Design and Application of "A Book Layout Flaws Checklist" For Visual Analysis of Textbooks in Ghana

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Design and Application of “A Book Layout Flaws Checklist” for Visual Analysis
of Textbooks in Ghana
Conference Paper · March 2018
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Design and Application of “A Book Layout Flaws
Checklist” for Visual Analysis of Textbooks in
Ghana
Nunoo, F. K. N. (1); Moro, I. (2); Prempeh, B. (2); Anane-Antwi, E. (1)

(1) Department of Publishing Studies, KNUST;
(2) Department of Communication Design, KNUST
ABSTRACT
Textbooks play a major role in education in developing countries; hence governments pay huge
sums of money to acquire them. Book layout design is very important in the production of
textbooks and constitutes the most significant part of the production process, and so it must be
done in accordance with laid-out conventions. Layout flaws in books, especially textbooks are as
obstructive as bad content to the user since they affect the book’s readability and comprehension.
To ensure quality in Ghanaian textbook production the Ministry of Education’s “Operational
Annexes” of textbook policy specifies the physical and visual considerations (typefaces, sizes
and binding type) that publishers are to adhere to in the production of textbooks. This study
was conducted to ascertain whether Ghanaian textbooks follow standard layout principles
in book layout design. The study used Quantitative content analysis primarily for analysing
100 selected Ghanaian textbooks ranging from lower primary to the senior high school levels.
The selected textbooks were thoroughly observed for layout flaws using a proposed checklist.
Despite the existence of guiding documents, the study identified some layout design flaws
relating to Margins, Rivers, Leading and others, in all the selected books. This means that most of
these books were not designed by professionals or perhaps, the professionals ignored or had no
knowledge of the principles underlying book layout design. The study advocates that textbook
designers in Ghana must pay serious attention to various guidelines and conventions relating
to the textbook design to ensure readability and comprehension. The study also recommends
further studies, by the Ministry of Education and all relevant stakeholders, into the existence of
layout flaws in some Ghanaian textbooks, before endorsing them for use in schools.
Keywords: textbook, book design, design conventions, checklist, visual content analysis,
INTRODUCTION
A book is a flexible mirror of the mind and the body. Its overall size and proportions, the colour
and texture of the paper, the sound it makes as the pages turn, and the smell of the paper,
adhesive and ink, all blend with the size and form and placement of the type to reveal a little
about the world in which it was made. If the book appears to be only a paper machine, produced
at their own convenience by other machines, only machines will want to read it.
(Robert Bringhurst, 2004, p. 143).

In everyday life, people spend quite some time reading. Even those who do not indulge in
novels are continually confronted with printed text on signs, posters, forms, instructional
manuals, and other kinds of printed materials of some sort in their daily lives.
148 4th Network of Afrika Designers - Kumasi International Design Conference (NAD-KIDeC), 2017
In recent times, the fast rate at which printed texts are being produced is an indication of
the advances in technologies - the increase in the use of computers. Word processing and
desktop publishing have become common practices in many offices and homes over the
last decade. In effect, many people have gained access to tools that allow for sophisticated
combination of text and images (typesetting), with little or no professional or formal training,
increasing the probability therefore that printed works which do not meet industry standards
will be produced.
From a more general perspective, it is of interest to note that the massive and increasing
amount of information available in this age forces many to be selective as regards information
use. This means that only information that is packaged to be effective and functional is likely
to be noticed and/or used (De Beauford Wijholds, 1996). Books are one of the oldest forms
of packaging information. The production of books requires that designers pay particular
attention to conventions (Colwell, 2004; Ambrose & Harris, 2009). This was stressed by
Morrison (1951) that “in the printing of books meant to be read there is little room for ‘bright’
typography…. But the typography of books requires an obedience to conventions which is
almost absolute” (p. 5).
Although, readers will read whatever they are given, the main purpose of book design
according to Colwell (2004) would not be “to confuse or distract the reader, but to clarify the
information that is presented, enabling it to become more accessible and memorable” (p. 2).
However, by observation, some book designers are at variance with these thoughts, creating
flaws in their publications. Muller-Brockman (1985) stressed, “Information presented with
clear and logically set out titles, subtitles, texts, illustrations, and captions will not only be
read more quickly and easily but the information will also be better understood and retained
in the memory” (p. 13). The aim of all publication design therefore is to make the information
presented easy and enjoyable for the reader to digest aside being user friendly (Whitbread,
2001).
Books, especially textbooks, play a major role in the development of the human resource of
every country. From pre-school to the highest levels of education, their importance cannot be
underestimated. Textbooks are considered to be relevant especially in developing economies
as a tool for improving learning outcomes in cases of large class sizes, high proportion of
unqualified teachers and shortage of instructional time (Anon, 2016).
Textbooks have also become a major instructional instrument for maintaining quality standards
in curricular contents in many developing countries (Altbach, 1983). Well-written and well-
designed textbooks contribute to effective use of instructional time and classroom teaching
strategies, given the fundamental role they play in curriculum policy and implementation,
and in mass education (Crossley & Murby, 1994; Rao, Ratnamala, & Smith, 1998; Valverde,
et al., 2002). Book designers, especially textbooks, must therefore pay attention to various
guidelines and conventions relating to the trade. Glenn and Gray (2008) postulate that
“effective document design involves understanding design conventions - that is, the physical,
spatial, textual and visual characteristics that reinforce the document purpose” (p. 104).
When these are not adhered to, they are considered as layout flaws (problems). Layout flaws
in books, especially textbooks are as obstructive to the user as bad content.
Books by their nature are to communicate information to their users visually, and thus must
effectively convey their content in a way that is user-friendly. A book with good content but
bad layout would distract its readers or cause the readers to lose interest, especially if it is a
textbook, thereby affecting the academic performance of such pupils.
The amount a country spends on learning materials (textbooks) has been said to be a
good indicator of its commitment to providing quality education for its citizenry. Textbooks
constitute the main production portfolio of many publishing houses and have the widest
market and usage in Ghana. The government of Ghana, through the Ministry of Education
acquires, procures and distributes textbooks from publishers in the country, to the public
school system. This is done through competitive bidding following the Ghana textbook
policy document (MoE, 2002). The “Operational Annexes” of textbook policy stipulates the
physical and visual considerations that publishers are to adhere to in the production of such
books. The study focused on analysing textbooks being used at the primary to senior high
levels, to ascertain the existence and levels of flaws in their design and layouts.
Review of Literature
The role of textbooks in education
A textbook is an example of a publication that preserves and imparts knowledge to individuals,
mostly students. A textbook is defined as a standard work on a particular subject designed
for classroom use with appropriate vocabulary, illustrations and student exercises (Deighton,
1971 as cited in Crossley and Murby, 1994). In this respect, a textbook is a teaching tool
(material) which presents the subject matter defined by the curriculum. Every textbook page
consists of several semiotic systems realising meaning in a complex way: verbal text and
visual images (such as pictures, tables, diagrams, and figures), design, typography, titles and
boxes.
Without the textbook, the skills, concepts and content required by the curriculum cannot
be taught. In the absence of other sources of information, the textbook becomes the most
important and often the only source of content for the teacher and the sole basis for testing
and assessment. According to Alkan (1992), textbooks which are used in the teaching-
learning process have particular importance as a fundamental tool.
In support of this, Lintowinsky (1992) argues that a textbook is not an outcome of freelance
writing since a textbook writer is not to deviate from the syllabuses that continue to be the
basic reference. This means that it depends largely on what must be the topics and units
as contained in the syllabuses. A textbook is thus the centrepiece of a course syllabus for
students and teachers.
Available records indicate that textbooks existed in the form of clay tablets, scrolls, vellum,
bound sheets of papyrus, or parchment. There are records of textbooks used in schools in
ancient Greece, Rome, China, India and Egypt. Until the invention of printing in the mid-
fifteenth century with moveable type, textbooks were hand-produced, very rare, and available
only to a very small and generally privileged minority of people. The European continent was
the first to produce textbooks in mass-production for schooling in Europe.
The textbooks followed the models of European colonization and in non-colonized areas
through cultural and technological borrowing and spread to the rest of the world (Altbach,
1983; Altbach & Kelly, 1988; Elliott & Woodward, 1990).
Afterwards, as formerly colonized areas achieved independence, they replaced textbooks
originating from the colonizing nations with locally created textbooks reflecting their
own national beliefs, aspirations, and creativity. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, through his policy
of Accelerated Educational Development Programme (AEDP) in 1961, introduced the
compulsory and fee-free education backed by supply of free textbooks in 1963. By 1965,
the State had institutions such as the Ghana Publishing Corporation and Bureau of Ghana
Languages established to support the production of local content textbooks (Prempeh, 2011).
The Concept of Book Design and Layout

According to Williamson (1983) “Book design is the planning which determines the visual
and structural qualities of the book” (p. 7); thus, its dimensions, and its general appearance
to the eye, its structure mechanism and its durability. Rao (1974) postulates that, book
design revolves around visualizing each book or each category of books and transforming
the concepts into action by planning and specifying the visual attributes, bearing in mind, the
theme and the thoughts of the author. McMurrey (2004) also defines book design as, “the
content, style, format, design and sequence of the various typical components of a book”(
para 1.)
From the above explanations, the work of the book designer involves planning how every
component within the book structure should appear and as a result, book design should
meet the physiological and psychological needs of the reader (Gibson, 1989). The process of
book design therefore involves conception, planning and detailing of the physical and visual
elements of the book. There are no fixed rules governing design, because each designer might
have a unique way of designing but must follow certain conventions – not as a template,
otherwise every advertisement, book, brochure, newsletter, and poster would look the same
(Parker, 1993).
According to Bricker (2011), “book design is a lost art” (para. 1). His discussion focused on
literature’s concentration on book covers rather than the entirety of the book. In his lamentation,
he draws attention to how much time readers spend with the inside text, emphasising that
an elegant book block is just as significant as a book’s cover. Whiles typesetting was a trade
of specialists decades ago, the advent and use of computer technology has made the craft of
book design an undertaking by amateurs. Even though it is easy to set type, “many fine points
of typography are commonly overlooked” in spite of the fact that these digital tools allow
designers to produce pages that aspire to the old tradition of hot metal type (Bricker, 2011).
Book layout is considered as the arrangement of all the units or elements into a printed usable
format (Dennis an&d Jenkins, 1991). Headings, subheadings, body matter, illustrations and
photographs are some of the constituent elements. The work of a book designer is to get an
author’s message well presented to the target audience. A great book must have all three
components in working order: a well-planned composition, the formatting tools and the layout
artist to execute the design. A thorough understanding of the parts of a book and how a book
is composed and manufactured are also crucial to a good layout. The various components -
cover, the preliminary pages (Prelims), the text (text block) and the end matter (oddment)
– together with the layout should be given serious attention during planning (Waddingham,
2014; Skillin & Gay, 1974), whiles all the elements on the page must be placed to achieve a
comfortable look of stability. The needed result is the pleasing and effective appearance of
the whole page.
Guiding Principles and Conventions on the Various Elements of Book Design

Principles and conventions are a set of broad conventions that have been devised to provide
a basic framework for an industry. The publishing industry also has its principles and
conventions on the various elements of book design. Some of these are explained as follows:
Margins
Peacock (1995) defines margins as areas of white space left around printed matter on a
page. Williamson (1983) affirmed this and explains that if the text were to run right up to the
sewn edges of a book (the spine), parts of the text will disappear into the bend in the page
caused by backing, an operation in binding which forms a shoulder on each side of the spine,
sometimes referred to as jointing.
Williamson (1983) also stated that margins which are at present, considered reasonably
generous for the general run of books produced in traditional styles, other than paperbacks,
occupy about 40 to 50% of the area of the leaf. However, margins of dictionaries and other
reference works are usually narrower than this, and those of belles - letters are slightly
wider. He however purports that the proportions between margins are primarily a matter of
convention and personal preference, but may be affected by the way in which the book is to
be bound.
Rao (1974) observed that the space available for margins is allotted usually in the proportion
of 11/2: 2: 3: 4; explaining that 11/2 is for the spine or back, 2 for the head, 3 for forehead and
4 fore tail. This margin ratio has been considered as the conventional ratio. Conventionally, a
minimum standard of half –inch is required as margins around any body of text in a book (Van
White, 2003). However, Williamson (1983) cautioned that margins of conventional width
and proportions are not regularly the best even for book design in the conventional style.
Some importance of margins are:
»» to lock the text-block to the page and also lock facing pages to each other through
the force of their proportions;
»» frames the text-block in a manner that suits its design;
»» protects text block, making it easy for the reader to see and convenient to handle as
it makes room for the readers’ thumb (Van White, 2003, p. 56).
Type and Typeface Selection

Will-Harris (2004) says: “Type is an unconscious persuader. It attracts attention, sets the
style and tone of a document, colours how readers interpret the words, and defines the
feeling of the page usually without the reader recognizing a particular typeface” (para 2.)
According to Cardoza (1998) typefaces are the families of similar type that are designed as a
group, and fonts are the individual styles within that group, which are the styles of characters
including the letters themselves, numbers and punctuation marks that make up printed text.
In computer application, the term fonts and typeface are usually used interchangeable.
Typefaces are chosen for book layout design for three simple reasons; (1) the ability of the
typeface to be read easily at the point size chosen (legibility), (2) the amount of space needed to be
filled and (3) the typefaces’ look (the feel it gives the type when printed) Cardoza (1998).
For the purpose of book design, Cardoza further grouped typefaces into (1) Decorative
type: stylish font which are used for creating appearances such as logos and (2) Headline
type: these are all round typefaces good for both text and headlines. He postulates, both
decorative and headline typefaces are effective when used sparingly for items such as logos,
type headers and covers, but are difficult to read when used as a passage text, emphasising
the functional role of text type in a sentence, paragraphs and charts that make up a book is
to make them readable.
Rao (1972) and Bringhurst (1993) advised that typefaces selected for a book should be easy
to read, pleasing to the eye and in consonance with the subject matter. He suggested that
designers, in selecting a typeface for book design layout, should:
»» choose typefaces that will survive, and if possible flourish under the final printing
conditions;
»» choose typefaces that suit the paper intended to be used;
»» choose typefaces that suit the task as well as the subject;
»» choose typefaces that can provide whatever special effect you require;
»» start with a single typographic family;
»» choose titling and display typefaces that reinforce the structure of the text face.
Orphans and widows

Carter, Meggs, Day, Maxa and Sanders (2015) explain that widows and orphans are words or
short lines at the beginning or end of a paragraph, which are left dangling at the top or bottom
of a column, separated from the rest of the paragraph. There is some disagreement about the
definitions of widows and orphans; what one source calls a widow another calls an orphan.
In resolving these issues, The
Chicago Manual of Style (16th Ed) provides these definitions and explains how best to avoid
them:
Widow – a short, paragraph-ending line appearing at the top of a page. Widows should be
avoided when possible by changes in wording or spacing that either remove the line or lengthen
it (p. 2311);
And
Orphan – the first line of a paragraph stranded at the bottom of a page or column. An orphan
can be avoided by changes in wording or spacing to the text that precedes it (p. 2308).
Writing guides such as the Chicago Manual of Style, generally suggest that a manuscript
should have no widows and orphans even if the result of avoiding them is additional space at
the bottom of a page or column.
Leading
Bringhurst (2004) states that Leading is the distance between the baselines of successive
lines of type. The term originated in the days of hand-typesetting when thin strips of lead
were inserted into the forms to increase the vertical distance between lines of type. The
term is still used in modern page layout software such as QuarkXPress and Adobe InDesign.
In consumer-oriented word processing software, this concept is usually referred to as “line
spacing” or “interline spacing.” Leading can be used to enhance the readability of a page or
block of text. The standard leading used in printing is usually +2 points for mechanically set
body text, or +20% in digital typesetting. In both cases, with a 10 point font the usual leading
is 12 pt., creating a 10/12 ratio, which is considered single spacing. According to Carter (2012)
many typography tests suggest that ideal leading should be equal to 120 to 145% of the font
size.
In 2013, Butterick opined that, double spacing is not an effective leading to increase readability.
Double spacing is an entrenched practice due to the era of typewriters. Typewriters had a
limited number of options for leading and double spacing was chosen as a default. Double
spacing can increase the amount of unused white space on a page and lessen the number
of lines on a page causing sometimes issues of readability. Setting type solid (no leading)
appears cramped, with ascenders almost touching descenders from the previous line. The
lack of white space between these lines of text makes them difficult for the eye to track from
one line to the next, making rivers more obvious, and hampering readability.
Rivers of white space

In typography, rivers or rivers of white space are gaps in typesetting which appear to run
through a paragraph of text, due to a coincidental alignment of spaces.
Rivers can occur regardless of the spacing settings, but are most noticeable with wide inter-
word spaces caused by full text justification or mono-spaced fonts. Rivers are less noticeable
with proportional fonts, due to narrow spacing. Another cause of rivers is the close repetition of
a long word or similar words at regular intervals, such as “maximization” with “minimization”
or “optimization” (Felici, 2012).
Rivers occur because of a combination of the x-height of the typeface (whether the type
appears broad or thinly), the values assigned to the widths of various characters, and the
degree of control over character spacing and word spacing. Broader typefaces are more
prone to exhibit rivers when set in less sophisticated typesetting applications that offer little
control over spacing. Increased sentence spacing can also exaggerate the river effect. More
sophisticated typesetting applications divide individual characters into larger numbers, giving
more numerical control. They also offer more comprehensive libraries of “kerning pairs” that
tell the application how much space to allow between all possible combinations of letter
pairs.
The key task of the book designer then is to try and eliminate the effect of rivers in book
setting. The effect of rivers in publication design is crystallised in the words of Canadian
typographer Geoffrey Dowding (1995):
A carefully composed text page appears as an orderly series of strips of black separated by
horizontal channels of white space. Conversely, in a slovenly setting the tendency is for the
page to appear as a grey and muddled pattern of isolated spats, this effect being caused by the
over-widely separated words. The normal, easy, left-to-right movement of the eye is slowed
down simply because of this separation; further, the short letters and serifs are unable to
discharge an important function—that of keeping the eye on “the line”. The eye also tends to
be confused by a feeling of vertical emphasis, that is, an up & down movement, induced by the
relative isolation of the words & consequent insistence of the ascending and descending letters.
This movement is further emphasized by those «rivers» of white which are the inseparable &
ugly accompaniment of all carelessly set text matter (pp. 5-6, 29)
Some Common Page Layout Flaws

In spite of the availability of documents on the principles and conventions of book layout
design, some books tend to have some layout flaws and those identified in literature for the
purpose of this study are:
a. Rivers of White Space: This can develop vertically or horizontally in justified text. They occur
when two spaces instead of one are inserted after periods.
b. Inappropriate Column Spacing: The gutter width should be proportionate to the type size.
As type size increases, more space is needed between the columns to prevent the reader’s
eyes from moving horizontally across the columns, instead of vertically down the columns.
If you add too much gutter space, it causes vertical bands that break the design apart.
c. Claustrophobic Pages: When text, rules, graphics, and other elements crowd each other to
the edges of the page, the design looks crowded. Squeezing text into boxes or wrapping
it too tightly around graphics also produces claustrophobia. Always provide sufficient
breathing room around columns of text.
d. Whispering Headlines: Headlines and subheadings should be larger and/or bolder than
the text they introduce. Not enough contrast will result in gray pages that will not attract
attention.
e. Floating Heads and Subheads: What is the purpose of a headline or subhead if readers
cannot tell which text it is linked to?
f. Buried Heads and Subheads: Avoid headlines and subheads that are too close to the bottom
of the page. Buried heads are unsightly and distracting.
g. Similar Typefaces: When using more than one typeface in a publication, strive for contrast
between them. Avoid typefaces that are too similar.
h. Widows and Orphans: A widow is a syllable, word or less than 1/3 of a line isolated at the
bottom of a column, paragraph or page. An orphan is a word or short phrase isolated at the
top of a column or page. Widows or orphans cause unsightly gaps in text columns.
i. Unequal Spacing: Even the smallest variations in spacing are noticeable. Pay particular
attention to the spacing between headlines, borders and text. Subheads and text are
another problem area, as are captions and photos or other artwork. The spatial relationship
between the end of the text columns and the margins is a very important consideration.
j. Excessive Hyphenation: Excessive hyphenation occurs in narrow columns of type. When too
many words are hyphenated, the text becomes difficult to read. Proper names should not
be hyphenated. Avoid hyphenating in the following cases:
»» words in headlines, short captions, more than two consecutive lines, the last word
in a paragraph, the last line in a column, the last line on a page, and words already
connected with hyphens, such as mother-in-law.
k. Too Many Typefaces: Including too many typefaces or fonts in a single publication will make
your work look amateurish and confusing. Each new typeface, size or weight slows down
a reader.
l. Using Several Similar Visuals: When all the visuals are the same size and shape, viewers
may not know where to look first.
m. Misaligned Elements: When the elements of a publication (text, rules, graphics, etc.) are
not aligned to each other the result is a disorganised mess that is difficult to read.
Methodology
The study used a quantitative approach in data gathering and a content analysis for analysing
the data gathered. Quantitative content analysis is an empirical method used primarily for
analysing recorded human communication in a quantitative, systematic, and inter-subjective
manner (Franzosi, 2008).
The study made use of 100 Ghanaian textbooks being used at the lower primary to the
senior high school levels that were conveniently selected. Some of the books were picked
from bookshops and others were gathered from pupils, students and teachers of the various
educational levels based on their geographical proximities to the locations of the researchers.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected
because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher (Creswell,
2012; Explorable.com, 2009). In spite of concerns raised by many researchers regarding
its representativeness, Saunders (2012) argues that samples purportedly selected for
convenience often meet purposive sample selection criteria that are relevant to the research
aim.
The books studied covered different kinds of textbook genres such as English literature,
Mathematics, Science, Religious studies, Vocational, Social studies and other supplementary
reading materials.
A checklist was developed based on identified layout flaws (Hagen & Golombisky, 2017;
Parker, 1993) as discussed in the literature as a guide for the analyses. The sample checklist
developed is shown in Figure 1.
Each of the selected textbooks was thoroughly analysed for any available layout flaws
as contained in the checklist designed. The names of the individual books studied were
recorded in the section “Name of Publication” and then checked against the specified flaws.
Upon completion, a tabulation was made for all the identified layout flaws and a descriptive
statistical analysis was performed.
Figure 1: Sample Checklist for analysing textbook layout issues (Researchers construct, 2017)
Data Presentation and Findings

Based on the content analysis done on the 100 text books selected for this study, the following
book layout design flaws were observed:
a. Out of the one hundred (100) textbooks, double spacing was the highest of the flaws
identified. Sixty-three (63) of the books had this problem with thirty-seven (37) being free
of such flaw.
b. On issues of margins, twenty-six (26) of them had poor margins and seventy-four (74) of
the textbooks had good margins. This figure obtained from the flaws of margins shows that
book designers understand and practice the use of conventional margin ratios in the books
they produce.
c. Rivers is the second highest flaw recorded. It was observed that fifty eight (58) out of the
100 books had rivers.
d. Flaws of Leading was not found much in the selected textbooks sampled. Just thirteen
(13) of them had such problems and the remaining of eighty-seven books (87) had good
leading.
e. Regarding Claustrophobic pages, eight (8) of the textbooks sampled showed such flaw and
the remaining ninety-two (92) were without this flaw.
f. Floating headlines were found in seven (7) of the textbooks sampled and ninety three (93)
of the books were free of this flaw.
g. Majority of the books assessed had very good records of character and word spacing. A
total of ninety-seven (97) of the sampled textbooks had good word and letter spacing as
against just three (3).
h. On the issues of inconsistency of text (font size variations and typefaces), sixteen (16) of
the textbooks sampled had this flaw and eighty-four (84) of the book sampled had none.
i. Regarding overemphasized heads, eighty-three (83) of them had good headlines and only
seven (7) had poor headlines where the designers overly emphasized the heads.
j. Generally, the headlines found in the books were good with only ten (10) of them having
whispering heads.
Table 1 shows a summary of the flaws identified in the selected 100 textbooks used in this
study.
Table 1: Summary of layout flaws identified

Flaws Frequency
Margins 26
Leading 13
River 58
Claustrophobic page 8
Floating heads 7
Double spacing 63
Inconsistency of text 16
Unequal spacing 3
Over emphasised heads 7
whispering Heads 10
Discussions
Upon critical content analysis of the selected textbooks, it was observed that there has been
some significant improvement in the reduction of layout flaws in comparison with earlier
studies on Ghanaian book layout designs by Nunoo (2005) and Essuman (2009). However,
the potential causes of these identified flaws and how they affect the layout and reading are
discussed thematically as follows:
Margins
Margins are one of the major features of book layout design which can affect reading.
Inadequate or poor margins were identified in some of the textbooks analysed, with many
having top, outside and bottom margins less than one centimetre. Generous margins around
text on page has been described as effective way of framing text, providing breathing space
for the human eye during reading as well as making room for the reader’s thumb (Van-White,
2003; Williams, 1983; Hartley, 2004; Bringhurst, 2004). Even though the proportions
between margins are primarily a matter of convention and personal preference (Williamson,
1983), they are influenced by the way in which the book is to be bound and used. Bringhurst
(2004) and Hartley (2004) have suggested a minimum of 10 mm for top and bottom, but
usually recommend 25 mm as necessary for outer margins. This shows that there is no one
way of incurring bad margins and thus the designer must take into consideration the type of
publication and binding style to be used to create an effective margin setup.
Rivers of white space

Rivers constituted the second largest number of flaws identified in the study. Forced
justification of text and double spacing were identified as major causes of this problem. They
create uneven word and character spacing, with the text lines resulting in reading difficulty
– readability. According to Van White (2003), reading rhythm must be smooth since the
eyes move in saccadic jumps from word to word (or word-group to word-group) and as such,
irregular spacing decomposes the words and make them more difficult to recognise.
There are known ways to help control rivers of white space in book layout designs. The cure is
to decrease the type size or increase column width, or do both (Golombisky & Hagen, 2017)
or the body copy can be reset to flush left.
Leading and double spacing

A few cases of leading related problems were identified in the study. In general, the rest of the
publications had appreciable line spacing that conformed to the convention of 50% per cent
larger than (1.5 times the size of) the chosen typeface. However, with the few samples that
had this flaw, it is likely that either the books were set with a word processing application, or
the designers simply lacked a better understanding of the software and basic typographical
principles.
Double Spacing was the most occurring flaw noticed in the study. Majority of the publications
had double spacing after words in the body text of which most occurred right after a full stop
(period). From the study, it was noticed that most of the breaks of white spaces occurring in
the books were influenced by the justification of body text as a result of the double spacing
after a period. Double spaces can be avoided and corrected if the designer understands the
use of appropriate software for the layout design.
Over Emphasised Headings

Overemphasised headlines were identified in a few of the analysed books. Overemphasis
of headings gave the layout a heavy feel and is also a likely distraction to readers. This flaw
especially came in headings which were bolded and underlined. Some had larger font sizes
within the body text, aside being bold and underlined at the same time.
Floating sub heads

This flaw was also noted in some of the books. The headings did not have a direct relationship
with their body texts as they appeared hanging in between two separate body texts. This
flaw occurs when the same amount of space is left before and after the headings making
them appear to float. This makes it difficult or almost impossible to distinguish where a
particular heading belongs, thereby affecting readability. According to Van White (2003),
the functional purpose of a sub head is to introduce the material that follows beneath so that
the reader is subtly drawn into it. He further states that setting the heads in such manner
may be the simplest thing to do but it makes it neutral and not belonging to any paragraph.
The cure to floating subheads is to position the heads and subheads close to the text they
introduce, leaving plenty of room between them and the preceding text.
Claustrophobic pages
Most of the books sampled did not have claustrophobic pages; only a few of them had it
and this made the pages look very heavy and dark and also not attractive to read. The cure
is to add white space, reduce the text and graphic sizes, edit the copy or add a page to the
publication. This study revealed that the books that had claustrophobic pages were those
with poor leading and thick type faces. When this happens, it makes the page dark and less
attractive to read.
Buried head and subheads
Headlines and subheads that are too close to the bottom of the page are said to be ‘buried’.
Buried heads are unsightly and distracting. The study did not find any in the book sampled.
According to White (1982), a headline introduces and belongs to the text beneath it; thus a
‘buried’ head does not belong to any body text, and constitutes bad book layout designing
aside being a discrepancy to the reader.
Misalignment of text
When texts are not aligned to each other the result is a disorganised mess that is difficult to
read, and a few of such flaw were found in the books assessed. The cure is to align columns
and graphics vertically. The remainder of the elements, subheads, rules, boxes, bullets, and
other items should rest along the same baseline as the texts they accompany.
Inconsistency of text
Including too many typefaces or fonts in a single publication will make your work look
amateurish and confusing. Each new typeface, size or weight slows down a reader, and some
of the books sampled had problems in type selection. Some of the observations made were
that some of the designers in a bid to show variations and emphasis decided to use different
typefaces, making the page block look unpleasant to the eye and boring to read. Variations
can be achieved by using the various typestyle of the same family of font, this will show the
variations better than different type face.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Book layout design is very important in the production of books and constitutes the most
significant part of the book and its production process, thus there is a need for it to be treated
the right way. This study was established to see whether Ghanaian textbooks follow standard
layout principles in book layout design. As a scientifically proven fact (Williamson, 1983),
the inconsistencies in book layout design go a long way to affect the books’ readability and
comprehension. The analysis of the selected textbooks in this study identified book layout
design flaws in most of the books.
Despite the existence of guiding principles and conventions for book designers to adhere
to, there exists some level of flaws in Ghanaian textbooks as shown in the study. Per this
observation, there are possible reasons for these occurrences. It is possible to consider that
most of these books were not designed by professionals or perhaps, professionals are not
mindful of these principles of book layout design. It is therefore recommended that, further
studies be done find out why these flaws are still prevalent in some Ghanaian textbooks. Also,
the Ministry of Education should develop a checklist that can help designers check these
design flaws, and also serve as a guide for book designers commissioned to design textbooks
for pre-tertiary education. More importantly, there should be collaborative effort between
the Ghanaian Publishing Industry and academia to offer training modules for designers to
improve their skills. To ensure effective assessment of selected books, there needs to be a
collaborative effort between the Ministry of Education and Institutions of Higher Learning in
the area of textbook production.
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Conference Paper · March 2018

Francis Kofi Nimo Nunoo

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Nunoo, F. K. N. (1); Moro, I. (2); Prempeh, B. (2); Anane-Antwi, E. (1)

(Robert Bringhurst, 2004, p. 143).

The Concept of Book Design and Layout

Guiding Principles and Conventions on the Various Elements of Book Design

Type and Typeface Selection

Orphans and widows

Rivers of white space

Some Common Page Layout Flaws

Data Presentation and Findings

Table 1: Summary of layout flaws identified

Rivers of white space

Leading and double spacing

Over Emphasised Headings

Floating sub heads

Conclusions and Recommendations

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