Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards

Institution 2013

Table 18  Identification and description of soils

Soil Density/compactness/strength Discontinuities Bedding Colour Composite soil types Particle Particle PRINICPAL
group Term Field test (mixtures of basic soil types) shape size SOIL TYPE
Loose By inspection of voids and particle Scale of spacing of Scale of bedding For mixtures involving very BOULDERS
packing discontinuities thickness coarse soils see BS 5930:1999
41.4.4.3
Dense Term Mean spacing Term Mean Red Term Approx. % Angular – 200 COBBLES

90  •  © BSI 2011

soils
thickness secondaryC)

Very coarse
mm mm Orange Sub angular
Borehole with SPT N-value Very > 2 000 Very > 2 000 Yellow Slightly <5 Sub rounded – 60 GRAVEL
widely thickly (sandyD)) Coarse
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

Brown
bedded – 20
Very loose 0 – 4 Widely 2 000 – 600 Thickly 2 000 – 600 Green (sandyD)) 5 – 20B) Rounded Medium
bedded Flat –6
Loose 4 – 10 Medium 600 – 200 Medium 600 – 200 Blue Tabular Fine
bedded Elongated
–2
Medium dense 10 – 30 Closely 200 – 60 Thinly 200 – 60 White
bedded
Coarse
Dense 30 – 50 Very 60 – 20 Very 60 – 20 Cream Very > 20B) SAND
closely thinly (sandyD)) – 0.6
bedded
Very dense > 50 Extremely < 20 Thickly 20 – 6 Black Minor Medium

and gravel sizes)

closely laminated constituent
Fissured Breaks into Thinly <6 etc. SAND AND About 50B) type – 0.2
blocks along laminated GRAVEL

Coarse soils (over about 65% sand

Slightly Visual examination: pick removes unpolished Calcareous, Fine
cemented soil in lumps which can be discontinuities shelly,
Inter-
Alternating
abraded glauconitic,
bedded
layers of – 0.06
micaceous
different Coarse
etc. using
Un-compact Easily moulded or crushed in the Sheared Breaks into types. Light Term Approx % – 0.02 SILT
terms such as
fingers blocks along Prequalified secondaryC) Medium
polished by thickness – 0.006
Slightly
discontinuities term if Fine
calcareous,
in equal – 0.002
proportions. Slightly < 35 calcareous,
Otherwise (sandyE))
Compact Can be moulded or crushed in the thickness Dark CLAY/SILT
very
fingers Spacing terms also used for Inter- of spacing CLAY
calcareous
Very soft Finger easily pushed in up to distance between partings, laminated between
isolated beds or laminae, subordinate Mottled
0 – 20 25 mm layers
dessication cracks, rootlets, % defined
Soft 20 – 40 Finger pushed in up to 10 mm etc. defined. (sandyE)) 35 – 65A)
on a site
Firm 40 – 75 Thumb makes impression easily or material
Stiff 75 – 150 Can be indented slightly by thumb specific basis
Very stiff Can be indented by thumb nail Very > 65A) or subjective
150 – 300 (sandyE))
Hard (or Can be scratched by thumb nail
very weak (see BS 5930 41.2.2)

Fine soils (over about 35% silt and clay sizes)

mudstone)
Cu > 300 kPa
BRITISH STANDARD
 Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

Table 18  Identification and description of soils (continued)

Firm Fibres already compressed Fibrous Plant remains Transported mixtures Colour Contains finely divided or discrete particles of
together recognizable Slightly organic clay or silt Grey organic matter, often with distinctive smell, may
and retains some Slightly organic sand as mineral oxidize rapidly. Describe as for inorganic soils using
strength Organic clay or silt Dark grey terminology above.
Spongy Very compressible and open Pseudo- Plant remains Organic sand Dark grey
structure fibrous recognizable, Very organic clay or silt Black
strength lost Very organic sand Black

Organic soils
Accumulated in situ Predominantly plant remains, usually dark brown or black in colour,
distinctive smell, low bulk density. Can contain disseminated or
BRITISH STANDARD

Plastic Can be moulded in hand and Amorphous Recognizable Peat

smears fingers plant remains discrete mineral soils.
absent

PRINCIPAL SOIL TYPE Visual clarification Minor constituents Stratum name Example descriptions
BOULDERS Only seen complete in pits or exposures
COBBLES Often difficult to recover whole from boreholes Sell fragments, pockets of peat, RECENT DEPOSITS Loose brown very sandy sub-angular
GRAVEL Easily visible to naked eye; particle shape can be gypsum, crystals, flint gravel, fine to coarse flint GRAVEL with
ALLUVIUM
described; grading can be described fragments of brick, rootlets, plastic small pockets (up to 30 mm) of clay.
bags, etc. (TERRACE GRAVELS)
SAND Visible to naked eye; no cohesion when dry; grading can
be described
SILT Only coarse silt visible with hand lens; exhibits little using terms such as: WEATHERED Medium dense light brown gravelly
plasticity and marked dilatancy; slightly granular or silky BRACKLESHAM clayey fine SAND. Gravel is fine.
with rare
to the touch; disintigrates in water; lumps dry quickly; CLAY (GLACIAL DEPOSITS)
possesses cohesion but can be powdered easily between with occasional
fingers LIAS CLAY
with abundant/frequent/ Firm thinly laminated grey CLAY with
CLAY/SILT Intermediate in behaviour between clay and silt. Slightly EMBANKMENT FILL closely spaced thick laminae of sand.
numerous
dilatant (ALLUVIUM)
TOPSOIL
CLAY Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered between % defined on a site or material
the fingers; they also disintigrate under water but more specific basis or subjective MADE GROUND, or Plastic brown clayey amorphous PEAT.
slowly than silt; smooth to the touch; exhibits plasticity (RECENT DEPOSITS)
GLACIAL DEPOSITS, etc.
but no dilatancy; sticks to the fingers and dries slowly;
shrinks appreciably on drying usually showing cracks
A)
Or described as coarse soil depending on mass behaviour.
B)
Or described as fine soil depending on mass behaviour.
C)
% coarse of fine soil type assessed excluding cobbles and boulders.
D)
Gravelly or sandy and/or silty or clayey
E)
Gravelly and/or sandy.
F)
Gravelly or sandy.
Field tests for coarse soils:
Loose: can be excavated with a spade, 50 mm2 wooden peg can be easily driven.
Dense: requires a pick for excavation, 50 mm2 wooden peg hard to drive.
Slightly cemented: visual examination, pick removes soil in lumps that can be abraded.

© BSI 2011  • 
BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

91
 BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 BRITISH STANDARD

18.5.3 Ground water levels

The presumed allowable bearing pressures given in Table 17 only
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

apply where the ground water level lies at a depth below the
foundation greater than the width of that foundation. Continued
flooding or wet weather will soften clay soils. Where site flooding
and/or high ground water levels are likely to be experienced
the presumed allowable bearing pressures in Table 17 should be
multiplied by the factor given in Table 19.

Table 19  Ground water level modification factor

Condition Modification factor for:

Cohesive soils Non-cohesive soils Rocks
Ground water level at B or less below level of 1.0 0.5 1.0
foundation (where B is the width of foundation)
Site liable to flooding 0.67 0.5 1.0

18.6 Simple foundations on sands and gravels

Where lightly loaded foundations on sands and gravels are proposed,
the allowable bearing pressure can be assessed from standard
penetration tests and is based on settlements rather than shear
failure since the latter is a rare phenomenon with granular soils. The
exception to this is a foundation less than one metre wide, where
shearing might occur.

18.7 Simple foundations on cohesive soils

In cohesive soils, the allowable bearing pressure can be determined
from shear tests. The following equations may be used; they
incorporate a factor of safety against failure of three, which is the
value normally adopted.
a) Strip foundations. The allowable bearing pressure, qb (in kN/m2),
is given by the expression:
qb = 1.7c
where
c is the undrained shear strength (in kN/m2).
b) Square foundations. The allowable bearing pressure, qb (in kN/
m2), is given by the expression:
qb = 2c
where
c is the undrained shear strength (in kN/m2).
It is important to note that the allowable bearing pressures derived
from these expressions are not linked to any particular values of
settlement.

18.8 Heavy vibrations

Deposits or layers of granular materials, if not in a fully compacted
state, are liable to consolidation and settlement if they are subjected
to vibrations either from the falsework above, from adjacent

92  •  © BSI 2011

 BRITISH STANDARD BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

operations (e.g. piling) or the passage of heavy traffic. Allowances for

this possibility cannot be made by modification factors applied to the
presumed bearing pressures. Either the granular materials should be
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

compacted or the sources of vibration stopped for the critical period

of the falsework.
Some uniformly graded sands and silts may be adversely affected by
the vibration from compaction of concrete above the falsework.

18.9 Fill material

Where falsework is to be carried on filling of unknown origin or quality
it should be investigated, since filling may have abrupt variations in
composition, compaction and strength.
Where falsework is supported on a compacted fill whose properties
have been determined, it is important to ensure that both the fill and
the underlying ground are protected so that no disturbance or loss
of material results from the movement of water or environmental
changes (see 18.11).
In cases where the filling material is variable in consistency and unable
to receive and transmit loads uniformly, a minimum depth of 0.5 m
of the fill should be removed and replaced by well compacted and
stabilized granular material of known bearing capacity.
Allowable bearing pressures for the foundations of falsework on fully
compacted controlled filling should not exceed:
a) 200 kN/m2, for broken rock;
b) 150 kN/m2, for well graded sands and gravels;
c) 100 kN/m2, for uniform sands and hard shaley clays;
d) 50 kN/m2, for firm to stiff clays;
e) 25 kN/m2, for soft clay.
Poorly compacted or suspect material should be considered as being
similar to a soft clay.

18.10 Piles
Where it is necessary to transfer the load from the falsework through
weak strata to underlying strata of firm soil or rock, piling should be
considered and a specialist experienced in assessing the pile type in
relation to the soil conditions and in the driving and forming of the pile
system required should be consulted. BS 8004:1986 describes the several
factors controlling the selection and design of piles and pile groups.

18.11 Protection of the foundation area

The area covered by the foundations under the falsework should be
considered in relation to the general topography of the surrounding
ground and the likelihood of outside influences affecting it and steps
taken to safeguard it. The continued safe performance of the ground
under and round the falsework foundations will depend on their
remaining unaffected by:
a) local influences of water from water courses, extreme rainfall,
melting snow or burst water mains;
b) severe frosts or excessively dry and hot weather;

© BSI 2011  •  93
 BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 BRITISH STANDARD

c) movements of surrounding ground subjected to excavation,

filling or other changes;
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

d) all pressures applied by other adjacent construction operations.

In many instances, parts of the foundations to the falsework
incorporate concrete bedding and it is good practice to extend this
concrete as a blinding layer over the entire area under the falsework
and any surrounding areas used as working areas or that are susceptible
to environmental conditions and which by virtue of changes could
jeopardize the performance of the soils under the falsework.
The embedding of sole plates in both cohesive and non-cohesive soils
will increase bearing capacity and give protection against the effects
of scour, softening, frost and seasonal moisture changes. Where this
is not feasible it is good practice to bed and haunch sole plates with
concrete.

19 Design of falsework

19.1 Preamble to design

19.1.1 General
This subclause gives guidance on permissible stress design of falsework.
This guidance is also applicable to the design of what is termed class
A falsework in BS EN 12812:2004, the design of which is specifically
excluded from BS EN 12812:2004.
The initial premise upon which those responsible for the final design
of the falsework should base their scheme is the previously agreed
design brief (refer to 8.1 to 8.6, and 19.2), although it should be
recognized that it might prove necessary to accommodate alterations
in the design when, for instance, the final details of the permanent
works are known, or as experience is gained during the erection of
the falsework.
Wherever the falsework requires the removal of individual pieces of
the structure after loading, for example, when striking primary and/
or secondary bearers, consideration should be given to the provision
of the necessary platform for the operations. Generally, provision of
a working platform about two metres below the underside of the
permanent works would suffice for safe removal of soffit formwork.
Where the formwork and falsework is handled in large assemblies,
provision for access to the make-up areas around such assemblies
should be considered.

19.1.2 CDM regulations and interface between design of

permanent and temporary works
Paragraph 116(f) of the CDM Regulations ACoP [3] states that the
design of temporary works, including falsework, falls within the scope
of the regulations.
Paragraph 104 of the CDM Regulations ACoP [3] refers to:
“co-operation… in particular to ensure that arrangements are in place
to ensure that designs are compatible and that the permanent works
can support any loadings from temporary works.”

94  •  © BSI 2011

 BRITISH STANDARD BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

Paragraph 3.2.1 of the Construction Work Sector Guidance for

Designers CIRIA C662 [24] states that: “The permanent works designer
will need to be satisfied that the permanent works design allows for a
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

reasonable safe system of work in respect of temporary works (having

regard to hazard elimination and risk reduction to be implemented by
the temporary works designer and subsequently the contractor).”
Paragraphs 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.3.2 of CIRIA C662 [24] identifies the
following points:
Permanent Works Design
• consideration of space required to provide anticipated standard
forms of temporary works
• interim stability issues
• communication of design assumptions (loading and deflection
limits of the permanent works)
• adequacy of the permanent works to sustain anticipated loadings
from temporary works
Temporary Works Design
• communication of lateral stability requirements and vertical load
limitations

19.1.3 Design brief

Section 8 gives general guidance on the importance of a design brief
for temporary works.
There are two particular issues that are of fundamental importance
when preparing a design brief for falsework.
a) If the falsework is to be designed as top restrained it must be
clear that the permanent works have been designed to resist the
horizontal disturbing force FH (see 19.2.9.1).
b) If the falsework is to be supported by the permanent works
(typically in multi-storey construction), it must be clear that the
permanent works have been designed to resist the loads imposed
by the falsework.

19.1.4 Choice of concept

19.1.4.1 General
The design offices of contractors, suppliers or consulting engineers
may also produce “standard solutions” to suit particular materials
or operations. Such designs should be produced in accordance with
the recommendations in this code and should also be accompanied
by information similar to that in Clause 8, covering layout, loading,
limitations, tolerances, etc., together with instructions for safe erection,
use and dismantling. It is important that any given standard solution
remains within the limitations imposed by a particular scenario.
A number of different concepts of support are likely to be economical
and merit detailed consideration on each project. These include:
a) a support provided by tube and fitting scaffolding or adjustable
props;
b) a support formed of proprietary systems, generally either
aluminium or steel, formed as;

© BSI 2011  •  95
 BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 BRITISH STANDARD

1) individual braced towers;

2) individual partially braced towers;
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

3) individual support members with or without erection tripods;

4) complete, fully braced falsework solutions
c) heavy duty vertical support members, which will require stronger
distribution members;
d) supporting towers with beams or girders at high level;
e) clear spanning beams or girders between the permanent columns
or abutments above or below the level of the permanent works.
Refer to 19.7.1.
Other considerations that may be relevant are:
1) loading the falsework in increments;
2) supporting pre-cast/pre-assembled permanent works;
3) falsework supported from the permanent works;
4) moving assembled structures such as table forms and bridging
units;
5) the effect of back propping on the permanent works (see 19.3.4).

19.1.4.2 Individual support members

Individual support members are normally only considered when
adequate top restraint is provided through the formwork or top
of the falsework to the surrounding permanent works or other
temporary works structures as in Figure 14. See also 19.3.2.

Figure 14 Individual support members

NOTE  Tripod used to facilitate erection.

Where, to facilitate erection, such members are provided with

bracing panels, the design of the members, as struts, should disregard
any beneficial effects arising from the presence of such panels (see
Figure 15).

96  •  © BSI 2011

 BRITISH STANDARD BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

Figure 15 Panels to facilitate the erection of individual prop systems (elevation)

Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

19.1.4.3 Individual fully braced towers

An example of an individual fully braced tower is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Individual fully braced tower

19.1.4.4 Proprietary systems, partially braced by discrete panels

An example of a proprietary system partially braced by discrete
panels is shown in Figure 17. These systems depend for member and/
or sway stability on the bending resistance of the vertical members
and the stiffness of the discrete panels and their connections. Whilst
the bracing panels can increase the stiffness of the propping system
and allow the props to carry a greater axial load, they might not
effectively resist horizontal forces applied at the top of the prop.
Therefore, lateral restraint of the soffit by the permanent structure, or
by other means, might be required (see 19.3.2.4 and 19.3.3.3.2).

Figure 17 Proprietary system, partially braced by discrete panels

© BSI 2011  •  97
 BS 5975:2008+A1:2011 BRITISH STANDARD

19.1.4.5 Fully braced falsework systems

Fully braced falsework systems comprise scaffolding in which the
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

vertical load bearing members are provided with a number of levels

of lateral (nodal) restraints. Each level of lateral restraint is itself
restrained by inclined bracing. Such systems can include proprietary
equipment fully braced and bespoke fully braced “bird cage”
scaffolds, formed using tube and fittings.
Note that the bracing arrangement in Figure 18a) will generally
address member (nodal) stability and resist lateral loading as specified
in 19.2.9.2. The arrangement in Figure 18b) will generally address
member (nodal) stability but will have limited capacity to resist
applied lateral loads due to h/b effects referred to in clause 19.3.3.4.
Where such systems are provided with lateral restraint at the head,
referred to in this standard as top restraint, the inclined bracing has
to be designed to resist the internal forces required to provide nodal
stability.
Where such systems are not provided with lateral restraint at the head,
referred to in this standard as freestanding, the inclined bracing will be
designed to resist the greater of the imposed horizontal forces applied
at the head or the internal forces required to provide nodal stability.

Figure 18  Fully braced falsework system

   
a) Continuous (preferred) b) Single bay braced

19.1.5 Selection of materials and components

It is necessary to identify the properties of the materials and the
components that it is proposed to use. When designing for the use
of proprietary equipment the design should normally utilize the
equipment in accordance with the current recommendations of the
supplier of the equipment being used. Particular care is required to
ensure that the terms used to define capacity are understood; they
may be either in safe working loads or in characteristic strength.
Where it is proposed to use the equipment in situations not
specifically intended by the supplier, it is recommended that in the
first instance the supplier is consulted for specific advice about the
proposed method of use.
Where performance information is not readily available, or as an
alternative means of obtaining the required data, the user should

98  •  © BSI 2011

 BRITISH STANDARD BS 5975:2008+A1:2011

assess the capability of the material(s) to resist the loading conditions

using fundamental engineering principles and, where appropriate,
arrange for testing.
Licensed Copy: University of Glasgow, The University of Glasgow, 14/08/2013 04:11, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) The British Standards Institution 2013

The supplier or importer of a product should provide section and

material properties of their products to facilitate independent design
or checking.

19.2 Forces applied to falsework

19.2.1 General
The forces applied to falsework should be calculated and assessed
from the loads as described in Clause 17. It is not necessary to design
for every combination of adverse loading conditions providing the
work on site is sufficiently controlled to avoid particular adverse
combinations, e.g. extreme wind forces need not be considered in
combination with dynamic loads from crane handled units.

19.2.2 Vertical forces

Vertical forces at the various stages will include the self-weight of
falsework, imposed loads, permanent works loads and construction
operations loads. Refer to Clause 17.

19.2.3 Wind forces

19.2.3.1 General
The wind acting on the formwork and falsework will generate forces
that need to be considered in the design. See 17.5.1. The factors that
need to be considered are discussed in 17.5.1.2. The wind forces will
be increased whenever debris netting or sheeting is attached to the
falsework.
The wind forces need to be considered to check the stability of the
structure at the appropriate phases of construction, and may depend
on whether the falsework is effectively shielded by other structures.
Construction operations on site, and use of certain plant, for example
cranes and concrete pump booms, will cease at high wind speeds,
normally at Beaufort Scale 6. It may therefore be unrealistic to design
falsework during loading, such as while concreting, to withstand
higher wind loads at that stage. This operating limit is known as the
working wind.

19.2.3.2 Maximum wind

The forces applicable for the extreme, maximum wind conditions
should be derived as described in 17.5.1. This gives the total wind
force Q5 for the maximum wind force during the life of the falsework
(i.e. for the extreme condition).
Where an unclad falsework is effectively shielded, the total maximum
wind force on the shielded part of the falsework and formwork may be
reduced by one half in the shielded direction considered. See 17.5.1.9.

© BSI 2011  •  99