CHAPTER 1
THE DEMAND FOR AUDITING AND |
ASSURANCE SERVICES
ECONOMIC DEMAND FOR AUDITING
Why do many of the largest companies spend millions of pesos each year for
their annual audit? Is it worth asking why an entity would decide to spend so
much money on an audit? Is it because these audits are required by law? While
true in certain circumstances, this answer is far too simplistic. Although audits
are often utilized in situation where they are not required by law, audits were in
demand long before Securities Laws and the Bureau of Internal Revenue required
them. ¥
a .
The demand for auditing can be understood as the need for‘accountability when
business owners hire others to manage their businesses, as is typical in modern
corporations. Until the late 18" and early 19" centuries, most organizations were
relatively small and were owned and operated as sole proprietorships or
partnerships. Because businesses were generally run by theif’ owners and
borrowing was limited, accountability to outside parties often was minimal.
The birth of modern accounting and auditing occurred during the industrial
revolution, when companies became larger and needed to raise capital to finance
expansion. Over time, capital markets developed, enabling companies to raise the
investment capital necessary to expand new markets, finance expensive research
and development, and fund the buildings, technology, and equipment needed to
deliver products to market. -
A capital market allows a public company to sell small pieces of ownership (i.e.,
stocks) or to borrow money in the form of thousands of small Joans (i.e., bonds)
so that vast amounts of capital can be raised from a wide variety of investors and
creditors, A public company is a company that sells its stocks or bonds to the
public, giving the public a valid interest in the proper use of the company’s
resources.
Thus, the growth of the modern corporation led to diverse groups of owners who
are not directly involved in running the business (shareholders) and the use of
professional managers hired by the owners to run the corporation on a day-to-day4 Chapter 1
basis. In this setting, the managers serve as agents for the owners (who ae
sometimes referred to as principals) and fulfill a stewardship function by
managing the corporation’s assets.
It is important to understand that the relationship between an owner and manage,
often results in information asymmetry between tha two parties. Information
asymmetry means that the manager generally has more information about the
“true” financial position and results of operations of the entity than does the
absentee owner.
What are Assurance Services?
The name assurance servicesvis used to describe the broad range of information
enhancement services performed by a certified public accountant (CPA) that are
designed to enhance the degree of confidence in the information. In general,
assurance services consists of two (2):types: @ those that increase the reliability
of information and (6) those that involve putting information in a form or context
that facilitates decision making.
A significant portion of the assurance services provided by CPAs is referred to as
attestation services. To attest to information means to provide assurance as to its
reliability. In an attestation engagement, CPAs provide a report on subject matter
or an assertion about that subject matter. One of the most sought-after attestation
services is the examination or audit of historical financial statements.
In this book, we will focus on the Audit and Assurance Services that involve
reliability enhancement.
Philosophy of an Audit
As the amount of capital involved and the number of potential owners increase,
the potential impact of accountability also increases. The auditor's role is to
ine whether the reports prepared by the manager conform to the contract’s
ns. Thus, the auditor's verification of the financial information adds
credibility to the report and reduces information-risk, or the risk that inform
circulated by a company’s management will be false misleading. Reducing
information risk potentially benefits both the owner and the manager.
Economic decisions are made under conditions of uncertainty; there is always *
risk that the decision maker will select the w
. i a
=: m4 rong alternative and incur
significant loss. The credibility added to the information by auditors acti”
SADemand for Auditing and Assurance
Services §
reduces the decision maker's risk.
information rsh, which i the i K To be more precise, the auditors reduce
at the financial information used to make a
Businesses, instituti indivi
Feelin ad probes and individuals must maintain records of their financial
buuinieas spetationer| - These records are necessary to evaluate and guide
eid Rees letermine financial status, to meet legal requirements and
riay swich to ty ene Creditors and investors, present and prospective,
exiciaion andi tive financial statements of many enterprises for credit
Resennttaice nt purposes. Government agencies will need financial
eae cy: the cutis imposed upon them by law internal
Wisiness onetarions: reports for planning, directing and controlling
These parties therefore, need reliable and credible financial information. The
process employed to establish the reliability or unreliability of the financial
statements and supporting records is referred to as an audit examination.
Auditing of financial records has become an important factor in the
dissemination of financial information and the services of the independent
certified public accountant are considered indispensable. Increasingly, his written
report is required to add credibility to the financial statements.
A free-market economy can exist only if there is sharing of reliable information
among parties that have an interest in the financial performance of an
organization. The market is further strengthened if the information is transparent
and unbiased — that is, the data is not presented in such a way that it favors one
party over another. An organization’s reported information must reflect the
economics of, its transactions and the current economic condition of both its
assets and any obligations owed.
uditors undertake to gather evidence to obtain
ncial. statements are. free of - material
nd that they are presented in accordance
k. The external audit is intended to
Ina financial statement audit, the ai
high level of assurance that finan
misstatements due to fraud or errors al
with appropriate. accounting framewor! 1
enhance the confidence that users can place on management-prepared financial
statements. When the auditor has no reservations about management's financial
statements or internal controls, the report is referred to as an unqualified audit
report.
ee6 Chapter
rties, but the most important is the Public, as
represented by investors, lenders, workers, and others who make decisions based
on financial information about an organization, Auditing requires the highest
level of technical competence, freedom from bias, and concern for integrity of
the financial reporting process. In essence, auditors should view themselves as
guardians of the capital markets.
‘The.public-expects auditors to (@) find fraud, (b) require accounting principles the
st portray the spirit of the concepts adopted by accounting standard setters, and
be independent of management. When it comes to being independent,
auditors must not only be independent in fact, but they must act in a manner that
ensures that they are independent in appearance.
Auditors serve a number of pai
An independent auditor's opinion contained in the audit report provides both
internal and external users with input to making logical and informed d ns
about financial position, managerial performance and economic vulnerability.
Without auditors, decisions such as these are more likely to be made from biased
financial information resulting from a business entity’s undisclosed errors,
irregularities or illegal acts.
IMPORTANCE OF AUDITED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Audited financial statements are the accepted means by which business
corporations report their operating results and financial position. The word
audited, when applied to financial statements, means that the balance sheet and
the statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows are accompanied by
an_audit report prepared. by independent public. accountants, expressing their
professional opinion as to the faimess of the company’s financial statements.
Of course, reporting in accordance with an agreed-upon set of accounting
principles does not solve the problem by itself. Because the manager is
responsible for reporting on the results of his or her own actions, which the
absentee owner cannot directly observe, the manager is in a position to
manipulate the reports. Again, the owner adjusts for this possibility by assuming
that the manager will manipulate the reports to his or her benefit and by reducing
the manager’s compensation accordingly. It is at this point that the demand for
auditing arises. If the manager is honest, it may very well be in the manager's
self-interest to hire an auditor to monitor and independently report to the owner
on his or her activities. The owner likely will be willing to invest more in the
business and to pay the manager more if the manager can be held accountable for
how he or she uses the owner's invested resources.—
Demand for Auditing and Assurance Services 7
Financial statements prepared by management and transmitted to outsiders
without first being audited by independent accountants leave a credibility gap. In
reporting on its own administration of the business, management can hardly be
expected to be entirely impartial and unbiased. Independent auditors have no
material personal or financial interest in the business; their reports can be
expected to be impartial and free from bias.
Unaudited financial statements may have been honestly, but carelessly, prepared.
Liabilities may have been overlooked and omitted from the balance sheet. Assets
may have been overstated as a result of arithmetical errors or due to a lack of
knowledge of financial accounting and reporting standards. Net income may
have been exaggerated because expenses were capitalized or because sales
transactions were recorded in advance of delivery dates.
Finally, there is the possibility that unaudited financial ‘statements have been
deliberately falsified in order to conceal theft and fraud or as a means of inducing
the reader to invest in the business or to extend credit. Although deliberate
falsification of financial statements is not common, it does occur and can cause
devastating losses to persons who make decisions based upon such misleading
statements.
For all these reasons (accidental errors, lack of knowledge of accounting
principles, unintentional bias, and deliberate falsification), financial statements
may depart from financial accounting and reporting standards principles. Audits
provide users with assurance that the financial statements are presented in
accordance with the financial accounting principles and reporting standards.
Figure 1-1 presents an overview of the potential financial statement users and the
decisions they make based on the financial reports.8 Chapter 1
re 1-1: Users of Audited Financial Statements
Figu
User Types of Decisions
| Management Review performance, make operational decisions. Report results |
to capital markets
Stockholders __| Buy or sell stock
Bondholders Buy or sell bonds
Financial Institutions | Evaluate loan decisions, considering interest rates, terms, and
isk
Taxing Authorities Determine taxable income and tax due
Regulatory Agencies | Develop regulations and monitor compliance
Make collective bargaining decisions
| Labor Unions
Court System Assess the financial position of a company in litigation
Vendors Assess credit risk
Protect employees from surprises concerning pensions and other
Retired Employees
post-retirement benefits
THE ASSURANCE ANALOGY AND THE PHILIPPINE STANDARDS
ON AUDITING (PSAs)
‘An audit provides reasonable assurance of detecting material misstatements of
the financial statements (both errors and fraud) and noncompliance with laws that
have a direct and material effect on the determination of financial statement
amounts. Although an audit does not obtain reasonable assurance of detecting
noncompliance with laws that have only an indirect effect on the financial
statements, the auditors remain alert for such situations. If instances of
noncompliance are discovered, regardless of type, the auditors should ‘caréfully
evaluate their effects on the financial statements.
Currently, the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AASB)
issues pronouncements designed to foster the development of consistent
worldwide auditing standards while the Auditing and Standards Practice Council
of the Philippines (AASC) reviews and recommends for approval to the PRC-
BOA their adoption as the Philippine Standards on Auditing (PSAs).
In the Philippines, the law that regulates the Practice of Accountancy (RA 9298)
provides that the Professional Regulatory Board of Accountancy shall monitor
the conditions affecting the practice of accountancy and adopt such measures to
enhance and maintain the high professional, ethical and auditing standards
including promulgation of accounting and auditing standards, domestic andDemand for Auditing and Assurance Services _9
international. International financial markets would be facilitated if auditing and
accounting standards were more uniform.
In summary, auditing is in demand because it plays a valuable role in monitoring
the contractual relationships between the entity and its stockholders, managers,
employees, and debt holders. Certified public accountants have been charged
with providing audit services because of their traditional reputation of
competence, independence, objectivity, and concern for the public interest. As a
result, they are able to add credibility to information produced and reported by
management to outside parties.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Questions
1. What is the objective of financial statement audit? Describe the role of
external auditing in meeting society’s demands for unbiased financial
and internal control information.
2. What is the “special function” that auditors perform? Whom does the
external auditing profession serve in performing this special function?
3. What factors create a demand for an independent external audit?
How does an audit enhance the quality of financial statements and
management's reports on internal control? Does an audit guarantee a fair
presentation of a company’s financial statements?
1 tise and significance of an audit report to a large
5. What is the principal
small
corporation with securities listed on a stock exchange? To a
family-owned enterprise?
Describe the several business situations that would create a need for a
6.
report by an independent public accountant concerning the fairness of a
company’s financial statements.
7. Explain the following statement: One contribution of the independent
auditor is to lend credibility to financial statements.10 Chapter 1
8. A corporation is contemplating issuing debenture bonds to a group of
investors.
a. Explain how independent audits of the corporation’s financial
statements facilitate this transaction.
b. Describe the likely effects on the transaction if the corporation
decides not to obtain independent audits of its financial statements.
9. Discuss the major factors in today’s society that have made the need for
independent audits much greater that it was 50 years ago.
10. It has been stated that auditors must be independent because audited
financial statements must serve the needs of a wide variety of users. If
the auditor were to favor one group, such as existing shareholders, there
might be a bias against another group, such as prospective investors. Do
you agree?
11. Evaluate the following quotation: “Every business, large or small, should
have an annual audit by a CPA firm. To forgo an audit because of its cost
is false economy”.
12. The self-interest of the provider of financial information (whether an
individual or a business entity) often runs directly counter to the interest
of the user of the information.Chapter
PROFESSIONAL
PRACTICE OF
ACCOUNTANCY:
AN OVERVIEW
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying the chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain the attributes of a profession.
2. Describe who a professional accountant is.
3. Enumerate and explain the scope of the practice of
professional accountants in the Philippines.
4. Describe the nature of assurance, attest, and auditing services
of accounting professionals. 3
5. Describe the relationship among assurance, attest and
auditing services.
6. Distinguish between external auditors, internal auditors,
government auditors and forensic auditors.
. Explain the nature of other audit services such as internal
audit, compliance audits, operational audits and forensic
audits.
Describe the most sought-after non-assurance services such
as
¢ Agreed upon procedures
» Tax preparation and planning services
* Management advisory services
e Compilation, accounting and processing system services
QL BS