Engineering Guidelines - Grilles & Diffusers

engineering guidelines - grilles & diffusers
B
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Table of Contents Engineering Guidelines - GRD
overview
Engineering Guidelines Overview...................................................................................................................................................B4
grilles & diffusers

Grilles & Diffusers...........................................................................................................................................................................B5
Basic Principles of Air Distribution.................................................................................................................................................B5
The Goal of an Air Diffusion System: Maintaining Comfort....................................................................................................B5
Comfort Limits Set by ASHRAE Handbook, ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO Standard 7730...................................................B5
Comfort: A Function of Room Air Velocity..............................................................................................................................B6
Fanger’s Comfort Index...........................................................................................................................................................B7
General Comfort Guidelines....................................................................................................................................................B7
Outlet Location and Selection ........................................................................................................................................................B7

Three Methods........................................................................................................................................................................B7
Method I. Selection by Noise Criteria (NC).............................................................................................................................B7
Method II. Selection by Supply Jets Mapping........................................................................................................................B8
Method III. Selection by Comfort Criteria - ADPI....................................................................................................................B8
B
Isothermal Air Jets.......................................................................................................................................................................B10
Jet Characteristics: Four Zones of Expansion.......................................................................................................................B10
Room Air Induction Rate for an Outlet..................................................................................................................................B11
Jet Characteristics Surface Effect (Coanda Effect)...............................................................................................................B12
Procedure to Obtain Catalog Throw Data.............................................................................................................................B13
Isothermal Jet Theory for All Outlets....................................................................................................................................B13
Nonisothermal Jets...............................................................................................................................................................B13
Exhaust and Return Grille Pressure......................................................................................................................................B13
Throw and Drop from Side Wall Outlets in Free Space.........................................................................................................B14
Other Diffusers With Cooling................................................................................................................................................B17
Supply Outlet Classifications........................................................................................................................................................B17

Typical Air Distribution Characteristics.................................................................................................................................B17
Classification of Supply Outlets............................................................................................................................................B19
Horizontal, Circular and Cross Flow Patterns.......................................................................................................................B21
Vertical Downward Projection From Ceiling.........................................................................................................................B23
Estimating Downward Vertical Projection............................................................................................................................B24
Diffuser Applications on Exposed Ducts...............................................................................................................................B24
ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
Horizontal Projection at Floor Level: Displacement Ventilation............................................................................................B25

Vertical Upward Projection from Floor, Low Side Wall and Sill............................................................................................B26
Perimeter Applications.................................................................................................................................................................B27
Outlet Located Back from Perimeter Wall.............................................................................................................................B28
Outlet Vertical Projection at a Window.................................................................................................................................B28
Rolling a Room......................................................................................................................................................................B28
Some Perimeter Considerations............................................................................................................................................B28
ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index.........................................................................................................................................B29

ADPI Can be Obtained by Measurement or Through Prediction...........................................................................................B30
Jet Calculations....................................................................................................................................................................B31
Industrial Applications..................................................................................................................................................................B32
Thermal Standards for Industrial Work Areas.......................................................................................................................B32
Control of Heat Exposures by Isolating the Source...............................................................................................................B32
B2 General Ventilation................................................................................................................................................................B33
Table of Contents (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Local Relief...........................................................................................................................................................................B33
Guidelines for Local Area or Spot Cooling Ventilation:.........................................................................................................B33
Outlet Selections...................................................................................................................................................................B33
Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors...............................................................................................................................B36

Pressure Measurements.......................................................................................................................................................B36
Airflow Measurements.........................................................................................................................................................B36
Velocity Distribution from Linear Diffusers...........................................................................................................................B36
Ducts for Linear Diffusers.....................................................................................................................................................B36
Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles.......................................................................................................B36
Installation Acoustics...........................................................................................................................................................B37
acoustical applications & factors

Acoustical Applications & Factors................................................................................................................................................B39
Noise Criteria (NC)................................................................................................................................................................B39
Room Criteria (RC)................................................................................................................................................................B41
Air Terminal Sound Issues....................................................................................................................................................B43
AHRI Standard 885...............................................................................................................................................................B44
B
Environmental Adjustment Factor .......................................................................................................................................B44
Discharge Sound Power Levels.............................................................................................................................................B45
Acceptable Total Sound in a Space.......................................................................................................................................B46
Maximum Sound Power Levels for Manufacturers’ Data.....................................................................................................B48
Desired Room Sound Pressure Levels...................................................................................................................................B48
Radiated Sound Power Level Specifications.........................................................................................................................B49
Discharge Sound Power Level Specifications.......................................................................................................................B49
Diffuser Specifications..........................................................................................................................................................B50
Determining Compliance to a Specification..........................................................................................................................B51
references
References....................................................................................................................................................................................B52
glossary
Glossary........................................................................................................................................................................................B54
B3
Overview Engineering Guidelines - GRD
The selection and performance data contained in this (ASHRAE) Standard 70 and Standard 113. Although Titus
catalog are the result of extensive studies conducted in has no control over the system, design and application
the Titus engineering laboratories under professional of these products, a function which rightfully belongs to
engineering guidance, with adherence to sound the designer, this data accurately represents the product
engineering applications. They are intended to be aids performance based on the results of laboratory tests.
to heating and air conditioning engineers and designers Furthermore, the recommended methods of applying
with skill and knowledge in the art of air distribution. this information have been shown by field experience
The data has been obtained in accordance with the to result in optimum space air distribution.
principles outlined within the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
B
B4
Grilles and Diffusers Engineering Guidelines - GRD
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION
100
THE GOAL OF AN AIR DIFFUSION Neck region
SYSTEM: MAINTAINING COMFORT 80
Local Air Velocity, FPM
%
An understanding of the principles of room air distribution
40
helps in the selection, design, control and operation of air 60
systems. The real evaluation of air distribution in a
%
space, however, must answer the question: Are the
30
Feeling of
occupants comfortable? 40 coolness
%
In general, a person is thermally comfortable when body
20
heat loss equals heat production without being conscious 20 Feeling
of any changes in the body’s temperature regulating of warmth
%
10
mechanisms. The human body heat loss to the environment
0
can occur through the following: -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
• Radiation • Convection Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp.

(TX - TA)
• Conduction • Evaporation
The comfort of an occupant is determined by both occupant

variables and the conditions of the space. Occupant factors Figure 1. Comfort Chart - Neck Region
B
include activity level and metabolic rate (reported in Met
units), as well as occupant clothing levels (reported in Clo
units). The factors that influence space comfort 100
conditions include: 40%
Ankle region
• Dry bulb and radiant temperatures 80

Local Air Velocity, FPM
• Relative humidity
30%
• Air velocity 60
The design of the air distribution system should address the 20%
above factors so that the occupant’s heat loss is maintained 40 Feeling of
at a comfortable rate. coolness
10%
COMFORT LIMITS SET BY ASHRAE 20 Feeling
of warmth
HANDBOOK, ASHRAE STANDARD
0
55 AND ISO STANDARD 7730 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
For many years, it has been shown that individual comfort
is maintained through the change in seasons when the Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp.
following conditions are maintained in the occupied zone of (TX - TA)
a space:
GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
1. Air temperature maintained between 73 - 77°F Figure 2. Comfort Chart - Ankle Region
2. Relative humidity maintained less than 60% temperature levels, often creating circumstances where a
3. Maximum air motion in the occupied zone single setpoint will not satisfy all individuals in a space.
4. (6” to 6’ vertical, within 1’ of walls):
50 fpm cooling In meeting the above criteria for comfort, the temperature
30 fpm heating of the space and the relative humidity is largely controlled
5. Ankle to head level, 5.4°F standing & 3.6°F seated by the mechanical equipment including chillers or package
maximum temperature gradient units, air handlers, room thermostat, and air terminal unit.
The air motion in the occupied zone is a function of the
Note: The comfort standards state that no minimum air discharge velocity, discharge temperature (and room load)
movement is necessary to maintain thermal comfort, and the pattern of the air diffusion device into the space. At
provided the temperature is acceptable. To maximize energy today’s relatively low (< 1 cfm / sq.ft.) air delivery rates, and
conservation, maintain proper temperatures at the lowest with properly selected diffusers, room load (and resultant
possible air speed. Dt) is often the strongest variable in setting room air motion.
The previous conditions assume occupants are sedentary

or slightly active individuals and appropriately dressed.
Variations in clothing can have a strong effect on desired
B5
Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Generally, the acceptable level of comfort for a space is
COMFORT: A FUNCTION OF
considered to be at the point where 20% or less of the room
ROOM AIR VELOCITY occupants may object to the room conditions. This would
Some interesting relationships exist between room air indicate that the given condition is acceptable to 80% of
motion and the feeling of occupant comfort. Figure 1 the occupants.
shows the effect of air motion on comfort. The charts show
that the feeling of comfort is a function of the local room air We all have perceived this above change and these
velocity, local temperature and ambient temperature. subjective responses to drafts (temperature difference
and air velocity). In 1938 Houghten et. al. developed the
Local temperature (Tx) (Figures 1 and 2) is the curves shown in (Figures 1 and 2). Utilizing this data, the
temperature at a given point in a space. Ambient equation for effective draft temperature was generated.
temperature (TA) is the desired room temperature and can
be considered the thermostat setpoint. Equation 1: Effective draft temperature
Ø = ( tX - tC ) - 0.07 ( Vx - 30 )
The basic criteria for room air distribution can be obtained
from the curves shown in (Figure 1). The chart shows the where: Ø = effective temperature
equivalent feeling of comfort for varying room temperatures tX = local air temperatures, °F
and velocities at the neck. The % curves indicate the tC = ambient temperature (average room
number of people who would object to the temperature temperature or control temperature, °F)
and velocity conditions. The same comfort perceptions are Vx = local air velocity, fpm
shown in (Figure 2) for the ankle region.
Table 1. Effect of Velocity and Temperature on Comfort ADPI (Air Diffusion Performance Index) was derived by
Nevins and Ward. The percentage of all local points in an
B
Local Velocity Percentage occupied space where - 3< Ø <+ 2 with the velocity less
Temperature °F (tX - tC) than 70 fpm results in a single comfort index for the space.
fpm Objecting
80 75 0 20% ∅ = -3F ∅ = +2F
60 74 -1 20%
40 73 -2 20% 100
15 71 -4 20%
Neck region
60 75 0 10% 80
40 75 0 5%
%
40
30 75 0 Neutral
15 75 3 Warm 60
%
30
Feeling of
If 20% objections or 80% acceptance at the same velocities 40 coolness
are allowed between (Figure 1 and Figure 2), the
temperature deviation allowed between the ankle and neck
%
20
levels would be about 4°F (less than ASHRAE values of

20 Feeling
5.4°F).
of warmth
%
10
Table 1 shows the relationship between local velocities and 0

temperatures on occupant comfort. As an example, -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
at a local velocity of 80 fpm, the local temperature can be
maintained at 75°F to reach an 80% comfort level in the Local Air Temp. minus Ambient °, F
space. The same 80% comfort level can be maintained with (tX - tC)
local air velocity of 15 fpm and a local temperature reduced
to 71°F.
Figure 3. Comfort Chart with ADPI Parallelogram
The lower portion of Table 1 shows the effect on comfort of
room air velocity with local temperature remaining constant In the parallelogram in (Figure 3), the left line is Ø = - 3,
at 75°F. For example, with a local velocity of 30 fpm and a the right line is Ø = + 2 and the top line is 70 fpm.
local temperature at 75°F, the comfort reaction is neutral.
Increasing the velocity to 60 fpm results in the objective The parallelogram in (Figure 3) shows these limits and all
increasing to 10%. This phenomenon of “feeling” can be their points are within the overall 80% acceptance. This
illustrated by using a ceiling fan. A person can be “cooled” method of obtaining a single point comfort rating can be
without decreasing the actual temperature by turning on a used to rate a system in the field. It will also be covered
ceiling fan. The fan, in effect, increases the local air velocity more thoroughly in the outlet selections section, and the
and increases the feeling of coolness. It is shown that a ADPI section page B29. It is also expected that there is a
velocity change of 15 fpm produces approximately the same strong correlation between ADPI and ventilation air mixing,
effect on comfort as a 1°F temperature change. The dotted or Air Change Effectiveness, and this issue is expected to be
lines in (Figures 1, 2 and 3) show the division between included in the upcoming revision to ASHRAE Standard 62
B6 the feeling or perception of heating and cooling. on indoor air quality.
Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
FANGER’S COMFORT INDEX
A third comfort index which is used frequently in reports HEATING
to compare research results is Fanger’s procedure which Generally, during heating, local air velocities are low, often
is the basis for ISO Standard 7730. Fanger’s method below 30 fpm. If the 80% comfort factor is to be met, the
determines the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the maximum temperature gradient from ankle to the neck
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) at each should be no more than 5.4°F.
of a number of measuring points uniformly distributed
throughout the occupied zone.
COOLING
The Fanger equation includes thermal parameters not During cooling, which is the predominant mode in most
considered in the ADPI (relative humidity, mean radiant occupied spaces, local air temperature differentials
temperature, clothing insulation, and activity levels). generally are not more than 1° to 2°F from ankle to neck
The PMV approach has the advantage of providing a region with properly designed air distribution systems.
single number rating combining all comfort elements. Therefore, to maintain the 80% comfort level, the air
The ASHRAE 55 and ISO 7730 Standards yield distribution system should be selected to limit the local air
essentially the same space conditions for acceptability. velocities to not exceed 50 fpm.
ASHRAE 55 incorporates PMV in its current revision. From
both ASHRAE and ISO standards, the estimated comfort
of 80% of the individuals in a space can be plotted. From OUTLET LOCATION AND SELECTION
a program developed as part of the ASHRAE 55 review
process, a consensus computer program was developed
and published. This program has been used to plot data THREE METHODS
on a psychrometric chart for two sets of typically occurring
B
Outlets are located in the side wall, ceiling, sill, etc., by the
conditions:
designer’s preference or by necessity due to the building
construction. The type and size are selected to most
Executive & Clerical
effectively overcome stratification zones created by the
80% 60%
natural convection and internal loading. At the same time
0.8 selection should result in acceptable noise levels and room
50%
velocities and temperatures to satisfy as high a percentage
of occupants as possible per (Figure 1, page B6). (At least
40% 80% of space occupants.)
Partial Pressure, Millibars
0.5
METHOD I. SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

% RH
The most frequently used procedure to select an outlet size

20% is by using the tabulated Outlet NC level (which typically
0.3 assumes a 10 dB room absorption at the observer’s location)
Executive Clerical
equal to the desired space NC. See page B39. (While RC is
10% replacing NC in the ASHRAE Handbook, most specifications
will continue to reference NC for some time, and with
0.0
diffusers, there is seldom any difference between NC and
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 RC.)
Temperature, º F.
To take into account the number of outlets, distance, room

Figure 4. PMV Chart size, etc., see the discussion on the Outlet NC Level and
Condition 1 (Executive):
Noise Criteria/Room Criteria in the Acoustical Design GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
section, page B39. Multiple outlets in a space at the same
Met Rate = 1.1 (Typical for office) cataloged NC rating will result in an increase in the actual
Clothing Rate = 1.0 (Shirt, tie, long pants, socks) sound levels heard. A second outlet within 10 ft. will add no
Air Speed = 20 fpm (Typical interior office) more than 3 dB to the sound pressure level.

Condition 1 (Clerical): Guidelines for Selection by NC
Met Rate = 0.9 (Sedentary)
• Generally within a 10 ft. module the catalog NC
Clothing Rate = 0.5 (Skirt, blouse, no socks)
rating will apply for diffusers and continuous linears
Air Speed = 20 fpm (Typical interior office)
• We hear only 10 ft. of a continuous diffuser
It can be seen from this graph that a single setpoint, such • A wide open balancing damper in the neck may
as 75°F, 50% RH is not likely to satisfy even 80% of all add 4 - 5 NC
individuals in a space. • Significantly closed balancing dampers can add
more than 10 NC, depending on the duct pressure
and supply fan characteristics
GENERAL COMFORT GUIDELINES
Most published guidelines for comfort suggest the below The effect of inlet dampers can be determined by calculating
conditions are maintained, adjusted for seasonal and
occupational clothing and activity levels:
the ratio of the Velocity to Total Pressure.
B7
Outlet Location and Selection (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Flow restrictions increase the space sound levels. When
MAPPING PROCEDURES
making a selection at a given cfm and adding a damper, a
1. Select type of diffuser (Reviewing the Classification
device with a low total pressure will have a higher actual
of Supply Outlets section on page B17 will help
increase in NC as compared to a device with a higher total
determine the best device).
pressure. The sound level increases above the cataloged NC
rating due to the pressure increases from dampers or other 2. For diffusers, check Table 5 on page B17 to
control devices, can be approximated by the use of Table determine if the air quantity is less than the maximum.
2. An inlet balancing damper can be expected to add about 3. When selecting a side wall grille, check configuration
3 dB when fully open, and as much as 10 dB or more if in (Figures 10 through 15), in this section for drop
significantly closed. during cooling (use cfm and jet velocity).
4. Plot isothermal T150, T100, T50 from performance data
Table 2. Effect of Dampers on Outlet NC in catalog for a selected size and cfm at the throw
Total Pressure Ratio 100% 150% 200% 400% distances.
dB Increase 0 4.5 8 16 5. If the outlet provides a horizontal pattern below the
ceiling, the pattern will tend to leave the ceiling near
the 100 fpm terminal velocity.
METHOD II. SELECTION BY 6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 as necessary to meet
SUPPLY JETS MAPPING job requirements.
This selection procedure uses the throw values to terminal
velocities of 150, 100 and 50 fpm from the performance
tables. Examples of how terminal velocities are used are METHOD III. SELECTION BY
shown in (Figures 7 and 8, pages B11 and B12).
Temperature differences at these terminal velocities are COMFORT CRITERIA - ADPI
B
added to the map by using the following equation: ADPI (Air Diffusion Performance Index) statistically relates
the space conditions of local or traversed temperatures and
Equation 2: Temperature change of supply jet velocities to occupants’ thermal comfort. This is similar to
D tx = 0.8 D to the way NC relates local conditions of sound to occupants’
Vx
o p
noise level comfort. High ADPI values are desirable as
where: D tx = tx - tc they represent a high comfort level, and also increased
D to = to - tc Vo probability of ventilation air mixing. Acceptable ADPI
conditions for different diffuser types are shown in (Figure
tx = local air temperature, °F 5) for velocities less than 70 fpm and velocity-temperature
tc = ambient temperature (average room combinations that will provide better than the 80%
temperature for control temperature, °F) occupant acceptance.
to = outlet air temperature, °F
Table 3. Jet Velocity vs. Temperature Rise The curves in (Figure 5) summarize some of the tests
which established ADPI and the relationships from which
VX, fpm 500 400 300 200 100 50 this selection procedure originates.
∆tX, °F 8 6.4 4.8 3.2 1.6 0.8
100 4 Light Troffer Diffusers
Note: Temperature Differential between total air and room
air for various terminal velocities. Calculated with Equation 2, 80
with Dto = 20°F and Vo = 1000 fpm. 12’ Two Slot
Diffuser
Selection by supply jet mapping identifies the most probable 60

ADPI
portion of the space to be uncomfortable. Portions of a High

Sidewall
space away from the supply jet will have velocities and 40
temperatures that are nearly equal to the space Round
ambient conditions. Ceiling
Diffusers
20
= 20 BTUH/Sq.Ft
.
Not all applications result in “overblow” in a confined = 40 BTUH/Sq.Ft
.
space as shown in (Figure 8). In some cases the throw
terminates with the airstream dropping into the occupied 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
space. This is due to the buoyancy effect between the
airstream and space air and/or external forces. Drop must T50/L
then be considered as shown in (Figures 10 through 15,
pages B13 - B16) for side wall outlets and Table 5, page
B17 for ceiling diffusers. Many examples of jet performance Figure 5. Throw vs. Characteristic Room Length
mapping are shown throughout this engineering section.
B8
Outlet Location and Selection (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
The curves show relative comfort for:
ADPI SELECTION PROCEDURE
• Four different outlet types
1. Select type of diffuser.
• Catalog throw and space characteristics
2. If a ceiling diffuser is being used, check Table 5, page
• Loading (one cfm/sq. ft. with a 20°F differential is B18 to determine if the air quantity is less than the
a load of about 20 Btuh/sq. ft.) maximum for the ceiling height of the room. When
• Flow rate (variable volume) selecting a side wall grille, check configuration in
(Figures 10 through 15, pages B15-B17) for drop
L is the space characteristic length in feet. This is usually the during cooling (use cfm and duct velocity).
distance from the outlet to the wall or mid-plane between 3. Select the characteristic length from the plans - the
outlets. This can also be considered the module line when distance from a diffuser to a wall or the distance to
outlets serve equal modules through a space, and all center line between two diffusers.
consideration can then be based on the module parameters. 4. Select the range of acceptable throw values from Table
4 below at the corresponding characteristic length.
T50 is a catalog throw value to a terminal velocity of
5. From Performance Table for diffuser at required cfm,
50 fpm. A throw value can be selected using a catalog
select a size with a T50 within range. With a VAV
performance table by multiplying the throw ratio (T50/L) by
system, this must be done for both maximum flow rate
the characteristic length (L). The throw ratio is based on a 9
(maximum load) and at the lowest flow rate expected
ft. ceiling height. The throw can be increased or decreased
when the space is occupied. (This may be higher than
by the same amount that the ceiling height exceeds or is
the minimum flow shown in the building plans.)
less than 9 ft. To obtain optimum comfort in the space, ADPI
tests indicate selecting the outlet from the throw ratios in 6. Check sound levels for NC compatibility.
Table 4 as follows.
This selection will result in maximum comfort and ventilation
B
For more details on how ADPI is obtained from basic tests or mixing for the application. If this selection cannot be made
field tests see ADPI topic, page B29. as outlined, supply jet mapping can determine areas of
discomfort in the space.
Table 4. Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets
Outlet T50/L Range Calculated T50 & L Data

Sidewall Grilles L 10 15 20 25 30
1.3-2.0 T50 13-20 20-30 26-40 33-50 39-60
Ceiling Diffusers Round Pattern L 5 10 15 20 25
TMR, TMRA, TMS, PAS† 0.6-1.2 T50 3-6 6-12 9-18 12-24 15-30
Ceiling Diffusers Cross Pattern L 5 10 15 20 25
PSS, TDC, 250 1.0-2.0 T50 5-10 10-20 15-30 20-40 25-50
Slot Diffusers L 5 10 15 20 25
ML, TBD, LL1, LL2 0.5-3.3 T50 8-18 15-33 23-50 30-66 38-83
Light Troffer Diffusers L* 4 6 8 10 12
LTT, LPT 1.0-5.0 T50 4-40 6-30 8-40 10-50 12-60
Sill and Floor Grilles L** 5 10 15 20 25 GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
All types 0.7-1.7 T50 4-9 7-17 11-26 14-34 18-43
† Recommended T50/L range for PAS: 0.9-1.8 L Characteristic length from diffuser to module line.
L* Distance between units plus 2 ft. down for overlapping
T50 Isothermal throw to terminal velocity of 50 fpm. airstream.
Select diffuser size within these ranges. L** Distance to ceiling and to far wall.
B9
ISOTHERMAL AIR JETS Engineering Guidelines - GRD
The vast majority of air diffusion systems in the United because the data is repeatable and predictable without
States are overhead forced air systems. A grille or diffuser having to correct for the buoyancy effect associated with
generates a high velocity jet and comfort conditions are heated or cooled air. Because of predictability, test methods
maintained through mixing. The primary airstream from the used to obtain throw data for grilles and diffusers are based
air diffuser device draws the room air into the supply air jet on isothermal air (see ASHRAE Standard 70). Extensive
as shown in (Figure 6, page B10). The primary airstream studies of isothermal jets have shown that the air projection
induces room air (or secondary air) to provide complete is related to the average velocity at the face of the air supply
room air mixing and maintain thermal comfort conditions outlet or opening. The distance an airstream will travel is
by creating uniform room temperatures. The room air based on the relationship between the discharge velocity,
motion is largely a function of the discharge velocity and cfm, discharge area and velocity profile. Isovel testing has
induction rate of the air diffusion device at higher flows, shown that as an isothermal jet leaves a free opening, it can
but is increasingly dependent on room load and discharge be described by its predictable characteristics and known
temperature as the flow rate decreases. equations. A free jet has four distinct zones of expansion
with the centerline velocity of each zone related to the initial
Isothermal jets (“Isothermal” refers to the supply air being velocity as shown in (Figures 6 & 7).
at the same temperature as the room air) are studied
Zone
I II III IV
B PRIMARY
AIR
Total
air
High velocity 22°
Induced room air

gentle movement Greatest possible
source of drafts
Figure 6. Expansion of primary air jet
JET CHARACTERISTICS: FOUR ZONES OF EXPANSION

As air leaves an outlet, four distinct zones of expansion Equation 4: Second zone velocity
define the jet. These zones are shown in the dimensionless Where Q = outlet flow rate
graph (Figure 7, page B11). This graph can be generated
Vx √ Ao ½
for any diffuser or grille by experimentation, and is used to = o K2 p
calculate the throw for a diffuser at any flow condition. (The Vo X

K value for each zone is the value of the X axis where the
Y axis is = 1). A description of each zone and an equation to Where K2 = the second zone throw constant
define the characteristics of each zone is shown below. Ao = outlet effective area (This value may be
In the first zone, the jet maintains a constant velocity with less than the actual opening or the outlet.)
minimal mixing of supply and room air. This zone extends X = throw distance
approximately one and a half duct diameters from the face.
Equation: 4A: Second zone throw
Equation 3: First zone velocity
Q 2 K2
o p
Vx
Vo = constant

X =
Vx √ Ao3
Where Vx = air speed at a point
Vo = outlet air velocity

In the second zone, the jet begins to mix with room air.
Induction of room air also causes the jet to expand. Linear
B10
B10 outlets typically have a long second zone and long throws.
Isothermal Jets (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
The third zone is the zone where most of the induction
occurs. This is the most important zone because it has
the most effect on room air velocities and room induction.
The relationship between initial velocity and jet center line
velocity for the third zone is given by the equation below.

Equation 5: Third zone velocity
Vx √ Ao
= o K3 p
Vo X
K3
where K3 = third zone constant 1.0
TY
PIC
AL
Zone LIN
EA
I R
Zone
II
Decreasing
150 fpm
100 fpm
B
Vx/ Vo
Zone
III
50 fpm
o
Zone
IV
X/ A Increasing
Figure 7. Four Zones of Expansion of Primary Air Jet
The fourth zone is the zone with relatively low velocities. ROOM AIR INDUCTION RATE FOR AN OUTLET
The performance in zone four is a function of the cfm. The
The amount of room air induced into a primary air jet can
performance is independent of the outlet size.
be approximated using the equation shown below:
Equation 6: Fourth zone velocity
Equation 7: Room air induction equation
Vx √ Ao 2
= o K4 p Induction ratio =
Qx
= C o x
V
p
Vo X Qo Vo
Equation 6A: Fourth zone throw
Q ½ Qo = supply cfm
X = o p K4 Qx = cfm at distance x distance from outlet
Vx Vo = discharge velocity
Vx = velocity at distance x from outlet
Figure 7 above shows a non-dimensional plot of the
C = entrainment coefficient, 1.4 for infinite
variables in the zones of an expanding jet for a grille
slots and 2.0 for round free axial jets
(shaded area). The mathematical relationship between
the centerline velocity and the distance to this velocity
is indicated for each zone. These relationships for all
outlets are obtained by the methods outlined in ASHRAE
Standard 70. Average constants are included in the ASHRAE
Handbook [2] for Zone III for a number of different types
of outlets. Throw for each outlet type can be predicted by
equations 3 through 6. Catalog throw data is generated by
obtaining the constants for an outlet type and calculating
the throw using the zone equations. The area for Ao and Vo
must be the same for the relationships to be valid.
B11
Isothermal
50 60 80 100 120 150 200 300
25
T150 fpm T150 fpm
T100
50 fpm Isovel 14" x 4"
fpm
150 cfm
Feet
150 cfm Velocity Measurements

300 cfm Throw T150, T100, T50 500 fpm
9'
30
T50 fpm
20 15 10 5 0
24'
B
Figure 8. Mapping of Isothermal Throw
Isothermal and Cooling
24'
20 15 10 5 0
T150 fpm
T150 fpm
T50 fpm
T100 fpm
T100
fpm 9'
150 cfm Velocity Measurements

300 cfm Throw T150, T100, T50
T50 fpm Isothermal &
20° F Cooling
Figure 9. Mapping of Cooled Air Throw
JET CHARACTERISTICS SURFACE EFFECT (COANDA EFFECT)

The previous section discussed the relationships between This surface effect will occur if:
velocity and throw in free space applications. If the • The angle of discharge between the jet and
jet is projected parallel to and within a few inches of a the surface is less than 40° for circular pattern
surface, the jet’s performance will be affected by the diffusers, somewhat less for jets.
surface. This is called surface effect or Coanda Effect. The • A side wall outlet is within 1-foot of the ceiling.
surface effect creates a low pressure region and tends to • Floor or sill outlet is near (within 10”) to a wall.
attach the jet flow to the ceiling or surface. (The higher
pressure in the room holds the airstream to the ceiling.) • A ceiling outlet discharges along the ceiling.
As the jet flows along a surface, secondary room air can no

longer mix with the part of the jet adjacent to the surface,
B12
B12 which causes the amount of induction to decrease.
PROCEDURE TO OBTAIN NONISOTHERMAL JETS
CATALOG THROW DATA Year round applications often require heating, cooling and
Test data in (Figure 7, page B11) shows typical velocity isothermal conditions through the same device.
measurements obtained during isothermal testing of a
typical 12” x 6” grille with 155 cfm. At each measuring Titus originally tested all outlets using the method of
distance (x), velocities are obtained below the ceiling at analysis in (Figure 7). During cooling with a 20°F
1, 2, 3 inches, etc. The highest sustained velocities (Vx) at differential, a modification of a similar method proposed
each distance are used in (Figure 7). For a complete series by Koestel, taking into account the buoyancy effect, was
of different size outlets, (Figure 7) is a dimensionless plot used. As a result, Titus built an elaborate database on jet
of Vx /Vo vs. x /√Ao. characteristics from all diffusers and grilles as shown in
(Figures 10 through 15, pages B15 - B17).
When the curves of (Figure 7) are established for a
complete series, the throw values are included in the The most significant results are shown in these figures with
Titus performance tables for terminal velocities of 150, side wall grilles in many applications, locations, and blade
100, and 50 fpm. These catalog data can then be used to configurations. These charts show the relationship of cfm,
map velocities. A uniform distribution of the three catalog jet velocity, throw and drop with a 20°F differential between
velocities across the ceiling are shown in (Figures 8 and the supply air and the space air temperatures. Each circle on
9, page B12) for 150 cfm. In general, the T50 location for a these curves represents the 50 fpm terminal velocity from
free jet with 20B DT cooling will be approximately the same the same size outlet under these configurations handling
distance from the outlet as the T100 isothermal jet. 300 cfm with a jet velocity of 600 fpm. Each intercept of
cfm and velocity indicates the same grille size which can be
Figures 8 and 9 also show that for 300 cfm, the three determined from the tables in Sections K, L and M. From
(Figure 10), the 50 fpm cooling throw and drop for a 300
B
values overblow to the opposite wall. These values are
approximately the total distance to the wall and down the fpm jet at 150 cfm are 12 ft. throw and 4.5 ft. drop below
wall. In both the 150 and 300 cfm conditions the 50 fpm the ceiling. For 300 cfm and 300 fpm, the throw is 13 ft. and
isothermal envelope (isovel) is near the ceiling and wall. the drop is 6 ft. below the ceiling. The characteristics with
Higher velocities occur only near the wall with the 300 cfm. 300 cfm in this room size in (Figures 12 and 13) are very
Velocities in the rest of the room are below 50 fpm. similar during cooling and isothermal conditions. The drop
during cooling with 150 cfm results in low temperatures and
Two outlets handling the same opposing airflow values velocities 50 fpm and above in the middle of the room.
would result in airflow in the space like that shown for one
jet at the wall. The 150 fpm throw would exist at the same In (Figures 14 and 15), the throw is reduced due to the
position whether heating or cooling. With overblow, as with 45° spread of the jet and drop is reduced.
300 cfm, drop would not be the same as the 150 cfm. The
higher airflow is also an example of “Rolling the Room,” EXHAUST AND RETURN GRILLE PRESSURE
(Figure 35, page B28).
For all exhaust and return grilles, the “Negative Static
Pressure” shown in the return performance data charts is a
ISOTHERMAL JET THEORY FOR ALL OUTLETS conservative value which can be used for design purposes.
Although the information so far has dealt with grille or wall For actual pressure drop, subtract the velocity pressure from
outlets, the same principles included in (Figure 7) apply the reported pressure value.
equally well for all types of outlets: ceiling diffusers with
air patterns on the ceiling, ceiling slots, and upward and
downward projection of air. Slots and linear outlets usually
show a large second zone characteristic, which results in
longer throws as indicated by the dotted line in (Figure 7). GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
Testing using isothermal air is repeatable. Therefore,
isothermal diffuser testing has been the basis for throw
determination in all standards since the original ADC Test
Code 1062. These include 1062 thru 1062 R4, ISO, and the
latest ASHRAE Standard 70.
In addition, Titus has used the three throw values at 150,

100 and 50 fpm as aids in applications by mapping and
application of the Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI).
All results from different diffusers and diffuser locations are
shown in the section on Classification of Supply Outlets,
Table 4, page B9.
B13
The relationship of cfm, velocity, drop, and throw is based
THROW AND DROP FROM SIDE

on deflection angle and ceiling effect. The figures below
WALL OUTLETS IN FREE SPACE represent 50 fpm terminal velocities and can be used to
The following figures show the effect of buoyancy on drop estimate throw and drop for ceiling diffusers. The dots
and throw for cooling jets. The charts are based on side on the figures (or the same intercept of cfm and velocity)
wall outlets. represent a single outlet using varying configurations.
TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE
0 1000 fpm
cfm JET VE
100 LOCIT Y
200
0
5 40
0
700
60
Drop, Ft.
500
800
0
100
10
30
0
0
150
fp
cfm
m
00
JE
15 20
T
VE
LO
B
CI
TY
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Throw, Ft.
Figure 10. Throw and Drop for Outlet 2-4 feet Below Ceiling, 20 Degrees Vertical Deflection, 0 Degrees Spread
0 1000 1500 fpm

JET VE
cfm LOCITY
100 200 700
0
5 40
0
Drop, Ft.
60 500
800
0
100
10
30
0
150
0
cfm
fp
m
00
15 20
JE
T
VE
LO
CI
TY
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Throw, Ft.
Figure 11. Throw and Drop for Outlets Mounted Without Ceiling, 20 Degree Vertical Deflection, 0 Degree Spread
1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm and 600 fpm outlet velocity.
terminal velocity. 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns are shown on
2. Data are based on tests with 20°F cooling temperature Page B21.
differential in space with no boundary wall. 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level
3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (AeroBlade above 30 NC.
Grille). 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To
4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
B14
B14 comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm
0
1500
100 cfm fpm J
ET VE
LO CITY
200 1000
5 400
Drop, Ft.
600 700
800 500
30
10
0f
1000
pm
1500
JE
2000 cfm
T
VE
15
LO
CI
TY
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Throw, Ft.
Figure 12. Throw and Drop for Outlet 1 Foot Below Ceiling 0 Degree Deflection, 0 Degree Spread

B
0
100 cfm 150
0 fp
m J
200 ET
5 VEL
OCI
TY
Drop, Ft.
400 1000
600 700
10
30
800
0f
pm
1000
500
JE
1500
15
T
VE
fm
LO
2000 c
CI
TY
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
Throw, Ft.
Figure 13. Throw and Drop for Outlet Without Ceiling, 0 Degree Deflection, 0 Degree Spread
1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns are shown on
terminal velocity. Page B21.
2. Data are based on tests with 20°F cooling temperature 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level
differential in space with no boundary wall. above 30 NC.
3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (Aeroblade 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To
Grille). calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows
comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm
and 600 fpm outlet velocity.
B15
0 100
200 1500 fp
m JET
400 VELO
600 CITY
30
5 0
fp
800
1000 700 1000
m
Drop, Ft.
500
JE
T
VE 2000 cfm
10 LO
CI
TY
15
0 10 20 30 40 50
Throw, Ft.
B Figure 14. Throw and Drop for Outlet 1-1/2 Feet Below Ceiling, 0 Degree Vertical, 45 Degree Spread
0 100 150
0 fp
200 0 m J
40 ET
600 VEL
800 OCI
5 TY
30
700 1000
1000
0
500
fp
Drop, Ft.
fm
2000 c
JE
T
VE
10
LO
C
IT
Y
15
0 10 20 30 40 50
Throw, Ft.
Figure 15. Throw and Drop for Outlet 2 to 4 Feet Below Ceiling, 0 Degree Vertical, 45 Degree Spread
1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns
terminal velocity. are shown on Page B21.
2. Data are based on tests with 20°F cooling temperature 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level
differential in space with no boundary wall. above 30 NC.
3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (Aeroblade 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To
Grille). calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows
comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm
and 600 fpm outlet velocity.
B16
B16
The same characteristic is shown for heating. In general,
OTHER DIFFUSERS WITH COOLING
only the size of the stratification zone is changed by the type
In (Figures 10 through 15, pages B14-B16) the drop is
of outlet and application.
primarily a function of the cfm. Therefore, to obtain a small
drop, a small air quantity is necessary. For all outlets with
Results from air distribution studies show that the
horizontal airflow along the ceiling, the drop can be related
temperature gradient and size of the stratification zone were
to the air quantity and the ceiling height as shown in Table
decreased by a decreased temperature differential and an
5. In these cases airflow less than maximum shown results
increase in airflow rate or supply velocity. These conditions
in drop above the occupied zone.
tend to reduce the buoyancy effects, and also result in an
Table 5. Maximum cfm for Diffusers Based on Drop increased and more uniform room air motion.
Ceiling Height, Ft. In the example shown, the heating tests were conducted
Outlet Type with about 0°F on two exposures. The cooling tests were
8 9 10 12 14 16
conducted with about 100°F on two exposures. The loading
TMRA 550 1300 2200 4000 6200 9300 during these tests was excessive compared to the wall and
TMR 270 700 1300 2100 3300 5500 window R values of today. Thus the temperature gradients,
stratification zones, and temperature differentials were
TMS 1100 1500 2000 greater than would be expected. However, these conditions
PAS 650 1000 1500 permitted the general characteristics to be observed and
compared between different configurations.
TDC
250 400 650 900 1400 1600
PSS
FIVE STEPS TO ANALYSIS
250*
B
The following are very important considerations to
LL2* 160 250 400 600 800 1000 remember when selecting outlets and applications. They are
best illustrated by following the step-by-step procedure in
Modulinear*
Figure 16, page B17.
LL1 320 500 800 1200 1600 2000
STEP 1 - PRIMARY AIR
* cfm per side Primary air is the starting point when laying out or
investigating the space room air motion. Primary air is
defined as the mixture of air supplied to the outlet and
SUPPLY OUTLET CLASSIFICATIONS induced room air within an envelope of velocities greater
Independent comfort reactions have been covered and show than 150 fpm. The primary pattern can be completely
the effect of local velocities and temperatures at a person’s defined by high velocity isovels taken through two
neck or ankle sections. The basic jet characteristics that perpendicular planes. These show the number and angles of
can be obtained by testing have been diagrammed. Many the jets in the primary airstream.
different outlets can be selected and can be placed in many
locations for conditioning a space. This section covers the Maximum velocities in the primary air can be obtained
principle of analyzing the airflow into the space from some analytically as shown in (Figure 7, page B11). Data
typical outlets during comparative heating and cooling obtained isothermally (no temperature difference between
conditions. From early air distribution tests conducted at the supply and room air) down to a velocity of 150 fpm
the University of Illinois from 1950-1955 and continuing apply equally well for heating and cooling for most diffusers.
on through today, the principles of stratification, natural
convection currents, stagnation layers and air motion for STEP 2 - TOTAL AIR
types of outlet locations have been studied. Total air is defined as the mixture of primary and room GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
air (that portion of the air in a space not included in the
From these results, some general outlet classifications primary and total air envelopes) which is under the influence
appear. These classifications may be used in the first of the outlet conditions. Normally, the total air has a
approach to outlet selection. relatively high velocity but it has no sharply defined lower
limit. Even though the total air follows the general pattern
TYPICAL AIR DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS indicated by the primary air, its spread and travel may not
be in proportion to that of the primary air. Other factors
The characteristics shown in (Figure 16, page B18), are such as ceiling height, obstructions, internal and external
principles obtained during heating and cooling in any type loads, may disturb the orderly course of the airstream.
of system. The following figures will classify the outlets by
location and air pattern. The temperature difference between the total and room air
produces a buoyancy effect. This causes cool total air to
The magnitude of the stratification zones and gradients drop and warm total air to rise.The most complete mixing
is representative of each type of outlet in a specific space of total and room air occurs during isothermal conditions.
and can be compared directly. During cooling, the slope of Consequently, the location and type of outlet reduces the
the gradient curve in the stratification zone for all outlets is buoyancy effects and increases the travel of the total air
nearly the same due to constant loading and construction.
B17
Supply Outlet Classifications (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
during heating when cool air is induced and mixed rapidly
with primary air. This also will occur during cooling when
warm air is induced and mixed with primary air.
In addition to the outlet type and location, the action due to

buoyancy effects is greatly dependent on the temperature
differential between the supply air and the room air.
COOLING HEATING
Inside STEP 1 Exposed

wall Primary air wall
Outlet
STEP 2
Total air
B Stratification
STEP 3
Natural convection
currents and
stratification zone
Stratification
Stratification
STEP 4
Return intake
Stratification
Intake Intake
9' Ceiling
Stratification
6'
4'
Stratification
Intake STEP 5 Intake
Room air
Stratification 9' Ceiling
6'
4'
Height
Average Room Vertical Temperatures
Temperature Setpoint Stratification
- 0 + - 0 +
Temperature, °F Temperature, °F
B18
B18 Figure 16. Characteristic of Non-isothermal Supply Jets in a Space
Air has a tendency to “scrub” surfaces. A near perfect highest air motion in the space is in and near the primary
situation can be envisioned where the total air covers all and total air. The most uniform air motion is between the
of the walls and ceiling in a thin film. The occupied space total air and stratification layer. The lowest air motion is in
would then be completely enclosed within an envelope of the stratification zone.
conditioned air.
The temperature gradient curves emphasize how some of
Since the total air within a confined space is affected by the factors discussed are interrelated and how they affect
factors other than outlet conditions, it is not subject to a the space temperature distribution. Where the air motion is
complete analytical treatment. However, air characteristics uniform (between the total air and the stratification layer),
for cooling and heating within a free space can be the temperatures are approximately equal and uniform (as
estimated. indicated by the almost vertical portion of the gradient). As
the stratification layer is crossed, the temperatures in the
STEP 3 - NATURAL CONVECTION CURRENTS neutral zone vary considerably. Gradients in the stratification
Natural convection currents are created by a buoyancy zones show that the air is stratified in layers of increasing
effect caused by the difference in temperature between the temperatures with an increase in space height.
room air and the air in contact with a warm or cold surface.
The air in contact with a warm surface will rise and the air Since the stratification zone depends primarily on natural
in contact with a cold surface will fall. Convection currents currents, it also must depend on the magnitude of the
are caused not only by the windows and walls, but also by heating or cooling load, space construction and volume,
internal loads such as people, lights, machines, etc. In most the area of exposure, or the load (in the case of internal
cases, natural convection currents will not only affect room loading). The complete relationship is not fully understood,
but many tests conducted in residences indicate that
B
air motion, but also play a major role in the comfort of a
space. At today’s lower supply air rates, natural convection the gradient changes with indoor-outdoor temperature
may be the predominant variable in determining actual room difference and from house to house. Consequently, the
air motion levels in the occupied zone. magnitudes of the temperature variations between levels
will be smaller in mild climates than in severe climates, in
Results of tests have shown ankle level temperatures during spaces having exposed walls with greater resistance to heat
heating may be 5°F below room temperature and that flow, and with minimum internal loads. With no loading,
velocities ranged from 15 to 30 fpm. (Figure 2) indicated temperature gradient curves would be vertical, indicating
that about 10% of the occupants would object to these that all of the air temperatures in the conditioned space
conditions. were equal to the control temperature.
Stratification layers as shown in (Figure 16) actually exist CLASSIFICATION OF SUPPLY OUTLETS
in many tests. A similar situation often occurs in practice as
HORIZONTAL AIR PROJECTION BELOW CEILING
identified by a region where a layer of smoke will “hang” for
some time. Whether a stratification layer actually exists is Figures 17 and 18 show two outlets in this group that
not important, but the concept of a stratification layer and provide the most important characteristics.
stratification zone leads to a better understanding of air
distribution. Figure 17 shows a spreading jet from a high side wall grille
projecting air horizontally near the ceiling in a
It should be noted that natural convection currents form a restricted space.
mixing zone between the stratification layer and the ceiling
during cooling and between the stratification layer and the Previous cooling curves in (Figures 10 through 15, GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
floor during heating. pages B14-B16), showed different configurations and
outlet locations with and without a ceiling and no far wall
STEP 4 - RETURN INTAKE restriction.
The return intake affects only the air motion within its Additional data on grille patterns are shown in Grille
immediate vicinity. Even natural convection currents possess Performance Tables.
enough energy to overcome the draw of the intake. This
does not mean that the return location is not important, but
only that it has little effect on the room air motion. Other
return intake considerations will be discussed later.
STEP 5 - ROOM AIR

The room air diagram is completed when the remaining
room air drifts back toward the primary and total air. The
B19
Side View COOLING
Stratification
Plan View
Setpoint
A
- 0 +
Section A-A
Temperature, °F
HEATING
Setpoint
Stratification
High side wall Stratification
A
Section A-A - 0 +
Temperature, °F
B
Figure 17. Spreading Horizontal Air Projection at the Ceiling Level
Total air will follow the wall down to floor level if its be excessive unless total air extends part way into the room
projection is sufficiently long. During heating, this will at the floor. The two airstreams project into and down the
result in a smaller stratification zone and lower temperature exposed corners.
differentials in the occupied zone. Room air motion will not
Side View COOLING
Plan View
Setpoint
- 0 +
Section A-A
Temperature, °F
HEATING
Outlet
Setpoint
A Stratification Stratification
Plan Ceiling
Section A-A - 0 +
Temperature,° F
Figure 18. Circular Horizontal Air Projection at the Ceiling Level
Greater spread of this pattern results in more uniform space The slight overlap of the total air in the space helps
temperatures during cooling than with those obtained with generate very uniform temperatures. The influence of
the two-jet pattern shown previously. the natural currents on the total air reduces horizontal
and overlap projection at the window during cooling and
The uniform temperatures from a circular pattern indicate increases overlap projection during heating.
that this pattern is most efficient for cooling in spaces such
as open office areas.
B20
CIRCULAR FLO W CROSSFLOW
PLAN VIEWS
CEILING
DIFFUSERS
ELEVATION VIEWS
B
PLAN VIEWS
SIDE WALL
GRILLES
ELEVATION VIEWS
45° Deflection 0° Deflection

See Fig. 17 See Fig. 13
PLAN VIEWS
LINEAR TBD
WITH SPREAD
ELEVATION VIEWS
Low Flow Rate High Flow Rate

Short Throw Long Throw

Figure 19. Some Specific Airflow Characteristics at High and Low Airflow Rates
HORIZONTAL, CIRCULAR AND

This action reduces dumping and ensures that cool air
CROSS FLOW PATTERNS remains near the ceiling, resulting in uniform temperatures
With ceiling diffusers, we must consider the different airflow throughout the space. A circular pattern has greater
patterns than with side wall outlets. Ceiling diffusers, except induction than a crossflow pattern.
for linear diffusers, typically exhibit flow in one of two
patterns: circular or cross flow. The diagrams in (Figure Cross flow patterns with longer throw and individual side
19) show the main differences between circular and jets react in a manner similar to side wall jets. Near the
crossflow patterns. end of the throw, cross flow patterns will continue in the
same direction away from the diffuser. The drop can also be
In general, a circular pattern has a shorter throw than a dependent only on the airflow from each diffuser side. Both
cross flow pattern. The vertical diagram shows that during patterns are usually centered in equal spaces in large open
cooling the circular pattern has a tendency to curl back from areas. The longer throw of cross patterns can be used with
the end of the throw toward the diffuser. greater change in airflow during VAV. B21
Comparing the plan views of the circular and cross flow The 0° deflection grille is a pattern followed by all single
ceiling diffusers, the circular pattern has a much shorter nonspreading patterns.
throw than the cross flow for a given flow rate. The
elevation views indicate that the circular supply jet at the The horizontal projection from diffusers and grilles has
end of its trajectory has a tendency to return to the diffuser been used extensively in commercial applications. Perimeter
being reinduced into the primary air. On the other hand, heating may need special treatment over the conventional
cross flow jet projection continues after the low terminal horizontal air discharge at the ceiling level, see page B23
velocity just like the airflow from side wall registers at 0° for more information.
deflection. During cooling, the circular recirculating airflow
results in less drop than with cross flow jets. The linear diffuser air pattern has a tendency to fold back
like the circular pattern. This reaction results in less drop
The wide spreading 45° deflection from the side wall than expected during cooling from the linear diffusers as
grilles is very similar to one-half of the circular pattern. airflow is reduced.
For constant volume applications, select diffusers so that the T50/ L values are close to the
midpoint of the recommended range for the specific outlet. This will result in maximum
comfort for the occupants in the space. Mapping the throw for the space will indicate the
constant airflow characteristics.
Guidelines for selecting outlets with variable air volume systems are included in the
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (2009), Chapter 20, and Applications Handbook (2011),
B
Chapter 57, and include:
1. Diffusers should be selected on the basis of both maximum and minimum

(occupied) flow rates. VAV systems can vary the air delivered to the space, and
diffusers need to be selected to provide an acceptable air distribution over that
range. Minimum flows listed on building plans are often below that expected
to be experienced when a space is occupied, so higher and more realistic flows
should be used in these cases.
2. Outlets should be chosen for relatively small quantities of air. This has the effect
of limiting the variation in throw to a minimum with the variation in flow rate
from the outlet. In modular arrangements, this requirement may not increase
the number of outlets required.
3. Consistent with satisfactory sound levels, the minimum outlet velocity which
should occur with the minimum airflow should be approximately 500 fpm
to maintain mixing at the diffuser. At maximum flow, the diffuser should be
selected as loud as possible. This maximizes mixing at all points, and may help
satisfy occupants where at high load (and high flows) when the space will be at
its warmest, there is air coming into the space.
4. The maximum T50/ L or slightly higher can be used for VAV outlet selection for
maximum airflow. Except for maximum load conditions, the VAV airflow will
be less than the maximum. The optimum ADPI comfort can then generally be
maintained with airflow rates from maximum to less than 70% of maximum.
Test results indicate that long throw outlets will result in higher air movement in a space.
Slight adjustments in the temperature control would affect the occupants more than the
airflow change in the variable air volume system. The results indicate that problems are
more likely to exist at high airflow rates. A simple rule to follow: Select the combination of
outlets and maximum airflow rate to avoid high air velocities in the occupied space. Lower
airflow rates will be acceptable. High air velocities occur when the total air enters the
occupied zone. ASHRAE Research has shown that properly selected ceiling diffusers can
provide an ADPI of 100% in open office areas over a broad range of loads and airflows,
and provide Air Change Effectiveness rates of 100% at the same time.
Figure 20. Horizontal Discharge from Outlets or Near the Ceiling Applications Guidelines
B22
B22
VERTICAL DOWNWARD
COOLING
Stratification
PROJECTION FROM CEILING
Stratification
Figure 21 shows downward projection characteristics from
ceiling diffusers with circular patterns (See TMRA diffusers).
Setpoint
With a ceiling these diffusers project either a full horizontal
circular pattern, as in (Figure 18, on page B20), or a fully
formed vertical projection. Intermediate diffuser positions
are not recommended as the airflow becomes unstable
Side View - 0 +
Temperature, °F during normal operation.
HEATING
During cooling the air will often be projected to the floor.
A stratification zone can be formed near the ceiling,
which may result in nonuniform temperatures below the
Setpoint
stratification layer. The size of the stratification zone will

vary depending on the primary air and the natural heat
Stratification Stratification
sources in the space. With a constant heat source a VAV
system that reduces the flow will allow a larger stratification
Side View - 0 +
Temperature, °F zone to form. This type of distribution allows high level
stratification where air must be introduced from the ceiling.
Return intakes can be located between supply sources. This
type of cooling can maintain constant temperatures around
B
Figure 21. Downward Projection Characteristics from Ceiling
Diffusers machinery by projection to the floor near the machines with
the return over the machines. Projection may be obtained at
low jet velocities with the machines located in a near equal
Figure 22 indicates a laminar flow outlet. This type of an temperature. Controlled heat loss over the machines can be
outlet is the opposite of the turbulent flow derived from a controlled by projecting more or less air to the floor level,
conventional mixing diffuser. Laminar flow implies lines of providing more air to the floor if the main heat source is at
equal velocity moving in a single direction; in this case, a the floor level.
vertical direction. A laminar flow outlet must have relatively
uniform velocities over the whole face of the outlet, usually During heating, the warm supply air demonstrates less
at relatively low velocity. When this is accomplished, the projection, spread and buoyancy. The floor level becomes
airflow below the outlet produces uniform velocities to cooler and a stratification layer can form. Heat sources near
the outlet. Air is only induced at the ceiling level, and the floor or the air projected all the way to the floor helps to
consequently the pattern is uniform for some distance below reduce the neutral zone. Return intakes located at the floor
the ceiling with almost the same velocity. Usual concepts in stratification zones will help.
of throw do not apply in this case. Laminar flow does not
produce the normal mixing noticed with standard diffusers. Figure 23 indicates a hemispherical vertical flow from the
The “piston-like” delivery of primary air is usually directed outlet. When mounted at the ceiling as indicated, a great
over a work area, hospital operating room, parts assembly, amount of induction occurs at the ends of the diffuser near
or clean rooms. (See the TLF Critical Environment Diffusers.) the ceiling. Special arrangements in the outlet must then be
made so that the end pattern is maintained over the length
of the room. Normally, the velocity pattern from this type of
LAMINAR FLOW HEMISPHERICAL FLOW unit will produce shorter vertical projection than the laminar GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
flow unit. Vertical projections from these diffusers will not
be as stable as those obtained from a laminar flow diffuser
since the air is spreading to a position outside the diffuser
outline. This permits an obstruction directly below the
diffuser to cause the airflow to increase toward the outside.
An obstruction near the outside of the air jet will cause the
airstream velocity to increase directly below the diffuser.
(See the TriTec, VersaTec or RadiaTec Critical
Environment Diffusers.)
Figure 22. Laminar Flow Figure 23. Hemispherical Flow

Diffusion Pattern Diffusion Pattern
B23
ESTIMATING DOWNWARD
120
fpm 80 55
VERTICAL PROJECTION 240
0
50
50 40
35 90
70 45 120
Variations in vertical projection of a fpm 45 40
35
30
80
free jet (not entrained along a surface) 0

200 60
40 30 100 70
35
can be estimated by utilizing (Figure fpm 55 25 90
I TY 1600 50 35 60
24). The chart on the right hand OC 30 25 80
EL fpm
1400
45
side of this diagram shows a vertical V 30 20 50
ET
DOWNWARD VERTICAL PROJECTION, FT.

70
40
projection with varying temperature J fpm 25 20
1200
45
differentials during heating, a 35 25 60
40
15 55
temperature differential of 20° during 30
20
50 35
20 15
cooling and isothermal. The chart is
fpm 12 45
used to estimate different projections 1000 25
15 12
30
40
with different temperature differentials.
800 fpm
15 10
35 25
When air is entrained along a surface, 20
12
10 9
as at a perimeter, the convection from 9
8
30
12 20
the hot or cold surface will have a 600 fpm 10 8
15 7 25
counter effect to the buoyancy of the 10 9 7
jet, reducing the effect shown here. 9 8 6 15
12 20
400 fpm
6
8 7
5 18
When an isothermal jet throw is 10 7 12
6 5
known, throws corresponding to 300 fpm
B
9 15
6 4
different temperature differentials fpm 8
250 45 10
can be obtained horizontally from the 5
isothermal in the right column. The 200 fpm 7 12
4 3 8
throw values are for a terminal velocity
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 20° 0°
of 50 fpm. The chart is based on AD = 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
HEATING COOLING
1 sq. ft. Flow Rate, cfm
ISOTHERMAL
TEMP. DIFFERENTIAL
DIFFUSER APPLICATIONS
ON EXPOSED DUCTS Figure 24. Downward Vertical Projection
A good horizontal circular pattern, when located below the
ceiling, will first project upward toward the ceiling. This
action is caused by a low pressure region being formed
above the diffuser, allowing the higher pressure in the room 50 fpm
to push the air up. It is also possible for these diffusers
to adjust the air pattern so that air can come down in an
intermediate vertical projection, rather than the full vertical
projection as obtained from the ceiling location.
Cross flow pattern diffusers are not capable of causing

the airflow to go upward when set for a horizontal pattern

because the air pressure between the jets is equal to that Figure 25. TMRA Mounted in Exposed Duct
in the room and, therefore, no low pressure is developed
above the diffusers.
Ceiling
On the other hand, a cross flow pattern diffuser generally
produces a better intermediate vertical projection than that 6" 3"
12"
of a circular pattern diffuser. Vertical projections from the
cross flow jet pattern and with the velocities can be spread 30"
out almost uniformly from the center to the outside edges 16°
30°
of these jets.
30"
A good diffuser for this application is the TDCA, with a TDC with 9x9 neck,
4-way pattern. 4-way pattern
and 240 cfm
B24 Figure 26. TDC, PSS and 250 Mounted in Exposed Duct

system will use larger air quantities at low temperature
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION AT FLOOR
differentials and low discharge velocities. These applications
LEVEL: DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION can be used under seats in theaters, around walls to
Figure 27 matches the actual definition given for form a ring of air around a space with people, or internal
displacement ventilation. Defined as a low velocity, low loads forming the rising plume up to the ceiling returns. It
temperature differential air distribution across the floor level, should be remembered that temperatures and velocities
displacement ventilation utilizes natural convection currents will be relatively low and uniform in occupied zones. This
within the space to cause air to rise and form a neutral zone distribution system has been used extensively in Europe
above a stratification level. The stratification level usually and is being promoted on the basis of the reduced energy
occurs at a level where the room load and air loading match. consumption realized by the availability of economizer in
that climate. With displacement ventilation, the percentage
Figure 28 shows heating and cooling from a spreading of outside air may be reduced while meeting ASHRAE
horizontal projection at floor level. This performance Standard 62’s requirements.
compares to previous outlet types and locations with
heating and cooling loads. Statements accompanying Figure Note: Vertical jet floor diffusers, discussed later, which produce
28 were made in the 1950s and considered the heating well mixed air in the occupied zone rather than displacement
and cooling conditions of the time. Today, a displacement flow, do not qualify for this credit.
Stratification Convection plume Return

level
Setpoint
Upper zone
Stratification
Lower zone B
Supply
0
Heat/contaminant source Temperature ,°F
Figure 27. Schematic of Displacement Ventilation
Plan View Side View

COOLING
Setpoint
- 0 +
Section A-A Temperature, °F GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
A
HEATING
Setpoint
Plan near floor Baseboard

- 0 +
Section A-A
Temperature, °F
Figure 28. Horizontal Projection Spread at Floor Level

Spreading horizontal projection at floor level permits velocities in the occupied zone preclude use of this type of
considerable stratification at high levels during cooling while distribution for comfort cooling, application to situations with
maintaining uniform temperatures in the occupied zone high internal load where occupant comfort is not of primary
as indicated by characteristics given here. Although high concern should be considered. B25
VERTICAL UPWARD PROJECTION FROM opposite wall. The room temperature above the stratification
layer is relatively constant, but higher than desired. (Figure
FLOOR, LOW SIDE WALL AND SILL 30) is similar, except the natural convection currents from
Figure 29 shows conditions where the air is projected from the work stations are causing a similar condition during
the floor with a spreading jet. Natural convection currents cooling. During heating the natural currents oppose and
and the buoyancy effect of the low velocity region of the may stop the projection and satisfy the space reducing the
jet causes the jet to drop into the room during cooling. primary air until cooling is required.
A stratification zone forms above the natural convection
currents. Temperatures are relatively uniform, except Figure 29 with spreading vertical jets located on an
warmer in the neutral zone and cooler in the drop zone of exposed wall shows that, during cooling, the primary air
the jet. did not project as high as the nonspreading jet in (Figure
31). The spreading jet did a better job of reducing the
During heating the warm primary air goes up and across the stratification layer. This was also the case in (Figure 29)
ceiling to join the descent of the natural currents on the cold during heating.
A Side Vie w COOLING
Setpoint
B
- 0 +
Section A-A Temperature, °F
HEATING
Setpoint
A Floor diffuser
Side View - +
Section A-A 0
Temperature, °F
Figure 29. Spreading Upward Projection of Primary Air in the Stagnant Zone, Relatively Large Temperature Variations Occur
Side View COOLING
Side View
Setpoint
COOLING
Stratification
- 0 +
Temperature, °F
HEATING
Setpoint
- 0 +
Temperature, °F
B26
B26 Figure 30. Upward Projection in a Work Station Figure 31. Nonspreading Upward Projection
When using floor or low level air distribution at the
perimeter, stratification from the floor can be controlled
by correctly applying the 150 fpm isothermal throw data.
Complete stratification across the room can occur as shown
in (Figure 29, page B26), where the spreading jets do not
project to the ceiling. The stratification can be minimized by T 150
controlling the jet velocities and jet patterns. The vertical T 50 Heating
jet should be projected upwards to a terminal velocity of
over 150 fpm above the occupied zone. For example, if a
vertical throw is only 6 ft. to a terminal velocity of 150 fpm,
stratification will occur above that level.
The examples discussed above apply equally as well

for outlets located in window sills, low side wall outlets
projecting air up a wall, floor outlets near a wall or in the
open, baseboard outlets, etc. Figure 32. Heating with Outlet Located Near
Perimeter Wall
Underfloor diffuser applications are being introduced into
access floor facilities. These are primarily cooling and
ventilation applications, and the jets are seldom attached to
a surface as shown in (Figures 29 and 30, page B26).
Instead, the diffuser is designed to have rapid induction
and have throws which seldom exceed 5 or 6 ft. The
B
temperature differential is usually less than 20°F between T 150
the occupied zone and discharge used with a ceiling
application. The return air temperature near the ceiling
is 5°F or more, warmer than the room, and the resultant
supply-exhaust Dt is again 20°F. When selected properly, T 50
floor diffusers directed upward as a free jet can result in
well-mixed, uniform temperature zones from the floor to 6 T 50 Cooling
ft. high, with a stratified region above.
Underfloor air distribution is being proposed as a better

way to satisfy indoor air quality and comfort. Work stations Figure 33. Cooling with Outlet Located Near
and task distribution can be considered also in this Perimeter Wall
category. Clean ventilation air is distributed to the occupied
spaces and contaminated air can be exhausted from the Especially bad conditions are shown for overhead heating.
stratification zone overhead. The rules for proper ventilation Because this is a major concern, emphasis is placed on
and air diffusion are being investigated at this time to ceiling distribution in this section.
determine optimum configurations.
Several main approaches have been utilized for the ceiling
ASHRAE has sponsored several tests with floor based heating and cooling distribution.
diffusers used in this manner, and again, high levels of air
distribution, comfort and Air Change Effectiveness (ACE) Winter cold air down drafts still exist at the perimeter and
were observed. may affect persons or equipment. For example, sills tend
to deflect cold air and project cold air horizontally into the GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
Note: The observed ACE from these tests was the same as room at that level. The cold air continues on to the floor
properly designed ceiling systems, near a level of 1.0, or 100% level, and the warm air turns back up toward the ceiling.
mixing. This action increases as the sill width increases. As the sill
height increases so does the height of the stratification layer.
Generally, 50% airflow to the window and 50% to the room
PERIMETER APPLICATIONS is recommended. However, some adjustments to the flow
In perimeter applications, concerns focus mainly on heating. are beneficial, so adjustable diffusers are preferred.
However, it is also well understood that the air conditioning
system must handle both heating and cooling. The heating When a 1 to 2 ft. soffit is above the window area, the
concern is shown dramatically as the previous diagrams of method during heating using an outlet with fixed horizontal
the various classifications of outlets are reviewed. The floor discharge across the ceiling toward the soffit will not work
level and low level distribution classification diagrams show because the air spreads in the soffit and turns up at the
that both heating and cooling the perimeter can be handled bottom of the soffit to return to the outlet. One option is an
best from these locations. Economic reasons, however, favor infinitely adjustable pattern controller allowing the air to be
heating and cooling from overhead. directed at the glass just below the soffit. Vertical projection
from below the window is another option. Mounting an
Each heating diagram shows low floor level temperatures auto-changeover heating/cooling plenum diffuser 12 to 18
with neutral zones of varying sizes from the floor up to some in. from the soffit will optimize energy and occupant comfort
higher level. during heating. B27
Perimeter Applications (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
A COOLING B HEATING
T150
T150 Side View
50 fpm
T50
Plan View
Figure 34. Vertical Projection of Heating and Cold Air
at Window
OUTLET LOCATED BACK FROM

PERIMETER WALL
Figure 35. Rolling a Room
B
In (Figures 32 and 33, page B27), the outlet is located
one to three feet back from the wall and directs a horizontal This method is only applicable for closed perimeter offices.
airstream directly into the wall. In this case it is designed to The office walls are necessary to turn the air down to the
give isothermal throws as shown in the dark sections with floor and back across the floor towards the exposed wall.
T150 being several feet down from the ceiling and T50 near The most effective air pattern is shown in the plan
the floor level. The main result of this approach is to have view where the diffuser (usually a linear) has spreading
the airstream hit the wall with enough velocity that it will airstreams. In some cases a vertical airstream can be added
spread on the wall to complete its projection. to aid in overcoming the window losses such as can be
obtained with the N-1-DR plenum slots diffuser, for example.
During heating (Figure 32), the T50 may, in some cases, The end airstream’s trajectory is best when projected just
break away and result in the warm airstream rising away inside the opposite wall.
from the wall. During cooling (Figure 33) the T50 may
exceed the isothermal distance. The higher terminal With the N-1-D diffuser, the two horizontal jets separate,
velocities will be spread all along the wall base. Lesser with the two parts going toward the center of the room,
velocities in the space during cooling are an advantage of and project down to the floor and return across the floor
this method and the turn-up point of the air during heating toward the outlet. The other split jets turn to and spread on
will usually be at a lower point. the side walls with air on the walls returning to the supply
outlet. A high airflow and supply outlets are necessary for
OUTLET VERTICAL PROJECTION AT A WINDOW this to be effective. Note in (Figure 35) that the rolling air
may not return to the bottom of the window. With too low
Outlet vertical projection at a window is usually achieved an airflow rate, or too high a Dt, the rolling air path can start
using a linear diffuser, (Figure 34). In some cases the rising at the center of the room. The design T50 should be
outlet is directed at a horizontal or angled deflection toward nearly 1½ times the length of the room plus ceiling height.
the wall. Long linears do not project warm air down as

far as short linear sections. Double projection can then be
controlled by a split pattern on a four foot unit with two feet SOME PERIMETER CONSIDERATIONS
into room and two feet to the wall. The initial projection The ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals recommends that
based on isothermal T150 should be to about the four foot temperature differentials between heated primary air and
level. A coarse rule of thumb for the combined effect of room air should not exceed 15 - 20°F so buoyancy effects
glass induced convection currents and air projected down a are minimized. This is a problem with many types of rooftop
glass wall is that throw is modified by approximately 1% per units specifically gas fired ones - and high airflows are
degree Dt; cold air T50 throw is increased, heating air required here to prevent stratification. The result with these
T50 throw is decreased. systems is that heating is cycled and stratification is
broken up.
ROLLING A ROOM Another approach is to use a split system with a minimum
The two previous applications emphasized some vertical constant volume of air to satisfy the perimeter windows or
projection at the perimeter wall. When “rolling the room”, walls. A variable volume type system with a regular diffuser
air is distributed away from the exposed wall as shown in handles the additional cooling. The split system results in a
(Figure 35). more satisfactory comfort level for both cooling and heating.
It can be used in a closed office or open plan arrangement.
B28
B28
AIR DIFFUSION PERFORMANCE INDEX Engineering Guidelines - GRD
ADPI is a method of relating the space conditions of local Equation 8: Effective draft temperature
traverse temperatures and velocities in the occupied zone
to occupants’ thermal comfort. It is a one number comfort Ø = (tx - tc) - 0.07 (Vx - 30)
index for a space and relates comfort level similar to the
way NC relates local conditions of sound to the occupants’ where: Ø = effective temperature
noise level comfort. tx = local air temperatures, °F
tc = ambient temperature (average
Temperatures given in (Figure 36) represent the difference room temperature or control temperature, °F)
between local temperature tx and control temperatures Vx = local air velocity, fpm
tc, D tx = (tx - tc). Local velocities, Vx are given in fpm. Local
effective draft temperatures, Ø, are then defined by: ADPI is then the percentage of traverse points satisfying an
Effective Draft Temperature between -3 and +2 at a velocity
less than 70 fpm.
A – F = Room Width Test Points

Data at
1 – 7 = Room Length Test Points 6' 6" High Tx - Tc
X Downward Moving Air
T50/L = 2 ADPI = 93
Point B,6 fpm
Upward Moving Air
•
Horizontal Moving Air Direction
18'
1.0 –.1 –.9 –1.5.5 1.9 .1 –.4 –.6 –.8 –.3 .9 1.6
1.3 A
A 31 63 5842762731
25 64 6656623130 X X X
.1 .1 • .1 0.0 8.6
• .6 .3
.7 .5 –.2 0.0 1.3 1.1 1.0 •
B B
36 25 2825272025 39 32 •
2521242436
B
.1 .1 .1 .4 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 –.3 .5 .6 .8
C C
33 33 2026262231 27 29 2323182737
133/4' •
.7 .1 –.1 –.2 .4 .6 1.8 .4 .2 • –.2 • –.4 .1 .6 1.4
D D
21 31 2723262824 23 23 3128292727
•
•
–.1 –.1 –.1 –.4 .1 .5 1.4
.1 –.1 –.1 –.4 .2 .6 1.3
E •
E 31 17 2225272526
23 22 2225232525
X
–.2 –.4 –.4 –1.8 –.2 .4 1.0 –.2 –1.5 –1.5 –.9 –.7 –.1 X .4
F X X X X
F 33 907649555742
52 7355126445342
1234567 1234567
6' 6" Height 5' Height
.2 –.1 –.3 –.9.6 1.4 .4 .4 .4.6.6.6 .9 1.9

A A
29 33 8560492736
X 25 34 4044404127
X
X
X X X
0.0 –.1 –.1 .2 .4 .8 .4 0 .1 0 –.4 0 .8 1.5
B B
26 33 2718232540 25 32 4149423728
• • • •
Ð.4 –.4 –.2 –.2 –.1 .1 .3 –.8 0 .1 –.2 .1 .4 .6
C C
26 37 4126283645 36 35 2633333241
• • • •
•
–.5 –.3 –.3 –.2 .1 .2 .4 –.9 –.5 –.4 –.8 –.3 –.3 .1
D D
34 25 2521201937 25 25 2525252525
–.8 .1 .1 .1 .4 .4 .5 .9 –.4 –.4 –1.1 –.5 –.5 0
E E
39 20 1617181938 25 252525252525
X
–.3 –.8 X –.8 –.9 X –.8 X –.3 .4 –.7 –.7 –.7 X –1.1 –.5 X .4 2
F F
30 303030303030 37 4546 50 565440
1234567 1234567
2.5' Height 4" Height
Figure 36. Horizontal Projection Spread at Floor Level
Test conditions: room, unit, and other factors

• The unit tested was a 6 x 24-inch louvered face • The throw to a terminal velocity of 50 fpm was
ceiling diffuser, two-way blow, handling 300 cfm about 15 feet.
with a jet velocity of 700 fpm located in the center • Other conditions: control temperature of 76.2BF,
of the room. supply air temperature of 63.30BF, cooling load of
• Temperature and velocity traverses were taken in 15.6 Btuh/sq. ft, t50 throw was 15 feet Dt = 13B.
the 4, 30, 60 and 78-inch levels of an 18 x 14 x When E is calculated at every point, 93 percent of
8.5-foot high test room. the points meet the ADPI criteria. B29
ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Figure 37 shows isodrafts (lines of constant draft
ADPI CAN BE OBTAINED BY MEASUREMENT

temperature) created by data taken from tests conducted
OR THROUGH PREDICTION using the ASHRAE Standard 113. This figure shows lines of
The ASHRAE Standard 113 Method of Testing for room constant draft temperature, or Isodrafts. In this case, nearly
air distribution outlines the method for determining a all points within six feet of the floor have draft temperatures
repeatable air speed/temperature traverse for any space. between the -3 and +2 limits required for comfort (with the
The standard specifies measurement accuracy as well as exception of two points at the floor), and represented an
measurement points and techniques. ADPI of 94%.
250 cfm Perforated Diffuser 24 X 24 X 8" Draft Temperature

-19.8 Delta-T
106
2.0 - 3.0
1.0 - 2.0
96
0.0 - 1.0
-1.0 - 0.0
87
-2.0 - -1.0
-3.0 - -2.0
78
-4.0 - -3.0
B 66
57
38
27
16
Distance
from
Floor
6
6' right 5' right 4' right 3' right 2' right 1' right Center 1' left 2' left 3' left 4' left 5' left 6' left
Distance From Diffuser
Figure 37. Room Isodrafts

Jet tests for diffusers are based on isothermal conditions.

100
However, in practice, this condition seldom occurs. Most SYMBOL BTUH/SQ. FT.
commercial applications are during cooling. Tests conducted 0
80 20
at Kansas State University resulted in the development of 40
60
a method to utilize and understand a means of designing 80
diffuser applications for cooling while utilizing isothermal 60
ADPI
jet data.
40
The parallelogram shown earlier in (Figure 3, page B6),
represents the Air Diffusion Performance Index. ADPI can 20
1.3 2.0
be related to isothermal flow of 50 fpm (T50). The Kansas
State tests developed a range of ADPI curves for a number 0
of grille types. An example of these is shown in (Figure 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
38). The characteristic length (L) in conjunction with T50
demonstrates expected ADPI relationships for a number of T50/L
Titus outlets, as shown earlier on (Figure 5, page B8).
Figure 38. ADPI vs. T50/L for High Side Wall Grilles (from Kansas
B30 State University tests)
With this grille, the maximum ADPI for comfort occurs at
T50/L = 1.5. Similar curves can be drawn for almost all • This range allows a selection of outlet sizes to
diffusers except the maximum ADPIs are different and satisfy the T50 requirement.
depend on the diffuser. Some T50/L curves for a number of • Maximum ADPI and comfort level decrease with
diffusers are shown in (Figure 5, page B8). increasing loads.
• The maximum ADPI is nearly the same for all This graph only shows the curves for loads of 20 and
diffusers at a given load. 40 Btuh/sq. ft. because they represent the outlet selections
• A reasonable range of T50/L is shown for all with one cfm/sq. ft. and two cfm/sq. ft. with the common
diffuser types. design temperature differential of 20°F. T50/L ranges for
maximum ADPI are given for Titus outlets in Table 6.
Table 6. Throw Values for Various Titus Outlets. Recommended T50/L Range for PAS: .1-1-8
Ceiling Diffusers Slot Diffusers Light Troffers
Throw Ratio at Side Wall, Sill Grilles
PAS, TMR, ML, TBD, LL1, (Note 1)
Terminal Velocity Grilles PSS, TDC, 250 (Note 2)
TMRA, TMS LL2, Flowbar LTT, LPT
T50 / L 1.3-2.0 0.6-1.2 1.0-2.0 0.5-3.3 1.0-5.0 0.7-1.7
T100 / L 0.3-2.0
Notes:
1. L = Module distance plus 2 ft down from ceiling.
2. L = 20 ft (Use this as the distance from the wall).
B
JET CALCULATIONS
Short Circuiting
The following questions about jets can be answered by
using (Figures 39 and 40, page B32).
% = D tx / D to x 100
1. What is the temperature differential of the total air jet? % short circuiting shown in (Figure 39) is based
2. How much short circuiting will occur? on energy.
3. What is the induction ratio?
4. What is the diameter of the total air jet? % short circuiting could also be on mass, using the
induction ratio:
Example
Given: % short circuiting = (1/ind. ratio) x 1,000
4,000 cfm primary air (Qo)
2.0 square foot grille (Ao) Nomenclature
400 fpm terminal velocity (Vx)
D to = 30°F Ao Outlet effective area, sq. ft.

Find: C Coefficient of entrainment
1. Induction ratio (Qx/Qo)
C = 2.0 for circular jets (grilles)
2. Total airflow rate (Qx)

3. Diameter of total air jet (Dx) C = 1.4 for long slots

Calculate: Dx Diameter, ft., of total air GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
Vo = 4,000 cfm / 2 sq. ft. = 2,000 fpm jet at distance X from outlet

Solution: From Figure 40 Qo Primary airflow rate from
1. Induction ratio = 10 outlet, cfm
2. Total air = 40,000 cfm, at C = 2
3. Diameter of total air = 23 ft., at C = 2 Qx Total airflow rate at distance
X from outlet, cfm
Diameter of total air jet can also be calculated:
to Temperature differential
Dx = 2.3 (Vo / Vx) (√Ao) between primary and room
air temperatures
where C = 2.0
tx Temperature differential between total and
Dx = 1.9 (Vo / Vx) ( √ Ao) room air temperature at distance X
from outlet
where C = 1.4
Vo Average effective outlet velocity, fpm
B31
Vx Centerline terminal velocity at a distance X from
center of outlet, fpm
% Short Circuiting, tx / tO Induction Ratio, Q /x Q O
50 33 25 17 13 10 7 5 3 2 2 28 42 5.8 8.4 11.214 21 28 42 56 84

5000 4 6 8 12 16 20 30 40 60 80 120
5000
4000
fpm
4000
fpm
40 p m
m
f
3000
0
3000
0
40 0 fp
X50
O
50
V
O
0
ity
30
ity
Outlet Velocity V
oc
2000
c
2000
Outlet Jet Velocity V
l
Ve
lo
0
Ve
20
10
al
1500 fp
in
0
al
50
rm
20
in
1500 m
Te
fp
rm
VX
50
0
Te
30
1000
0
VX
10
1000 800 C=
800 600 2 1.4
500 100 70
600 VO tO
00 fm
80 56
00
= .8
m
80 0 c
500 20
40
cf
Total Air Q X, 1000 cfm

VX tX
0
60 42
00
,0
10
20
15
t O5
40 28
00
0
60
10 30 21
F Below or Above Ambient
0
50
cf
8
00
20 14
10
40
rQ
6
Ai
C=
y
30
ar
20
1.4 2.0
im
Pr
4
Diameter of Total Air, Ft.
81 100 10 7
B
15
60 100
65 80
10
3
40
4
49 60
2
10
20
2
32 40
1
2
6
.
24 30
Ft
5
0.
5
a
1.0
re
tx
16 20
tA
le QX V
ut
=C O
O
QO VX
.5 8 10
Figure 39. Temperature Differential and Short Circuiting Figure 40. Induction Ratio, Total Air and Total
Air Diameter
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
The primary concern in the design and application of
equipment for the industrial environment is to maintain THERMAL STANDARDS FOR
efficiency, health and safety rather than comfort. Industrial INDUSTRIAL WORK AREAS
ventilation is the control of heat released from process
In the industrial environment the simple thermal comfort
equipment to which the usual comfort cooling methods
standards are not practical. The design engineer should
cannot be applied economically.
make a complete analysis of the heat problem. The analysis
will include a study of heat stress level, physical fitness of
Industrial environments are distinguished as being hot-dry

the worker, heat exposure periods, etc.
or warm-moist. In a hot-dry environment the only heat
produced is sensible and radiant. An exposed worker will
A detailed discussion of thermal standards for the industrial
experience an increase in the heat load. Because the load
environment can be found in ASHRAE Fundamentals
is sensible, the heat loss of the occupant through sweating
Handbook and ASHRAE Applications Handbook. When
and the rate of cooling by evaporation is not reduced.
designing an industrial heating, cooling or ventilating
Hot furnaces, forges, metal extruding, rolling mills and
system, it is recommended that the above material be
glass forming machines are examples of some hot-dry
reviewed. As an overview, the following is a summary of
environments.
some of the problems and solutions the designer should
consider when addressing industrial applications.
The warm-moist environment heat load is mainly latent heat
from a wet process. An exposed worker may not experience
any rise in the heat load but his heat loss by evaporation of CONTROL OF HEAT EXPOSURES
sweat will be reduced significantly. Examples of warm-moist BY ISOLATING THE SOURCE
environments are textile mills, laundries, dye houses, etc.
Insulation, location of equipment, covering water tanks and
The warm-moist working environment is considered the
drains, etc., can reduce the magnitude of heat exposure
more hazardous of the two.
B32
B32 at the source. Exhaust hoods can be used to capture heat
rising from hot processes.
Industrial Applications (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Where there are hot objects such as furnaces, molten provide a method for estimating the impingement air
material, or hot ingots, the major heat load is in the form of temperature by using induction ratio.
radiant heat. Radiant heat can be reduced by lowering the 3. Air Direction: The air should be directed to the front
surface temperatures of the hot objects by insulation, water and torso of the body. The tolerance of people to air
cooling or shielding. motion, temperature and humidity varies with the
season and person. Therefore, allowances should be
made so that the direction and velocity of the air can be
GENERAL VENTILATION readily adjusted.
General ventilation is the sweeping of an area with relatively 4. Outlet Location: For low level ventilation, the outlets
large quantities of air to provide control of the space should be located at about the 10 ft. level. For spot
temperature, humidity, air motion and air purity. cooling, the outlets should be located close to the
worker (7 ft. level) to minimize induction of the warm
LOCAL RELIEF air in the space into the cooling jet. Jet Calculations
shown in (Figure 40) should be consulted when
Local relief is the delivery of air directly to the worker In
induction ratios are of importance.
sufficient quantities and velocities to cool the worker by
convection and sweat evaporation. Local relief can be 5. Outlet Velocity: Outlet velocities up to 5000 fpm can be
obtained through general ventilation or local area spot used if required. It should be noted that as the velocity
cooling ventilation. increases so does the sound level, induction ratio and
pressure requirements. The most frequent selections
General ventilation (low level or displacement ventilation) are made between 1000 and 2000 fpm outlet velocity.
delivers air at the 8 to 12 ft. level and displaces warm 6. Discharge Volume: For spot cooling, the discharge
air rising from equipment, lights and people. Low level volume usually ranges between 1500 and 5000 cfm or
more, depending on the heat load. The air volume per
B
ventilation is for large work areas with high, uniform
populations. These systems target ventilation in the outlet for general ventilation may exceed 10,000 cfm,
occupied zone of the space. No attempt to relieve conditions depending on the work area, heat load, etc. Large air
in the upper levels of the building is made. volumes are required when remote outlets are used to
ensure adequate relief because of induction.
Local area or spot-cooling ventilation is an option when it 7. Direction Control: Direction control is required for any of
is impractical and wasteful to treat the entire area. In this the following reasons:
application, cooling and ventilation is brought to the worker • Up in winter, down for summer
in a small, defined area. This can be accomplished by: • Directing air from one work station to another
• Directing it away from the product or process
1. Providing a complete ventilated enclosure around • Adjusting for worker’s individual comfort
the worker. 8. Volume Control: Volume control is required for seasonal
2. Supply air at a low level and over a small area so that adjustments, adjusting impingement velocities, or
the work area is ventilated. adjusting worker’s comfort. Volume control can
3. Spot-cool with a high velocity airstream directed at be obtained either by manual dampers or variable
the worker. volume terminals that contain volume regulations.
The advantage of using variable volume terminals is
that they simplify balancing of the system and assure
GUIDELINES FOR LOCAL AREA OR that the system balance is not upset when an outlet is
SPOT COOLING VENTILATION: adjusted.
Table 7. Air Impingement Velocity
OUTLET SELECTIONS
Activity Level Target Velocities (fpm)
1. Grilles. Titus core models 271, 272, 111, 112, 121,
Light 50 - 75 122, 131 and 132 are recommended for industrial use.
Medium 200 (continuous exposure) Models JFA features a set of gang operated louvers,
High 1,000 - 4,000 (intermittent exposure) pole operated and specifically designed for industrial
use. The Drum Louver (DL Series) and Turbofuser are
especially well suited to high capacity, long throw.
1. Air Impingement Velocity: This value can be obtained
2. Ceiling Diffusers. Model XC-310 is circular, pole
using (Figure 41, on page B34). It should be
operated. It is designed for long-throw applications
remembered that the terminal velocities listed are the
in factories, warehouses, convention halls, coliseums,
centerline velocities, and the average velocities of the
and shopping malls. The diffuser has an optional face
jet will be much less. Jet calculations (Figure 40, page
operated adjustment to transition from vertical to
B32) show the diameter of the total air jet when the
horizontal discharge. The TMR and TMRA adjustable
average velocity is one-half the centerline velocity.
model are available in both steel and aluminum
2. Air Temperature: The relief air temperature should be construction. These high capacity units offer another
less than the skin temperature if convective cooling option for industrial applications.
is to be accomplished. It is recommended that the air
impingement temperature be 80°F if convective cooling
is to occur. Jet Calculations as shown in (Figure 40)
B33
determines the maximum size the grille can be for
a given throw and no deflection (2.3 square feet

3. Return Grilles. Heavy duty core models 30R and 33R max).
are constructed from heavy gauge steel for industrial • Cfm/outlet - From the throw and 4th zone intercept
applications. vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure
4. Options and Accessories. Below is a list of common 41) determines the cfm/outlet (3,000 cfm in this
options and accessories that can be used to meet case).
specific application requirements. • Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size
• Debris and insect screens are available to attach can be used. (Figure 42) is then used to size the
to the front or back of grilles. Screens are used to grille, based on sound and pressure requirements.
keep debris, lint, insects, birds, etc., from entering Based on this, a 1.5 square feet unit is selected
the duct system. to keep NC levels < 60. This results in the final
• Concealed fasteners and tamper proof screws selection
for security. (Pt = 0.30, 20 grilles).
• Security grilles for heavy industrial use.
2. 0° Deflection Zone 3 (Maximum Induction)
• Stainless steel construction for corrosive
environments. • Grille Core Area - Example 3: The intercept of
the throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41)
• Filter grilles.
determines the maximum size the grille can be
(9 square feet max) for a given throw and no
Example: General ventilation requirements: deflection.

• cfm/outlet - From the throw and zone intercept
200 fpm terminal velocity
B
vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure
60,000 cfm
41) determines the cfm/outlet (6,000 cfm in this
50 ft. throw
case).
NC 65 maximum
Use #132 core • Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size
can be used. (Figure 42) is then used to size the
Determine number and size of grilles. grille, based on sound and pressure requirements.
Based on this, a 9 square feet unit is seen to
Four solution paths are shown in (Figures 41 and 42). be very quiet (NC 29). This results in the final
selection (Pt = 0.027, 10 grilles).
1. 0° Deflection, Zone 4 (Minimum Induction)
• Grille Core Area - Example 1: The intercept of
the throw and 4th zone lines in (Figure 41)
Deflection Deflection
0 45 22 1/2
400 200 3 2 0
300 150 2 4 0
GENERAL VENTILATION: Selections should be made in the
3rd and 4th zones.
200 SPOT COOLING: Selections should be made in the 2nd or 100 1 6 0
3rd zones. A selection in the 3rd zone will provide maximum 3rd Zone
protection. 75 120
100 3 & 4 50 80
.0
0.0
80
4th Zone 40 64
.0
10
60
.0
50
.0
30 48
40
2.3 ft 2
50 1 & 2 25 40
.0
30
2nd Zone
Throw, Ft.
.0
20 32
20
.0
15
15 24
.0
10
8.0
20
6.0
5.0
20 10 16
0
4.
0
3.
15 7.5 12
0
2.
1.5
10 5 8
1.0
Throw, Ft.
.8
.6
Ft 2
4
.
.1
3
.5
c =
.4
A
5 2.5 4
.3
.2
1 2
.1
.15
500 fpm Terminal Velocity 1.5 2.4

400 fpm
300 fpm
200 fpm
100 fpm
100000
80000
50 fpm 60000
10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 10000 20000 30000 40000
Flow Rate, cfm/outlet

B34
Figure 41. Grille Selection Chart for Industrial Applications
be for a given throw and 45° deflection (55 ft. 2
3. 0° Deflection Zone 4 (Minimum Induction) max).
• Grille Core Area - Example 2: The intercept of the • cfm/outlet - From the throw and 4th zone intercept
throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41), page vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure
B35 determines the maximum size the grille can be 41) determines the cfm/outlet (30,000 cfm in this
(9 ft. 2 max) for a given throw and 45° deflection. case).
• cfm/outlet - from the throw and 4th zone intercept • Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can
vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure be used. Figure 42 is then used to size the grille,
41, page B34) determines the max cfm/outlet based on sound and pressure requirements. Based
(12,000 cfm in this case). on this, a 55 ft. 2 unit is seen to keep NC levels <
• Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can 30. This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.039,
be used. Figure 42 is then used to size the grille, 2 grilles).
based on sound and pressure requirements. Based
on this, a 7 ft. 2 unit is seen to keep NC levels <
60. This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.40,
5 grilles).
4. 45° Deflection Zone 3 (Maximum Induction)
0
0.
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
• Grille Core Area - Example 4: The intercept of the
10
80
60
50
40
30
20
100,
throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41, page
.0
15
B35) determines the maximum size the grille can 80,
B
60,
.0
10
0
8.
About Figures 41 and 42: 40,
row
Th
0
6.
Pressure: All pressures are in inches of water. 30,
0
5.
Throw: Throw turning lines are shown for terminal velocities
0
4.
of 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 fpm. 20,
4
0
3.
Sound: The NC values are based on a room absorption 15,
Flow Rate, cfm (in thousands)
of 10 dB, re 10-12 watts and a singe register with degrees

deflection setting. For deflection setting of 22.5° add 1 NC. 3
0
2.
For deflection setting of 45° increase the sound levels by 7 10,
NC. Corrections for multiple outlets are shown in the Grille
AC (ft.2)
5
8,
1.
performance tables.
Deflection settings: The deflection settings refer to the 6,

0
1.
horizontal deflection shown in the product performance 2
pages for the AeroBlade series of grilles. The throw for the
80
4,
20° upward vertical deflection should be taken as that for a
0° setting. The total pressure should be taken as that shown
70
for a 22.5° setting. 3, 1

60
General applications: For general applications, selections

should be made in the 3rd and 4th zones. 2,
C
50
30
Spot cooling: Selections should be made in the 2nd and
3rd zones, since the induction of the room air into the main
40
airstream is at a minimum in these zones.

1,
Velocity, fpm 500 600 800 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
Pv .016 .022 .040 .063 .141 .25 .56 1.0 1.6
0° Pt .019 .027 .049 .076 .172 .30 .68 1.2 1.9
45° Pt .033 .047 .083 .130 .294 .52 1.17 2.1 3.25
Figure 42. Typical Sound and Pressure Drop for Grilles

B35
Engineering Guidelines - GRD
OTHER GRILLE AND DIFFUSER 0.20

APPLICATION FACTORS 0.20
0.15
Arrangement I
Arrangement II
Arrangement I
0.15 Arrangement II
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
0.10
), In. of Water
1.50. 0.8
The outlet total pressure (TPN) in inches of water as
= 0u = 0.8
given in the Selection Tables, is the sum of the static and 0.10
N of Water
8
0.08
1.5
velocity pressures in the supply duct at 1½ duct diameters
1.0.8
0.07
V
0.08
ahead of the outlet. The velocity pressure is the pressure
11.0.5
N
V
1.5
0.06
0.07
1.0
corresponding to the duct velocity. The outlet static pressure
u
V
), In.
1.0
V
then equals the total pressure minus the velocity pressure, 0.06
0.05
-TP
and it is actually measured at the above duct position per
N
0.05
-TP
U
0.04
ASHRAE Standard 70.
(SPU(SP
0.04
LossLoss
0.03
The duct static pressure required upstream from a take-off
to deliver the required quantity of air through an outlet with 0.03
Takeoff
various accessories may be obtained with the take-off loss
Takeoff
0.02
from (Figure 43). The duct static pressure equals the take-
off loss plus the outlet total pressure. 0.02
0.015
SPU = take-off Loss + TPN 0.015
B
Figure 43a data applies in applications with grilles and 0.01
other diffusers with AG dampers and AG extractors. 300
0.01 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000
300 400 500 Neck

Diffuser 600 Velocity
800 1000 1500 2000
(VN) fpm
When an equalizing grid (EG) is placed at the take-off and
followed by an AG-75 damper, the pressure difference Diffuser Neck Velocity (VN) fpm
in (Figure 43a) will be between the values given for VU VU
Arrangements I and II. SP

VUU SP
VUU
AG 45, 65,
Arrangement I shows a typical damper installation. SPU SPU
or EG
Arrangement II shows an extractor at the duct take-off, AG-75 AG 45, 65,
Diffuser Total Pressure or EG
no damper.
TPN & VN TPN & VN
AG-75
TPN & VN Diffuser Total Pressure TPN & VN
AIRFLOW MEASUREMENTS
Airflow factors, obtained with the same test setup used Arrangment I Arrangment II
for outlet pressures, as well as procedures for field testing Arrangement I Arrangement II
Titus grilles and diffusers, may be provided by your Titus
representative.
Figures 43a and 43b. Inlet Effects
Factors can be developed for a number of common
anemometers and hoods. Since the factors have been
developed for a minimum number of velocity readings, the DUCTS FOR LINEAR DIFFUSERS
method and positions given for taking these readings should

be checked carefully for each outlet type. End fed linear diffusers with inactive sections may be utilized
in the air distribution design. A take-off from a main duct
trunk may be attached to the linear plenum at an inactive
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FROM section. The air will then be split to supply two active
LINEAR DIFFUSERS lengths on either side of the inactive length.
Table 8. Airstream Discharge Angle
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF
Ratio of Slot Area/Duct Area 0.4 0.75 1 1.5 ALUMINUM LINEAR GRILLES
Angle of Discharge 15 25 35 40 The expansion and contraction of the aluminum linear
grilles due to temperature differences are shown in (Figure
When a linear diffuser receives its air supply from one end 44, page B37). For most normal applications, the slight
only, the ratio of the area of the slot to the area of the clearance which occurs when linear grilles are butted
duct is important. The airstream will leave at angles which together is sufficient to take care of the expansion and
depend on this ratio, as shown above: contraction of the diffusers. The alignment strips furnished
with the diffusers make it easy to allow this slight clearance
A discharge angle of 0° along the whole face will be assured and still maintain alignment.
B36
B36 by including a set of Titus straightening blades behind the
face vanes or bars.
Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
2 1/2 80
70
CHANGE OF LENGTH IN INCHES
CHANGE OF LENGTH IN INCHES
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL
1/4 80 2
60
70
3/16 60 50
1 1/2
50 40
1/8 40 1
30
30
20
1/16 20 1/2
10 10
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 6 18 20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
LENGTH OF GRILLE IN FEET LENGTH OF GRILLE IN FEET
Figure 44. Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles
B
1. The minimum add for an ideal (gentile 90°) flexible duct
INSTALLATION ACOUSTICS connection = 1 NC.
INSTALLATION ISSUES 2. The worst case add, with a “kinked” inlet connection
There are several installation issues which must be (Figure 46, page B38) = 7 - 9 NC.
considered when installing different types of air outlets and 3. Air distribution pattern can be greatly affected.
inlets. These are both acoustical and structural. Additional 4. A 90° bend and flex adds 0.07 - 0.1 in. Ps., @700 fpm
acoustical guidance can be found in the separate section inlet velocity.
on acoustics. 5. Results were not the same for all diffuser types.
STRUCTURAL ISSUES MULTIPLE DIFFUSERS

When very large units are selected, sufficient structural
When a number of similar diffusers are located in a single
support must be provided to prevent sagging or distortion
space, an observer (within 10’) may hear more than one
of the unit. For example, for a 96” x 96” return air grille,
diffuser, and the apparent noise level will increase. As a rule,
if high airfows are required, the pressure may cause some
doubling the number of equal noise sources adds 3 NC.
distortion of the face. In another example, larger ceiling
diffusers should have secondary support, such as restraining
For Example:
cables to prevent injury in case the unit is dislodged from
the ceiling. 1. Two diffusers adds 3 NC.
2. Four diffusers, equidistant from the observer,
INSTALLATION EFFECTS adds 6 NC.
3. Eight diffusers, equidistant (unlikely), adds 9 NC.
Catalog data is based on ASHRAE Standard 70, which
requires several diameters of straight duct at the approach GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
to the diffuser. Field installations seldom, if ever, allow these BALANCING DAMPERS
ideal conditions. A wide open damper can add 3 NC, 10% pressure drop,
depending on the type of damper and diffuser. When
DIRECT DUCT CONNECTIONS adjusted to less than full open (otherwise why have one
installed?), the NC add will depend on ratio of catalog to
When a diffuser is connected directly to a duct, the duct
actual total pressure drop across the diffuser
velocity can create unwanted effects in the diffuser. Regions
Table 2, page B8.
with localized high velocities (Figure 45, page B38) can
create higher than predicted noise levels, as much as
12 NC higher than catalog levels. COMBINING EFFECTS
If we combine all the above effects, we can see that:
FLEXIBLE DUCT CONNECTIONS 1. Typical 90° flex inlet will probably add 5 NC.
A number of tests have been conducted to evaluate the 2. In the middle of four diffusers with equal flow rates,
effects of flexible duct inlets. The effect of flexible ducts add 6 NC.
at the inlet to diffusers include increased pressure drop, 3. If the total pressure in the supply duct is 150% of the
increased sound levels, and nonuniform air distribution diffuser’s required total pressure, add 4-5 NC.
from the unit. The tests showed that the effect of different
inlet configurations varied for different types of diffusers. In
general, however: B37
Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
GUIDELINES
• Use equalizing grids on direct diffuser connections.
• Locate balancing dampers at branch take-off.
• Keep flexible duct bends as gentle as possible.
• Remember - flex is a great attenuator of upstream
noise sources.
• Keep duct velocities as low as possible - but
oversizing can result in higher thermal loss.
• With VAV systems, highest flow only happens when
at full load. Occupants may need to hear diffusers
at full load to be assured system is operating.
• Noisy diffusers work better at mixing air than
quiet ones.
• Oversized diffusers may have excessive drop at low
flows, and work even less effectively in overhead
heating conditions.
B
Basis of Sound Levels Same as Sound Levels Up To 12
Manufacturer’s Manufacturer’s Rating dB Higher With No
Ratings with Equalizing Grid Equalizing Grid
Figure 45. Equalizing Grid Effects (from ASHRAE Handbook; Atlanta, GA)
AIRFLOW AIRFLOW
D D D
8 2
Sound Levels Same As Sound Levels 12 to 15 dB Higher

Manufacturer’s Ratings Than Manufacturer’s Ratings
Figure 46. Flexible Duct Inlet Effects (from ASHRAE Handbook; Atlanta, GA)
B38
B38
Acoustical Applications and Factors Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Air terminals are the most noise sensitive of all HVAC prod- for Air Terminal devices are usually reported as the sound
ucts since they are almost always mounted in or directly power level in each of several octave bands with center
over occupied spaces. They usually determine the residual frequencies as shown in Table 11. Sound Power Levels
background noise level from 125 Hz to 2,000 Hz. The term are given in decibels (dB) referenced to a base power
“Air Terminals” has historically been used to describe a num- in watts, typically 10-12 watts. Sound power levels can
ber of devices which control airflows into occupied spaces also be reported for full or 1/3 octave bands, but usually
at the zone (or individual temperature control area) level. as full octave bands, unless pure tones (narrow bands
There are two types: those that control the amount of air- significantly louder than adjacent adjacent bands)
flow to a temperature zone (Air Control Units, ACUs, or more are present.
commonly “Boxes”), and those that distribute or collect the
flow of air (Grilles & Diffusers, GRDs). On some occasions,
the two functions are combined. As these two elements are NOISE CRITERIA (NC)
the final components in many built-up air delivery systems Sound Pressure Levels (Lp) are measured directly by sound
and those closest to the building occupants, both are critical level meters at one or more points in a room.
components in the acoustical design of a space. There is They reference a pressure rather than a power. A product’s
also a critical interplay between acoustics and the primary estimated Sound Pressure Level (Lp) performance curve
function of these devices; providing a proper quantity of well is obtained by subtracting space (or other appropriate)
mixed air to the building occupants. Before discussing types sound attenuation effects from the unit sound power
of devices, we must have an understanding of some issues (Lw). Currently, most Air Outlet and Inlets (GRDs) sound
regarding sound levels in occupied spaces. performance is reported by subtracting a 10 dB attenuation
from all octave band sound power levels, and determining
the NC rating. This room effect approximates a
B
The sound level in an occupied space can be measured
directly with a sound level meter, or estimated from 3,000 cu. ft. room, 10 ft. from the source for VAV boxes,
published sound power after accounting for room volume which peak in lower frequencies, and a 2,500 cu. ft. room
and other acoustical factors. Sound level meters measure 7 ft. from a diffuser, which typically peaks @ 1000 Hz.
the sound pressure level at the microphone location. (This is defined in the AHRI Standard 885 space effect
Estimation techniques calculate sound pressure level at calculation described later in this section). NC curves were
a specified point in an occupied space. Measured sound developed to represent lines of equal hearing perception
pressure levels in frequency bands can then be plotted and in all bands and at varying sound levels. Most air terminal
analyzed, and compared with established criteria for room products are currently specified and reported as single
sound levels. number NC ratings.
Sound power cannot be measured directly, (except using

special Acoustic Intensity techniques), and is a measure
ACOUSTICAL APPLICATIONS AND FACTORS

of the acoustical energy created by a source. It is normally
determined in special facilities and reported for devices
under stated conditions. Sound Power Level (Lw) values
Table 11. Octave Band Designations
Center Frequency 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Band Designation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B39
NC - Noise Criteria (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
80
NC rating given is NC-30 since this is the highest
point tangent to an NC curve
70
NC-70
Sound Power
60
NC-60
50
NC-50
dB
Sound Power less 10 dB
in each band In this example, the outlet
40
Lp spectrum does not exceed
NC-40
the NC curve of 30 in any
of the eight octave bands
30 and is thus referred to as
NC-30 meeting an NC-30 criteria and
specification.
20 Approximate
It should be noted that while
B
Threshold
of human
NC-20 this spectra meets NC-30,
hearing if the critical band resulted
10 in an NC-33, most building
63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K occupants would not be able
to discern the difference.
Mid - Frequency, Hz
Figure 127. Typical NC Graph for a Diffuser
The use of a 10 dB “room effect” as used in this example,

while in common practice and accepted for Table 12. Space Effect (AHRI 885 and ASHRAE)
many years, is not as accurate a prediction
as is possible using newer techniques. The
Room Hz 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
ASHRAE Handbook and AHRI Standard 885
present an equation for determining the Volume Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

“space effect” based on both room volume
@ 5ft -4 -5 -6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10
and the distance from the observer to a
point sound source. 2000 CuFt @ 10ft -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -11 -12 -13
@ 15ft -9 -10 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15
Space Effect = (25) - 10 Log (ft.)
- 5 Log (cu. ft.) @ 5ft -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11
- 3 Log (Hz)
2500 CuFt @ 10ft -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14
Where: @ 15ft -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -15
ft. = Distance from observer to source @ 5ft -5 -6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11
cu. ft. = Room volume
Hz = Octave band center frequency 3000 CuFt @ 10ft -8 -9 -10 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14
@ 15ft -10 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16
This yields a range of deductions which
differ in each octave band, as shown in @ 5ft -6 -7 -8 -9 -9 -10 -11 -12
Table 12. 5000 CuFt @ 10ft -9 -10 -11 -12 -12 -13 -14 -15
The 10 dB room effect which has been @ 15ft -11 -12 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17
traditionally used for diffuser sound ratings,
which typically peak in the 5th band, can
be considered to be equivalent to a room about 2,500 cu. NC ratings have been common in specifications for a
ft. in size, with the observer located about 7 ft. from the number of years, with an NC-35 being the most common
source. requirement. While NC is a great improvement over previous
single number ratings, including Sones, Bels, and dBA
With VAV terminals, which peak in lower bands, the “10 dB” requirements, it gives little indication of the “quality” of
room size is larger, or the distance is greater. the sound. A more comprehensive method, RC, has been
B40 proposed; while a good analysis tool, RC is a very poor
design tool.
ROOM CRITERIA (RC) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Room Criteria (RC) is based on ASHRAE sponsored studies Table 13. ASHRAE Defined Acoustic Quality
of preference and requirements for speech privacy, along
with ratings for “Acoustical Quality.” RC ratings contain Don’t destroy
Not too quiet
both a numerical value and a letter “Quality” rating. The acoustic privacy
RC numerical rating is simply the arithmetic average of
the sound pressure level in the 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz Avoid hearing damage
Not too loud
octave bands, which is the speech interference level (SIL). Don’t interfere with speech
These are the frequencies that affect speech communication
privacy and impairment. Studies show that an RC between No rumble, No hiss
35 and 45 will usually provide speech privacy in open-plan Not to annoying No identifiable machinery
offices, while a value below 35 does not. Above RC-45, the sounds, No time modulation
sound is likely to interfere with speech communication.
In addition to the numerical SIL portion of the RC method, Not to be felt No feel able wall vibration
there is a “Quality” portion of the RC rating which involves
an analysis of potential low and high frequency annoyance.
The goals of acoustical quality are described in Table 13.
Recommended NC and RC goals for various space

applications, given in the current ASHRAE Handbook, are Table 14. NC/RC Guidelines
shown in the table to the right.
Space RC NC
B
Occupancy
Private residence RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30
Apartments RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Hotels/Motels
Individual rooms or suites RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Halls, corridors, lobbies RC 35-40(N) NC 35-40
Service / support areas RC 40-45(N) NC 40-45
Offices
Executive RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30
Conference Rooms RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30

Private RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Open plan areas RC 35-40(N) NC 35-40
Public circulation RC 40-45(N) NC 40-45
Hospitals and clinics
Private rooms RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30
Wards RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Operating rooms RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30
Laboratories RC 35-40(N) NC 35-40
Corridors RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Public areas RC 35-40(N) NC 35-40
Churches RC 30-35(N) NC 30-35
Schools
Lecture and classrooms RC 25-30(N) NC 25-30
Open-plan classrooms RC 35-40(N) NC 35-40
B41
Room Criteria (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
The Four “Quality” letter
designations currently in 90 Region A: High probability

use are: that noise induced vibration
A levels in light wall and
R Rumble 80 ceiling structures will be
noticeable. Rattling of
H Hiss
lightweight light fixtures,
V Vibration B
doors, and windows should
(acoustically 70 be anticipated.
induced) Region B: moderate
N Neutral Octave 60 probability that noise induced
vibration will be noticeable
Band Micropascals
in lightweight fixtures,
These letters are determined Sound
Pressure doors, and windows.
by analyzing the low and high 50
Level,
frequency spectra compared dB re 20
to a line drawn with a -5 dB RC
slope per band through the 40
50
numerical RC point @ 1,000 C 45
Hz. This establishes the SIL
30 40
(Speech Interference Level)
line. Lines of -5 dB slope 35
create the RC chart, shown in 20
(Figure 128). 30
B
Threshold of
Audibility 25
Also shown in (Figure 128) 10
are areas of rumble (B) and 16 63 250 1K 4K
vibration (A), as well as a Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz
threshold of audibility. Note Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
that the RC chart goes well
below the 63 Hz lower cutoff
Figure 128. Room Criteria (RC) Curves
of the NC chart, as these
low frequency sound levels
have been discovered to be a 90
major source of discomfort to
occupants.
80
If the sound spectrum being
analyzed exceeds a line drawn 70
parallel to the SIL line plus 3
dB in the higher frequencies Measured data is
(> 2,000 Hz), the “hiss 60 outside the reference
roof,” then it is declared to Octave
region by >3 dB, above
be “Hissy” and gets an “H” Band
Sound the 1000 Hz octave band,
designation. 50
Pressure therefore the noise is likely
Level to be interpreted as "hissy."
40
C
30
20 PSIL = (35+36+34) / 3 = 35
RC-35(H)
10
16 63 250 1K 4K
Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz
Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
B42 Figure 129. Hissy Spectrum

Room Criteria (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
If the plotted spectra exceed a +5 dB
Rumble roof in the lower frequencies, it
80
gets an “R” (Rumble) Rating. Finally, if
90
the sound spectrum enters the “A” or “B”
A zones in the very low frequencies shown
80 on the RC graphs, it warrants a “V” for
possible wall or furniture vibration induced
B by acoustical energy in low frequencies.
70 The B region may be characterized as “Be
Careful” where one may have complaints,
Even though the PSIL but the “A” region is “Awful”, and
60 is only 33 dB, the complaints should be expected. This is an
Octave
noise spectrum example of an RV spectrum.
Band
falls within regions
Sound 50
A & B indicating a When room sound levels are analyzed
Pressure
Level
high probability of using RC curves, air diffusers tend to
40 moise-induced give the same ratings as they do in an
vibration in lights, NC analysis. Boxes, on the other hand,
C ceilings, air diffusers, which are typically predominant in lower
30 and return air grilles. frequency sound and often characterized
as “Roar” (250-500 Hz), often yield RC
values lower than NC, but with an
20 “R” classification.
B
RC-33(RV)
PSIL= (38+32+29) / 3 = 33
10 AIR TERMINAL SOUND ISSUES
16 63 250 1K 4K Sound is an important design criterion
Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz in the application of air terminals. In the
context of the total building environment,
comfort cannot be achieved with excessive
sound or noise levels. By definition, sound
is a change in pressure for a medium,
Figure 130. Rumble and Induced Vibration (RV) Spectrum
such as air. This change in pressure
involves a radiation of energy. Energy is
used in the generation of sound and this
energy is radiated from a source.

All sound has a source and travels down
a path to a receiver. Air terminals are one
source of sound in a mechanical system.
The path for sound emanating from the air
D terminal is through the plenum or down
the duct into the conditioned space where
C it reaches the occupant or receiver.
Mechanical system designers should not

be concerned so much with sound, but
rather with noise. Noise can be thought
of as unwanted or excessive sound. Good
design practice dictates that a designer
O Sound Power L w establish the acceptable noise for the
occupied space and then determine
C = Casing Radiated the selection criteria for the mechanical
and Induction Inlet system components.
D = Discharge Sound
In any application, both radiated and
O = Outlet Generated discharge sound should be considered.
Sound Radiated sound “breaks out” from the
terminal casing or induction port and
travels through the plenum and ceiling to
Figure 131. Typical Sound Sources for Fan Terminal System enter the occupied space. Discharge sound
travels out the discharge of the terminal
through the duct work and outlet to enter
the occupied space.
B43
AHRI STANDARD 885 Engineering Guidelines - GRD
AHRI Standard 885, Procedure for Estimating Occupied
RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVELS

Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminal and
Air Outlets, provides the most current application factors for To determine the maximum allowable radiated sound power
converting rated sound power to a predicted room sound levels for a project, the attenuation from the ceiling/space
pressure level. This standard is the basis by which most air effect must be added to the desired room sound pressure
terminal manufacturers convert sound power, as measured for each octave band.
in reverberant rooms per ASHRAE Standard 130 and rated
in accordance with AHRI Standard 880, to a predicted room
sound pressure level. The standard provides a number of CEILING/SPACE EFFECT
equations and tables available elsewhere, but puts them all AHRI Standard 885 combines the effect of the absorption
in one document, and includes some unique tables as well. of the ceiling tile, plenum absorption and room absorption
It also includes examples and diagrams to make the process into the Ceiling/Space Effect. Experience has shown that the
easier to use. The most important of those are included Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating for ceiling tiles, which
here. is based on a two room pair test, is not well correlated
with observed data for a noise source located above a
ceiling. The AHRI Standard 885 Ceiling/Space Effect table
ENVIRONMENTAL ADJUSTMENT FACTOR D14 Table 16 is derived from a number of manufacturers’
In order to use the AHRI 885 Standard, sound power must observations and is only found in the AHRI Standard. This
be corrected for differences between reverberant room and table assumes that the plenum space is at least 3 ft. deep,
free field calibrations when AHRI 880 sound power is the is over 30 ft. wide or lined with insulation and that there are
base. This Environmental Adjustment Factor is listed in AHRI no penetrations directly under the unit.
Standard 885.
From the AHRI Standard, the following attenuation values,
B
According to AHRI Standard 885, an Environmental or transfer functions, should be used for the Ceiling/Space
Adjustment Factor must be applied to manufacturers’ Effect:
data if the sound power data has been taken under a free
field RSS (reference sound source). According to AHRI, LW RAD = LP + S + P/C + Env
this is “necessary because at low frequencies, all real
occupied spaces behave acoustically more like reverberant where: LW RAD = Radiated Sound Power Level
rooms than open spaces (free field).” In other words, LP = Sound Pressure Level
manufacturers’ sound power data which is based on ILG/ S = Space Effect
RSS with a free field calibration must be adjusted to match P/C = Plenum/Ceiling Effect
actual operating conditions found in the field. This applies Env = Environmental Effect
to Titus and other participants in the AHRI Standard 880
Certification program. For data rated per AHRI Standard Table 16. Ceiling/Space Effect (Table D14, AHRI Standard 885)
880, the environmental adjustment factor must be
subtracted from the manufacturers’ sound power level data Frequency 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K
in order to use the adjustments provided in AHRI Standard Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7

885. Mineral Fiber
16 18 20 26 31 36
Table 15. Environmental Adjustment Factor Tile Ceiling ⅝”
Glass Fiber Tile
Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 16 15 17 17 18 19
Ceiling ⅝”
Env Factor 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 Solid Gypsum
23 27 27 29 29 30
Board ⅝”
Once the Ceiling/Space Effect has been determined, they

are added to the sound pressure level to determine the
maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be
done for each octave band.
B44
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER LEVELS Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Table 18. Round 1-inch Lined Spiral Duct, dB / ft.
Discharge sound (sometimes called airborne sound) is the
(Table D7, AHRI Standard 885)
sound that travels down the duct and discharges into the
room along with the conditioned air. The procedure for Octave Band
Duct
determining the maximum acceptable discharge sound
Diameter 2 3 4 5 6 7
power levels requires the addition of the space effect,
end reflection, duct insertion, flow division (or branch 6” 0.59 0.93 1.53 2.17 2.31 2.04
power division) and elbow and tees to the maximum 12” 0.46 0.81 1.45 2.18 1.91 1.48
acceptable room sound pressure levels. If more than one
outlet supplies air to a room, separate evaluations should 24” 0.25 0.57 1.28 1.71 1.24 0.85
occur for each discharge path. This is done for each octave 48” 0 0.18 0.63 0.26 0.34 0.45
band.
Space Effect. The discharge sound space effect is Table 19. Rectangular, 1-inch Lined Duct, dB / ft.
determined in the same manner as the radiated sound (Table D8, AHRI Standard 885)
space effect. The sound source in this case might be the
outlet (i.e., grille or diffuser) supplying air to the space, or Duct Octave Band
may be sound from an upstream noise source (damper or Dimension 2 3 4 5 6 7
fan) which passes through the outlets, or a sum of both 6” x 6” 0.6 1.5 2.7 5.8 7.4 4.3
Table 12.
12” x 12” 0.4 0.8 1.9 4 4.1 2.8
End Reflection. When the area across the airstream 24” x 24” 0.2 0.5 1.4 2.8 2.2 1.8
expands suddenly as the duct work terminates or ends at
the outlet to the occupied space, a significant amount of low 48” x 48” 0.1 0.3 1 2 1.2 1.2
B
frequency sound is reflected back into the duct work. This Table 20. Flexible Duct Insertion Loss, dB
is called end reflection. The amount of end reflection varies (Table D9, AHRI Standard 885)
based on the inlet size and type of duct.
Duct Duct Insertion Loss, dB
Table 17. End Reflection dB (Table D13, AHRI Standard 885) Octave Bands
Diameter Length
Inches Feet 2 3 4 5 6 7
Eq. Dia. Octave Band
or Duct 10 9 9 27 32 38 24
Width 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 5 6 5 16 23 27 18
6” 18 12 7 3 1 0 0 0
3 4 4 12 19 23 15
8” 16 10 5 2 1 0 0 0
10 9 12 28 32 37 23
10” 14 8 4 1 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 7 17 22 25 16

12” 12 7 3 1 0 0 0 0
3 4 5 13 18 21 13
16” 10 5 2 1 0 0 0 0
10 9 15 28 32 35 22
24” 7 3 1 0 0 0 0 0
6 5 5 9 18 21 24 15
3 4 6 13 16 19 11
Duct Insertion Loss. The addition of lined duct work
results in significant attenuation of higher frequency sound. 10 9 18 29 31 32 20
The amount of attenuation varies with duct size and lining 8 5 5 10 18 19 21 12
thickness. AHRI Standard 885 contains several tables helpful 3 3 7 14 14 16 8
in determining the appropriate attenuation values. Each
section of duct work inserted downstream of the terminal 10 8 19 28 30 29 18
must be evaluated. For example, one might have separate 10 5 4 11 18 17 18 9
duct insertion attenuation values for straight lined discharge
duct, branch duct (if lined) and flex duct from the branch 3 3 7 14 11 13 6
to the outlet. The AHRI Standard, as well as the ASHRAE 10 7 17 26 28 26 15
Handbook, provide tables of insertion loss per foot of duct
based on inside duct dimensions. 12 5 3 9 16 15 15 7
3 2 6 12 9 11 4
While lined duct factors are available in both ASHRAE and
10 5 13 23 25 23 12
AHRI documents, flexible duct insertion loss data is available
only from manufacturers or as found in the AHRI Standard 14 5 2 7 14 13 13 6
885. Table 20 is the flexible duct insertion loss data from 3 1 4 10 8 9 4
AHRI Standard 885.
10 3 7 19 23 20 8
Two tables are provided here for rectangular and round 16 5 1 2 11 11 11 5
lined duct from the AHRI Standard.
3 0 0 8 7 8 4 B45
Discharge Sound Power Levels (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Flow Division. When the airstream is divided, the sound Once all of the attenuation factors have been determined,
carried in each downstream branch is less than the sound they are added to the sound pressure level to determine
upstream of the branch take-off. This shows the percent of the maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be
total airflow carried by the branch. The appropriate level of done for each octave band, and again the Environmental
attenuation can then be determined from Table 21. Adjustment factor must be added.
Table 21. Duct Splits, dB
LW DIS = LP + S + ER + I + D + T/E + Env
% of Total Air Flow 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 where: LW DIS = Discharge Sound Power Level
Attenuation 31 10 8 7 5 4 3 1 LP = Sound Pressure Level
S = Space Effect
ER = End Reflection
Elbows and Tees. A certain amount of attenuation of I = Duct Insertion
higher frequency sound is gained when an airstream enters D = Flow Division
an elbow or tee duct connection. If the elbow is round and T/E = Tee/Elbow
unlined, the attenuation is considered by AHRI Standard Env = Environmental Factor
885 to be negligible. Attenuation of rectangular tees is
determined by treating the tee as two elbows placed side
by side.
Approximate Attenuation of 90° Elbows without Turning Vanes

Table 22. Lined Rectangular, dB Table 23. Circular with Lining Ahead or Behind Elbow, dB
B
(Table D12, AHRI Standard 885) (Table D10, AHRI Standard 885)
Duct Octave Band Octave Band

Duct Width
Width 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7
5-10 0 0 1 6 11 10 5-10 0 0 1 2 3 3
11-20 1 6 6 11 10 10 11-20 1 2 2 3 3 3
21-40 6 6 11 10 10 10 21-40 2 2 3 3 3 3
41-80 6 11 10 10 10 10 41-80 2 3 3 3 3 3
ACCEPTABLE TOTAL
SOUND IN A SPACE
Once the Radiated and Discharge sound
pressure paths and effects are known,
the resulting room sound level can
be evaluated. Other factors may play
a part in determining the final room
sound levels. All these factors must be
included to achieve an accurate prediction Sound Pressure L p
or analysis. The results may be very 1 = Casing
complex. Radiated & Inlet
2 = Duct Breakout
In the example here, many paths are
shown. In practice, only a couple are 3 = Distribution
significant, but changes in designs may Duct Breakout
make a one time insignificant path 2 3 = Flex Duct
4 4
become predominant. For example, 1 Breakout
should duct lining be eliminated and no 5
5 = Discharge
flex duct employed, discharge sound may 6
be much more important than radiated, 6 = Outlet
the usual acoustical problem. Poor duct Generated Sound
design may cause duct breakout to be the
highest sound heard in the space.
Figure 132. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation,
The AHRI Standard 885 Standard provides Sound Sources and Paths
guidance on all the possible paths. Not
shown here is background sound, which is
B46 often at an NC-30 or greater in occupied spaces.
Acceptable Total Sound in a Space (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
All the sound paths must be combined to
predict the room sound level. 3
To Add Two Decibel Values:
Correction To Be Added To
When combining path elements, the
2.5
80 dB
Higher Value (dB)

math is done using log addition, not
algebraically. Logarithmic (log) addition
requires taking the antilog of the dB in 2 + 74 dB
each band, adding them together, then
taking the log of the answer. While this 1.5 154 dB (Incorrect)
sounds complicated, (Figure 133) here
shows an easier way of estimating Difference in Values: 6 dB
the result. 1
0.5
From Chart: Add 1.0 dB to
More importantly, most people cannot
differentiate between two sources which higher Value
differ by less than 3 dB. If the background 0 80 dB
sound is an NC-35, and the device in
0 2 4 6 8 10 + 1 dB
question is predicted at an NC-35, it is
likely that the space will be at an NC-38 Difference In Decibels
(although this is dependent on which Between Two Values Being 81 dB (Correct)
octave bands are critical), but most
people cannot hear the difference. Added (dB)
B
In a similar manner, sound from VAV
boxes and diffusers combine to create the Figure 133. Decibel Addition Example (Incoherent Sound)
room sound pressure level. Since they peak
in different bands, however, they often
complement each other. In many cases, a
Series Fan Terminal will be predicted to have
an NC-30 in a space, but when combined
with an NC-40 diffuser, will result in a room
sound pressure level of NC-40, which is
optimum for providing speech privacy in
open plan spaces.

>3D Lined Sheet Metal Plenum
(Max velocity 1,000 fpm)
VAV
D 4' Min.
Unit
Flexible Connectors
Maximize Height For Fan Powered Units Flexible Ducts
Above Ceiling
To Diffusers
Ceiling
Figure 134. Quiet VAV and Fan Terminal Recommended Installation
B47
Acoustical Applications & Factors (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
MAXIMUM SOUND POWER LEVELS FOR MANUFACTURERS’ DATA

A proper specification for acoustical performance in a space
will limit the maximum sound generation for a product. This
should be based on the desired resultant sound in the space Engineers can minimize the sound contribution of
and accepted and clearly stated sound path attenuations/ air terminals to an occupied space through good
reductions. AHRI Standard 885 provides a consistent design practice.
method for accomplishing this task.
• Whenever possible, terminals should be
Example: located over areas less sensitive to noise.
A designer wants to achieve RC 40N for an open office to This includes corridors, copy rooms, storage
achieve an acceptable level of speech privacy. The office rooms, etc. Quiet air terminals facilitate the
has a 9 ft. ceiling and a volume of 3,000 ft.3. The terminal location of terminals over unoccupied space
will be located over the occupied space with 5 ft. of lined as with these units larger zones are possible
duct on the discharge.The lined discharge duct is 14” x resulting in fewer terminals. This also reduces
14” outside with one inch of insulation (12” x 12” internal first cost and improves energy efficiency.
cross section). This duct branches into an unlined trunk • The use of lined duct work or manufacturers’
duct with two runs of lined flex duct taking off to the outlet. attenuators downstream of air terminals can
The flex duct is 6 ft. long and 8” in diameter. The terminal help attenuate higher frequency discharge
will supply 600 cfm with each diffuser taking 300 cfm. The sound. Flexible duct (used with moderation) is
ceiling is made of ⅝-inch mineral fiber tile with a 35 lb. ¼ also an excellent attenuation element.
ft.3 density. The diffuser is selected to provide an NC 40(N)
at design flow. • Sound will be reduced when appropriate
B
fan speed controllers are used to reduce fan
rpm rather than using mechanical devices to
DESIRED ROOM SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS restrict airflow. This form of motor control is
From AHRI Standard 885 the appropriate sound pressure often more energy efficient.
levels for an RC 40 can be determined. Since a Neutral • The air terminal and the return air grille
Spectrum is desired, the Rumble Roof and Hiss Roof can be location should be separated as far as
added to the spectra and still result in a neutral designation. possible. Radiated sound can travel directly
The resultant maximum room sound pressure spectra are: from the terminal through the return air grille
without the benefit of ceiling attenuation.
• Designing systems to operate at low supply
Table 24. Maximum LP for (RC 40N), dB air static pressure will reduce the generated
sound level. This will also provide more
Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7 energy efficient operation and allow the
central fan to be downsized.

LP (RC 40N) 55 50 45 40 35 30
• Sharp edges and transitions in the duct design
Rumble Roof 5 5 0 0 0 0 should be minimized to reduce turbulent
Hiss Roof 0 0 0 0 0 3 airflow and its resulting sound contribution.
Max Room
Sound 60 55 45 40 35 33
Pressure Figure 135. Sound Design Guidelines
B48
Acoustical Applications & Factors (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS
The ceiling/space effect may be determined from Table 16, Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7
page B80.
End Reflection 10 5 2 1 0 0
Duct insertion for 5 ft. of 8-inch lined flex duct can be taken
Octave Band from Table 20, page B81.
2 3 4 5 6 7
Mineral Fiber
Tile ⅝” 35#/Ft3 16 18 20 26 31 36 Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7
Flex Insertion
5 10 18 19 21 12
Loss
The maximum acceptable radiated sound power levels
are determined by adding all the factors, including the
environmental factor. For example, in the 2nd band: No insertion value will be gained from the unlined trunk
duct.
LW RAD 2 = 55 (LP) + 16 (C/S) + 2 (Env) = 73
Flow division based on a 50 percent split (300 cfm / 600
(Octave band 2. LW in bands 3-7 is calculated in a cfm) can be taken from Table 21, page B46.
similar manner.)
Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7
For all bands, the following table results in a maximum Flow Division 3 3 3 3 3 3
allowed sound power, per AHRI Standard 880, to achieve an
RC 40N: The rectangular tee attenuation can be taken from
B
Table 25. Allowed Sound Power Maximums (AHRI Standard 880) Table 23, page B46.
Lp (RC 40N) 60 55 45 40 35 33 Tee Attenuation 0 0 1 2 3 3
C/S (Table 16) 16 18 20 26 31 36
Env Effect
2 1 0 0 0 0 Duct insertion for the 5 ft. of rectangular discharge duct can
(Table 15)
be taken from the AHRI Standard 885, or from Table 19,
Lw 78 74 65 66 66 69 page B45 in this case.
For this specification to be compared evenly against all

manufacturers, the environmental adjustment factor for Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7
manufacturers using a free field calibration Reference Sound Duct Ins. Loss 2 4 10 20 21 14

Source (RSS), as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been
subtracted from the appropriate manufacturer’s data or
added to the maximum acceptable sound power levels. If Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7
data is tested in another method, the appropriateness of the
environmental factor must be understood and LP (RC 40N) 60 55 45 40 35 33
properly applied. Env Effect (Table 15) 2 1 0 0 0 0
Space (Table 12) 9 10 10 11 12 13
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER End Ref (Table 17) 10 5 2 1 0 0
LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS FLEX (Table 20) 5 10 18 19 21 12
The room absorption is determined by the space effect Flow Div (Table 21) 3 3 3 3 3 3
table. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal located
a few feet away from the receiver and a room volume of Elbow & Tee (Table 23) 0 0 1 2 3 3
3,000 ft.3. The effect varies with the octave band. The space Rect Duct (Table 19) 2 4 10 20 21 14
effect will be obtained from Table 12, page B40.
Lw 91 88 89 96 95 78
As with radiated sound, the environmental adjustment
Space Effect 9 10 10 11 12 13
factor for manufacturers using a free field calibration RSS,
as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been subtracted
End reflection is based on Table 17, page B45, and an from the appropriate manufacturer’s data or added to the
8-inch duct connection. maximum acceptable sound power levels. If data is tested in
another method, the appropriateness of the environmental
factor must be understood and properly applied.
B49
Discharge Sound Power Level Specifications (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Discharge Attenuation Elements
RC 40
Lp (RC40N)
Rumble Roof
Hiss Roof
Env Effect
dB Space
End Ref
Flex
Flow Div
Elbow & Tee
Rect Duct
125 250 500 1K 2K 4K
Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz
B Figure 136. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation, Sound Sources and Paths
It can be seen that discharge sound is not likely to be a

problem, especially in the mid-frequencies. If duct lining The room sound pressure level requirements should be
is eliminated, however, the maximum allowable power is based on the resultant desired acoustical environment.
reduced by the duct insertion loss data on the previous As the only attenuation element for diffusers is the room
page. If flex duct is disallowed, the maximum sound power effect, this should be the primary attenuation path.
allowed is further decreased by flex insertion loss. This can
result in the following requirement for the unit: Diffusers, moreover, have typically been tested in the same
facilities as VAV terminals, with the same reference sound
Octave Band 2 3 4 5 6 7 source, and therefore the AHRI Standard 885 Environmental
Effect must be included as well. The following is a proposed

No Lining/Flex 83 74 61 56 53 52 procedure for determining the Diffuser NC requirement
based on an RC analysis:
In many cases, this is a borderline acceptable case for many Steps:

unit sizes and flow rates, especially in smaller rooms with 1. Determine the desired RC level for the space. This is
RC 35N requirements. Flexible duct can be included as a the sound pressure level requirement in the 5th band.
solution to discharge noise in these cases.
2. Determine the room effect in the 5th (1,000 Hz) band,
based on room volume and distance to the diffuser
DIFFUSER SPECIFICATIONS from the observer. Add this to the RC number.
Diffusers are commonly specified and reported in NC, rather
than RC. In most cases, there is no difference between NC 3. Subtract 10 dB from the result in Step 2. This is the
and RC for diffusers as they usually peak in the 500-2,000 required diffuser NC.
Hz region, and the resultant numerical specification is the
same for both NC and RC. Diffuser NC ratings commonly
subtract 10 dB from measured sound power levels in
all bands to account for room attenuation. As described
earlier, this will be a valid assumption for a number of
combinations of room volume and distance to the source.
While an ideal specification will be based on octave band
sound levels, these are seldom available for diffusers, and
so the NC rating must be used. For a close approximation
of diffuser sound power when only NC is known, one can
assume that the sound power for the diffuser in the 5th
octave band (1,000 Hz) is equal to the reported NC plus 10
dB, the 4th band (500 Hz) is 3 greater than this, and the
B50 6th band (2000 Hz) is 5 less. This will be suitable for most
applications.
Diffuser Specifications (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Example: The open office from the previous example is
used here. The room is large and speech privacy is desired, As the estimated room sound pressure level exceeds the
requiring an RC 40N specification. rumble roof in the 2nd band, this unit must be classified
RC 29 (R). If an RC 35 (N) diffuser is also supplied, however,
Steps: the sound from it must be added to the terminals to get the
1. From AHRI Standard 885 the appropriate sound room total sound level. Using the procedure described under
pressure levels for an RC 40 can be determined. In “Diffuser Specification”, we can estimate the sound power
the 5th band the RC is = to the sound pressure level level of an NC-35 diffuser:
requirement, 40 dB.
2. The room absorption is determined from the space Diffuser Pwl 48 45 40
effect equation. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal Space Effect (Table 12) 9 10 10 11 12 13
located a few feet away from the receiver, the distance
variable will equal 10 ft. The volume of the room is Env Effect (Table 15) 2 1 0 0 0 0
3,000 ft.3. The frequency varies with the octave band. Estimated Diffuser Spl 38 34 28
The space effect in the 5th band will be obtained from
Table 12, page B76, and is = 11 dB. 40 + 11 = 51
dB. When these are added, the resulting spectra is:
3. Subtract 10dB = the diffuser’s NC requirement, or
NC 41. Diffuser Pwl 38 34 28
Terminal Spl 53 45 39 31 19 9
B
DETERMINING COMPLIANCE TO A Log Sum 53 45 41 36 29 9
SPECIFICATION
When determining if a unit will meet a specification, it may
be necessary to conduct a total room sound evaluation with The RC = (41 + 36 + 29)/3 = 35. The rumble roof for this
multiple sound sources and multiple paths. These are added spectra is therefore
using logarithmic addition to determine total sound level.
Once all path elements are identified, the noncritical paths Octave Band 2 3 4
can be determined using (Figure 133), page B83. Paths
which are 10 dB or more below the loudest, in any given Rumble Roof 55 50 40
band, can usually be ignored.
VAV terminals, if evaluated by themselves, often result in Therefore the sound pressure level in the space is an RC 35
an “R” classification because of the high mid-frequency (N). This works because diffusers and VAV terminals seldom

absorption provided by lined and flexible duct. The diffuser, peak in the same frequencies, with diffusers being critical
however, can overcome this apparent “Rumble” spectra by in the speech bands (500-2,000 Hz) and boxes producing
filling in the resultant sound with its high frequency sound the most sound in the 125-250 Hz region. When these two
generation. This results in an “N” rating, as required. Using sounds combine in the space, they often complement each
the estimated sound power procedure from the Diffuser other, producing a full spectrum of sound and resulting in an
Specification section above, the diffuser’s contribution can “N” rating.
be added (using log addition) to the VAV boxes sound
pressure level, and a resultant sound pressure level
classification developed.

Example: A project engineer desires a space sound pressure
level of RC 35(N) for a private office. He has selected a Titus
TQS Fan Terminal, size 5-12, at 1500 cfm, with a design
inlet pressure of 1 in. static pressure. From the sound tables
for the product, the sound power levels for this unit and
the reduction factors as in the previous example are shown
above:
Unit Pwl 71 64 59 57 50 45
C/S (Table 16) 16 18 20 26 31 36
Env Effect (Table 15) 2 1 0 0 0 0
Estimated Room Spl 53 45 39 31 19 9
B51
References Engineering Guidelines - GRD
ASHRAE Handbook of Equipment ANSI S1.31

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals “Precision Methods for the Determination of Sound Power
ASHRAE Handbook of Systems Levels of Broadband Noise Sources in Reverberant Rooms.”
This tells how to take the acoustic measurements in ASHRAE
ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, “Thermal Comfort Conditions,” Standard 70.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., 2010.
AHRI STANDARDS
Bauman F., Et Al, “Air Movement, Ventilation, and Comfort in a AHRI Standards are typically developed for rating purposes.
Partitioned Office Space,” ASHRAE Transactions, When an appropriate method of test does not exist, then AHRI
Vol. 98, Pt. 1, 1992. Standardwill develop one. Otherwise, by agreement, they will
reference an ASHRAE Standard method of test.
Int-Hout, D., “Thermal Comfort Calculations/A Computer
Model,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 96, Pt. 1, 1990. AHRI STANDARD 880
Koestel, A., “Computing Temperature and Velocities in Vertical The purpose of this standard is to establish definitions
Jets of Hot or Cold Air,” ASHRAE Transactions, and classification: requirements for testing and rating;
Vol. 60, p. 385, 1954. specifications, literature and advertising requirements; and
conformance for air terminals. Appendix A is the method of test,
Miller, P.L. and Nash, R.T., “A Further Analysis of Room Air which is expected to be replaced by ASHRAE Standard 130.
Distribution Performance,” ASHRAE Transactions, 1972.
AHRI STANDARD 885
B
Nevins, Ralph C., “Air Diffusion Dynamics,” Theory, Design and This standard gives sound transmission losses through ceilings,
Application, 1976. effects of plenum, loss through ducts and all consideration of
the sound paths to the space. With many items that affect the
Straub, H.E., “Principles of Room Air Distribution, Heating,” final sound, it gives a procedure to estimate what the space
Piping & Air Conditioning, April 1969. sound levels will be.
Straub, H.E., “What You Should Know About Room Air AHRI Standard 885 “Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space
Distribution, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning,” January Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminals and Air Outlets”
1962.
This standard gives sound transmission losses through ceilings,
Straub, H.E., “Room Air Distribution with a Variable Volume effects of plenum, loss through ducts and all consideration of
System,” presented at ASHRAE’s Annual Meeting, 1969. the sound paths to the pace. With many items that affect the
final sound, it gives a procedure to estimate what the space
sound levels will be. This standard is unique among acoustical
ACOUSTICS standards in that it provides the most current available
Gregerson, “Setting Sounder Standards for Acoustical acoustical application data for boxes and diffusers. Most of the
Performance,” Building Design and Construction, data comes form ASHRAE sources, but some parts are unique
p.58-60, April, 1992. to this standard, including a flexible duct attenuation table
and a combined ceiling/plenum attenuation table. Unique and
Int-Hout, D., “Total Environmental Quality,” ASHRAE important AHRI Standard885 elements are listed in the Paths
Transactions, Vol. 99, Pt. 1, 1993. section of this manual.
Int-Hout, D., “The Use of Manufacturers’ Acoustical Data,” AHRI STANDARD 890
ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 90, Pt. 2, 1986.
The Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute has recently
developed a Certification Standard for Diffusers. It references
ANSI STANDARDS the ASHRAE-70 Standard for the test method and specifies
ANSI S12.32, “Precision Methods for the Determination of rating points and procedures. No diffusers are currently certified
Sound Power Levels of Broadband Noise Sources under this standard.
in Reverberant Rooms.” This standard tells how to take the
REFERENCES
acoustic measurements in reverberant rooms, and is referenced ASHRAE STANDARDS

as the method of test in both AHRI 880 and ASHRAE 130. Other
ANSI standards referenced in this catalog are as follows: ASHRAE has developed, or is developing, consensus standards
for testing both boxes and air outlets and inlets (GRDs).
ASHRAE strives to provide current relevant testing standards
ANSI/ASHRAE 70 which represent the best known data and methods available
Method of testing for rating the performance of air outlets and as consensus standards. ASHRAE Standards are submitted to
inlets, Isothermal and cooling. Similar to ADC1062: GRD 84. It American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and are usually
only shows the mounting for acoustical testing, referencing the adopted as ANSI standards as well. When applicable ANSI
following acoustical standard. standards are available for part of ASHRAE Standards for both
Boxes (130) and diffusers (70).
B52
B52
References (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
ASHRAE 62 ISO 7730
“Ventilation of Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.” The purpose “Thermal comfort using the PMV/PPD single number rating.”
of this standard is ‘to specify minimum ventilation rates and
indoor air quality that will be acceptable to human occupants OTHER STANDARDS
and are intended to avoid adverse health effects.’ This standard
also specifies that energy conservation should be promoted and ADC 1062
that comfort conditions should be maintained. Therefore the One of the original of standards dealing with testing and
next two standards are listed to implement these requirements. certifying registers, diffusers, dampers and terminals. Tests
including pressures, throw, velocity and sound under isothermal
ASHRAE/IES STANDARD 90.1 conditions are included. Also included is a cooling test to
“Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low Rise correlate isothermal throw with room conditions as a room
Residential Buildings.” velocity. It tells how to set up, take readings, determine the
number of readings and sizes to test, analyze, interpolate
and report. The ADC 1062 Test Code has been supplanted by
ANSI/ASHRAE 55 ASHRAE, ARI, ANSI and ISO procedures. At present, there are
“Thermal Environmental COnditions for Human Occupancy.” no ADC certified products or Certified Laboratories in the US.
ASHRAE 113
“Method of Testing for Room Air Distribution.” This is a
definitive method to determine ADPI in a space.
ISO STANDARDS
ISO Standards are developed through a combination of
committee members from several countries. One country is
designated the “Secretariat” and is the lead in developing the
standards assigned. The USA was the Secretariat for the two
ISO Standards related to Boxes and GRDs. Other ISO Standards
B
referenced in this catalog are as follows:
ISO 5219
“Air distribution and air diffusion.” Laboratory aerodynamic
testing and rating of air terminal devices. This was for GRDs.
ISO 5220
“Air distribution and air diffusion.” Aerodynamic testing and
rating of constant and variable dual or single duct boxes and
single duct units.
This standard is not in use at present in the U.S. It is very

similar, however, to ASHRAE 130 and the AHRI 880, Appendix A
procedures.
ISO 5135
“Acoustics. Determination of sound power levels of noise from
air terminal devices, high/low velocity/ pressure assemblies,
dampers, and valves by measurement in a reverberation room.”
All of the diagrams and methods shown in the ADC standards
are shown in this standard.
REFERENCES
ISO 3741
“Acoustics. Determination of sound power levels of noise
sources, and precision methods for broadband sources in
reverberation rooms.” This explains actual measurements for
the configurations given in ISO 5135.
ISO 7244
“Air distribution and air diffusion.” Aerodynamic testing of
dampers and valves.
B53
Glossary Engineering Guidelines - GRD
Breakout - Sound which passes through the walls of a duct or
device and is passed directly to an observer. Sound Power - The energy released as acoustic energy by a
device. It is measured indirectly by one of several methods.
Casing Radiated Sound - A type of Breakout Sound which It is reported as dB (the log base 10 of the value) referenced
passes through the walls of a device. In some cases, it includes to a base power level, typically 10-12 watts. It is reported by
induction port radiated sound as well. frequency, typically in octave bands, although sometimes in 1/3
octave bands.
dBA - A single number rating of a broadband spectrum.
Typically used to rate outdoor noise levels. Not practical for Sound Pressure - The directly measurable fluctuation in
use in rating indoor sound levels as it bears little relevance to pressure, heard as sound. The sound pressure is reported in dB
occupants’ needs. (the log base 10 of the value), referenced to a pressure 0.0001
microbars. It is reported by frequency, typically in octave bands,
Discharge Sound - Airborne sound which is transmitted through although sometimes in 1/3 octave bands.
ductwork from a noise source to an observer.
Space Effect - The calculated attenuation of a space which is
End Reflection - The reduction in sound, typically in low different in each frequency band, and is a function of room
frequencies only, resulting from a rapid change in the shape or volume and distance from the source.
size of a duct or a duct termination.
Terminals (Boxes) - Devices which vary the flow through a duct
Environmental Adjustment Factor (Environmental Effect) with a moveable damper. They typically have a control device to
- A correction required to accurately use data obtained in vary the flow in response to a control signal. In some cases, the
accordance with AHRI Standard 880, it corrects for a calibration term terminals can also mean boxes and GRDs. In those cases,
difference between the Free Field calibration of the Reference “Boxes” are referred to as Air Control Devices (ACDs). The
B
Sound Source and the reverberant field in which it is used. terminology is inconsistent throughout the industry.
GRD - Grilles, Registers and Diffusers. A grille is typically a

device which directs air out of a duct nearly the same size as
the opening. A register is a grille with a damper. A diffuser
is usually different in size than the supply duct, and usually
changes the direction of the air while mixing it with room air.
These definitions are not always used as indicated.
Incoherent Sound - Sound which is broadband and contains no

repeating fluctuations.
Induction Port Radiated Sound - That sound which passes

out from the induction port of a VAV device. In practice it is
impossible to differentiate from Casing Radiated sound, and
is reported as a combined value under Casing Radiated sound
levels.
Insertion Loss - The reduction in sound resulting from inserting

an attenuation device, such as a section of lined duct. The
difference before and after the insertion of such a device is the
insertion loss.
Multiple Outlet Effect - When an airstream is split, the sound

traveling in the duct is also reduced, typically in proportion to
the percent of airflow in each duct. The amount of reduction
must be calculated logarithmically, not arithmetically, however.
Pure Tone - A sound spectrum which is very concentrated in a

narrow band.
GLOSSARY
Radiated Sound - Sound which travels from the source to the

observer in a direct path, outside ductwork.
Room Effect - Typically a 10 dB reduction in all bands, this is

the assumed value for attenuation of a room. In practice, it is
reasonable for diffusers which peak in the mid-frequencies,
but not necessarily for VAV terminals, which peak in lower
frequencies.
B54
Engineering Guidelines Index Engineering Guidelines - GRD
A F
ADC 1062........................................................................... B13 Factors that influence Space Comfort.................................. B5
ADPI................................................................................... B29 Fanger’s Comfort Index........................................................ B7
ADPI Range for Outlets, Table...................................... B9, B31 Five Steps to Analysis of Outlet Selection
ADPI Relationships for a Number of Outlets, Figure.......... B21 and Application.................................................................. B17
ADPI Selection Procedure.................................................... B7 Flow Pattern - Circular....................................................... B21
Air Duct Arrangements - Take-off Pressure........................ B36 Flow Pattern - Cross........................................................... B21
Air Velocity and Comfort...................................................... B7 Flow Pattern - Horizontal.................................................... B21
Ambient Temperature........................................................... B6 Four Zones of Expansion.................................................... B10
ANSI Standards.................................................................. B52
G
AHRI Standards.................................................................. B52
ASHARE 70-2006............................................................... B52 General Ventilation............................................................. B33
ASHRAE Standards............................................................ B52 Gradients............................................................................ B19
Guidelines for Application of Horizontal Discharge from
B Outlets in or near the Ceiling............................................. B22
Basic Principles of Air Distribution...................................... B5 Guidelines for Industrial Applications................................ B32
Buoyancy Effect............................................................ B8, B14 Guidelines for Selecting Outlets for Horizontal
Discharge Pattern VAV Systems......................................... B17
C
Ceiling Height, Maximum Air Quantity.............................. B17 H
B
Characteristics of Nonisothermal Supply Jets........... B13, B18 Hemispherical Flow Pattern............................................... B23
Circular Flow Pattern.......................................................... B20 Horizontal Flow Pattern...................................................... B12
Classification of Supply Outlets......................................... B19 Horizontal Projection below Ceiling................................... B14
Coanda Effect (Surface Effect)........................................... B12 Horizontal Projection from Floor Level............................... B29
Comfort................................................................................. B5
I
Comfort - Ankle Region, chart.............................................. B5
Comfort - Neck Region, chart............................................... B5 Induction Rate.................................................................... B11
Comfort - Neck Region showing ADPI, chart....................... B5 Industrial Applications....................................................... B32
Comfort Guidelines............................................................... B7 Industrial Applications - Grille Selection............................ B34
Comfort Index vs. Throw Ratio, table........................... B9, B31 Industrial Applications - Outlet Selection.......................... B33
Controls Classified by Power Source.................................. B41 Industrial Applications - Thermal Standards...................... B32
Controls Reaction to Duct Pressure................................... B41 ISO...................................................................................... B52
Control Operation............................................................... B43 Isothermal Data.................................................................. B10
Convection Currents........................................................... B19 Isothermal Envelope (Isovel).............................................. B30
Cross Flow Pattern............................................................. B21 Isothermal Jets................................................................... B10
Isothermal Jet Characteristics........................................... B10
D Isothermal Jet Theory........................................................ B13
Diffuser Applications on Exposed Ducts............................ B24
J
Discharge Velocity...................................................... B10, B33
Displacement Ventilation................................................... B25 Jet Expansion, figure.......................................................... B10
Drop from Side Wall Outlets....................................... B14–B16 Jet Expansion - Four Zones, figure..................................... B11
Dry Bulb Termperature......................................................... B5 Jet Velocity vs. Temperature Rise...................................... B32
E L
Effective Draft Temperature, equation.................................. B6 Laminar Flow Pattern......................................................... B23
Effects of Dampers on NC............................................ B7, B35 Local Relief......................................................................... B33
Effect of Flexible Duct Connections on NC........................ B37 Local Temperature................................................................ B6
Estimating Downward Vertical Projection.......................... B24 M
INDEX
Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles..... B36 Maintaining Comfort............................................................ B5

Expansion of Primary Air Jet, figure.................................. B10 Mapping Supply Jets........................................................... B8
Exposed Ducts.................................................................... B24 Maximum Air Quantities for Ceiling Height, table............. B17
Multiple Outlets and NC..................................................... B43
B55
Engineering Guidelines Index (continued) Engineering Guidelines - GRD
N
Natural Convection Currents.............................................. B19

Non-Isothermal Jets........................................................... B13
Non-Isothermal Jet Throw and Drop.......................... B13–B16
O
Outlet Classifications - Supply........................................... B19
Outlet Location and Selection.............................................. B7
Outlet NC Level and Space NC........................................... B39
P
Perimeter Applcations........................................................ B27
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)................................................. B7
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied................................... B7
Procedure for Determining Throw Data.............................. B13
R
Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets...................... B9, B31
Relative Humidity................................................................. B5
Return Intake...................................................................... B19
B
Rolling a Room................................................................... B28
S
Selecting Outlets and Applications...................................... B7
Selection by ADPI................................................................. B8
Selection by Comfort Criteria............................................... B8
Selection by Noise Criteria................................................... B7
Selection by Supply Jets Performance Mapping................. B8
Short Circuiting.................................................................. B31
Spot Cooling....................................................................... B33
Stratification....................................................................... B19
Stratification Layers and Zones.......................................... B18
Supply Outlet Classifications.............................................. B17
Supply Outlet Typical Characteristics................................. B17
Surface Effect (Coanda Effect)........................................... B12
T
T150, T100, T50............................................................ B9, B13
Temperature Rise of Supply Jet, equation........................... B8
Terminal Velocity................................................................ B10
Total Air.............................................................................. B17
Typical Air Distribution Characteristics.............................. B17
V
Vertical Downward Projection from Ceiling....................... B24
Vertical Upward Projection from Floor,
Low Side Wall, or Sill......................................................... B26
Z
INDEX
Zone Four, equation............................................................ B11

Zone One, equation............................................................ B10
Zone Three, equation.......................................................... B10
Zone Two, equation............................................................ B10
B56
B56

Engineering Guidelines - Grilles & Diffusers

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engineering guidelines - grilles & diffusers

Engineering Guidelines Overview...................................................................................................................................................B4

grilles & diffusers

Outlet Location and Selection ........................................................................................................................................................B7

Supply Outlet Classifications........................................................................................................................................................B17

Horizontal Projection at Floor Level: Displacement Ventilation............................................................................................B25

ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index.........................................................................................................................................B29

Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors...............................................................................................................................B36

acoustical applications & factors

THE GOAL OF AN AIR DIFFUSION Neck region

SYSTEM: MAINTAINING COMFORT 80

Local Air Velocity, FPM

• Radiation • Convection Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp.

The comfort of an occupant is determined by both occupant

• Dry bulb and radiant temperatures 80

The previous conditions assume occupants are sedentary

levels would be about 4°F (less than ASHRAE values of

Table 1 shows the relationship between local velocities and 0

METHOD I. SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

The most frequently used procedure to select an outlet size

To take into account the number of outlets, distance, room

Selection by supply jet mapping identifies the most probable 60

portion of the space to be uncomfortable. Portions of a High

Table 4. Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets

Outlet T50/L Range Calculated T50 & L Data

Induced room air

Figure 6. Expansion of primary air jet

JET CHARACTERISTICS: FOUR ZONES OF EXPANSION

calculate the throw for a diffuser at any flow condition. (The Vo X

Figure 7. Four Zones of Expansion of Primary Air Jet

150 cfm Velocity Measurements

Isothermal and Cooling

150 cfm Velocity Measurements

Figure 9. Mapping of Cooled Air Throw

JET CHARACTERISTICS SURFACE EFFECT (COANDA EFFECT)

As the jet flows along a surface, secondary room air can no

In addition, Titus has used the three throw values at 150,

THROW AND DROP FROM SIDE

TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE

TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE

0 1000 1500 fpm

TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE

TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE

TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE

In addition to the outlet type and location, the action due to

Inside STEP 1 Exposed

Stratification 9' Ceiling

STEP 5 - ROOM AIR

Side View COOLING

Side View COOLING

Figure 18. Circular Horizontal Air Projection at the Ceiling Level

45° Deflection 0° Deflection

Low Flow Rate High Flow Rate

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

HORIZONTAL, CIRCULAR AND

1. Diffusers should be selected on the basis of both maximum and minimum

stratification layer. The size of the stratification zone will

Figure 22. Laminar Flow Figure 23. Hemispherical Flow

free jet (not entrained along a surface) 0

DOWNWARD VERTICAL PROJECTION, FT.

Cross flow pattern diffusers are not capable of causing

the airflow to go upward when set for a horizontal pattern

B24 Figure 26. TDC, PSS and 250 Mounted in Exposed Duct

METHOD I. SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

Table 4. Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets

Figure 6. Expansion of primary air jet

Figure 7. Four Zones of Expansion of Primary Air Jet

Figure 9. Mapping of Cooled Air Throw

Figure 22. Laminar Flow Figure 23. Hemispherical Flow

B24 Figure 26. TDC, PSS and 250 Mounted in Exposed Duct

Figure 27. Schematic of Displacement Ventilation

Deflection settings: The deflection settings refer to the 6,

General applications: For general applications, selections

Figure 42. Typical Sound and Pressure Drop for Grilles

Figure 44. Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles

Figure 45. Equalizing Grid Effects (from ASHRAE Handbook; Atlanta, GA)

Table 11. Octave Band Designations

Figure 127. Typical NC Graph for a Diffuser

B42 Figure 129. Hissy Spectrum

Figure 134. Quiet VAV and Fan Terminal Recommended Installation