Chapter Introduction The study of mathematics involves the concept of graphs. This is known as Graph Theory. Although graph theory has been around for over a century now its immense applications in almost all ficlis of endeavor are very useful. Competencies [At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: define key terms used in graph theory; differentiate the kinds of graphs; create connections in relation to real-life situations; apply the concepts in graph theory to solve problems; and increase approciation of graph theory through concepts and problems. Chapter 7: Mathematics of Graphs 123. FUNDAMENTALS OF GRAPH 3 THEORY _ | | Objectives: Introduction + Define and apply key torms of No man is alone, Everyone is graph theory. connected by family and friends. Some + Model some problems with the would say that this connection is 2 aid of graphs. social network of family and friends. In » — Develop appreciation of graph a similar way, graph theory deals with theory. connections and relationships. © Activity (Collaboration) Write your name at the center of a piece of paperand write names of friends, starting those who are closest to you. You can put these names on any part of the paper. After writing the names, put a line between you and the friend or friends. Analysis (Communication) A graph is a set of vertices connected by edges. These edges may be ordered or unordered. If a graph has ordered pairs of vertices, then the graph is directed Otherwise, it is called an undirected graph. The degree of a vertex ig the number of edges connected to it. Illustrations of undirected graphs are shown below: Lhe ON Figure 7.1.b Figure 7.1.4 Notice that both graphs are the same because they have the same set of ‘vertices and edges. The graph shows that there are 5 vertices: A B,C, D, and E and there are four edges: {AB}, (B.C), {B,D}, and (B, E}. This graph is undirected because {A B}= {B.A}. The degree of each vertex is shown below: Vertex | A 8 c D E Degree |! 4 1 Chapler 7: Mathematics of Graphs 125is an ordered Now, a directed graph is shown below. It can be seen that (B.A) i tier Bip ait. The edge from A to Bis called the indagroe of the vertex A. The e igs Ais called the outdegree of the vertex B, E ‘igure 7.4.c The indegree and outdegree of the vertices are shown below. Note that the sum of the incegree and the outdegree of each vertexis the total number of edges connected to that vertex. Vertex | indegree | Ouldegree A 2 0 B 0 2 c 1 i D 0 2 E 2 0 F 0 3 G 3 0 Ifa graph has no loops nor multiple edges, then it is a simple graph. If there are no edges connecting each of the verticas, then itis a null graph. An example of a simple graph is shown in Figure 7.1.4. The graph in Figure 7.1,¢ is an example of a null graph. B B A c . ty oc D Figure 71.4 Figure 7.1.6 126 A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modem World,Apath is a sequence of vertices such that they are connected by edges. A circuit saath that stats and ends at the same vertex Toillustrate these concepts, consider the following graph: - E Figure 7.1.6 ‘The graph contains a path since A+ B + D | pattsincudeA—BC,B DE anda. | gephA+B ICA, —+ Eis a connected graph. Other C+ B—D—E.Acircuit exists in the abstraction (Critical Thinking) How will you apply the basic concapts of graph theory to real-ife situations? Application (Creativity) ‘A. For each of the following undirected graphs, identify the: 1. vertices 2. edges 3. degree of each vertex Chapter 7: Mathematics of Graphs 127tdegree of €2Ch vertex. oul 8. Forthe directed graph below, identity the indegre® 74 A Bc D&E F Outdegree Vertex | indegree | Outdagiee Vertex | Indogree A D 8 E c =] F C. Identify two paths and two circuits for the graph below. A Path Circuit Summary Graph theory builds its concepts on connections and relationships. Vertices and edges are studied to apply them in real-life situations. 428 ACoutse Module for Mathematics in the Modern WorldIntroduction ypjectives: Define key terms, i It was shown that a circuit is a Use Euler's Formula to solve -—=#ath that starts andends withthe same problems. "vertex. In order to deal with deeper "graph theory, many more terms are to be defined. Aetivity (Collaboration) Consider the graph below: x, B c F =r FP Can you find a circuit that uses edges only once? Analysis (Communication) Ifthere is 2 path from one vertex to another, then the ‘graphis called aconnected graph. Taking the path A— D —+ B -+ C from the graph below makes (A, D, B, C}.a connected graph. f Y Figure 72.0 Chapter 7: Mathematics of Graphs 129other. The graph A raner graph 1s a graph such that no ads cross each ot ‘This s shown (A, D, B, C} from Figure 7.2.a can be redrawn such that no edges in Figure 7.2.c A 'B Dd [I e > c Figure 7.2.5 Figen te starta {twas from the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler that graph os f oi : {© gain worldwide attention. As such, he was able to develop many concepts including the Euler's circuit and Euler's formula, Euler's circuit is a circuit that uses edges only once. Consider the graph below: AB c D RE Figure 7.2.4 Notice that the circuit B + D — E + C +B shows Euler's circuit because it uses each edge only once. 130 A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modern World7 Euler's formula says that if a connected, planar graph has 0 edges, v vertices and fteces: then fro-ve2 where @ face of € graph is the bounded region of a graph. Bounded regions may ge nside or outside the graph, Figure 7-2.d has a connected, plenar graph as shown In Figure 7.2.e below. 3B c D E Figure 7.2.¢ The lowercases a and b are the faces of the graph. Therefore, there are 2 faces. Verving this using Euler's formula with 4 vertices and 4 edoes, fa4-ae2 fe2 Application (Creativity) Consider the following graph: A. Draw two connected graphs. Chapter 7: Mathematics of Grephs 131B. Draw two planar graphs. C. Draw two Euler's circuits. D. Find the number of faces in the graph. Summary Euler's formula is a simple formula, yetit is one’of the most important theories of all imes. itis Just one of the many concapts of graph theory thatis easily understood. 132 A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modern World=.) || GRAPH COLORING opjectives: Introduction 4, Understand the concept of Graph coloring is one of the most graph coloring, easily understood concepts of raph | 2, Apply the theories to graph theory, However, theoretically, it is coloring. also one of the most difficult concepts to generalize. Activity (Collaboration) Color each vertex such thal the least colors of crayons are used. You may repeal colors as long as they are not next to each other, Recall that a planar graph is a graph such that no edges cross each other. There What did you notice about the number of colors per figure? Analysis (Communication) are two theorems that afe notable: 2-colorable graph theorem and the four-color theorem. The 2-colorable graph theorem states that a graph is 2-colorable if and only itithas no circuits that consists of an odd number of vertices. The following graph is 2-colorable, oO os jf Figure 7.3.a Another theorem is used to color graphs, This is known as the Four-color Theorem. Instead of coloring the vertices, the regions of the graph are colored. Chaptar7: Mathematics of Graphs 133or t The four-color theorem states that at most 4 colors are needed Le planar graph such that no adjacent regions share the same color. The following Shows SS Figure 7.3. Figure 7.3.6 Abstraction (Critical Thinking) Get a copy of the map of Africa. Color each country of Africa in'4 colors such that No two colors are shared by adjacent countries. Is this possible? Application (Creativity) For each of the following graphs, how many colors are needed? 1. 2. 3 OSS i a See 184 ACouree Module for Mathematics in the Modern Worldsummary s, being vi the theorems presented and color tho graphs, chapter Summary Agraph is a set of verticés connected by edges. These edges may be ordered or unordered. If a graph has ordered Pairs of vertices, then the graph is directed. The edge from A to B is called the indegree of the vertex A, The edge from B to Ais called the outdegree of the vertex B. Otherwise, itis called an undirected graph. The degree ofa vertex in an undirected graph is the number of adges connected to it. A path isa Sequence of vertices such that they are connected by edges. A circut is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex. Euler's circuit is a circuit that uses edges only once. a graph has no loops nor multiple edges, then its a simple graph. there are ‘to edges connecting each of the vertices, then itis a null graph. If there is a path from one vertex to another, then the graph is called a connected graph. A planar graph is a graph such that no edges cross each other, Euler’s formula says that if a connected, planar graph has e edges, v vertices and faces, then fee-vt2 where a face of a graph is the bounded region of a graph. Bounded regions may be inside or outside the graph. Chapter 7: Mathematics of Graphs, 135,‘The 2-colorable graph theorem states that a graph is 2-colorable if and only i hhas no circuits that consists of an odd number of vertices, while the four-color theorem states that at most 4 colors are needed to color the planar graph such that no adjacent regions share the same color, Chapter Assessment ‘A. Foran undirected graph below, determine the degree of each vertex. A a 8. An undirected graph is given. Based on the indegree and outdegree vertices, redraw the graph to make ita directed one. Vertex | indegroe | Outdegree 3 BCDEF al|mlolola}> ofa}afula ‘a: | 0'| =] =] = C. For the graph below, provide the path that satisfies the following: G 1. Aconnected graph that starts with vertex A and ends with vertex G. 2. Aconnected graph that starts with vertex K and ends with vertex D, 196 A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modern World \planar graph that has 4 vertices, Aplanar graph that has 6 vertices, ooo AEuler's circuit from the vertex F, ee 6. A€uler's circuit from the vertex |, Pa SS p. Refer to the previous graph. it there are 10 faces in the graph, how many edges does it have? E. Color the following graph according to the given colors: red, blue, green, yellow. A Bg D Chapier 7: Mathematics of Graphs 137,CHAPTER 8: Bree biel etal “ chapter Introduction Linear programming was, developed by George Dantzig during the 1940's which he used for the purpose of planning in petiods of wertime. Linear programming starts wih 2 problem which is then used to perform analysis for the decision maker to determine the quantities that would either maximize profit or minimize cost, Competencies At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: + maximize profit or minimize cost; + develop a model for decision-making purposes; and *_ epply the concepts of linear programming to solve problems. Chapter 8: Linear Programming 139SOLVING INEQUAL| objective + Determine what makes linear inequalities true or false, + Solve for the solution set of linear inequalities, + Graph the solution set of linear inequalities, o Activity (Collaboration) ti SYSTEMS OF LINEAR ITIES Opp rrre 20lttip Introduction Linear inequalities are vary important in real life because they aid in the decision-making processes involving variables that do not have exact values. Budget and sales are just some of the applications that use linear inequalities to have the best ‘result for everyone involved. Using inequalities, determine the Statement that fits the following mc 2 Ss4a0ree sof eees 22 864202468 eee 4. 8464202468 ee eee 5. 864202468 Chapter 8: Linear Programming 141Analysis (Communication) Linear inequalities are equations that use any ofthe four Inequally SYMPOKS:>, <, 5, and 2, Examples of linear inequalities are given below: i x+y? 10 ry 2 x<-2 2x-ys-6 Solving linear inequalities is similar to the method of solving linear equations, However, the solution sts diferent, Solution sets o near equations invove only a Single value forthe unknown while the solution sets of linear inequalifes involve many values. For example, solving for the solution sat of xt 4s4x-5 Qx-2x<-5-4 xs-9 Note that when multiplying/dividing a negative number, the inequality symbol will change. ; : Graphing this on the number line, ttt tt ttt tt -10-8-6 -4 -20 2 46 810 This can also be done on a Cartesian plane. This is shown below: y Ld | | | Figure 61a 442 A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modern Worldq Since the inequality to be considered is <, wit bo inctuded. A linear inequality divides the the inequality is = or S, then the line is a thon the line is @ broken straight tine, all the values less than or equal to -9 Cartesian plane into two half Planos, if ‘Olid straight line. If the inequality is < or >, Graphing inearinequaiitiesin two ‘unknowns makes use of thex-and y-intercepts, Tre origin test (0, 0) willbe used to det termine where the shaded region is. If the result is tue, then shade the area where the origin lies. Otherwise, shade the other half plane not containing (0,9), Change the linear inequales to lineer equations. Determine the x- and y-intercepts and graph them on the Cartesian plane. Solve forthe point of intersection if there are more then one linear inequality. Change the linear equation back to linear inequalities Use the origin test to determine the shaded area of the graph. Examples: 2, 3. 4 5. 1. yS2x-6 2 Ify=0, then x=3 Graph the x- and y-intercepts. ys2x-6 Using (0,0), 0 < 2(0) - 6 0-6 which makes the inequality false. Therefore, the shaded area is on the upper half plane. Chapter 8: Linear Programming 1432. ys8x-12 y<-2 The shaded areas: = 12 ys3x-12 053(0) a 0-12 false a ye-2 0-2 false YEE (0-12), (4,0) x+y23 0+023 es 023 false X*Y=3 0,3),(3,0) The graph with its shaded regions ‘The points of intersection: is shown below. (,3 3 35.3) [xtye3 Cava Wee Point cf irtersecson ofa three linear inequaliies 144 ACourse Module for Mathematics in the Modern World= pvstraction (Critical Thinking) Graph the Set of linear inequalities and determine the solution set; 2y<10 Y= 3x49 i Y2xtg Application (Creativity) ‘A. Determine the point of interse Cartesian plane, ys4 ys 8. Graph the set of linear inequaities: 1. xs y>4 2 xty26 3x-2y<-6 | a xs9 ys-5 4ax+ys10 C. Isitpossible for a set of linear iNequalities to have no solution set? Show a set of linear inequalities by drawing them on a Cartesian plane. Summary = Systems of linear inequalities are similar to systems of linear equation except ine solution sets. They must undergo a series of stops to determine the solution of systems of linear inequalities. Chapter 8: Linear Programming 145onjectives: + Define key terms in linear programming, + Set up a model in Order to determine the Variables to use, + Maximize the profit or the cost of a linear problem, + Utilize graphical method to determine the optimal values that are needed to maximize. profit or minimize cost of a linear programming problem. . 0 Activity (Collaboration) minimize Programming The linear equations are given for each of | inequalities based on the shaded area. 1. Introduction Linear programming problems are Problems that deals with optimization, that is, either to maximize profit or Minimize cost. For this lesson, the Variables used are limited to Just two, Because ofthis, the graphical method is used to determine the ‘optimal solution. ‘the graphs below. Write down the Chaptor 8: Linear Programming 147Analysis (Communication) Linear programming can be solved using the graphical method. 4 linear programming problom (LPP) in two unknowns x and y is an optimization problem using linear equations. An objective function is an expression that denotes the relationship between the variables and the goals of the decision maker. If the geal Of the decision meker is to maximize prof, then the objective function fo use is P= ax + by. Ifthe goal of the decision maker is to minimize cost, then the objective function to use is = ax + by. The structural constraints (explicit constraints) are limitations of the availability of resources. The non-negative constraints (implicit constraints) confines all variables to zero or positive solutions. An example of an LPP model is shown below: Maximize: P=3x+y— objective function x+dys2 x-y2-8 x20,y20— non-negativty constraints A feasible region exists when all the variables are satisfied. Extreme points aro used to substitute in the objective function and determine the optimal solution whether itis in maximizing profit or minimizing cost. The optimal solution is the highest value if the objective function is maximized and itis the lowest value if the objective function is minimized. ‘Subject to: structural constraints 143. A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modern World,“s ‘Te feasible region of the LPP model is glven below: TT (0,5)| rt ‘ (0.1/2) Ty ° Substituting each extreme point in the objective function is given in the table below: Extreme Point Nalue of the objective function (0.2 ( 3] 3(0) + (0,5) 3(0)+5=5 6.0) 36) +40=15 Since 15 is the maximum of all three results, then the optimal solution is P = 15 at(6,0) Abstraction (Critical Thinking) ‘Apel shop owner has hamsters and turtles. He has no more than 30 hamsters and 10 turtles. The daily cost of feeding each animal is summarized below: Hamster | Turtle Total Daily feeding cost (in Php) -| 40 50 Php2,000 If the city government allots a budget of Php46 for each hamster and Php25 for each turtle, how many hamsters and turtles can be sheltered to minimize the housing cost? ‘Chapter 8: Linear Programming 149Application (Creativity) Solve for the optimal solution of the given LPPS: ‘A. Maximize: ‘Subject to: B. Minimize: ‘Subject to: C. Maximize: ‘Subject to: D. OXZ Company manufactures office furniture: namely, steel cabinets and rolling chairs. Assembly and painting are processes involved to produce them. A steel cabinet requires 3 hours of assembly and 1.5 hours of painting, and a rolling chair requires 2 hours of assembly and % hour of painting. The profit per steel cabinet is Php1,925 and profit per rolling chair is Php1,375. OXZ Company employees can supply a maximum 100 hours of assembly work and 25 hours of painting work per day. How many steel cabinets and rolling chairs should be made per day P=2x43y x+3ys15 x+ys6 xtys3 xz0,y20 C= 12x + 18y x2100 x+ys 600 y2 300 xz20,yz0 P= 15x+ 297 ys5 3x4 2y2 22 x<6 x20,y20 to maximize profit? Summary Linear programming graphical method uses the fundamentals of mathematics to arrive at an optimal value that can helo the decision maker to make sound judgments about the allocation of the available resources, Chapter Summary Systems of linear inequalities are essential tools to optimize the available resources, They are needed to model the problems to come up with reliable decisions 150A Course Module for Mathematics in the Modem Worldlutions to every business. problem involving ocation of available resources, captor Assessment 44 2x+ 2ys 42 x+yE 12 x20, y20 ¢. Minimize: C=4x+10 Subject to: 4x+ Byz 12 3x4 2y2 12 5x4 3y2 15 x20,yz0 D. Maximize: P= 14x+12y Subject to: 3x4 bys 12 2x+4y28 x20,y20 E. Maximize: P= 47x+15y Subjectto: x +6y = 20 2x+ 3y5:30 ‘ x+2ys16 x20,y20 Chapter 8: Linear Programming 151