By: Dr. Budiman Anwar, M.Si.

 Teori valensi mencoba untuk menjelaskan jumlah,

sifat, kekuatan dan penataan geometris ikatan kimia
antara atom-atom.
 Meskipun telah digantikan dengan teori yang lebih
mutakhir, teori Lewis dan VSEPR memberikan dua
pendekatan yang saling melengkapi terhadap ikatan
yang masih berguna untuk gambaran dasar suatu
molekul sederhana.
 Teori Lewis adalah bentuk primitif dari teori ikatan
valensi, yang mana atom membentuk ikatan dengan cara
berbagi elektron.
 Tidak ada upaya untuk menjelaskan bentuk geometri 3D
dari molekul.
 Unsur golongan utama cenderung ingin memiliki
konfigurasi elektron gas mulia (octet), meskipun beberapa
unsur (B dan Be) yang secara energetika stabil dengan
tidak memenuhi octet.
 Beberapa unsur yang lebih besar memperlihatkan
hipervalensi, yang mana secara energetika lebih menyukai
lebih dari octet.
An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by
the electrostatic attraction between positive
and negative ions. The bond forms between two
atoms when one or more electrons are transferred
from the valence shell of one atom to the valence
shell of the other. The atom that loses electrons
becomes a cation (positive ion), and the
atom that gains electrons becomes an anion
(negative ion). Any given ion tends to
attract as many neighboring ions of opposite
charge as possible. When large numbers
of ions gather together, they form an ionic solid.
The solid normally has a regular, crystalline
structure that allows for the maximum attraction
of ions, given their particular sizes.
1. Sublimation of sodium. Metallic sodium is vaporized to a gas of
sodium atoms. (Sublimation is the transformation of a solid to a gas.)
The enthalpy change for this process, measured experimentally, is 108
kJ per mole of sodium.
2. Dissociation of chlorine. Chlorine molecules are dissociated to atoms.
The enthalpy change for this equals the ClCl bond dissociation
energy, which is 240 kJ per mole of bonds, or 120 kJ per mole of Cl
atoms.
3. Ionization of sodium. Sodium atoms are ionized to Na ions. The
enthalpy change is essentially the ionization energy of atomic sodium,
which equals 496 kJ per mole of Na.
4. Formation of chloride ion. The electrons from the ionization of sodium
atoms are transferred to chlorine atoms. The enthalpy change for this
is the electron affinity of atomic chlorine, which equals 349 kJ per
mole of Cl atoms.
5. Formation of NaCl(s) from ions. The ions Na and Cl formed in Steps 3
and 4 combine to give solid sodium chloride. Because this process is
just the reverse of the one corresponding to the lattice energy
(breaking the solid into ions), the enthalpy change is the negative of
the lattice energy. If we let U be the lattice energy, the enthalpy
change for Step 5 is U.
Typically, ionic substances are high-melting solids. Sodium chloride,
NaCl, ordinary salt, melts at 801C, and magnesium oxide, MgO, a
ceramic, melts at 2800C.
Small, spherical cations and anions interact by strong bonds that
essentially depend on the electrical force of attraction described by
Coulomb’s law.
• We looked at ionic substances, which are typically highmelting
solids. Many substances, however, are molecular—gases,
liquids, or low melting solids consisting of molecules.
• A molecule is a group of atoms, frequently nonmetal atoms,
strongly linked by chemical bonds. Often the forces that hold
atoms together in a molecular substance cannot be understood
on the basis of the attraction of oppositely charged ions (the
ionic model). An obvious example is the molecule H2, in which
the two H atoms are held together tightly and no ions are
present.
• In 1916 Gilbert Newton Lewis proposed that the strong
attractive force between two atoms in a molecule results from a
covalent bond, a chemical bond formed by the sharing of a
pair of electrons between atoms.
Consider the formation of a covalent bond between two H atoms to give
the H2 molecule. As the atoms approach one another, their 1s orbitals begin
to overlap. Each electron can then occupy the space around both atoms. In
other words, the two electrons can be shared by the atoms. The electrons
are attracted simultaneously by the positive charges of the two hydrogen
nuclei. This attraction that bonds the electrons to both nuclei is the force
holding the atoms together. Although ions do not exist in H2, the force that
holds the atoms together can still be regarded as arising from the attraction
of oppositely charged particles: nuclei and electrons.
• The Lewis theory of covalent bonding may be regarded as an
elementary form of valence bond theory. It is nonetheless useful for
describing covalent molecules with simple covalent bonds, and works
successfully in describing the majority of, for example, organic
compounds.
• Although main group elements tend to adopt inert gas configurations,
which may be represented by eight valence electrons (an octet), or
two in the case of helium, a number of elements are energetically
stable with incomplete octets.
• The most commonly cited example is boron, which is stable with six
valence electrons as in BF3, or Be with four as in BeCl2. Larger
elements are capable of hypervalency, where it is energetically
favorable for more than eight valence electrons to be held in an
expanded octet. Examples of this are PF5 (ten valence electrons) and
XeF4 (twelve valence electrons)
• Aluminum chloride, AlCl3, offers an interesting study in bonding. At
room temperature, the substance is a white, crystalline solid and an
ionic compound, as might be expected for a binary compound of a
metal and a nonmetal.
• However, the substance has a relatively low melting point (192C) for
an ionic compound. Apparently this is due to the fact that instead of
melting to a liquid of ions, as happens with most ionic solids, the
compound forms Al2Cl6 molecules, with Lewis formula

• Each atom has an octet of electrons around it. Note that two of the Cl
atoms are in bridge positions, with each Cl atom having two covalent
bonds. When this liquid is heated, it vaporizes as Al2Cl6 molecules. As
the vapor is further heated, these molecules break up into AlCl3
molecules. These molecules have an electron structure similar to that of
BF3.
Write the Lewis formula that best describes the charge distribution in
the sulfuric acid molecule, H2SO4, according to the rules of formal
charge.
Bond length (or bond distance) is the distance between the nuclei in a
bond. Bond lengths are determined experimentally using x-ray diffraction
or the analysis of molecular spectra.
In many cases, bond lengths for covalent single bonds in compounds can
be predicted from covalent radii. Covalent radii are values assigned to
atoms in such a way that the sum of covalent radii of atoms A and B
predicts an approximate AB bond length.

Thus, the radius of the Cl atom might be taken to be half the ClCl bond
length (198 pm). The covalent radius of Cl would be ½  198 pm = 99 pm.
To predict the bond length of CCl, you add the covalent radii of the two
atoms, C and Cl. You get (77 +99) pm 176 pm, which compares favorably
with the experimental value of 178 pm found in most compounds.
The bond order, defined in terms of the Lewis formula, is the
number of pairs of electrons in a bond. For example, in C : C the bond
order is 1 (single bond); in C : : C the bond order is 2 (double bond).
Bond length depends on bond order. As the bond order increases, the
bond strength increases and the nuclei are pulled inward, decreasing
the bond length. Look at carbon–carbon bonds. The average CC bond
length is 154 pm, whereas C=C is 134 pm long and CC is 120 pm long.
We define the AB bond energy
(denoted BE) as the average
enthalpy change for the breaking
of an AB bond in a molecule in the
gas phase.
For example, to calculate a value for
the CH bond energy, or E(CH),
you might look at the
experimentally determined
enthalpy change for the breaking of
all the CH bonds in methane:
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is an elementary
approach to explaining the shapes of molecules. The theory treats each
atom in a molecule in isolation, and describes the geometry of the
bonds and non-bonding electron pairs around it. The basic assumption
is that the electron pairs around an atom, both bonding and non-
bonding, will adopt a geometry which will minimize repulsive forces by
maximizing the distances between pairs.
The precise geometry of electron pairs around a central atom depends
firstly upon the number of electron pairs which are present. For certain
numbers of electron pairs (2, 3, 4, 6), it is possible to adopt a geometry
in which the pairs are equidistant. For atoms with 5 or 7 electron pairs,
this is not possible, and the maximum separation involves some
compromise.
The basic geometry is modified by the variations in repulsion strengths
between the electron pairs. Because the charge in bonding pairs is
somewhat offset by the presence of the bonded nuclei, the repulsion
increases in the order:
bonding pair : bonding pair < non-bonding pair : bonding pair < non-
bonding pair : non-bonding pair
• The VSEPR model is usually a satisfactory method
for predicting molecular geometries.
• To understand bonding and electronic structure,
however, you must look to quantum mechanics.
• We will consider two theories stemming from
quantum mechanics: VALENCE BOND THEORY
and MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY. Both use
the methods of quantum mechanics but make
different simplifying assumptions.