LESSON 6: WEATHERING

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the earth’s surface by the action of

rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the
removal of rock material. There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical and
biological.

The weathering of rocks due to the physical and chemical processes that take place in the
rocks near the surface by the atmospheric agencies, which lead to its disintegration and
decomposition, is called the surface weathering. Another form is the changes that take
place deep down the rock, due to chemical action. Thus, there are two processes that
constitute weathering of rocks. They are:

1. Mechanical Disintegration. In this process the rock is split into smaller pieces or
even soils, but the character of the product of this type of weathering of a given rock is the
same. An example is the conversation of rock into sand.

2. Chemical Weathering. In this process the rock (mineral assemblage) decomposes

to other products. The weathered product and original rock grains need not be the same.
An example is the conversion of rock into clay.

The process of weathering represents an adjustment of the minerals of which a rock is

composed to the conditions prevailing on the surface of the Earth. As such, weathering of
rocks is brought about by physical disintegration, chemical decomposition and biological
activity. It weakens the rock fabric and exaggerates any structural weaknesses, all of
which further aid the breakdown processes. A rock may become more friable as a result of
the development of fractures both between and within mineral grains. The agents of
weathering, unlike those of erosion, do not themselves provide for the transportation of
debris from the surface of a rock mass. Therefore, unless the rock waste is otherwise
removed, it eventually acts as a protective cover, preventing further weathering. If
weathering is to be continuous, fresh rock exposures must be constantly revealed, which
means that the weathered debris must be removed by the action of gravity, running water,
wind or moving ice.

Weathering also is controlled by the presence of discontinuities in that they provide access
into a rock mass for the agents of weathering. Some of the earliest effects of weathering
are seen along discontinuity surfaces. Weathering then proceeds inwards so that the rock
mass may develop a marked heterogeneity with corestones of relatively unweathered
material within a highly weathered matrix. Ultimately, the whole of the rock mass can be
reduced to a residual soil. Discontinuities in carbonate rock masses are enlarged by
dissolution, leading to the development of sinkholes and cavities within the rock mass.

The rate at which weathering proceeds depends not only on the vigour of the weathering
agents but also on the durability of the rock mass concerned. This, in turn, is governed by
the mineralogical composition, texture, porosity and strength of the rock on the one hand,
and the incidence of discontinuities within the rock mass on the other. Hence, the
response of a rock mass to weathering is directly related to its internal surface area and
average pore size. Coarse-grained rocks generally weather more rapidly than fine-grained

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ones. The degree of interlocking between component minerals is also a particularly
important textural factor, since the more strongly a rock is bonded together, the greater is
its resistance to weathering. The closeness of the interlocking of grains governs the
porosity of the rock. This, in turn, determines the amount of water it can hold, and hence,
the more porous the rock, the more susceptible it is to chemical attack. Also, the amount of
water that a rock contains influences mechanical breakdown, especially in terms of frost
action. Nonetheless, deep-weathered profiles usually have been developed over lengthy
periods of time. The type and rate of weathering varies from one climatic regime to
another. In humid regions, chemical and chemico-biological processes are generally much
more significant than those of mechanical disintegration. The degree and rate of
weathering in humid regions depends primarily on the temperature and amount of
moisture available. An increase in temperature causes an increase in weathering. If the
temperature is high, then weathering is extremely active; an increase of 10∞C in humid
regions more than doubles the rate of chemical reaction. On the other hand, in dry air,
chemical decay of rocks takes place very slowly.

Weathering leads to a decrease in density and strength, and to increasing deformability.

An increase in the mass permeability frequently occurs during the initial stages of
weathering due to the development of fractures, but if clay material is produced as
minerals breakdown, then the permeability may be reduced. Widening of discontinuities
in carbonate rock masses by dissolution leads to a progressive increase in permeability.

Civil Engineers are interested in weathering of rocks as they meet with the products of
weathering as well as the original rock itself in their construction.

 Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical or physical weathering is particularly effective in climatic regions that
experience significant diurnal changes of temperature. This does not necessarily imply a
large range of temperature, as frost and thaw action can proceed where the range is
limited.

Alternate freeze–thaw action causes cracks, fissures, joints and some pore spaces to be
widened. As the process advances, angular rock debris is gradually broken from the parent
body. Frost susceptibility depends on the expansion in volume that occurs when water
moves into the ice phase, the degree of saturation of water in the pore system, the critical
pore size, the amount of pore space, and the continuity of the pore system. In particular,
the pore structure governs the degree of saturation and the magnitude of stresses that can
be generated upon freezing (Bell, 1993). When water turns to ice, it increases in volume by
up to 9%, thus giving rise to an increase in pressure within the pores it occupies. This
action is further enhanced by the displacement of pore water away from the developing ice
front. Once ice has formed, the ice pressures rapidly increase with decreasing
temperature, so that at approximately -22 ∞C, ice can exert a pressure of up to 200 MPa.
Usually, coarse-grained rocks withstand freezing better than fine-grained types. The
critical pore size for freeze–thaw durability appears to be about 0.005 mm. In other words,
rocks with larger mean pore diameters allow outward drainage and escape of fluid from
the frontal advance of the ice line and, therefore, are less frost susceptible. Fine-grained
rocks that have 5% sorbed water are often very susceptible to frost damage, whereas those

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containing less than 1% are very durable. Nonetheless, a rock may fail if it is completely
saturated with pore water when it is frozen. Indeed, it appears that there is a critical
moisture content, which tends to vary between 75 and 96% of the volume of the pores,
above which porous rocks fail. The rapidity with which the critical moisture content is
reached is governed by the initial degree of saturation.

The mechanical effects of weathering are well displayed in hot deserts, where wide diurnal
ranges of temperature cause rocks to expand and contract. Because rocks are poor
conductors of heat, these effects are mainly localized in their outer layers where alternate
expansion and contraction creates stresses that eventually rupture the rock. In this way,
flakes of rock break away from the parent material, the process being termed exfoliation.
The effects of exfoliation are concentrated at the corners and edges of rocks so that their
outcrops gradually become rounded (Fig. 3.2). However, in hot semi-arid regions,
exfoliation can take place on a large scale with large slabs becoming detached from the
parent rock mass. Furthermore, minerals possess different coefficients of expansion, and
differential expansion within a polymineralic rock fabric generates stresses at grain
contacts and can lead to granular disintegration.

There are three ways whereby salts within a rock can cause its mechanical breakdown: by
pressure of crystallization, by hydration pressure, and by differential thermal expansion.
Under certain conditions, some salts may crystallize or recrystallize to different hydrates
that occupy a larger space (being less dense) and exert additional pressure, that is,
hydration pressure. The crystallization pressure depends on the temperature and degree
of supersaturation of the solution, whereas the hydration pressure depends on the
ambient temperature and relative humidity. Calculated crystallization pressures provide
an indication of the potential pressures that may develop during crystallization in narrow
closed channels. Crystallization of freely soluble salts such as sodium chloride, sodium
sulphate or sodium hydroxide often leads to the crumbling of the surface of a rock such as
limestone or sandstone. Salt action can give rise to honeycomb weathering in porous
limestone or sandstone possessing a calcareous cement.

There are two types of mechanical weathering (a) Block disintegration (b) Granular
disintegration. In both cases, the products remain the same as the original material. Only
the size of the product changes.

In block disintegration massive rock is broken up to large blocks. Granular

disintegration results from the loss of cohesion between individual mineral grains. This
takes place more on the coarser variety of rocks like granite. The agents of mechanical
weathering are:

1. Temperature changes

2. Living things like trees and those that bore holes

3. Mechanical abrasion of wind and water

We will examine how these influence the weathering of rocks.

1. Temperature Changes: All the rocks, especially igneous rocks have joints. In addition,
rocks, especially igneous rocks, are made of minerals in very close contact. In sedimentary

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rocks, the formation is such that there will be a filling material between rock pieces that
become sedimentary rocks.

Rocks when heated, expands, but on cooling it does not come back to its original
length. There is some residual strain which is very small. Imagine, this has been
happening from last many millions of years. The exposed rock which has been heated and
cooled can break up into blocks because of this reason.

Another reason for the breaking up of igneous rocks is the difference in coefficients
of expansion of the different minerals which are in close contact in these rocks. This can
result in large strains in the rock on heating and resultant in cracking into blocks or even
disintegration into small pieces.

These changes affect rocks with large crystals like granite more than other rocks
like basalt. This principle (effect of heat on rocks) has been used for quarrying granite in
some countries.

The conversion of a large mass of rocks into blocks at the surface along steep slopes
leads to rock-falls in the mountains regions due to gravity.

2. Effects of living things: Growing of trees in joints of rocks can lead to disintegration of
the rock. Similarly boring of holes by animals also affect weathering of rock.

3. Mechanical abrasion due to wind, flowing water etc.: The abrasive effect of wind and
flowing water can also lead to the smaller amount of weathering, and the effect depends
on the intensity of wind and flow of water.

 Chemical Weathering
In the chemical weathering, the product of weathering is different from the parent
rock as it undergoes chemical changes. The changes that can happen are such as

1. Carbonation

2. Solution (as in limestones)

3. Hydration

4. Oxidation

The atmosphere contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, several inert gases, moisture
etc. In addition, the water that flows on the ground among decaying vegetation will
contain many reactive chemical substances like carbon dioxide, organic acids etc. These
contribute to chemical weathering. Many minerals are changed to other substances with
different chemistry. This is known as chemical weathering. Among the processes specified
above for making chemical changes carbonation and solution are the important ones. For
example, the mineral orthoclase present in rocks, becomes kaolinite by carbonation. The
weathering of granite to laterite is due to solution. The process of chemical disintegration

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affects basic rocks like basalt more than the other rocks, like granite. Where these two
rocks basalt and granite, occur side by side, the place converts itself to valleys of basalt
and ridges of granite due to excessive weathering of basalt. Igneous rocks are more
susceptible to chemical weathering than sedimentary rocks as sedimentary rocks are
produced from weathered products of igneous rocks.

 Transport of Products of Weathering

The weathered products can remain in place or they can be also transported by
water or wind. If they remain in place, they become residual soils. They may be
transported and may become sedimentary rocks or become alluvial soils. The agents that
transport these materials are mainly:

1. Water in the forms of steams of rivers, and

2. Wind that blows soils from one place to the other, especially in the dry areas.

3. Glaciers in polar regions, the regolith. The mantle of unconsolidated material

above bedrock consisting of

(a) residual materials that remain in place where it has weathered.

(b) transported material transported by gravity or water (rivers, lakes, sea etc.) and
wind.

Table shows the classification of regolith. (The soil formed out of the parent rock below
and still remains in situ is called residual soil).

Type Name Details

Laterite, gravel, sand clay

In situ materials (a) Residual deposits
along with rocks

Peat, organic soils, chemical

(b) Cumulative deposits
precipitates etc.

Talus, materials from earth

Transported materials (a) Gravity deposits
due to creep etc.

(b) Alluvial deposits Alluvial, swamp deposits

(c) Aeolian deposits

Dunes, loess
(wind-blown)

(d) Lacustine deposits

Silt, clay, sand etc.
(lake deposits)

(e) Marine deposits Sand, clay etc.

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Note: The soil profile of a place depends on its history for the past 4500 million years of
the earth’s life and the changes that have happened. We cannot accurately trace its
history of a place by any means, except by taking samples from the place and identify
them from their composition.

Type of Regolith at a Place

The layers of weathered rocks, soil etc. lying over bedrock is technically called
regolith. Usually textbooks in geology deal only with rocks but civil engineers are
interested in both the soil as well as the rock below the ground level. Even though it is
difficult to predict the geological history and the nature of the soil deposit in a place, we
will be able to guess from our experience of the deposits we have found in many other
similar places, the type of deposit we are likely to meet in a given site. For this purpose of
studying the geology of soil deposits we divide soil deposits into the following five groups:

1. River deposits

2. Lake deposits

3. Shore deposits

4. Sea deposits

5. Wind deposits

The nature of soil strata that we usually find in each of these above deposits will be
similar but different form each other. We will deal with them separately in the later
chapters. All civil engineers dealing with foundation engineering should have a fair
knowledge of the nature of deposits in each group. We will study it in the following
chapters.

Symbols Used to Describe the State of Weathering of Rocks

The following symbols are sometimes used to describe the state of weathering of
rocks in our geological field survey of a site.

1. Completely Weathered Rock Materials (CWRM)

2. Highly Weathered Rock Materials (HWRM)

3. Moderately Weathered Rock Materials (MWRM)

4. Partially Weathered Rock Materials (PWRM)

5. Hard Rock (HR)

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Summary

Weathering is the disintegration or decomposition of the original rocks to form the

regolith. In general there are many ways by which weathering of rocks take place. They
are (1) Mechanical Weathering (2) Chemical Weathering (3) Weathering of rock by plants
and animals.

Geomorphology is a special subject. It is the study of landscape. The aerial

photographs of landscape are very helpful for the preliminary investigations of large
projects like building a reservoir. Even a preliminary study of geomorphology is quite
interesting and rewarding.

QUESTIONS:

1. In this process the rock is split into smaller pieces or even soils, but the character
of the product

of this type of weathering of a given rock is the same.

2. What will happen if the weathered products can be remain in place or can be also
transported by water or wind?

3. It is the layers of weathered rocks, soil lying over bedrock.

4. Give the general ways by which weathering of rocks take place

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LESSON 7: WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND
AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING
IMPORTANCE
 RIVERS
To a hydraulic engineer and an irrigation engineer the water that flows into the
river is most important. From the geological point view, we look upon rivers as one among
the means of distributing the products of weathering all over the earth surface.

All the rivers have a beginning which is called the head. The place where a river
ends in the sea or lake is called the mouth. In all the cases, the slope of the rivers at the
head is high so that it can carry all the materials (the coarse and fine weathered products)
from the parent rocks down. The slope slowly decreases and in the plains it is smaller.
Thus the shape of the slope curve from the head to the mouth is concave (facing the sky).
Thus concept of change in slope is very important in our study of deposits along the rivers.

 PLAYFAIR’S LAW (Functions of a river)

Very few people realize that the whole river system from its start to the finish (head
to mouth) is a sensitive, lively system. This lively performance of rivers is described by the
Playfair’s law which can be stated as follows.

“Every river consists of a main trunk fed by the branches that run in valleys,
proportioned to its size and all of them together forming a system of valleys
communicating with each other and having such a nice adjustment of their toward slopes
that none of them join the principal valley either at a too high or too low level, a
circumstance which would be impossible if the valleys were not the work of the stream
which flows in it”.

This law indicates vibrant systems and explains how the deep valleys and other
landforms have been formed. They are the work of the rivers to facilitate the smooth flow
of water and sediments. These landforms have been formed by the three geologic functions
of the rivers, namely:

 EROSION
The erosion is one of the most expressive features of river which is turbulent with
currents in all directions. Most rivers carve the river valley by erosion. The higher the
velocity and turbulence, the greater is the erosion. The river erosion can take place in the
following four ways: (1) Corrasion (2) Corrosion (3) Attrition, and (4) Hydraulic action.
These can be indicated as follows:

Corrasion: This is the abrasive force or corrosive force, producing a mechanical erosion of
rocks by the sediments the river carries. The abrasion of rock fragments depends on the
three factors (1) If the transported material is hard in relation to the

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  bed, the bed gets affected and wears down (2) If both are hard then the bed gets
polished (3) If the bed is harder the bed is not affected.
 Corrosion: In this process the water dissolves particles of the river banks or bottom
and carries them in solution.
 Attrition: This is due to the rubbing of the particles being carried by the river when
they are thrown at each other.
 Hydraulic action: This is the force of the water of the fast flowing rivers that can
dislodge materials from the river banks and river beds.

Transportation of Eroded Materials

The materials that have been eroded have to be transported down the river. There
are three ways in which the river can transport the materials dislodged by it, they are:

1) Dissolved load
2) Suspended load: The fine particles of sand silt and clay can remain in suspension.
3) Bed load: The large-sized materials settle to the bed of the river and move along the
bed by rolling, sliding or by sudden movement (saltation). This bottom load is also
called the traction load.

Deposition (Alluvial Deposits)

When the velocity of water in river is not enough to carry the load of soil particles it
has been carrying, it deposits the load at the places of low velocity. This usually happens
in the regions where the slope of the river bed becomes gentle.

As the slope of the river at the head of the river is large and towards the mouth it is
small, the maximum size of deposits the river can carry is larger near the head and
becomes smaller towards the mouth. Because of this reason, in the regions where the river
had large slopes earlier and now small slopes, we may meet with coarse pebbles at the
bottom with fine sand or silt at the top of the river bed. This is the soil profile of most of
the rivers at mid reaches.

These functions act on the following three physical processes involved in the formation
of river valleys, namely:

1) Deepening of the river valley

2) Lengthening or shortening of the river valley, and
3) Widening the river valleys

Carried or Deposited Particles by River Water

Different particles of soil require different velocities (a) For them to be scoured by
water (b) For them to be carried in water and (c) To be deposited on their path. For
example, it requires a velocity of about 150cm/s for gravel pieces to be carried by rivers.
Sand may require only 30 to 15 cm/s. It is also interesting to note that sand and gravel
generally roll along the bed of the river, whereas silt and clay are carried in suspension.

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 Velocity curve of a stream with depth

Figure 10. Fields of erosion,

transportation and deposition of
river sediments in the flow of
Bed rivers.

 Stream Cycle
The stream cycle can be briefly described as follows. We have seen that a river is a
live system. It passes through three stages in the same way as humans. These stages
described herein below:

 Juvenile or Youth Stage (Upper Course)

This is the stage of high downward vertical erosion. It develops the following characteristic
formations:

a) V- shaped valleys
b) Gorges and canyons
c) Rapids and cataracts (Rapids of greater dimensions are known as cataracts)
d) Waterfalls
e) Holes
f) Piracy (Capturing of a streamlet that flowed into one river another stream that
flows into another river)

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  Maturity Stage (Middle Course)
This is the middle course of a river where the gradient is gentler and the river valley
becomes wide, leading to the following features:

a) Meanders: (The term meander is derived from river Meanderz in Turkey, which
flows in loops). In the wide plains the river may be made to bend and take a curve
due to some obstructions. Then the velocity around the outside bend becomes very
much higher and hence the river cuts down the river bank. As the velocity inside
the bend being less, deposition of fine particles takes place which is shown. The clay
deposits are found more on the inside of the river bends where the velocity is low.
As erosion cuts away bank on one side and deposition takes place on the opposite
side, the river migrates laterally and produces a meandering river.

b) Flood plain: The flood plains occur in the middle course of the river that has formed
its maturity. The valley characteristics are absent and the river flows along a wide
and flatter region. Overflow of the banks and flooding happens during floods. This
leaves behind deposits of silt on both sides. These are called flood plains. The
following are the geomorphologic features of this region:

 Levees: The natural embankments formed by the river in the flood plains are called
levees. As the floodwater in the river spills on the flood plains it loses energy and
coarse materials are deposited at the edges. Over the years raised edges are formed
which are called levee.
 Oxbow lakes: The meandering river can cut across the flood plain and form the
oxbow lakes. The oxbow lakes can develop into swamps in course of time.
 Braiding: When the river reaches the end of the middle course the river deposits
more and more of the load it has been carrying and may break up into a network of
interconnected channels resembling the strand of a braid. This happens more often
towards the beginning of the old stage of the river.

Figure 11. Meandering River

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 Figure 12. Natural Levees and
Flood Plains

(a) (b)

Figure 13: Development of deltas (a) Initial development (b) Final development

 OLD AGE (Lower Course)

In the last stages of the river just before it joins the sea or lake, the flow becomes
gentle as the slope of the river in considerably reduced. If it joins the sea, there are waves,
sea currents and also change in the salinity of water. The suspended material is deposited.
If the amount of material is not large then it will be carried away by the sea by its
currents and waves. This is what happens to the small rivers on the west coast of
peninsular India. However if the rivers are large like those which flow into the Bay of
Bengal and the amount of suspended materials carried by river is very large, a large
amount of the suspended materials will be deposited at the mouth of the river to form
deltas. (The name delta is given as the usual form of the land built up by the river such as
the Nile is in the form of the Greek letter delta with the pointed end facing landwards).

 Delta-Building: The subject of delta-building is very interesting and can be

explained as follows. The deposition of material at the mouth of the river and into
the sea materially increases the length of the river. This decreases the slope and
hence more deposition happens. For example, if the slope was 2 ft in 90 miles and if
the length of deposition of sediments of the river is increased to 100 miles, the slope
reduces from 1 in 45 to 1 in 50. The velocity of water decreases and more deposition
takes place. Also during the floods because of the raising of the beds, the river will
have to branch off before it falls into the sea to increase the flow and thus form the
typical delta.There are many types of deltas of which three are the typical.
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Figure 14: Examples of arcuate deltas

Figure 15: Examples of bird’s foot deltas (This third type is the estuarine deltas).

1) Arcuate (means bent like a bow) deltas: It looks like those of the river Ganges and
Nile.
2) Birds foot deltas: It appears like that of the Mississippi river. These rivers carry
extremely fine particles and clays. The deposits do not allow much flow under the
surface (the deposits being clayey or impervious), so that the flow of water is
concentrated in a few large channels which form a pattern of the bird’s foot. Thus
this type of deltas has clay deposits.
3) Estuarine filling: As in the Hudson River which flows into an estuary and where the
deposits are built in the form of long bars at the mouth of the river. The forms
extensive filling of soil bars or marshes.

The rivers that fall into lakes will also build deltas. The deltas, built in lakes and in
land seas or bays, are more perfect than those built in the open ocean with strong currents
and waves. The deltas built in the seas will be usually irregular.

The three stages or courses do not depend on the age of the river but on the present
performance of the river at a given place which depends on many present factors. It is also
interesting to consider the two basic physiographic concepts in river flow that of (a) base
level and (b) profile of equilibrium which varies with the flow.

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 a) Base Level: This is the level that controls the depth of the stream erosion. No
stream base level can be below the sea level. A base level is the depth limit of the
valley and is controlled by the water level in the body of water into which it flows
down (ocean, sea, lakes, etc.). Only the lower end of the valley reaches the base
level, the rest is generally higher except for depressions.
b) Profile of equilibrium: A stream is said to have reached its grade or profile of
equilibrium when its slope and volume of water it carries are in equilibrium with
the sediment load it transports. The annual and seasonal fluctuations in volume
and velocity bring about continual readjustments of their profile. The gradient is
expressed as slope of the profile of equilibrium at the steady state of flow of the
river with no erosion or deposition. It is expressed in meters per kilometer, meter or
feet per mile.

No implication of years is to be read into the terms juvenile, youth and old stages. It
only represents the various stages of development of the river. Thus a youthful stream in
hard rock, high above the base level (profile of equilibrium) may be millions of year of age,
whereas the old stream near the base level may be only a few thousand years of age.

 REJUVENATION OF RIVERS
As already indicated, youth and old age does not denote the age of the river but only
whether it is eroding (juvenile) or is in equilibrium or in depositing (old age) at present.
Thus if a mature river has its gradient increased for example, by lowering the sea level or
some construction then the river will work to reduce the gradient by cutting down the
previously deposited flood plain until the former gradient is again established. This is in
accordance with the Playfair’s law.

 CORIOLIS EFFECT AND FERREL’S LAW

The effect which causes the deflection of a body in motion on earth due to the
rotation of the earth is called the Coriolis Effect. According to Ferrel’s law, due to this
effect if a body moves in any direction on the earth’s surface, the deflection force will act to
the right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the southern hemisphere.

According to this law a river flowing in the north direction in northern hemisphere
tends to erode the east banks more than the west banks. Similarly a river in the northern
hemisphere flowing in south direction tends to deflect to the west; land erosion will take
place more of the west banks than the east banks. However in all the cases the resistance
of the material to erosion and slope of the land will also play a prominent part.

 WIND
The movement of air over the surface of the earth is called wind. We have seen that
wind, water and ice are not only some of the agents of weathering but also the agents of
transportation of the weathered products over the face of the earth. Wind performs all the
three functions of erosion, transportation and deposition of the weathered products.

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The wind deposits are also called Aeolian deposits. We will first examine the above three
functions. We are also interested in the nature of typical formations made by wind, such
as sand-dunes, loss deposits. We will briefly examine their nature. They are found in or
near desserts in the regions of high temperature and wind as well as low rainfall.

 EROSION WORK OF WINDS

The processes of erosion due to wind are (1) Deflation, and (2) Abrasion which can
be described as follows.

 Deflation
The act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming
depression as shown in the figure is called deflation. By this process of removing the sand
to the groundwater level, oasis is formed in deserts.

Figure 16: Evolution of oasis lakes

 Abrasion
Abrasion is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against
formations like understanding rock and eroding them. Most of the coarse materials in the
wind remain in the lower 30 to 60 cm height of the wind from the ground as bed load and
some coarse sand particles will be swept by rolling them on the ground. Hence the rock
erosion produces profiles of upstanding rocks as shown in figure. In such cases there will
be more erosion at the lower level and very much less erosion at the higher level of the
upstanding rocks.

Figure 17: Erosion of lower parts of rocks as more sand is present in the lower layers of
the wind and when wind blows from one direction only.

 SANDANDSTORMS AND DUST STORMS

While the lower part of the wind consists of sand, the upper part is mainly the fine
particles of dust. Thus the lower part produces the sand storms and the upper part
produce dust storms.

 DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENTS
The velocity of the wind carrying the particles may get reduced by some obstructions
like hills, mountains, forests sudden change of climate presence of water bodies like
rivers, sea, fall of rains, etc. This reduction of velocity forces deposition of the

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 particles the wind is carrying, and they form typical Aeolian deposits. The two
important types such deposits are (1) Sand dunes (2) Loess. We will briefly examine their
characteristics.

 SAND AND DUNES

The sand dunes are formed by deposition of sand carried by winds. It is a heap of
sand conical in cross section with a gentle slope on the windward side and a steeper slope
on the leeward side as shown in figure. There is much type of formations such as the
longitudinal dunes transverse dunes and most common crescent shaped dune called
Barchans. This is in the form of a horse shoe in plan with horns pointing in the direction
in which the wind blows. Because of its shape, the barchans are also called crescent dunes.
The windward side is convex in plan and rises gently at less than 20˚. It has well-defined
crest beyond which it slopes abruptly on to the leeward side. The dunes may get stabilized
as “fixed dunes” in one place or like the barchans move in the direction of the winds. Sand
dunes can be formed at three kinds of locations namely

1) Near sea shores as shore dunes

2) Bed of rivers as riverbed dunes and
3) Inland as desert dunes

The other shapes as shown in the figure are also formed in the other locations. They
are the transverse and the longitudinal types. The main engineering problems we meet
with sand dunes is their movement from one place to another with time. With violent
winds it may migrate to a valuable agricultural or residential land. The best solution to
prevent this migration is the plantation of suitable plants or grass that will grow in these
dune formations so that their roots will stabilize the soil. Planting tall trees and hedges at
the border of the area to be protected, is another solution.

Figure 18: Plan view of sand dunes (a)

Crescent shaped dune called Barchans
(b) Transverse dune (c) Longitudinal
dune.

Seifs: These are also called longitudinal

dunes. They are formed parallel to the
directions of the wind as shown in the
figure. These are usually found in the
places where a steady wind prevails.
These dunes may exist in great heights
and up to 200 m along long distances.

 LOESS DEPOSISTS
The term loess was first applied to the loose unconsolidated deposits found along the
Rhine River extending to the Black Sea. Loess is fine particles usually derived from
flood plains and glacial outwash laid by the wind. It consists of the loosely arranged

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 angular grains of calcareous silt, rich in quartz with calcium carbonate. It is of the
uniform size and composition formed without stratification. They can be formed in large
heights and can stand with a vertical face when dry. But structure will collapse completely
if water gets into the deposits. Usually the loess soils are very fertile and good for
agriculture.

The loess deposits pose two engineering problems, Firstly the collapse of its
structure on wetting or saturation. Secondly because of its loose structure, they are subject
to frost heaving in cold countries, when they occur on highway layouts. However no major
loess deposits are found in the Indian subcontinent.

 SEA
Seas and oceans covered over seventy per cent of the earth’s surface. Most civil
engineers are generally interested on the shorelines only. Those specializing in harbor
structures will have to go deeper into the sea. The term ‘sea’ is generally used for saline
water bodies surrounded by landforms and also water bodies of shallower depth less than
4 km. In this chapter we will first describe the formation of the shoreline and restrict our
study of the two subjects namely (1) sea waves, sea currents and the theory of formation of
coastlines by erosion, deposition and sea level changes (2) Corel deposits.

 SEA WAVES
The waves are created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its
energy destroyed. The distance between the crests of adjacent waves is the wavelength in
the deep part of the sea; waves are only oscillatory (goes only up and down). These are
called oscillatory waves. As it travels to the shallower coast it becomes translator waves
and brakes along the shores. The velocity of the oscillatory waves in the ocean is equal to
the wavelength divided by the period of the waves as shown in the figure. During heavy
winds the waves will be large and may also travel faster as the energy stored in the waves
will be higher. During tsunamis the velocity of the waves is very high and the high kinetic
energy it carries is converted into very high waves (high potential energy) on reaching the
coast.

 LITTORAL CURRENTS
The word littoral means pertaining to the shoreline. There are many types of currents in
the sea. The littoral currents are currents pertaining to the seas, lake and oceans, the
currents produced after the breaking of waves on the coast are shown in the figure. The
movement of water up to the coast when the waves break is called swash and the return of
the water back into the sea is called backwash. While the flow (velocity) of the swash is
directed to the shore the currents set up by the backwash (which is called the rip current)
usually act below the sea level and are directed to the deeper waters as shown in the
figure. Hence it is easier to come to the shore if we swim with the waves on top rather
than swim against the rip current that act below the surface of the sea. (All those who go
into the sea for a swim should be aware of this action). There is also another

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 current called littoral current acting along the coast as shown in the figure. This
current affects formation of the coast and we will deal with this current in more detail.

Figure 19: Waves and currents (1) Ordinary Waves (2) Transitory Waves (3) Littoral
currents (4) Rip Currents

Formation of Coastline by Marine Erosion of Coastal Rocks

The following are the four distinct processes.

1) Abrasion: Waves hurl pebbles, sand boulders and other substances against base of
cliffs, under-cutting the base of cliffs on the sea coast.
2) Hydraulic action: The cracks in the cliffs are filled with sea water from the waves
and its sudden release during the retreat of the waves cause the material around
the cracks to break up.
3) Attrition due to rubbing together of particles in the waves and get broken up.
4) Solution (Corrosion): By chemical action leading to solution of some of the
constituents.
Landforms Formed by Marine Erosion of Rocks on Seacoasts

We will next deal with the landforms formed by the coastal erosion and coastal
deposition. The following landforms are created by the above erosion of the rocks beside
the sea.

a) Sea cliffs
b) Sea caves, Arches ,stacks and stumps
c) Wave-cut platforms
Formation of Landforms by Coastal Deposition

The sediments entering the sea are carried away by the sea waves and deposited in
the sea or alternately it may be taken to the other parts of the seacoast. The coarser and
heavier particles are generally left near the coast. These form shore deposits. Such
deposits on the coast forms the landforms called beaches, spits and bars. Brief descriptions
of these are given below with reference to the figure below.

Figure 20: Development of shoreline deposits

by littoral currents

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  Beaches: These are formed by the deposition of sand and gravel along the coast. In
theory, beach is the zone extending from low water sea level to the upper limit of
high water. However if the sea recedes the beaches can become wider, from the
former position of the waterline to the present position of the waterline. There are
many such wide beaches formed along the seacoasts.
 Spits: Spit is a long and narrow extension of the beach into the sea. They are sand-
deposits formed by shore drifts. (The process of shifting coarse materials from
seaward side towards the land along the shore is called beach drift). This happens
mainly across the mouths of the rivers or the depressions of the sea into the land as
shown in the figure above where the shore current along the coast meets deeper
waters. Then the sea current slows down. The reduction of the velocity of current
makes the deposition of materials in the shore current. The one end of the spit as
shown in figure below is joined to the mainland and the other end projects into the
sea. If the seaward end gets curved, it is known as a hooked spit as shown in figure
below. The curve also occurs due to the action of the waves.

Figure 21: Development of spit, hook and bay

 Bars: Bars are long deposits of sand formed in the sea parallel to the shoreline. This
may be above or below the sea level. Those above the sea level are called barrier
beach.
 Tombolo: If the bar forms a link to the mainland the link is known as a tombolo as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 22: Development of hook and bar

 Lagoon: A bar spit can enclose a portion of the sea as shown in the figure above to
form a lake such as the Chilka Lake of Orissa, which is of 70 km length and a
maximum width of 52 km. Such a lake is called a Lagoon.

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  FORMATION OF LANDFORMS BY SEA LEVEL CHANGES
During the long history of the earth, the sea level has fallen and also risen in many
places on earth due to various causes. A rise in sea level can form a ford (a narrow long
valley). There are called shore lines of submergence. Similarly when this rise in sea level
submerges a river valley it forms a “ria coastline” (Ria is good sit for harbors). These are
many of those along the coastline of Britain.

When the sea level falls and more of the land gets exposed they are known as raised
beaches. The landforms formed by this process are called land or shores of emergence. The
shape of a coast is shown in the figure below. Kerala is taken as a land of emergence and
in the puranas it is said to be created by saint Parashurama.

Figure 23: Types of shorelines (a) Shoreline of submergence (b) Shoreline if emergence

 CURRENTS IN THE SEAS

There are different types of currents that work in the waters of the seas like density
currents, salinity currents, temperature currents, tidal currents etc. However most of
them do not affect the shores. We will briefly examine only the action of the following type
of currents that affect the coastline as shown.

1) Underflow or rip currents and littoral currents

2) Tidal currents

 UNDERTOE (Rip Current) AND LITTORAL CURRENTS

We noted that the waves that come to the shore with a certain velocity, after
flowing up the slope of the beaches, the water returns to the sea with a velocity depending
on the slope of the beach along the bottom. This current is called undertoe or rip current.
In the shallow shores this returning velocity will be meeting the velocity of the incoming
or advancing waves with high velocity inside the line of breakers and it is thrown
shoreward again. Under these circumstances, if the waves hit the shore at an angle, an
escape current flowing along the coast may be generated. Already dealt with in the
current that moves along the coast is called littoral current. This current will flow parallel;
to the coast until depressions are found which will give an opportunity for seaward exit.
The velocity of the sideward flow being less, it will leave all the course materials it has
been carrying near the coast and can take only the fine materials with it. However if the
beach is sufficiently steep the undertow may develop enough velocity to move suspended
materials with it to the sea. Thus the materials deposited on the beach by the waves will
depend in many factors.

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  TIDAL CURRENTS
The rise and fall of the tide in an open coast does not produce much effect on the
deposits on the shoreline. However if the tides are very high and the fall of the tide has to
take place through a narrow exit then the large velocity at the place of exit may have some
effect on the nearby deposits at that place. The high velocity can lead to erosion.

 SEAWALLS AND BULKHEADS

Seawalls and bulkheads are the massive structures built along the coast (They are
built parallel to the coast). Their faces may be vertical, sloping or parabolic to produce as
little force on the wall as possible. Bulkheads are made of steel or concrete or timber piles
and they are used where the impact of waves is not very large. The large hollow
prestressed concrete pipes have been used for shore protection near Chennai harbor with
some success.

 CONSTRUCTION OF REVETMENTS
Revetments against the coast are usually built with large stone or concrete block big
enough to resist the force of the waves placed on each other. It should also be built high
enough to prevent overtopping of the ordinary waves. For economy, the height may be
such that storm waves may just spill over it.

 PREVENTION OF SILTING
Corals are very small sea organisms that live in very large colonics especially near
the tropics. They secret calcium carbonates and build coral reef. These coral deposits may
be built on sand deposits in the sea. The three types of coral reefs deposited are (a)
Fringing reefs (b) Barrier reefs and (c) Atolls.

QUESTIONS:

1. Give and explain the following four ways of river erosion that take place.

2. It is the process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations like
understanding rock and eroding them.

3. What are the develop characteristics of Juvenile Stage.

4. It is created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and gets its energy
destroyed.

5. Another term of longitudinal dunes. They are formed parallel to the directions of
the wind as shown in the figure

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LESSON 8: ORIGIN, OCCURRENCE
OF EARTHQUAKE

It is very important that in the design of civil engineering structures like buildings,
bridges, dams etc., we should be able to examine the following with respect to
earthquakes.

(a) The chance of earthquake happening in the place concerned.

(b) Estimate the magnitude of earthquake that can happen at the place.

(c) Provide information regarding the forces and stresses caused by the likely
earthquake in the region.

(d) Check whether soil liquefaction can take place at the site of the structures we are
interested in.

The methods of design and detailing the structure for earthquakes is a special subject. In
this chapter we will examine only the following:

1. The cause of earthquakes and its types.

2. How do we measure the magnitude of the earthquake that takes place in a

particular region.

3. What is the magnitude of earthquake that we can expect at various places in India
according to ISI893 (2002) specification.

4. We will also examine the earthquakes that take place under the sea called
“seaquakes” and the occurrence of tsunami (A Japanese word “soo nah me”,
meaning the coastal waves) as there are chances of these affecting coasts of South
India. A tsunami can also be caused by a landslide under the sea.

5. What is meant by liquefaction of soil due to an earthquake.

 Causes of Earthquake and Its Types

The earth is like a ball of about 6370 km in radius with most of the interior as liquid or
semisolid. Its solid crust is only of the thickness of about 45 km. The crust is divided into
seven major plates and many minor plates in contact with each other and that all types of
movements can take place at their junctions. Each plate may have inside plate-defects-like
faults. Due to many reasons this crust gets strained and the energy produced by these are
stored in the crust. At intervals the energy has to get released through movement of crust
mostly along the already existing faults or at times even by breaking of the solid crust
itself. More often each of the seven plates floating on the magma can react with the closest
plate and cause disturbances. These movements and consequent release of energy cause
violent earthquakes. Thus earthquakes, depending on its origin are classified as follows.

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  Tectonic Earthquakes
This type of earthquakes take place due to movement of the crust along the existing
faults in the earth’s crust. It can take place on land or under the sea. When it occurs under
the sea as seaquakes, tsunami may also happen. But tsunami need not happen in all such
earthquakes. It occurs only when the movement of the crust under the sea is vertical.

Most major earthquakes occur along the junctions of the plates described above, called
Interplate Earthquakes. Earthquakes can also take place within major plates. They are
called Interplate Earthquakes.

 Reservoir Associated Earthquakes

It is claimed that in a reservoir storage of water to a large depth near the dam and to a
lower depth in other places can also produce shear failure in the rock below the reservoir.
These movements can cause earthquakes. These are called reservoir associated
earthquakes. It is claimed that the serious earthquake (M 6.5) that took place in
December 1967 near Koyna dam in Poona which resulted in the loss of many lives, was
due to this type of shear failure.

Earthquakes Due to Other Causes

Earthquakes can also occur near the places of volcanic eruption and also due to an atom
bomb or due to very large earth or rock slides etc. They are called non-tectonic
earthquakes.

Measurement of Size of Earthquakes Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquakes

There are two scales of measurement of the largeness of the earthquakes one proposed by
Mercalli in1902 and the other proposed late by Charles F. Richter in1958. The first is
called intensity and the second is magnitude.

Intensity-Mercalli scale of intensity of earthquakes: Mercalli classified earthquakes into

twelve classes according to the destruction they cause. The classifications are like I
“Instrumental” (very feeble that can be felt only by an instrument) to XII very destructive.
This is not very much in use nowadays.

Richter scale of magnitude of earthquakes (m): Sometimes called modified Mercalli

intensity is base more scientifically on the amplitude produced in the earthquake
measuring instrument, the seismograph.

The Mercalli scale gives to the base 10 the maximum trace amplitude in microns which
will be registered in the standard seismograph. It is expressed to the base 10 and we have
the magnitudes of M 1 to M10. A magnitude of M 8 compared to M3 will be 10 5 times
stronger. The energy released is given by the formula

Log E (ergs) = 11.8 + 1.5 M

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Thus the energy released by a magnitude of M 8.5 earthquake will be more than 100
million times stronger than a small earthquakes of a magnitude of M 3. An earthquake of
magnitude of M 6 produces the energy equivalent to 20 million tons of TNT.

Earthquakes produce vertical as well as horizontal and torsional oscillations. Of these, on

land the horizontal acceleration is given more importance in design of civil engineering
structures like tall buildings, bridges etc. They produce horizontal forces similar to wind
forces in buildings. The frequency of oscillations is also important. If the frequency of the
earthquake is also the same as the natural frequency of the structure, there will be
resonance and more havoc. Thus in one region earthquake were more destructive for a
three-storeyed buildings at the site than other higher of lower rise buildings. However at
present frequency of the earthquake can be predicted for a place only from the past
records of earthquakes in that place.

The earthquakes of magnitude less than the magnitude M 5 is considered as minor and
are referred to as the earth tremors. In the earthquakes under the sea, vertical movement
is more important as it alone is the chief cause of tsunami.

Measurement of Earthquakes

In practice the “magnitude” of the earthquake is measured by the instrument called

seismograph as shown in Figure 24.1. Usually a pendulum type seismograph is used to get
the trace on paper called seismogram. During an earthquake, the ground moves and this
movement is magnified and measured by this instrument. Earthquakes generate three
types of waves namely P (or primary waves) and L (surface long waves).

(a) (b)

Figure 24. Seismograph (a) Working principle (b) Instrument.

The velocities of these waves through earth are different. Hence from a record of the
differences pf time these waves are received at a station, the distance of the instrument
station to the centre of the earthquake called epicenter can be easily determined, this is
the reason how the place of occurrence of an earthquake is announced as soon as it occurs.

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Causes of Tectonic Earthquakes

It is now believed that the shaking of the ground during earthquake is caused by the
passage of seismic waves generated by the stored up stress, in the earth’s crust when
sudden slip takes place on a geologic fault. These geologic faults can be of four types,
mentioned herein below:

(i) Lithospheric plates between continents have been identified, so far

(ii) Strikes slip (Figure 7.4.)

(iii) Normal thrust fault and (Figures 7.5 and 7.6)

(iv) Shallow angle thrust fault.

The item (i) happens between continental rifts and the other active faults are inside the
continents. In fact twelve major tectonic plates and several minor tectonic plates have
been identified so far which play vital role in producing major earthquakes.

It is thought that the “characteristics shakers” of these difference types of faults are
different from each other but we will not go deep into these differences in this chapter. It
is hence sufficient to assume that the cause of earthquake is due to release stored up
energy and the movement of the crust at these faults. In long active fault, disturbances
can occur at any time. It is very difficult to predict when an earthquake will occur at a
place. The only aspect we can predict is that wherever there is a long active fault, an
earthquake can occur there anytime and that the magnitude of the earthquake generally
depends on the length of the existing fault, where the earthquake occurs.

Magnitude of Some Past Earthquakes

The magnitude in Richter scale of some of the past earthquakes that took place around
India and some other places are given below with the year it occurred. (The term FD
means focal depth where the disturbances are supposed to have taken place.)

1. Assam earthquake 1897 (M 8.7)

(in the Himalayan region)

2. Koyna earthquake 1967 (M 6.5)(FD 8 km)

(reservoir associated)

3. Earthquake in Iddiki (Kerala) 2001 (M 4.8)

(This is only a tremor)

4. Gujarat (Bhuj) earthquake 2001 (M 6.8)(FD 23 km)

5. Indonesian earthquake 2004 (M 9)

6. Pakistan earthquake 2005 (M 7.6)

In Himalayan Region due to the movement of a reverse fault

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 7. Japan earthquake 2011 (M 10)

(It is interesting to note that the area of the “world plate” divide passes very near to
Japan.)

Relation between Earthquake and Length of Slip or Fault

We have already seen that the major cause of a tectonic earthquake is the movement of
the earth’s crust at the faults. Faults which have moved in recent historic times are called
the active faults. The approximate relation between the magnitude of earthquake and the
length of the slip or the fault that produce the earthquake has been given in Table 24.1 in
ASCE monogram Vol CL on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings (1980).

Table 2. Relation between magnitude of earthquake fault slip length and approximate
duration (in seconds) (Fault slip length in miles)

Intensity of earthquake Fault slip length in miles Duration (seconds)

M3 0.3 -

M4 0.8 -

M5 2.0 1

M6 5.0 8

M7 25 20

M8 190 35

M 8.5 530 -

Note: In India as the major active faults are in the Himalayan regions these are the very
regions of probable large earthquakes.

Effects of Earthquake in Civil Engineering Construction

The four very important factors to be considered in civil engineering construction due to
earthquake are the following:

1. The effect of the horizontal forces on structure.

2. Settlement of structures due to vibration of the structure.

3. Soil liquifaction of foundation soil.

4. Slope stability of existing slopes.

We will deal very briefly with each of these aspects.

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Horizontal Forces Due to Earthquake

In a multistoreyed building the horizontal acceleration produces horizontal forces. For this
purpose Indian Standard 1893 (2002) (2) has published the code entitled. “Criteria for
Earthquake Design of Structures”. As shown in Figure 24.2, India has been divided into
four zones (II to IV) as shown in Figure 24.2 for which the design seismic coefficient for
horizontal forces is given. (Note that there is no Zone I) Structures like multistoreyed
buildings rertaining walls etc. should be checked against failure due to these horizontal
forces. Figure 24.2 shows the zones. This figure also shows that the earthquake effects in
peninsular India is much less than in Himalayan region. The magnitude of the horizontal
acceleration (that will produce the horizontal forces) for each zone in India as given in IS
1893 is shown in Table 24.2.

Figure 25. Seismic zones according to IS 1893 (2002). (There is no Zone I).

We calculate the horizontal force as follows in the static method

H = Wa

where W is the weight and a the seismic coefficient as given in Table 24.2.

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Notes:

1. In the multistoreyed buildings W is maximum at the base. There is also a more

dynamic method of calculating the horizontal forces which we will study in the
higher classes.

2. Study the difference in action of wind forces and seismic forces on a very tall
multistoreyed building.

Table 3. Values of coefficient a IS 1893 (2002)

(for simple static method)

Zone Seismic coefficient a

II 0.02

III 0.04

IV 0.05

V 0.08

 Settlement of Structures
The loose cohesionless soils are rearranged by certain types of vibrations in order to
make them extremely dense. In addition, earthquakes can produce oscillation of buildings.
It will be very damaging if they coincide with the natural frequency of the structure. When
the frequency of the building and oscillation due to earthquake happen to be the same,
resonance can be produced. Even otherwise the vertical component of the motion can
induce settlement in loose soils.

 Soil Liquifaction
If the foundation is sandy (the clay content of the soil is less than 5 per cent) and if the
soil is loose and also saturated with high water level, the soil with the water can behave
like a liquid due to the oscillations of the ground caused by the earthquake. Under these
conditions which is called liquefaction of soil, the structure (building) can sink into the
ground. Such failures have occurred in many places due to earthquake. This phenomenon
is called liquefaction due to earthquake.

 Slope Instability During Earthquakes

The shaking of the earth due to earthquake can produce instability of slopes. This very
important in earth dams. (In concrete dams the oscillations of the water body can cause
great damage unless these forces are considered in their design).

In some high hill places like Ooty, even light earthquake can disturb the soil over rocks on
slopes and if very high torrential downpour after the earthquake of rain occur then the

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water seeping through the junction between the rock and soil can produce very bad slope
failures.

 Design of Masonry, Concrete and Earth Dams in the Earthquake Areas

It is better to avoid masonry dams made of individual stone blocks in the areas of large
earthquakes. Earth dams, rock fill dams and also concrete dams without joints will fare
much better under the earthquake conditions. If an earth dam construction is planned at a
site where an earthquake can take place, the foundation should be checked for settlement
and liquefaction due to earthquake.

 Tsunami and Seiche

The earthquakes under the sea produce tsunami. It is only the vertical tectonic
movements that produce tsunami. The tangential and outward movements do not produce
tsunami. The large potential energy caused by the vertical displacement, produce high
energy waves that travel fast (up to 300 km/h) from the place of origin of the earthquake
in all directions. The kinetic energy in these waves can be destroyed only when it reaches
the coast. The kinetic energy, when the waves meet the coast, is in turn converted to high
potential energy in the form of very high waves and by destroying all the structures that
come on its path. The famous tsunami that occurred in 2004 and which affected both east
and west coasts of India was due to a large vertical displacement of the rock under the sea
near Sumatra in the Indian Ocean. It took two hours to reach Tamil Nadu. Early tsunami
warning systems have now been installed in the Indian Ocean. As the tsunami will strike
the far away coast much later than the earthquake, this warning systems give us
opportunity to prepare ourselves to face the event. The recent tsunami of 2011 in Japan
produced waves up to 13 to 15 ft. high and caused great destruction.

Seiche: Seiche is oscillation in lake water. It can be produced by the change of barometric
pressure or earthquake induce waves in enclosed bodies of water-like lakes, reservoirs
have occurred in many places. They caused usually by long period seismic waves only.

Summary

Earthquakes can be tectonic, reservoir associated or can occur due to other causes like
volcanic occurrence, land or rock slides, rockfalls etc. Seaquakes are earthquakes under
the sea. It can be caused by a large land or rock slides of fall under the sea. However all
earthquakes under the sea need not produce tsunami. Only the vertical movement of large
masses can produce tsunami.

The major type of earthquake takes place along the junction of the continental plates and
at active faults. The magnitude of the earthquake will also depends on the “length of fault
disturbed” called the fault slip length along the existing fault at the time of occurrence of
earthquake. The effect of earthquakes in peninsular India is much less than that in the
northern parts of India.

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QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by magnitude and intensity of earthquakes? What are the scales
used to measure earthquake?

2. Compare the energy involved in an M 7 earthquake to that of M 5 earthquake.

3. How does tsunami occur and how can we take measures to meet it? Give one more
reason other than earthquake, which can cause tsunami.

4. What are the effects due to earthquakes to be considered in civil engineering

structures?

5. What is meant by soil liquefaction? How can it occur?

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