meiosis:

• getting from the diploid state to the

haploid state
avoids doubling of chromosome number with each generation
• in animals, meiosis produces gametes
• in plants (mosses, ferns and angiosperms), meiosis produces spores
• in angiosperms, there are two types of spore produced – microspore (pollen
grain) and megaspore (embryo sac)

Genetic variation:
• the haploid cells produced are genetically
Variable due to the independent assortment of chromosomes/alleles
• random ferilisation of gametes promotes genetic variation

Plants:
• plants are photosynthetic
• and possess chloroplasts
• in which carbohydrates are synthesised
• light is absorbed by photosystems/pigments on the lamellae/thylakoids/grana
• the Calvin cycle (during which sugars are synthesised) takes place in the
stroma
• plants are fully autotrophic and amino acids (and other organic substances)
are synthesised from sugars
• absorption of, for example, nitrates (as a source of nitrogen)/phosphate/other
appropriate ion

Animals:
• animals are heterotrophs/holozoic
• food is ingested into a gut cavity
• in Cnidaria this is blind-ending
• in Platyhelminthes the gut is blind-ending and highly branched
• digestive enzymes are secreted into the gut lumen (enteron)/initially digestion
is extracellular
• though is completed intracellularly/partly digested particles are ingested
(endocytosed) into the lining tissues
• in Annelida and in Chordata there is a through gut
• and digestion is entirely extracellular
• a through gut allows regional specialisation along the gut/example of
specialisation
Evolutionary change in populations:
• populations are genetically variable
genetic variation is the basis for evolutionary
change
• in competition for resources with other members of the population
• natural selection acts on the variation in a population
• of the different forms of natural selection it is directional selection which
brings about evolutionary change
• where a non-modal form, not previously favoured, is now selected for
• this can be due to an environmental change
• the form being selected for survives more frequently to reproduce
• and so passes more of its genes to future generations
• in this way the frequency of alleles will change over time
• and the population remain adapted to its environment
• it is the change in allele frequency which constitutes evolutionary change
• in different environments the same species will often have different variants

Specification:
• in the theory of allopatric speciation
• populations become geographically isolated
• environment conditions differ in the geographically isolated areas
• selection pressures in the two areas differ (favouring different variants within
the populations)
• resulting in divergence of the two populations’ gene pools
• for long enough to accumulate sufficiently different allele frequencies to
behave as different species
• different species are genetically isolated/cannot generally interbreed
• this isolation is maintained by some reproductive isolating mechanism
• or other secondary isolating mechanism (such as behavioural isolation)
• polyploidy has resulted in the formation of new species in plants
• where a previously sterile hybrid
• has fertility restored with chromosome doubling
• since meiosis can resume/viable gametes can be formed
Respiration

Glycolysis: cytoplasm

Use of ATP to phosphorylate glucose to fructose bisphosphate

Which splits into two triose phosphate molecules

Triose phosphate is oxidised by NAD+ to glycerate bisphosphate

With the release of NADH (+H+)

NADH must be reoxidised to NAD+ to allow Glycolysis to continue

Glycerate bisphosphate is converted to pyruvate

Pyruvate marks the end of glycolyisis

This is an exergonic reaction

Net production of 2 ATP from one glucose molecule

Common to both aerobic and anaerobic

If O2 present pyruvate passes into mitochondrion

Krebs cycle: matrix

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl –CoA

Producing CO2 and NADH(H+)

Acetyl group combines with C4 acid to produce C6 acid

The C6 acid undergoes series of reaction through other organic acids

Which involve decarboxylation and dehydrogenation

Producing NADH and FADH2

NADH and FADH2 deliver hydrogens to respiratory chain

An ATP is produced exergonically directly in one step

C4 acid regenerated
Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) inner membrane of mitochondria

From initial hydrogen carrier hydrogen is passed to flavoprotein

Then to co-enzyme q

Thereafter only electrons are carried through the cytochrome

A series of redox reactions occur

Carries are at a progressively lower energy level

At certain points sufficient energy is available for ATP production

Three from NADH2 and two from FADH2

Protons ad electrons recombine

Oxygen is the ultimate electron acceptor producing water