 972 anionic surfactants 631 - germinative capacity 59
aeration of the yeast crop 509 anthocyanidins 80,261 - germinative energy 59
aerobic waste water treat- anthocyanogens 325,821 - grading 57,114
ment 906 anti-foam agent 631 - hardness 58
aflatoxin 143 antioxidantien 568 - hectolitre mass 58
after-sales care 977 apparent percentage - intake 114
ageing carbonyls 573 attenuation 465 - kernel 44
air circulation cooling 944 arena arrangement 791 - pre-cleaning 115,116
1048 1049

- respiration 137 biochemical oxygen bru mal t 203 cavitation 958 cold break 399,408 - of the kilned malt 193
- steeping 143 demand 904 bucket conveyor 126 CCD matrix camera 636 - iJlsulations 1015,1017 - plilll ts 930
- storage 141 biological acidification 261 buffer stretches and CCV, - sterile filling 559 - requirements 490
- thousand corn mass 57, 58 - acidification plant 264 isolators 771 cooling possibilities 491, 582 colloidal hazes 561 coolship 387
- varieties 40 bio-reactor 494 buffer tanks 539,570,1015 -, direct cooling 491 - stabilisation of beer 562 corn shapening method 161
- water sensitivity 59 biotin 97 butanediol 430 -, heat transfer 491 - stability of beer 439, 555 couleur 110
- water uptake 59 bitter ale 842 butterfly valve 484 -, indirect cooling 491 colouring sugar 110 cucumber-like aroma 144
barriere technology 695 bitter substances 64, 439 bu tyric acid 436, 827 cellar beers 852 comb arrangement 791 Crabtree effect 416, 420, 444
basic mimic diagram 990,994 bittering hops 69,370 bypass membrane cellulose 44 combi fitting 757 crate magazine 766
Bavarian purity law 23 black beer 846 filtration 862 centrifugal evaporator 592 combuled heat and power crates washing 788
beer analysis 863 blending the beer 468 - force 388 plants 927 crossflow batch process 547
- and health 735 blending Lmit 476 C - mixers 405 compressed air - continual process 547
- aroma 824 block and bleed 1003 calcium 88,427,821 - pumps 893 conveyors 131 - filtration 545, 550
- bi tterness 828 block brew house kettle 333 calculation of beer centrifuges 394 - air plants 965 crossflow-membrillle
- by top fermentation 833 Bockbier 847 produced 794 chemical oxygen demand compression cooling filtration 547
- cans 914 body 860 - of ma It usage 796 (COD) 904 plilllt 931 crosspure process 552
- clarification 471 boiler plants 915,918 - of the volume loss 796 - warehouse 1026 - refrigeration plants 935 crown cork 665
- colour 845,868 boilers 921 can closing 746 chill hazes 561 compressors, cyclical packers 776
- filtration 518 boiling the wort 368 - dating 752 chlorine dioxide 93 compressed air 937 cyclones 134
- flavour 573,824 boiling fermentation 463 - filler cleaning 748 chlorine-free brine 930 -, refrigeration plants 935 cyluldroconical vessels
- foam 824 bottle aftercoating 612 - filling 731 chokolate malt 206 condensers (liquefiers) 939 (CCV) 478
- losses 793 - and can transport 768 - inspection 731 clu-ome-nickel steel cask 753 conditioned dry milling 235
- mix drinks 852 - cell carrier 622 - inspection of filling 725 clu'ome-nickel steel conditioning the D
- recovery 512 - cleaning 629,634 - overall labelling 726 vessels 802 ventilation air 167 dark malt 148, 179, 190
- stabilisa tion 554 - colour 611 - pasteurisation 726 CIP cleaning equipment 488 conductivity dater degassing 94
- stabilisation by PVPP 563 - filling 641 - rinser 731 - stations 1026 measurement 722,816,880 dating the labels 691
- tasting 857 - filling machine 644 candida yeast 860 - system 807 congress mash 197 deadend filtra tion 544
- transfer 474 - inspection 636 candle filter 520 circular boxes 171 container transport 764, 773 deawner 120
- types 833 - rinser 692 cans and can closures 725 circula ting air conti-prop 449 decoction processes 281, 295
beer, alcohol contents 863 bottom control 640 capacitive sensors 876 wumowers 118 contraction or correction deep cooling of the beer 477
-, average content 822 - fermentation beer types 833 caramel malt 202 clamp cOlmection 979 factor 379 degassing of water 94
-, dimethyl sulphide 163, - fermenting yeasts 103 carbon dioxide, danger 595 clean steam injector 269 control uldicator 488 degree of attenuation 464
382,826 box maltings 169 - dioxide, measurement 872 cleaning agents 805 - of cleaned glass bottles 635 - of proteul
-, extract con tent 821 break 912 carbonate hardness 88 - and disinfection 801 - of closure thread 639 modification 161,575
-, palatefulness 824 Brettanomyces 843,861 carbonisation of beer 579 - caustic 621 - of germination 178 - of steeping 146, 163, 180
-, qualitiy examination 857 brewhouse capacity 383 carbonyl compounds 432 - of bottles 613 - of ulspector 641 density meters 875
-, sulphur compoLU1ds 827, - emissions 915 Carl von Linde 24 - of plastic bottles 721 - of mouth sealing depth filtration 518
836 - equipment 381 carlsberg flask 446 - procedure 814 surface 639 desoxinivalenol (DON) 143
-, tingle 828 - vessel size 382 cartons 763 - the filler 672 - valves, refrigeration dextrin based adhesives 687
beer-membrane filtration 548 - yield 373 cartridge (candle) filters 541 - the slat-band chains 772 plilllt 941 diacetyl 429, 518
belt conveyors 129 - yield, determination 380 casein adhesives 686 closulg the bottles 665 cool keg 763 diacetyl content,
bend oscillator 865 brewing water cast wort 360 CO 2 recovery 515 cooling agents 929 measurement 870
Berg curve 791 requirements 85 casting the wort 386 coagulable nitrogen 373 - jackets 456 dialysis processes 588
Berliner WeiBe 840 broken glass 912 caustic solution 630 coarse break 386 - of liquids 946 diastase malt 205
Bernreuther apparatus 145 brown ale 842 cationic surfactants 631 coated screen disc filter 536 - of the CCV 490 dietetic beer 849
1050

digestion process
dimeth yl sulfide (DMS) 181,
287

202,267,325
electropolishing
eleva tor
Embden-Meyerhof-
478
115
ex tractable ex tract 321
ex traction of spri ng water 82
- of surface wa ter 82
I
I filterability
filters
837
478, 520
filtrate beer warehouse 573
fromboi se
fuels
furfural
844
918
329
Hansen ula
haze meters
- stability, measurem ent 873
1051

861
875

- sulfoxide (DMSO) 181, 435 Parnas 419 filtration plant 571 Fusarium culmorum 142 head fo lding with fo il s 691
dimple jacke ts 492 Emil Christian Hansen 24 F fUlalmash temperature 277 Fusa rium graminearum 142 headspace 480
direct dischargers 903 emission s 915, 988 falling stream evapo rator 590 fire-hlb e exhaus t gas-tube fusel oils 432 hea t exchange 402,404,407
disc valve 484 emme r 208 FAN 49, 293, 445, 458 boilers 922 fuz zy logic control 497 - insulations 989, 1011
discharge glideliners 772 empty bottle insp ection 636 fans 940 first wor t 296 - of evaporation 914
disc separa tors 396 end fermentation limit 250 fat metabolism 425 fittulg designs 1022 G - price 919
disinfection agents 806 endo-b-glu canase 156, 158, fats 50 fittings for pipes 1021 Galland drum 168 - trea tment processes 589
distillati on ana lysis 865 165,252 fat ty acids 50, 98 five roller mills 231 gas analysis 725 hea ting by means of a
distribu tion of cooling 948 endosperm 38 feasibility study 985 fixed pipUlg 1019 gas distributors 772 direct s team injection 269
distribution panel 483 endo-xylanase 156 fermentation by-products 415 flash evapora tion gea r pumps 954 hefeweizen 837
DMS 163,181,325 energy loss through - cellar 445 "varioboil" 361 gelatuusa tion 247 hemicellulose 46, 911
- precursor (DMS-P) 163, 181, hea t irradiation 490 - cellar yield 459 flash pasteurisa tion 556 gentle boiling procedure 352 hexan al 258, 329, 353, 373
182, 200, 267, 329, 341 - management 917 - heat 490 flat body or flat top fittiIlg 757 Geotrichum 153 lugh gravity brewing 426,581
Doppelbock 840 - recovery 925 - in the bottle 839 flat bottomed germination killung unit 175 - krausen 445
double end washing - storage tank 350 - stages 454 s teeping vessel 148 - regulators 164 - pressure jetting 665
m achines 617 - usage during - tanks 456 flavour stability 573 geuze 844 - speed steam producers 923
double sea t valve 485, 1003, wort boiling 365 - wi th uml10bilized yeasts 594 flavou r w heel 858 gibberellic acid 155 - tempera tu re
1005 Enterobacteriacea 860 - with special yeasts 594 flex auger 129 glass bottl es inspection 636 wort boiling 345
drink residue an alysis 724 enviromnentallegislation 901 fermentation, flexible vane pumps 961 glass heat exchanger 185 high -alpha-hops 61
drinking wa ter en zyme for mation 155 fa t metabolism 425 flocculation beha viours 89 glidelulers 771 lugher alcohols 423,429,
requirements 84 - preparations in -, lIT value 438 - of the yeast 442 glucose 250, 420 432,582
drum magnet 119 mashing 293 -, pH value 438 floor m altulgs 154 glucose sy rup 110 hobby brewer 889,896
- maltings 167 - structure 53 -, phosphor 427 flotation 399, 407 glycerule 820 home brewer 889, 893
dry beers 851 enzy mes 48 -, potassium 427, 438 flow meters 875 glycogen 100, 416, 423 honey beer 855
- destoners 120 - destruction 327 -, protein metabolism 423 foam cleaning 812 glycol 491, 895, 930 hop 61
- milling 224,229 epithelium 38 -, redox properties 438 - collapse 829 grading cy lulder 123 - a.-acids 61,324
dust filters 134 escherichia coli 84 -, rH value 438 - formation 859 - the throughput 791 - addition 368
- removal 224 esters 429 -, sulphu r 435 - stability, measurement 831 grain cleaner (trieur) 121 - bitter subs tances 56, 65,
Duvel 844 ethyl acetate 433 -, sulphur compounds 434 folic acid 97 - moth 142 324, 339, 369
dynamic low pressure ethyl butyrate 436 -, zinc 441 fore and post rlms 477,527 - weevil 142 - cone structure 63
boiling 343 ethyl lacta te 436 festival beer 847 fore-run 476 green beer aroma 429 - eva lu ation 68
evaporation of water 326 fillulg level meters 875 formation of reductones 328 - hubid transfer 468 - ex tract powder 77
E evapora tors 936 - of cans 725 four roller mills 231 gripper cylinder 688-690 - ex traction 75, 76, 77
eccentric screw pumps 958 exh aust gas emissions 915 - of PET bottles 702 frame-type filters 539 grist case 235 - extraction with ethanol 75
economiser 925 exo-b-glucanase 156, 158 - plant as a whole 791 free amino nitrogen - evaluation 244 - ex trac ts 75
ecotherm procedure 355 explosion pressure - pressure 641 (FAN) 49, 293, 445, 458 grouth process 154 - nitrogen compolmds 68
effects of factors release 225 - pru1Ciples 641 free DMS 325,329, 352, 375 ground wa ter extracting 81 - oil 76,324
on the yeast 440 exponential phase 102 - temperature 641 frequency converter 952 gum arabicum 832 - pellets 72
Ehrlich mechanism 423 export beer 846 - the beer 566, 609 fresh wa ter use Ul the - polyphenols 324
electrical equipment 918 external boiler 333,336 - with long fillulg hlbe 648 brewery 80 H - products 71
electronic tubular extract composition 267 - without filling tubes 648 friabilimeter value 252 hammer milling 224,236 - resul s 324
weighing machines 228 - content 306,368 filter aids 520 - meter value 200 hand eva luation 55, 195 - varieties 70
1052 1053

HappIer falling ball isobutanol 820 - casei 860 - kilning 178 Megasphaera cerev isiae 514, noise emissions 915
viscosimeter 256 isobutyl acetate 436 - frigid us 860 - milling 224 860 noiseless di stribution 772
hops 59 isohumulone 324 - Lindneri 860 - polishjng 194 melanoid in malt 203 non-ionic surfactants 631
hops, growing regions 59 isolation of suitable yeast lager beer 845 - storage 194 melanoidins 179 nozzle filters 135
hoses and seals 804 cells 445 lagering tanks 472 -, acrospire length 196 membrane filter test 874 NPSH 958
hot air drier 138 isomerised hop extract 77 lambda-mash filter 317 -, density 196 - filters 540
- filling of beer 559 isomerised pellets 75 Lambie beer 843 -, extract difference 198 - pumps 962 o
- water 892 isovaleric acid 436 large bubble -, extract yield 198 membranes 507 ochratoxin 143
- water heating 331 fermentation 463 -, friability 196 mercaptans 434, 827 octanoic acid 436
humulene 59 J laser printer 691 -, germinative ability 196 Merlin procedure 361 old labels 911
humulon 64 jump mash process 293 last numings 298 -, glassiness 196 methyl butanal 329,353 operational meters 978
husk properties 56 Lausma1Ul system 173 -, hardness 196 - butanol 436 optical measure
hydrocarbon recognition 724 K lauter tun 298 -, Hartong-Kretschmar - propanal 574 technology 872
hydrogen gas suction 629 keg cleaning and filling 759 lautering 304 method 199 - propanol 51,436,437,574 organic halogen
hydrogen sulphide 434 keggy container 762 leakage fitting 1003 -, corn shaping method 161 Meura 311 compounds (AOx) 903
hydrometer 379 kegs and fittings 757 Lg-foamtester 871 -, hectolitre weight 196 microbiological original gravity 273, 326, 864
hydromill 242, 243 kettle vapour condenser 346 light beer 850 -, Kolbach index 199 examination 860 oscillating fork sensors 876
kieselgulU' 520 light flavour 578 -, sinker test 198 - stabilisation 555 outer sidewall control 637
- filter plants 538 limit dextrinase 156 -, thousand corn weight 196 microbrewery 889, 896 overpressure 1003
ice beer 847 - filh'ation problems 537 limit residual dextrinase 156 -, wort viscosity 199 mild ale 842 - filler 642
- beer production 583 - -, candle filters 540 line arrangement 791 maltose 217,230 millet 107 oxidation during
- water storage lmit 941 - -, dosing equipment 563 lipids 50 - production rest 250,277 mixing cross 469 mashing 280
Imhoff cone 390 - -, plate and frame filters 529 lipoxygenases (LOX) 163, maltotriose 267,284 model projection 998 oxidisable substances 902
immissions 988 - slurry 901 240,259 marzen 847 modern wort boiling oxygen content,
immobilised yeast 517 kieselguhr-free filtration 543 liquefaction 247 mash converter 268 systems 352 measurement 880
india pale ale 842 kilning temperature 181 liquid analysis 723 - filter 310 monoterpenes 67 - during filtration 526
indirect introducers 903 kilns with tipping floors 186 - heat 490 - in 234 mouth control 639 - in the bottle neck 677
inductive flow measurement Kolbach index 199 - strikes 979 - tun kettle 269 moving batch system 175 - on steeping 263
(IDM) 656, 746, 875 Kolsch 841 lobed rotor pumps 958 - vessels 269 module filters 541 ozone 93
infusion mashing 280, 281 kometronic process 553 logarithmic phase mashing 268 multi micro system filters 541
inhibitors 164 krausen kollapsing 463 (log phase) 417 - duration 287 mLUuch malt 190,192 P
ink jet printer 691 kriek 844 Louis Pasteur 24 - with adjuncts 288 mycotoxin 142 packaging teclmology 773
inliners 772 kristallweizen 837 lubricative ring seal 964 - with maize corn 292 myrcene 66 packer types 775
inspect glass bottles 636 Kubessa process 562 lucky cans 729 - with rice 291 packers for continuous
inspection of foreign - with sorghum 292 N operation 777
substances 721 L M - with sugar or net-positive-suction-head - for multiple packages 778
insulation materials 1016 label adhesive 686 magnesium 821 sugar syrups 293 (NPSH) 963 pale ale 842
integral brewhouse 385 label removal 622 magnetic devices 119 mashing-in temperahue 273 Nibem method 832 pale malt 145, 181, 202
interior sidewall control 640 labelling machines 690 maillard products 161,327 mashing-off temperahue 251 lucotine acid 97 pallet control 789
internal boiler 329 - of PET bottles 718 - reactions 161,573 mass filter 524 lutrogen 904 - magazines 786
internally toothed pumps 958 labels 692 maize 105,826 measuring teclmology 977 - compounds 48 - pressure control 787
interrupted fermentation 593 Lactobacillus malt cleaning 193 - transducers 978 - gas 741 palletising 782
iodine test 249 amylolyticus 263 - drink 850 mechanical cleaning 817 - metabolism 101 pallets 765
iso-ex-acids 54,370 - amylovorus 263 - evaluation 195 - premasher 275 - oxide-rich gas (NOX) 182, 183 pantothenic 97
isoamyl acetate 436 - brevis 860 - extract 207 - vapour compression 347 nitrosamines 182 Pasteur effect 418
1054 1055

pasteurisation
- in a tunnel pasteur
424
559
- plans
piston pumps
991,999
954
procedural mimic
diagram 994
r brewhouses
reserve osmosis
385
618
saturation beer with
carbon dioxide 470
1022
S-methyl methionine
- in bottles 679 pitching 460 process control 437, 461 resident equivalence value saving water 95 181
- unit (PU) 557,679 - cellar 456 production of cooling 904 scavenger 667 smoked beers 852
- lUlits necessary 558 - temperature 462 potential 947 residual alkalinity 91 schoko procedure 358 smoked malt 205
Paul Lindner 24 plan kilns with loader 187 - of munich malt 192 resid ualliquid detection 638 Schumann treatment 806 S02 formation 500
PCR 862 plansifter 126 - of pilsner malt 191 respiration 421 scotch ale 842 sodium hydroxide 564, 630
Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus 860 plant design 998 programme modules 983 retentate 544 screw centrifugal pumps 957 - in water 89
Pediococcus danulosus 559, - elements 994 propanol 820 return of condensate 927 - compressors 946, 967 solubisation of 158
860 - pests 142 protein breakdown 163 riboflavin 97 - conveyors 128 sorghum 113
Pegasus 307 - platming 994 - breakdown products 50 1M - turner 169, 172, 173 - malt 209
PEN 720 plastic bands 681,729 proteinases 156 rinsing 692 scroll compressors 968 sorting crown corks 667
pentadion. 429 - crates 764 proteins 49,50 roasted malt 205 scuffing 612 - packers 672
pentosans 48 - crates treatment 766 pub breweries 889 - malt beer 206 scutellum 42 specific gravity 374
peptidases 156 - screw cap closures 714 - brewhouses 384 robot technology 782 second mashing 282 spelt 208
performance run 1000 plate heat exchangers 400 pumps 954 rollers of malt mills 232 - wort 296 spent grain analysis 321
performing wort boiling 367 Plato table 376 pure yeast culture rolling piston compressors sedicanter 513 - grain silo 320,366
pericarp 42 pneumatic conveyors 130 propagation 443 938 segment pipe cooler 493 - grain transfer 320
peristaltic (hoses) pmnps 961 - malting systems 166 PVPP 541 rootlets 144 self cleaning separators 395 - grains 320,892
perlite 399, 407, 520 polyacrylate 520 pycnometer 865 Ross and Clark method separation of media 1003 spring barley 39
permanent hazes 561 polyamide 520 pyridoxal 97 (R&C) 871 - to preclarify 570 stabilising agents 563
- magnet 119 polyether SUlfOll 520, 548 pyruvate 418, 420, 421, 224 rotating piston pumps 954, separators 393 stage optimised aroma
permeate 544 polymerase chain reaction 959 sesquiterpenes 66 boiling 355
pest infestations 142 (PCR) 862 Q rougluless value 1003, 1021, settling tank 360,387 standard operating
PET barriere properties 694 polyphenols 52, 67, 68, 439 quality examination 857 1028 shaped cans 729 systems 983
- bottles 694 polyurethane foam 496 rousing 460 shear forces 253,278 starch 45
pH of the wort 328 polyvinylpolypyrrolidone rye 105,208 sheet filters 524 starch breakdown 162
- value 85 (PVPP) 541 R short grown and - degradation 246
- value meters 875 Porter 843 radial fans 965 S chit malt 204 - granules 44
phenylacetaldehyde 575 post-run 477 - rake 149 saccharifaction 248 shut-off valve 311,1009, - ha ze 246
phenylethanal 330, 352 potassium 78, 85, 87, 820 raffinose 104 saccharification rest 250, 277 1013 static mixers 405
phenylethanol 436, 820 powder filters 525 - fermentation 104, 833 saccharomyces silica gel preparations 563 stationary cooling 943
phosphates 452, 427, 806 - factor cos cp 949 real percentage attenuation carlsbergensis 96 - sol preparations 568 steam 919
phospholipids 98 - heat coupling plant 349 465 - cerevisiae 96 silicates 52 - engines 872
phosphorous 903 precoating 523, 525 rectifiers and inverters 952 - diastaticus 556, 807 single end washing - pipes 1017
pilsner malt 1178, 191, 202 preforms 698 red corn 56 - ellipsoideus 861 machines 614 - temperature 331
pilsner type 822 pressure indicator 489 redler 129 - pastorianus 861 - floor tipping kiln 187 steep conditioning 238
pipe and instrument - losses 979 refined corn grits 106 saccharose 374 - mash processes 283 - vessels 143
mimic 994 - mashing 287 refraction analysis 865 safety measures, electrical - seat valve 1023 steeping process 144, 152
pipe and plant design 1003 - measurement 877 refrigerants 929 equipment 952 - stage cooling 947 steinbier 852
- connections 1007 - tank warehouse 573 refrigeration plants 929 - valves 475 - vessel pure yeast stimulators 164
- design 1007 - valve 474 Reinheitsgebot 23 sampling 489 culture 452 Stockhausen-Cobli tz 454
- fence 483 pretreatment of bottles 643 relief valve 474 - fittings 981, 1021 six packs 765 storage in bins 1141
- holders 1009 principles of bottle filling 641 removal of CO 2 485 sartoflow crossflow - roller mills 229 - in silos 140
- outlets 1016 proanthocyanidins 180 research and training filtration 552 - row barley 39 - vessel tapping 475

I i
1056 - 1-- 1057
I - water treatment 905 - pre-cooling 356
s trecker aldehydes 179, 327, - value 365, 918 - stage cooling 403, 947 water 79 - sterilisation 32
strecker aldehydes 328, 330, thermocompression 348 - cycle 79 - stripping procedure 360
352 thermometer 375, 483 U - hardening 92 wrap-arow1d labelling 685
streptocossus lactis 861 thermo-siphon boiling 334 Ubbelohde capillary - hardness 88 -- multipacks 765
stretch blow moulding thiamine 97 viscosimeter 256 - improvement procedures
machine 701 thin film evapoator unboiled wort 266, 326, 330 89 X
stromboli procedure 340, 364 "merlin" 361 underpressure 1006 - obtaining 81 xaI1than 832
subcoooling the aI1Ul10nia thiobarbituric acid amount uni-cont malting system 176 - recycling 81
932 (TBA) 179, 182,200, lU1saturated fatty acids 51, - requirements 84 y
sugar 44,108 327, 329, 353, 373 52, 99, 239, 258, 425, 574 - sterilisation 93 yeast 96, 415
- syrup 109 three mash processes 283 wlscrewer 717 - uptake on steeping 143 - cell 96
sulphate in water 88 three pass boilers 922 UV irradiation 93 water, decarbonation by - cell membrane 96,426
superheated steam 921 throughed chain conveyor neutralisation 92 - cellar 456
su perhea ter 926 129 V -, removal of dissolved - collection 470, 508
suppression of alcohol tipping weighing machines vacuoles 100 materials 82 - crop 508
formation 593 225 vacuum drier 138 -, residual alkalinity 88 - cropping 507
surface coating 612 toothed rotor compressors - evaporation 357 -, softening by ion - membrane filtration 512
- constihltions 1028 967 - valve 486 exchaI1ge 92 - multiplication 101
- filtration 519 top fermenting yeasts 103, valve 1022 water-tube boilers 922 - pressing 512
- roughness 478, 479 835 vapour brakes 1016 weighing machines 115,224 - propagation 98, 399, 443
surplus yeast 499, 511, 910 topping up 417,427 - compression 347 welded seams 1028 - propagation plants 447
swan neck tap 302 Torulopsis 861 - condensate 366 well type fi tting 757 - proteinase A 479
sweet stout 843 total alkalini ty 87 - condensation 302 wet milling 237,241 - separation 506
swing stopper 572, 900 tower maltings 169 ventilators 932 - steam 921 - sieve 506
systems with displacement h'ansamination 424 venting the pipes 1015 wheat 113 yield during malting 195
172 transformers or voltage venturi pipe 405 - beers 821 - factor 376
chaI1gers 952 vertical kilning 189 - malt 206 yowlg beer flavour 432
T transforming electric current vicinale diketone 429 whirlpool 388
tangential flow filtration 546 952 vierula malt 202 - kettle 345 Z
tanginess 859 traI1sport aI1d packaging 763 vinyl-guajakol 826 widgets 725, 748 zearalenon (ZEA) 143
tank bottom beer 477 - technology 768 vinyl-phenol 826 wing wheel signallers 876 zinc 261,293,330,419
- bottom beer, treatment 479 Trappist beers 833 viscosity of the wort 161 winter barley 39
- dome valves 486 trays 765 visualisation the produres Witbeer 843
- size 480 trehalose 417, 426 982 wooden barrels 472,753
taruuns 46,67 trieur 121 vitamins 53 - vats 472
tap 1022 triticale 108, 208 vitreolls malt 179 work in pressure vessels 596
taste quality 859 turbocom pressors 939 working with kieselgulu- 597
tempera hIre meters 875 turn-key plant 990 W wort aeration 399
- of pasteurisation 557 twin-flow-system (TFS) 535 walking beaIn procedure 681 - boiling 323
temporary hardness 87 twist-off crown cork 667 washable extract 321 - buffer vessels 368
temp-plates 493 two component jets 405 washing and steeping - COOlillg 393
testa 42 - floor kilns 188 drum 150 - kettle 331
tetrahydro-iso-extract 78 - mash processes 284 waste disposal 901 - kettle with low pressure
thermal insulation 496 - roller mills 231 - water 901,902 boiling 336