Revised Manuscript 5-10

UTILIZATION OF VOLCANIC ASH FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BRICKS
A Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
Batangas State University
Alangilan, Batangas City
In Partial Fulfillment
Of other Requirements for the Degree in
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
Cuadra, Kris Angelie V.

Ilao, Lorraine Rafunzel U.
Llanes, Jenny M.
Mantuano, Christian Paolo D.
June 2020
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
The Philippines is an area of persistent volcanism, being located in one of the
most tectonically active regions in the world. Taal Volcano, situated in the province
of Batangas, is the second most active volcano of the 24 active volcanoes in the
Philippines with a number of historical eruptions of 33 (PhiVolcs, 2020).
Taal Volcano erupted on January 12, 2020 spewing ash up to 10 - 15 kilometers
in the air and forcing large-scale evacuations. Ash fall reached parts of Calabarzon
and Metro Manila and larger particles of rock fragments were reported in some areas
of Laguna, Batangas and in Tagaytay. The greatly affected areas by the ash fall were
the municipalities and cities that are located within the 14 kilometer danger zone
which includes, as reported by Inquirer, Agoncillo, Alitagtag, Balete, Cuenca, Laurel,
Lemery, Lipa City, Malvar, MataasnaKahoy, San Nicolas, Sta. Teresita, Taal, Talisay
and Tanauan City and Tagaytay City. The eruption has left these areas as a desolate
landscape of destroyed houses and snapped trees covered in a thick layer of heavy
ash.
All explosive eruptions produce volcanic ash, fragments of volcanic rock
generated when magma or vent material is explosively disintegrated during eruption
(Wilson et al, 2015). Volcanic ash falls are one of the most widespread and frequent
volcanic hazards (Blong et al, 2016). It is alsoone of the most disruptive volcanic
hazards because of its ability to affect large areas andimpact a wide range of assets,
even at relatively small thicknesses.Although ash falls rarely endanger human life
Utilization of Volcanic Ash for the Production of Bricks CHAPTER I
CUADRA, K.A.V., ILAO, L. R. U., LLANES, J. M.The Problem and Its Background
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
directly, threats to public health and disruption to critical infrastructure services,
aviation, and primary productioncan lead to significant societal impacts (Stewart et
al., 2016). Volcanic ash may stay in the environment for months or years following an
eruption and can affect people of hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. This
is why finding a way where this volcanic hazard can be useful instead of just
disposing it is of great importance.
Volcanic ash is a naturally occuring pozzolan. The term “pozzolan” was first
coined when the Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupted in 79 AD and volcanic ash was
mined from a village near Naples, Italy called Puzzuoli (Kosmatka et al, 2008). A
pozzolan is a finely divided material that contains silica or aluminosilicate (Bediako,
2018). Studies regarding the utilization of pozzolans in the construction industry has
been garnering attention as the demands for the building material industry increases.
Although applications of volcanic ash are based on its particle size, surface
morphology and chemical properties,it could be generally used in ceramics, as an
abrasive, in lightweight aggregates, cellular blocks and concrete (Siddique, 2012).
As a result of the booming population, the building materials industry has been
receiving large demands. Brick is one of the most widely used construction material
all around the world. Conventional clay-based brick production generally uses earth-
based raw materials as clay, shale, and sand resulted in resource depletion and
environmental degradation (Singh et al, 2015). The increase in the popularity of using
environmental- friendly, low cost and lightweight construction materials in building
industry has brought about the need to investigate how this can be achieved by
benefiting the environment as well as maintaining the material requirements affirmed
in the standard.
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Biñan City has been gaining attention from all over the world having articles
written about the city’s idea of using volcanic ash in the production of bricks. The
mayor of Biñan asked residents to collect the fine gray ash shrouding homes, cars and
roads and put it in sacks to be sent to a state-owned factory. Environment officials did
not just clean up the mess but decided to combine the ash with sand, cement and
discarded plastic to form about 5,000 bricks per day for local building projects.
However, no tests prior and post-utilization of the volcanic ash was conducted.
In connection with the problem of the layers of ash in certain places in Batangas
due to the phreatic explosion of Taal Volcano and the potential application of
volcanic ash in the construction industry, theobjective of this research is to utilize
volcanic ash for the production of concrete bricks.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study aims to utilize volcanic ash for the production of concrete bricks.
Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in the following properties of volcanic ash obtained
from two different sampling sites?
1.1 Physical Properties
1.1.1 Color
1.1.2 Texture
1.1.3 Bulk Density
1.1.4 Surface Morphology
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
1.1.5. Crystallinity
1.2 Elemental Composition
1.2.1 Silica Content
1.2.2 Heavy Metals
1.2.3 Minerals
1.2.4 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)
2. What is the effect of variable proportion of volcanic ash to cement ratio containing
5%, 10% and 20% volcanic ash on the following properties of bricks produced at
different temperatures (Room Temperature, 400°C and 800°C)
2.1.1 Crystallinity
2.1.2 Heat Conductivity
2.2 Mechanical Properties
2.2.1 Compressive Strength
2.2.2 Flexural Strength
NULL HYPOTHESES
1. There is no significant difference between the properties of volcanic ash obtained
from two different sampling sites.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
2. There is no significant difference between physical and mechanical properties of
bricks with variable proportion of ash to cement ratio produced at different
temperatures.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study is focused on the utilization of volcanic ash in the production of
bricks. Moreover, the results of the study will be of great benefit to the following:
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The study
may contribute in reducing the casualties in the environment caused by the volcanic
ash that imposes hazards not only to people but to sectors like agriculture as well.
Through this research, a potential way of utilization of the volcanic ash is introduced
and thus diminishing problems regarding its disposal.
Construction Industry. The results of this study is beneficial to the
construction industry because this research may give information about how the
utilization of volcanic ash may be a potential building material that is environmental
friendly, low cost, and lightweight without having to sacrifice the quality and standard
of the material requirements. This study may also be able to provide detailed analysis
of the properties such as physical and mechanical properties of the bricks that will be
produced.
Future Researchers. The findings of the study will serve as a guide and a
reference material for the future researchers who wants to conduct a study related to
this topic. This may serve as basis and may open new doors of research opportunities
and potential.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Victims of Taal Volcano Eruption. The study will provide the victims with
new knowledge about how volcanic ash can be useful to them especially to those who
live in the areas within the 14-kilometer danger zone that experienced ashfall.
Through this study, a more detailed knowledge about the effect of using volcanic ash
that blanketed several areas in Batangas, Cavite and Laguna in the production of
concrete bricks is presented. And instead of the volcanic ash imposing hazard in the
safety of the people, it can be transformed into a material that is functional and
beneficial.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY
This study is conducted primarily to utilize volcanic ash in the production of
bricks.
It is limited to using volcanic ash that was spewed by Taal Volcano during its
phreatic explosion. The volcanic ash that will be used in this research will be
collected from the three barangays of Agoncillo namely, Brgy. Subic Ilaya,Brgy.
Alambre and Brgy. Bilibinwang. These barangays are within the 7-kilometer radius
from the volcano and another three barangays in Lemery namely, Brgy. PayapaIlaya,
Brgy. PayapaIbaba, and Brgy. MahabangDahilig which are included in the 14-
kilometer radius. The scope of this study includes the determination or analysis of the
physical properties like color, texture, moisture, bulk density, surface morphology and
crystallinity of the collected ash samples. Elemental composition such as silica
content, heavy metal content, and NPK of the sample volcanic ash that will be
collected will be analyzed as well. Three volcanic ash to cement ratio will be used,
using 5%,10% and 20% volcanic ash replacemenr with a constant amount of sand.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Each brick to be produced will be left to cure for 7 and 28 days. The bricks will also
be subjected to three different temperatures, particularly, room temperature, 400°C
and 800°C.This study is limited to the application of volcanic ash in the production of
bricks only and evaluation of the physical, elemental and mechanical properties that
affects the overall composition of the bricks to be produced.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Input Process Output
Analysis of the physical

and elemental properties
of volcanic ash sample
Determination of the
difference in physical, Concrete bricks with
elemental and 5%,10% and 20%
Volcanic Ash
mechanical properties of volcanic ash
produced bricks at replacement with
different temperatures determined physical,
elemental and
Determination of the
mechanical properties
possible application of
produced bricks
Figure 1. Conceptual Research Paradigm
Since this study primarily aims to analyze volcanic ash as cement substitute in
the manufacturing of bricks, researchers have devised the conceptual framework
presented above. The first box is designated for the raw material that was used. The
materials that were input for the conduction of this research include volcanic ash.
Presented in the second box are the processes that were involved and conducted to
produce the desired output such as the analysis of physical and elemental properties of
collected ash samples and the determination of the difference in physical, elemental
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and mechanical properties of the produced bricks subjected to different temperatures
and with varying ash to cement ratio. Lastly, presented in the third box is the desired
concrete brick product.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
For a better understanding of the terms used in the study, the following
meanings are provided.
Ash Fall. Avolcanic hazard with the greatest potential to directly or indirectly
affect the largest number of people worldwide. Ash fall occurs when ash particles are
carried hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from source falling out of
suspension over largeareas (Jenkins et al, 2014).
Cement. Is a powdery substance made with calcined lime and clay as major
ingredients and is the most versatile and commonly used construction material
(Dunuweera et al, 2018).
Chemical Properties. Is a characteristic or behavior of a substance that may be
observed when it undergoes a chemical change or reaction. Chemical properties are
seen either during or following a reaction since the arrangement of atoms within a
sample must be disrupted for the property to be investigated. (Helmenstine, 2020). In
this study, chemical properties of volcanic ash refer to its silica content, mineral
content, ash content and carbonaceous material of the collected samples.
Brick. It is a constructional building block to make walls, pavements and other
elements of masonry construction (Reddy, 2019). In this research, brick indicates the
product that will be made with the utilization of volcanic ash.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Danger Zone. Is an area in which there is a high risk of harm, especially where
this risk has been officially identified. Danger zone in this paper pertains to the areas
that are within the 7 kilometer and 14 kilometer radius from Taal Volcano.
Mechanical Properties. The mechanical properties of a material are those which
affect the mechanical strength and ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape
(Electrical4U, 2019). In this study, mechanical properties of the concrete brick refer
to its compressive strength.
Minerals. Is predominantly emanated from the magma and depends upon the
chemistry of the magma from which it was erupted (Langmann, 2013). In this
research, the term minerals pertain to one of the components of volcanic ash.
Phreatic Eruption. Phreatic eruptions result from rapid heating and vaporization
of fluids which are commonly situated at shallow levels beneath a volcano or it may
also form from upward migration of volcanic fluids, including gases, supercritical
fluids, and melts, into a hydrothermal system or shallow aquifer (Stix et al, 2018).
Physical Properties. The physical properties of matter are any properties that can
be perceived or observed without changing the chemical identity of the sample
(Helmenstine, 2020). In this study, physical properties of ash refer to the color,
texture, moisture, bulk density and surface morphology of the collected ash samples.
Pozzolan. Is a very finely ground pumice or fly ash with a specific gravity that is
only slightly less than cement, so only a slight reduction of the specific weight can be
achieved (Fink, 2012).
Rock Fragments. Are found in different amplitudes within ash deposits and
often have a shape and texture distinctly different than glass shards (Siddique,
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2012).In this research, the term rock fragments pertain to one of the components of
volcanic ash.
Silica. A chemical compound which is also known as silicon dioxide. Each unit
of silica consists one atom of silicon and two atoms of oxygen. It is a solid,
crystallized mineral under normal conditions of temperature and pressure (Ellis,
2018).
Volcanic Ash. Volcanic ash is a finely fragmented magma or pulverised volcanic
rock, measuring less than 2 mm in diameter, that is emptied from the vent of a
volcano in either a molten or solid state (Olawuyi et al, 2010). Volcanic ash in this
research pertains to the raw material that is collected from areas of Agoncillo and
Lemery, Batangas.
Volcanic Glass. Are fragments of the molten part of magma that cooled and
solidified during eruption without mineral crystallization (Siddique, 2012).In this
research, the term volcanic glass pertain to one of the components of volcanic ash.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE
Volcanic Ash
Volcanic ash represents a major product of volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash is a
finely fragmented magma or pulverised volcanic rock, measuring less than 2 mm in
diameter, that is emptied from the vent of a volcano in either a molten or solid state.
Volcanic ash comprises small jagged piece of rock minerals and volcanic glass that was
erupted by a volcano. The particles are usually smaller than an inch in diameter, but can
contain powdered rocks from the volcano's exterior shattered during an eruption (Kenedi
et al, 2000). It is hard, does not dissolve in water and is extremely abrasive, mildly
corrosive and conducts electricity when wet.
As gases separate out from the magma, generate large bubbles that burst which
causes fragmentation, pyroclastic fragments known as volcanic ash are formed. These
volcanic ashes are explosively propelled upward during the eruption of a volcano. The
extremity of an eruption is measured through the volcanic explosivity index. The higher
the VEI the greater the volume of ejecta, the greater degree of fragmentation creating
more toxic fine ash, the higher the eruption column, and the greater distances large
volumes of ash can travel. After eruption, deposits of ash are remobilized by wind or
human activities for decades. Hence, the health risk from exposure is not limited to the
timeframe of eruption but may continue long after volcanic activity has ceased.
Unlike the ash produced by burning wood and other organic materials, volcanic ash
can be dangerous. Its particles are very hard and usually have jagged edges. As a result, it
can cause eye, nose, and lung irritation, as well as breathing problems. While in the air,
ash can cause problems for jet engines, forcing airlines to cancel flights through the
affected area (National Geographic, 2019). An ashfall that leaves a thick layer of ash may
Utilization of Volcanic Ash for the Production of Concrete Bricks CHAPTER II
CUADRA, K.A.V., ILAO, L. R. U., LLANES, J. M. Review of Related Literature
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
cause roofs to collapse, clog gutters, and interfere with air conditioning units. Animals in
an area coated by volcanic ash may have difficulty finding food, as the plants in the
region may be covered in ash. Ash can also contaminate water supplies.
Volcanic ash is one of the natural substances that are formed in the earth that later
becomes volcanic material that is ejected into the air during an eruption. Volcanic ash is
not soluble in water, very rough and corrosive (Hastuty et al. 2017) Typically, volcanic
ashes are pozzolanic materials because of their reaction with calcium hydroxide that is
liberated during the hydration of cement. For this reason, they are suitable for blended
cement production
A handful of volcanic ash

Source: volcanoes.usgs.gov
Ash Fall
Due to their tiny size and low density, the particles that make up volcanic ash can
travel long distances, carried by winds. When an ash column is moved about by wind, it
is called an ash plume. Eventually the ash in the sky falls to the ground. It may create a
thick layer of dust-like material on surfaces for miles around the original eruption.
Ash is the most frequent, and often widespread, volcanic hazard and is produced by
all explosive volcanic eruptions. Although ash falls rarely endanger human life directly,
threats to public health and disruption to critical infrastructure services, aviation and
primary production can lead to potentially substantial societal impacts and costs, even at
thicknesses of only a few millimeters.The impacts of any ash fall can therefore be
experienced across large areas and can also be long-lived, both because eruptions can last
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weeks, months or even years and because ash may be remobilised and re-deposited by
wind, traffic or human activities.
Taal Volcano phreatic eruption covers several Batangas towns in ash

Source: metro.com
Components of Volcanic Ash
Although components of volcanic ash may differ with respect to the nature and
characteristics of the volcano it came from, it is generally composed of varying quantities
of tiny particles such as volcanic glass, minerals or crystals, and other rock fragments.
Volcanic glass shards are fragments of the molten part of magma that cooled and
solidified during eruption without mineral crystallization. Angular shape is commonly
observed in glass shards formed by phreatomagmatic eruption of a volcano which is a
result of a violent explosive interaction between magma and water.
The mineral contenst of volcanic ash are predominantly emanated from the magma.
During the time that the magma is still underneath the earth’s surface, the minerals are
crystallized. The type of minerals found in an ash deposit depends upon the chemistry of
the magma from which it was erupted (Langmann, 2013). Although long term adverse
health effects in humans of the mineral contents of ash are yet to be proven, volcanic ash
still influence soil composition of the areas they fall into which may consequently affect
agriculture and livestock.
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The recognition of juvenile magma in ash from early explosions can be difficult,
especially where remobilized rocks from the volcanic edifice are similar in composition
through time, or where juvenile fragments are highly crystalline. Conventionally, juvenile
ash was distinguished based on highly vesicular and/or glassy texture (Watanabe et al.,
1999) making it easy to recognize through petrological analysis.
Tuff is lithified volcanic ash composed particles of volcanic glass (vitro-clasts),
small fragments of crystals formed in lava (crystal clasts) and/or fragments of volcanic
rock and lava (lithoclasts). The various tuffs will be designated as rhyolite, dacite,
andesite, trachyte and basaltic based on the composition of the mother volcanic eruption
consisting of acid, neutral or basic lava (Haldar et al., 2014).
Pieces of different variety of rocks or lithics, including those that are underneath and
those that are within the volcano itself are integrated into the magma as it rises. These
non-magmatic rock fragments are found in different amplitudes within ash deposits and
often have a shape and texture distinctly different than glass shards.
Volcanic ash under a microscope

Source: Danielle Rothaid
Physical Properties
According to Engwell et al., to assess ash dispersal during a volcanic eruption,
precise representation or interpretation its physical characteristics is critical. Some of the
physical properties or characteristics of the volcanic ash include color, texture, moisture,
bulk density and surface morphology.
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Details and facts about the temperature and oxidation state of the post-eruptive
magma is inferred from the analysis of the color of volcanic ash. The density of volcanic
ash may differ from one eruption to another however, substantially, the density lies
within the range of 2000 and 3000 kg/m3 depending on the basaltic or rhyolitic
composition, the amount of crystallization and porosity (Langmann, 2013). The density
of individual particles may vary between 700 and 1,200 kg/m 3 for pumice, 2,350 and
2,450 kg/m3 for glass shards, 2,700 and 3,300 kg/m3 for crystals, and 2,600 and 3,200
kg/m3 for lithic particles (Wilson et al, 2012).
Chemical Properties
Chemical composition of volcanic ash depends upon the chemistry and type of the
source magma. Chemical characteristics of magma differ relative to both chemical
compositions and mineral assemblage of source materials. In general, there are three
types of magma differentiated from each other. These types of magma have distinct
melting points, viscosities, and typical volatile contents thus affecting the chemical
properties of the ash. The chemical properties of volcanic ash include its silica content,
metal content, ash content, and carbonaceous material.
The mineral composition of volcanic ash consists of about 45–75 wt% of silica.
Volcanic glass is rich in silica compared to mineral crystals, but relatively low in non-
silica elements. Rock-forming minerals crystallizing from magma are mainly silicate
minerals. These silicate minerals can be divided into colored and colorless minerals. The
colored minerals contain considerable amounts of transition metal ions, such as iron
(Nakagawa and Ohba, 2002).
In a study conducted by Ruggieri et al (2012), the researchers characterized the
chemical composition of volcanic ash from Chaiten Volcano and it is revealed that the
minerals components like SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, TiO2 were
72.06, 14.66, 1.88, 0.07, 0.6, 1.99, 4.18, 2.89, 0.2 % respectively. Another chemical
property analysis had been done by Bonnie Canion, et al (2012). They found trace
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elements in volcanic ash from Mount Merapi, such as As, Co, Cr, Sb, V, Zn. General
features of the studied volcanic ashes from the Puna in Northwestern Argentina by F
Ruggieri et al (2010) also obtained rare earth elements such as La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Yb.
These materials in the ash can provide important information on the nature of magma
because chemical compositions of magma usually show distinct features of each volcano
and because the assemblages and compositions of minerals reflect their host.
Cementitious Materials
Assyrians and Babylonians were possibly the first people to use clay as cementing
material while their counterpart Egyptians used lime and gypsum as cementing materials
in constructing the famous pyramids. Also, Romans used calcareous cements which is
either lime stones burned in kilns or were mixtures of lime and pozzolanic materials
(volcanic ash, tuff) combining into a hard concrete (Duggal, 2008). Cementitious
materials are any materials which when mix with either water or some other liquid or
both form a cementing paste that may be formed or molded while plastic but will set into
a rigid shape. When sand is added to this paste, mortar is formed and when coarse
aggregate (crushed stone) and fine aggregate (sand) added to the paste forms the
concrete. Use of cementitious material increases the chemical and the physical binding
capacity, influence the pore system as well as the composition of cement pastes (Ytterdal,
2014).
Pozzolans
Volcanic ash (VA) is formed during volcanic eruptions, and is considered as natural
pozzolan. Natural pozzolans are supplementary cementitious materials that, when used in
the presence of materials with the correct chemistry, can produce a cementitious reaction
(Sleep and Masley, 2019). At different mixture proportions, the strength, setting time,
workability, and soundness of the cement made will differ. Pozzolans can be added to
cement during the production process or mixed directly into concrete. Natural pozzolans
can fill the micropores in the cement matrix and increase the durability of cements
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significantly by changing the framework of the matrix (Yetgin and Cavdar, 2006). Aside
from volcanic ash, other common natural pozzolans include industrial by-products such
as fly ash, calcined clay, and kiln dust, among others.
The main compounds that react in a pozzolanic reaction are the calcium hydroxide
(Ca (OH)2) from the hydration reaction and a silicic acid from the pozzolan. The silica
glass (SiO2) in a natural pozzolan such as volcanic ash reacts with water to form a silicic
acid.
One of the more common acids produced is orthosilicic acid (H 4SiO4). The product of
these reactions is a calcium silica hydrate (CSH).
Because the ratios and exact compounds can vary, this chemical equation is often
shortened to a version shown.
The same reaction may occur with aluminates as well, replacing the silicate they form
aluminate hydrates instead of silicate hydrates.
 Pozzolan Classification
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has three classifications for
pozzolans. Classes C and F are reserved strictly for different types of fly ash derived from
the coal burning process. Class C is a fly ash with cementitious properties whereas a class
F fly ash has pozzolanic properties. Class N pozzolans are known as natural pozzolans.
The most common class N materials include calcined clay, shales, or volcanic ash.
Typically, natural pozzolans are either found in a relatively suitable condition for use,
such as with many volcanic ash deposits, or produced by heating a raw material to
produce a pozzolan. To be classified as a pozzolan, natural materials must meet certain
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physical and chemical properties. The two most important physical properties of a natural
pozzolan are particle size and relative density. The material must be of a small enough
particle size to provide adequate surface area for the pozzolanic reaction to occur. The
optimal grain size for class N pozzolans is often below 75 microns or that which passes
through the No.200 sieve (ASTM, 2005). Table 1 and Table 2 show the chemical and
physical requirements (respectively) of ASTM C-618 for the classification of Class N, F,
and C pozzolans.
Table 1
Chemical requirements for ASTM C-618 pozzolan classifications
Chemical Requirements
Class
Component N F C
SiO2 + Al2O3 + 70.0 70.0 50.0
Fe2O3 min, %
SO3, max % 4.0 5.0 5.0
Moisture content, 3.0 3.0 3.0
max %
Loss on ignition, 10.0 6.0 6.0
max %
Table 2.
Physical requirements for ASTM C-618 pozzolan classifications
Physical Requirements
Class
Requirement N F C
Fineness (retained 34 34 34
on No. 325 sieve),
max %
Strength activity 75 75 75
index seven days, %
of control
Strength activity 75 75 75
index 28 days, % of
control
Water requirement 115 105 105
max % control
Autoclave expansion 0.8 0.8 0.85
or contraction, max
%
Max density 5 5 5
variation from
average , %
Source: National Institute for Transportation and Communities, 2018
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 Chemical Composition of Pozzolan
Perhaps the most important component of a natural pozzolan is the material's
chemical composition; silica and alumina content are critical. Some pozzolans can
contain 5% to 10% calcium oxide, giving them cementitious properties when mixed with
water. However, the most active chemical ingredients found in most non-calcined natural
pozzolans are silica and alumina. These two chemicals typically account for 95% (often
greater) of the mass of a pozzolan and are responsible for reacting with the hydroxides.
The remainder of the mass is commonly iron, calcium and some alkalis (Sleep et al.,
2018). Calcium silica hydrate is commonly referred to as C-S-H and is the “strongest” or
most cementitious byproduct of the hydration reaction between portland cement and
water (and the goal of pozzolanic reactions), creating the conditions for aggregate to be
bound together after the reaction is complete. Another byproduct of the hydration
reaction is one of the aforementioned hydroxides, calcium hydroxide or CH. According
to the Portland Cement Association, CH “has little or no cementitious properties and
contributes little to the strength of the hydrated material”. The rate at which pozzolanic
reactions take place depends on both the physical and chemical properties of the
pozzolan. As with most chemical reactions the surface area present for reaction is directly
proportional to the rate of reaction, the finer the material the more rapid the reaction. In
terms of chemical composition, pozzolans make use of different cements. For example, a
pozzolan could have a high concentration of silica-glass, “the solubility of glass increases
with pH and this in turn increases its availability for reaction with CH. Because of this a
pozzolan will tend to react more quickly when combined with a high-alkali Portland
cement” (Sleep et al., 2018). A faster hydration reaction means faster setting concrete and
could be applicable in areas when strength is needed quickly.
Fly Ash
Fly ash is one of the residues generated by coal combustion and is composed of the
fine particles and showing cementitious property (Varma and Gadling, 2016). Fly ash is a
filler in hot mix asphalt applications and improves the fluidity of flowable fill and grout
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because of its spherical shape and particle size distribution. Fly ash has been widely used
in the production of concrete as a replacement for cement. The benefits of using fly ash
are that it reduces the cost of the concrete materials, reduces environmental concerns of
CO2 production, and decreases the rise in temperature as concrete cures. In general, fly
ash has several applications some of them include raw material in concrete products and
grout, feedstock in the production of cement, fill material for structural applications, and
soil modification or stabilization.
Calcined Clay
Calcined clay, refers to a material obtained from the processing of a soil or clay
material with satisfactory mechanical strength for a particular purpose (Cabral et al.,
2013). Calcined clays have been used for decades as pozzolans. Recent developments
have shown that clays containing at least 40% of kaolinite as main clay mineral can be
highly reactive if properly thermally activated. If limestone is added into the cement –
calcined clay blend, the synergy between the two enables higher clinker substitution, with
an improved performance both in terms of mechanical properties and durability. There is
a growing number of research groups working on the subject of calcined clays in Europe,
Asia and Latin America.
Applications of volcanic ash
In the past and until very recently the chief uses of volcanic ash have been based on
its physical properties of fine size and angularity of particles, friability, and light color, as
illustrated in its use as an abrasive and as topping for bituminous matt roads. In the past
few years increasing attention has been given to the chemical or pyrochemical properties
of volcanic ash as an alkaline aluminum silicate flux in ceramics and as a pozzolanic
additive to cement in concrete mixtures. Some applications of volcanic ash include
abrasives, ceramics, ceramic glazes, glass and vitreous enamels, and concrete.
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 Abrasives
As an abrasive, volcanic ash is adapted for use as a polishing, scouring, and
cleansing agent because of its fineness, angularity, and moderate hardness (5.5 to 6.0 on
Mohs scale). A large proportion of volcanic ash used as an abrasive has gone into
scouring compounds such as Old Dutch Cleanser. Formerly these compounds were
composed largely of volcanic ash mixed with small quantities of soap powder or other
detergents. Volcanic ash is also used as an abrasive in mechanics paste soap, abrasive
hand soaps, and rubber erasers. Very fine ash is used in some toothpaste and powder, and
minus-200-mesh ash has been used for polishing plate glass. Volcanic ash could be used
instead of powdered pumice whenever the latter material is suitable. These uses include
polishing metals, wood, and varnished wood finishes. Other abrasive uses include
polishing powders for bone, celluloid, and hard rubber, and in dentists’ tape.
 Ceramics
It is often overlooked that some wastes or materials like the volcanic ash are similar
in composition when compared to raw materials, containing materials that are not only
compatible, but beneficial to the manufacture of ceramics. Traditional ceramics, white
ware, sanitary ceramics, bricks, roof and floor tiles and technical ceramics, such as
porcelain and mullite bodies, are usually highly heterogeneous due to the wide
compositional range of starting powders and the natural clays used as raw materials.
Volcanic ash particles have a wide distribution of shapes and sizes. Volcanic ash is
generally highly heterogeneous and thus a promising raw material alternative in ceramic
manufacturing.
 Glass and Vitreous Enamels
Volcanic ash performs the same function in glass and in vitreous enamels as it does
in ceramic glazes. Volcanic ash has been seriously considered as an ingredient in fiber
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glass batches and in foam glass where the slight darkening of color is of minor
importance.
 Concrete
About 1,800 years ago the Romans made a cement composed of two parts by
volume volcanic ash and one-part slaked lime. Sea works constructed with this
pozzolanic cement are in use today. The Roman or pozzolanic cement is extremely slow-
setting if made with slaked lime. To avoid this objectionable feature modern pozzolanic
cements are made with Portland cement. Cements of this type are of special interest
because they resist disintegration by sea water and in some cases minimize the reaction of
some types of siliceous aggregates with the alkalis present in Portland cement. Volcanic
ash, in addition to its natural cementing properties, serves the purpose of a fine aggregate
that fills the voids between the fine sand aggregate and the cement. In concrete made with
volcanic ash as much as 50 percent of the cement may be replaced by the ash, although a
smaller proportion commonly is used.
 Bricks
A brick is a building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to unit composed of clay, but
it is now used to denote any rectangular units laid in mortar. A brick can be composed of
clay bearing soil, sand and lime, or concrete materials. Bricks are produced in numerous
classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are
produced in bulk quantities (Solahuddin, 2017).
There are a number of ways that brick can be categorized. For example, Bricks can
be divided into the types it is being used for like facing (exposed and visible on the
exterior of a structure) and backing bricks (which are used structurally and are hidden
from view). Another means of categorizing brick is according to how they are
manufactured: unfired (brick that is air-cured) and fired (brick that is baked in ovens in
order to harden it). Bricks can be also categorized according to their typical use: common
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bricks or engineering bricks. For purposes of residential construction, it is usually
common bricks that are of most interest, since engineering bricks are more often used in
civil engineering projects, such as road or bridge construction, or in sewers construction.
(Rodriguez, 2019).
Cement
Cement as one of the construction materials may be define as adhesive or sticky 25
substances capable of adhering fragments or masses of solid matter to a compact whole.
It is derived from the latin word cementum, which means stone chippings which were
used in Roman mortar, now the binding material used. It can be made from a mixture of
elements that are found in natural materials such as limestone, clay, sand and shale. (Isah,
2014).
Cement, as main component of concrete, is not an environment-friendly material
since it emits tremendous amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2) during production. It is
estimated that the production of each ton of cement clinker emits approximately one ton
of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere. It constitutes 58%
emission of CO2 worldwide which results to massive accumulation of these gases into
the atmosphere causing global warming. (Bustamante et al., 2015).
 Chemical Composition of Cement
This is the basis of characterization of cement which can affects all properties of
cement except the fineness of cement. High content of certain cement constituent
compound in proportion to others may lead to retardation or acceleration of the rate of
setting and hardening, thus the constituents need to conform to standard specification.
Excess of any compound could affect the rate of heat evolution as the cement hydrates
and to guide against this the ratios of lime, silica, alumina, iron oxide, alkali and sulphur
contents should be maintained base on the standard specification. Calcium chloride and
calcium sulphate (gypsum) are used as additives to accelerate or retard the rate of setting
of cement paste. Some of the methods that can be used for checking the chemical
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composition of cement are; Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence test (EDXRF), wet
chemistry method, Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) etc. (Ibrahim, 2015).
 Soundness
A mixture of cement and water also known as cement paste. When it sets and
hardens without any cracking or disintegrating such cement is said to be sound cement.
Hydration of free lime (CaO), magnesia (MgO) and sulphates (SO4) surrounded by
cement particles caused unsoundness of cement by preventing easy hydration of free lime
(uncombined lime) and other materials during the normal setting period. For a cement to
be free from unsoundness it should be thoroughly mixed, burnt and ground. Selecting too
much lime which may combine with acidic oxides during manufacture, too much
magnesia and too much sulphate were the errors usually made responsible for the
production of defective (unsound) cement. Le chartelier apparatus is the instrument
widely used for checking the unsoundness of cement in the laboratory.
 Hydration
The chemical reaction that occurred between cement and water is called hydration
of cement which is an exothermic process and the heat liberated is known as heat of
hydration. OPC can liberate heat as high as 85-100 cal./g. and low heat cement liberated
up to about 60-70 cal./g. When this heat is release in large amount it could be harmful but
at times could be useful for a huge concrete structure (e.g. dam, bridge etc.). It causes
cracking and disintegration of the structure due to the high insulation properties of
concrete and does not allow heat to dissipate easily thereby causing restrained thermal
expansion.
 Setting and Hardening
Setting is the state of rigidity of cement paste over time and the process after final
setting is the hardening of cement paste. Setting times of cement paste is a highly variable
property of cement which should neither be too slow nor too fast and it does depend on
the type of cement used. It should be long enough (not less than 45 minutes and not more
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than 10 hours for initial and final setting time) to enable mixing, transporting, placing and
compaction of concrete or mortar to be completed before final setting starts.
Mechanical Properties
Themechanical properties of a materialare those which affect the mechanical strength
and ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape. The value of mechanical
properties; compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus is required to
analyze and design the masonry structures. Depending on the quality of materials, size,
workmanship of construction, these values have wide range of adaptability. (Phaiju,
2018).
 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which
withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists
compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being
pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength,
and shear strength can be analyzed independently.
For designers, compressive strength is one of the most important engineering
properties of concrete. It is a standard industrial practice that the concrete is classified
based on grades. This grade is nothing but the Compressive Strength of the concrete cube
or cylinder. Cube or Cylinder samples are usually tested under a compression testing
machine to obtain the compressive strength of concrete. The test requirements differ
country to country based on the design code. As per Indian codes, compressive strength
of concrete is defined as “The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the
characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested after 28 days (fck). In
field, compressive strength tests are also conducted at interim duration i.e. after 7 days to
verify the anticipated compressive strength expected after 28 days. The same is done to
be forewarned of an event of failure and take necessary precautions. The characteristic
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strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the
test results are expected to fall.”
For design purposes, this compressive strength value is restricted by dividing with a
factor of safety, whose value depends on the design philosophy used.
 Flexural Strength
Flexural test evaluates the tensile strength of concrete indirectly. It tests the ability of
unreinforced concrete beam or slab to withstand failure in bending. The results of flexural
test on concrete is expressed as a modulus of rupture which denotes as (MR) in MPa or
psi. Furthermore, modulus of rupture is about 10 to 15 percent of compressive strength of
concrete. It is influenced by mixture proportions, size and coarse aggregate volume used
for specimen construction.
The recognition of juvenile magma in ash from early explosions can be difficult,
especially where remobilized rocks from the volcanic edifice are similar in composition
through time, or where juvenile fragments are highly crystalline. Conventionally, juvenile
ash was distinguished based on highly vesicular and/or glassy texture (Watanabe et al.,
1999) making it easy to recognize through petrological analysis.
Tuff is lithified volcanic ash composed particles of volcanic glass (vitro-clasts),
small fragments of crystals formed in lava (crystal clasts) and/or fragments of volcanic
rock and lava (lithoclasts). The various tuffs will be designated as rhyolite, dacite,
andesite, trachyte and basaltic based on the composition of the mother volcanic eruption
consisting of acid, neutral or basic lava (Haldar et al., 2014).
Portland Cement
It is a finely grounded powdered cementitious material made by pulverizing the
clinker with the addition of gypsum formed from limestone, clay, alumina, silica sand
shale, iron ore, lime, and magnesia burned together in a kiln at about 1450 °C. When
mixed with water, sand and gravel, concrete is formed, an essential constituent of the
construction industry.
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The name and origin of the Portland Cement came from Joseph Aspdin, a British
bricklayer who took out a patent on hydraulic cement-one that hardens with the addition
of water, by heating a mixture of finely grounded clay and limestone in a furnace. He
named it Portland Cement due to its resemblance to the limestone mined on the Isle of
Portland located in the English Channel. (Concretethinker.com)
Types of Portland Cement
Portland Cement comes in different types to meet the physical and chemical
requirements for specific purposes, with ordinary Portland cement being the most
commonly used type of cement, gray in color. The following are the different types of
Portland Cement:
Type I: Is a general use Portland Cement suitable for all uses.
Type II: Is a moderate sulphate-resistant Portland Cement, important in structural parts
exposed to groundwater or soil having moderate sulphate levels than normal.
Type III: It is high early strength cement where high strength is preferred at early
periods. It reacts faster than TYPE I.
Type IV: It is a low heat Portland cement that is used where the amount and rate of
hydration must be minimized. It is employed for massive structures such as dams.
Type V: Is high sulphate-resistant Portland cement used where concrete structures are to
be exposed at high levels of sulphate content.
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Composition of commercially available Portland Cement
The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consists mainly of lime,
silica, alumina and iron oxide. These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high
temperature to form more complex compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide
compositions are responsible for influencing the various properties of cement; in addition
to rate of cooling and fineness of grinding.
Table 3
Composition of Portland Cement
Oxides Percent Content

Lime (CaO) 60-67%
Silica (Si2O3) 17-25%
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8%
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6%
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4%
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1-3%
Soda and/or Potash (Na2O/K2O) 0.5-1.3%
Source: (Constructor.org)
Table 4
Properties of Portland Cement Type I
Appearance Solid powder
Color Gray, off-white
Boiling Point >1000 °C
Solubility Slightly soluble (0.1-1.0%)
Density 0.77mg/m3
pH 12-13
Particle Size 15 µm
Source: (CEMEX, n.d.)
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Table 5
Composition of Portland Cement Type I
Oxides Percent Content
Tricalcium Silicate 50%
Dicalcium Silicate 24%
Tricalcium Aluminate 11%
TetracalciumAluminoferrite 8%
Magnesia (MgO) 2.4%
Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4) 2.9%
Free CaO 0.8%
Source: (Burns, 2016)
Tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicates contribute most to the eventual
strength. Initial setting of Portland Cement is due to Tricalcium Aluminate. Tricalcium
silicate hydrates quickly and contributes more to the early strength. The contribution of
dicalcium silicate takes place after 7 days and may continue for up to one year.
Tricalcium Aluminate hydrates quickly, generates much heat and makes only a small
contribution to the strength within the first 24 hours. TetracalciumAluminoferriteis
comparatively inactive. All these aforementioned compounds generate heat when mixed
with water, the aluminate generating the maximum heat and the dicalcium silicate
generating the minimum. Due to this, tricalcium aluminate is responsible for most
undesirable properties. Cements having less amount of this will have ultimate strength,
less generation of heat and less cracking.
Refractory Bricks
Refractory Brick, commonly known as firebrick, is a type of brick specially
designed and manufactured to handle a high-temperature atmosphere. These bricks are
materials used to create heat treating structures such as kilns or furnaces. The best benefit
of using a refractory brick is its ability to endure extremely high temperatures because of
its exceptional insulating nature or quality. Using these bricks also presents plenty of
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advantages in various aspects although they are more expensive compared to regular
bricks, the benefits they present will surely make up for the price.
FOREIGN LITERATURE
While conducting research about the utilization of volcanic ash for the production
of concrete bricks, the following foreign literature are found to be related to this study.
According to the study about “Chemical Characteristics of Volcanic Ash in
Indonesia for Soil Stabilization: Morphology and Mineral Content” by Latif et al. (2017),
this paper presents results of a test chemical characteristics, mineralogy and morphology
of volcanic ash in Indonesia derived from the Mount Merapi, mount Sinabung and mount
Kelud using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD).
Specific gravity, mineral content using by XRD and morphology using by SEM
test are presented. Based on specific gravity test results on some volcanic ash in
Indonesia, it can be classified in light material category. Merapi, kelud and Sinabung
volcanic ash has a different shape morphology. Merapi is a form of fibrous glass particles
Contain elongated vesicles. While, the texture Sinabung is a berry-like glass particles
show angular blocky forms and texture kelud are sponge like glass. The SEM-EDS test
obtained Si content of the three types of volcanic ash ranges from 45-60% and elements
of Al ranges from 14-20%. This can be a reference for further research on the utilization
of materials of volcanic ash as a pozzolanic material in soil stabilization.
In a study about “Concrete Innovation using Rabaul Volcanic Ash as Cement and
Fine Aggregate in Concrete” by Betasolo et al. (2014), this study focuses on concrete
innovation using Rabaul Volcanic Ash (RVA) as cement in order to decrease the
contribution of CO2 emission in cement production and fine aggregates in concrete so as
to minimize the adverse environmental impact of the volcanic ash to aviation,
infrastructure and health. The innovation is to make a partial substitution of RVA to
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in its natural state by pulverizing the compacted ash to
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as much as 45 µm grain size. The RVA grain size over 75 µm will be utilized as fine
aggregates substitution to sand also in natural state. The innovation of cement, fine
aggregate in concrete with RVA plays a major role to reduce the CO2 emission
contribution affecting climate change. Cement production requires 1758 kWh energy for
every ton of cement. CO2 released to the atmosphere during manufacturing of cement by
kiln drying is 1.25 ton resulting to a high emission of CO2, nitrous oxides and other
pollutant.
“Utilization of Kelut’s Volcanic Ash as the Aggregate Mixture of Concrete
Brick” as stated by Siti Salamah and Maryudi (2017). Kelut volcano had erupted in
February 2014. The eruption has produced various materials i.e. ash, sands, etc. Volcanic
ash contains various elements such as Si, Al, Ca, Fe, Na and P. This study investigates
the utilization of Kelut’s volcanic ash as the raw material of cement-brick. The Kelut’s
volcanic ash was analyzed to determine the contents of iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and
silica (Si). The volcanic ash was screened to obtain 100 mesh size of ash. The volcanic
ash of 100 mesh size was mixed with cement, sand, and water with ratio of 1 kg cement,
2 kg volcanic ash, and 15 kg sand (1 :2 :15). The mixture of volcanic ash, sand and
cement was poured and pressed in the concrete brick mold. The concrete brick was then
aerated in a room for hardening process. The experiment was repeated for another ratio of
raw material (cement: volcanic ash: sand = 2:1:15) and the age of the concrete brick (46,
61, 75 and 89 days). Concrete bricks were analyzed to determine the quality and the
mechanical characteristics. The results has shown that Kelut’s volcanic ash has a
composition of aluminum (Al) 4.707%, silica (SiO2) 23.4%, and iron (Fe) 3.85%, that is
like the composition of the cement materials. The concrete bricks which are made of
cement, Kelut’s volcanic ash, and sand with the ratio of 2:1:15 has a maximum
compression strength of 18.85 MPa at the age of 89 days. The addition of Kelut’s
volcanic ash has improved the strength of concrete brick. However, too much volcanic
ash will lead to increasing compression strength.
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According to the study about “Monitoring the Explosive Activity of the July–
August 2001 Eruption of Mt. Etna (Italy) by Ash Characterization” by Taddeucci et al.
(2002), during the summer 2001 eruption of Mt. Etna, Italy, we developed a method for
monitoring explosive activity through the study of airborne ash. The method is based on
two routine and fast techniques for ash characterization: i) component analysis, that
quantifies the proportion of juvenile particles, crystals, and nonjuvenile lithics in the ash;
ii) Scanning Electron Microscope semi quantitative description of the morphology of ash
particles. With these techniques we daily analyzed airborne ash from the eruption plume.
Temporal evolution of particle shape and vesicularity, and of component proportion in
the ash, documented initial crater excavation by hydromagmatic explosions, strong
magmatic activity due to volatile exsolution, and final fragmentation of a cooling top of
magma column.
As studied by Sleep et al. (2018) about “The Use of Mt. Mazama Volcanic Ash as
Natural Pozzolans for Sustainable Soil and Unpaved Road Improvement”, the viability of
using volcanic ash deposited from the eruption of Mt. Mazama as a natural pozzolan and
substitute for the more conventional methods of soil stabilization and unpaved roadway
improvement, including dust abatement. This report first examines the use of natural
pozzolans in portland cement concrete. The chemical process of the pozzolanic reaction
is also explained. Chemical analyses show that Mt. Mazama volcanic ash has similar
chemistry to that found in many pozzolanic materials.
Standard and modified ASTM strength activity index (SAI) testing was performed
on a variety of mixtures containing volcanic ash, hydrated lime, crushed volcanic ash and
portland cement at different percentages. A gravel wash sieve test and a slurry mix test
were devised in order to determine how the volcanic ash could be used to both penetrate
into compacted gravel layers and bind material together for roadway dust mitigation.
These procedures indicate that Mt. Mazama volcanic ash can be effective as a supplement
to portland cement for binding compacted gravel layers and reducing the dust particulate
percentage. Mt. Mazama volcanic ash, mixed with highly compressible and organic soil,
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does not increase unconfined compressive strength. Sustainability studies show that any
replacement of portland cement with volcanic ash reduces carbon dioxide emissions and
embodied energy.
In accordance to the study of Sitek et al. (2012) about “Analysis of Volcanic
Tephra as a Material of Environment”, tephra is a fragmental material produced by
volcanic eruption. Here, volcanic tephra deposit from the northeast of China was used for
our study. Samples of unaltered tephra are usually composed of feldspar, glass, pyroxene,
and olivine. Moreover, these volcanic alteration products also contain Fe oxides,
phylosilicates, sulfates, and amorphous Al-Si-bearing material. Six different samples of
tephra obtained were analyzed by Mössbauer spectroscopy. A typical Mössbauer
spectrum of tephra consists of magnetic and non-magnetic components (magnetic
component represents about 11% and non-magnetic component about 89% of spectral
area). According to the structural composition, it may be supposed that the magnetic
component can be assigned to titanomagnetite. Non-magnetic components contain two
quadrupole doublets (Fe2+ species) and one doublet containing Fe3+. According to the
measured values of Mössbauer spectra, the first two doublets are very similar with
pyroxene, olivine and the third to phylosilicate, aluminosilicate or iron oxide of FeO type.
Recently, volcanic tephra was applied as an ecological substance. Special solution was
proposed for tephra utilization, especially for phosphate removal from contaminated
water.”
In a study about “Magnetic Domain Distribution Analysis of Volcanic Material
from the 2017 Eruptions of Mount Agung, Indonesia” by Siti Zulaikah (2018), Three
types of volcanic materials of Mount Agung, i.e., volcanic ash, sand, and gravel have
been tested magnetic susceptibility using a Bartington MS2B susceptibility meter. Of the
three types of materials, volcanic ash has one order lower of the magnetic susceptibility
of about 7.7x10-6 m3kg-1 than that of sand and gravel which have magnetic susceptibility
ranging from 14.1 to 26.8x10-6 m3kg-1.
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From the results of the study, it can be concluded that the volcanic ash has the
lowest susceptibility and the size of the magnetic mineral grain tends to be smaller than
that of the two other measured materials, sand and gravel. Based on the X lf Vs. Xfd plot,
the domain of magnetic minerals from the mount Agung volcanic ash, varies from MD to
SD, while sand and gravel range in MD size. The content of the Fe element is positively
correlated with magnetic susceptibility, while Al and Si are inversely proportional to
magnetic susceptibility. Further studies are needed regarding the magnetic mineral
morphology of the three materials to understand more about the mechanism of the mount
Agung.
“The Effects of Volcanic Ash on The Strength and Permeability Mortar” as stated
by Darwis et al. (2018), cement replacement materials have been widely used to reduce
adverse environmental impacts, increase the strength and durability of concrete, such as
fume silica, slag, fly ash or natural pozzolan (volcanic ash). In the field of engineering,
the usage of volcanic ash as added ingredients is still very limited, while active volcanoes
emit volcanic ash every year. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of
added materials-volcanic ash of Dukono mountain to the mortar mixture. This research
uses added material- volcanic ash from Dukono mountain. Preparation of test specimens
with FAS value 0.4 with volcanic ash composition 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% to
the weight of cement. The results of the compressive strength test average mortar with
the composition of volcanic ash as added ingredients, increased compressive strength
with the addition of volcanic ash composition of 5% and 10% of 21.73 MPa and 30.40
MP. Added volcanic ash of 15%, 20%, and 25% respectively decreased compressive
strength of 24.27 MPa, 18.13 MPa, and 16.26 MPa, respectively. The best composition
for the usage of volcanic ash as an additive material at 10% to the weight of cement.
According to the study about “Durability Characteristics Of Portland
Cement/Volcanic Ash Concrete Exposed To Chemically Aggressive Environments” by
Ibrahim (2015), this research therefore assessed the durability characteristics of
Portland/cement volcanic ash concrete exposed to chemically aggressive environments.
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Preliminary tests of the different properties of materials used for this research were
carried out. The concrete samples were prepared using 5% and 10% volcanic ash
replacements and nominal mix of 1:2:4 with a 0.5 w/c ratio. Cube mould of size 100mm
x 100mm x100mm and cylinder mould of size 200mm x 100mm were used to cast a total
of 405 concrete samples. Out of the 405 samples, 162 cubes were used to assess
compressive strength test while 162 cylinders were used to determine the tensile strength
by the split tensile method. The specimens were cured in H2O, MgSO4 and H2SO4 and
tested at 7, 14, 21, 28, 56 and 90 days. Another set of 81 concrete cube samples were also
produced and cured in the same curing media for test on abrasion resistance and water
absorption test at 28, 56 and 90 days of age. The results show increase in compressive
strength of about 8.68% for concrete samples with 10% volcanic ash replacements than
0% replacements cured in normal environment (H2O) at 28 days. A decrease in
compressive strength of about 15.02% was observed for concrete samples with 0%
volcanic ash replacements than 10% replacements cured in MgSO4 at 28 days. Also
concrete samples with 0% volcanic ash replacements cured in H2SO4 withstood the
medium better than the samples with 10% volcanic ash replacements as indicated by
12.78% increase in compressive strength at 28 days. Concrete samples made with 10%
volcanic ash replacements have high resistance to abrasion and less sorptivity than 0%
volcanic ash replacements in both normal and chemically aggressive environments at 90
days.
In accordance to the study of Mahmoud et al. (2019) about “Utilization of
Volcanic Ash and Magnetite Mineral for Peanut Crop Production”, a field experiment
was carried out on sandy soil at Ismailia Governorate during two consecutive seasons of
2017-2018 under dripping irrigation system to study the effect of applied volcanic ash
and magnetite mineral alone or mixture compared to recommended fertilizers (chemical
fertilizers) as control on soil properties, peanut yield and its quality.
The obtained results show that soil salinity, pH and soil bulk density were
decreased in volcanic ash, magnetite mineral and volcanic ash + magnetite mineral
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combined treatments, as compared to the control one. The total porosity and water
holding capacity (WHC) values were augmented when soil treated by volcanic ash,
magnetite mineral and volcanic ash + magnetite mineral, as compared to control. In
addition, Hay and pod dry weight were significantly increased with combined treatment
26.40 and 65.00 %, respectively over the control treatment. The NPK contents were
augmented due to the application of volcanic ash; it also amplified zinc concentration in
hay four times and in seed three times that of control treatment. Manganese concentration
followed the same trend of Zn concentration. Iron concentration increased almost five
and four times compared with control treatment in hay and seed. Cupper concentration
increased by 30 and 70 % in comparison to control treatment in hay and peanut seed,
respectively due to volcanic ash application. The highest values of net photosynthesis rate
as well as water use efficiency were also obtained from volcanic ash + magnetite mineral
combined treatment as compared to those under control plants.
According to the study about “Evaluation of the Performance and Microstructure
of Ecofriendly Construction Bricks Made with Fly Ash and Residual Rice Husk Ash” by
Hwang et al. (2015), The chemical compositions of original raw materials were
determined by X-ray fluorescence analysis. The results showed that the FA was
composed mainly of SiO2 (63.9%) and Al2O3 (20.0%) and that the main constituent of
RHA was SiO2 (95.6%). As observed from XRD patterns and SEM images, the FA
contained mainly stable crystals of mullite and quartz and the FA particles were mostly
smooth and spherical. Further, the RHA contained mainly stable crystals of cristobalite
and RHA particles were irregular in shape. Moreover, the RHA particles were
significantly smaller than the FA particles.
URHA content affected all of the critical properties of the brick samples. Higher
percentages of URHA replacement were associated with decreased compressive strength
and bulk density and increased water absorption. The brick samples containing up to 30%
URHA had water absorption rates below 16% and registered bulk densities above
1600kg/m3, which conform to the requirements of TCVN1451:1998. Bricks with up to
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30% URHA content performed well at an applied forming pressure of 35MPa, a curing
temperature of around 35∘C, and a relative humidity of around 50%. These bricks
conformed well to the current Vietnamese standard for solid construction bricks.
In accordance to the study of Naganathan et al. (2015) about “Performance of
bricks made using fly ash and bottom ash”, bricks were cast using self-compacting
mixtures of bottom ash, fly ash and cement eliminating both pressing and firing. Bricks
were then tested for compressive strength, modulus of rupture, ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV), water absorption, initial rate of suction, fire resistance and durability. The results
showed better performance compared to conventional clay bricks in the properties
investigated. Compressive strength was between 7.13 and 17.36 MPa, while UPV ranged
from 2.2 to 2.96 km/s. Increase in fly ash reduced the water absorption. Tests for fire
resistance indicated that the bricks did not show any spalling, and, there was increase in
strength of up to 30% after heating. The optimum ratio of bottom ash, fly ash and cement
was found to be 1:1:0.45 for better performance of bricks. It is concluded that bricks
developed in this study can be used as an alternative to conventional bricks and hence can
contribute to sustainable development.
From the study about “Chemical and Physical Properties of Fired-Clay Brick at
Different Type of Rice Husk Ash” as stated by Izwan Johari (2011), Four materials with
different type rice husk ash, i.e. controlled burning rice husk ash (CBRHA), uncontrolled
burning rice husk ash (UCBRHA), ground rice husk (GRH) and clay were used for the
study. The X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-Ray Fluorescence, Thermogravimetric Analysis,
and Water adsorption were determined.
In the study, it indicates that UCBRHA has the highest amount of silica (93%),
followed by CBRHA (88%), clay (67%), and GRH (11%). The silica in clay is present in
a different form as a free form (SiO2) and in the form of compounds when mixed with
other elements such as aluminium oxide (Al2O3) to form kaolinite (Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4) in
the feldspar group. In general, the value of clay has the highest LOI (8.75%), followed by
GRH, CBRHA and UCBRHA with percentages of 3.53%, 2.02% and 0.97%
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
respectively. However, the TGA/DTA analysis shows the changes in the clay when
heated. The clay started losing water when heated up to 250°C. The big changes can be
seen between 500 °C to 570 °C where the dehydroxylation of clay minerals occurred.
Finally, the results also showed that the water adsorption of clay more moisture than
GRH, CBRHA and UCBRHA.
According to the study about “Wood Ash as an Effective Raw Material for
Concrete Blocks” by Subramaniam et al. (2015), Utilization of wood ash as a partial
substitution for cement is one of the promising method to increase the strength and
thermal insulation for cement blocks. The present study focused to use wood ash as a
partial replacement for cement material during sand cement block manufacturing. The
concrete mixtures have been mixed with 10%, 15% 20% and 25% of wood ash as a
partial replacement for cement with sand and tested for compressive strength, water
absorption and heat release.
Moreover, the total percentage of magnesium and calcium were found to be 0.9
and 5.7 respectively. The amount of Silicon was less than 32.5 mg/kg which is the
minimum detection limit of the equipment. The percentage of potassium, phosphorus and
nitrogen were 4.9, 2.4 and 0.03 respectively. Higher compressive strength was observed
in the samples of 15% containing wood ash replacement material. All the samples other
than 25% of wood ash replacement were shown lower water absorption and highest was
found in 15% wood ash content. Slower heat release was observed in the samples of 15%
and 20% of wood ash replacement after 21 days of curing time. Addition of 15% wood
ash for the manufacturing of concrete blocks was developed and these blocks meet
standard limits.
In a study about “The Effectiveness of Stone Ash and Volcanic Ash of Mount
Sinabung as a Filler on the Initial Strength of Self-Compacting Concrete” by R Karolina
et al. (2018), Self-Compacting Concrete is a concrete variant that has a high degree of
workability and also has great initial strength, but low water cement factor. Lightweight
concrete brick is a type of brick made from cement, sand, water, and developers.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Lightweight concrete bricks are divided into 2 based on the developed materials used are
AAC (Autoclave Aerated Concrete) using aluminum paste and CLC (Cellular
Lightweight Concrete) that use Foaming Agent from BASF as a developer material. In
this experiment, the lightweight bricks that will be made are CLC type which uses
Foaming Agent as the developer material by mixing the Ash Stone produced by Stone
Crusher machine which has the density of 2666 kg / mᶾ as Partial Pair Substitution.
In this study the variation of Ash Stone used is 10%, 15%, and 20% of the
planned amount of sand. After doing the tasting the result is obtained for 10% variation.
Compressive Strength and Absorption Increase will decrease by 25.07% and 39.005%
and Variation of 15% compressive strength will decrease by 65,8% and decrease of
absorbtion equal to 17,441% and variation of 20% compressive strength will decreased
by 67,4 and absorption increase equal to 17,956%.
“Development and Feasibility Analysis of Bagasse Ash Bricks” as analyzed by
Madurwar et al. (2014), Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), which is otherwise landfilled, was
utilized to develop construction material that serves a purpose of disposal of solid waste
management and energy efficient alternate construction material. SBA was characterized
using particle size distribution, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray fluorescence
(XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). SEM
monographs show the rough surface with plenty of fine pores. XRF, XRD, and
physicochemical properties of the SBA prove its suitability as a pozzolanic or
cementitious material. TGA confirms thermal stability till 650°C. On the suitability of
principal raw material, SBA–quarry dust (QD)–lime (L) bricks were developed with a
constant composition of lime (20% by weight) and tested for physicomechanical (weight,
dry density, water absorption, efflorescence, and compressive strength), functional
(thermal conductivity, k), durability (chloride, sulfate, and carbonation), and
environmental [toxicity characteristics leaching protocol (TCLP)] properties as per
recommendations. The developed (SBA-QD-L) bricks were further analyzed for
technical feasibility with commercially available and accepted masonry products like clay
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
and fly ash bricks. The experimental results showed that the SBA-QD-L combination
brick is lighter in weight, durable, nonhazardous, energy efficient, has lower k value, and
meets the necessary physicomechanical properties of the standards.
In accordance to the study of Abbas et al. (2017) about “Production of Sustainable
Clay Bricks using Waste Fly Ash: Mechanical and Durability Properties”, burnt clay
brick is one of the ancient building material. The use of waste materials in bricks can
lessen the consumption of clay material and reduce the environmental burden due to
accumulation of waste materials. Furthermore, it was observed that SiO2 content in fly
ash (54.90%) was lower than that of the clay (81.10%). However, Al2O3 and Fe2O3
contents were higher in fly ash compared to clay. Normally, it is preferred that clay
which is used for the brick production should have silica in the range of 50-60% and CaO
more than 6% referred as calcareous
Results indicate that the compressive strength of bricks incorporating fly ash was
lower as compared to that of clay bricks without fly ash. However, compressive strength
of bricks incorporating up to 20% of fly ash satisfied the minimum requirements of the
Pakistan Building Code. Reduction in weight was also observed in the fly ash bricks
which would lead to overall weight reduction of the structures. Furthermore, less
efflorescence was observed in bricks incorporating fly ash. Therefore, it can be concluded
that clay bricks incorporating fly ash can be helpful in producing more sustainable bricks
leading to economical solution.
LOCAL LITERATURE
In the local setting, the following studies are deemed to be related to the study,
utilization of volcanic ash for the production of concrete bricks.
A study about “Characterization of the Volcanic Ejecta from Mount Pinatubo and
its Impact on Rice Production” by Reyes and Neue (2004), stated that the texture of the
ash is progressively finer as distance from the volcano increases. Within 30 km of the
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
volcano, the ash is 90-95% sand, mainly medium to coarse sand, and also pumice rocks
ranging in size from 0.5 cm to 3 cm. In Los Baños, Laguna, located 150 km from the
volcano, the ash carried by the winds of typhoon Diding is 75% silt and about 25% sand,
mainly fine sand. Clay content of all ash samples collected is less than 5%. The textural
composition of the volcanic ash from the eruption of Mount St. Helens in May 1980
showed that the ratio of sand to silt decreased with distance from the volcano but the
amount of clay was always less than cook et al., 1981).
According to the study about “Fallout Tephras of the 2006-2007 Eruptions of the
Bulusan Volcano, Southern Luzon, Philippines” by Arpa et al. (2014), in 2006 and 2007,
19 and 7 distinct phreatic eruptions of the volcano occurred, respectively. Each discrete
event produced tephra that was dispersed by prevailing winds mainly to the west or
southwest of the summit vent, blanketing portions of the western Sorsogon Peninsula.
Whenever possible, fallout tephra deposits were mapped and sampled to determine the
volume and composition of material produced from each eruptive event. Based on the
dispersal maps, the average volume was estimated to be 105 m 3. No juvenile magma was
detected in ash and lithic samples by petrographic and X-ray fluorescence analysis. Ash
samples were andesitic in composition with consistent SiO 2 of 61 wt. ％, whereas lithic
compositions varied across the basaltic andesitic and dacite range. Therefore, all analyzed
samples were considered products of phreatic eruptions.
A study under the title “Development of utilization technologies for Mt. Pinatubo
ejecta as prime material for concrete" Part 1- Concrete material structure-property
characterization” by Baarde et al. (2000) described the eruption of Pinatubo in 1991 that
ejected a large volume of materials. The total volume of materials ejected by the Pinatubo
is about 11 billion cu.m., enough to cover the whole City of Metro Manila in 18- meter
deep ash. In order to cope with the problems of the Pinatubo eruptions and volcanic
debris flow, various government and private agencies are continually exerting efforts and
conducting scientific studies to minimize its devastation. The volcanic deposits are
currently being studied and developed for various applications in agriculture, ceramics,
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foundry works, textile industry, entomology, soil and pavement engineering, civil and
construction works, and material science. Si02 is of relatively large percentage, 58-65%,
which is a good index of possible pozzolanicity. The close range of Si0 2 values is
reflective of the uniformity of the mineralogical property of Pinatubo, unlike the coal fly
ash with a Si02 range of 30-80%.
In a study of Newhall et al. (1996) entitled “Eruptive History of Mount Pinatubo”
described the large explosive dacitic eruption of Pinatubo. The eruptive history of Mount
Pinatubo is divided into two parts-eruptions of an ancestral Pinatubo (-1 Ma to an
unknown time before 35 ka) and eruptions of a modern Pinatubo (>35 ka to the present).
Ancestral Mount Pinatubo was an andesite-dacite stratovolcano for which we have no
evidence of large explosive eruptions. Pinatubo erupts large volumes of remarkably
consistent, relatively cool and crystal-rich cummingtonite-bearing dacite magma,
suggesting continual presence of a large and relatively shallow (<12km) magma body
that is capable of eruption only when sufficient volatile- and crystal-rich magma evolves.
Modern Mount Pinatubo is a dacite-andesite dome complex and stratovolcano that is
surrounded by an extensive apron of pyroclastic-flow and lahar deposits from large
explosive dacitic eruptions.
A study under the title “Mayon volcano, Philippines: Some insights into stress
balance” by Fernandez et al. (2001) observed the techniques which is applied to
determine its causes. Volcanic activity produces deformation and gravity changes that
many times can be used as precursors of future eruptions. Applying geodetic techniques
to monitoring activity involves interpretation using deformation models. Usually, the
observed changes of the deformation and gravity fields are interpreted seperately, not in a
joint inversion. It can be difficult, if not impossible, to interpret the data coherently or
correctly in terms of the characteristics of the intrusion or the deflation derived from the
gravity changes with purely elastic models, as in the case of Mayon Volcano, Phillipines.
The characteristics obtained for the intrusion are: a depth of 1.95 km below the
base of the volcano, 0.21 kbar pressure, a radius of 1.65 km, and 0.474 MU for mass (1
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
MU = 1 Mass Unit = 10 12 kg) for epoch 4-1; and a depth of 1.82 km, 0.31 kbar pressure,
a radius of 1.71 km, and 0.841 MU for mass for epoch 5-1. We show that elastic-
gravitational models can be used to interpret these cases simultaneously leading to a
result that is more plausible on the basis of the available information. Thus, we may need
to change the philosophy normally used to interpret geodetic observations. Interpretation
as proposed in this work can significantly improve the possibility of predicting future
eruptions.
In a study of Bustamante et al. (2015) entitled “Physical and Mechanical
Properties of Composite Brick from Cement Mortar, Fly Ash and Rubber Crumbs”
promote the use of industrial wastes to produce bricks. A composite brick was produced
by varying the rubber crumbs composition, as sand substitute in the mixture, from 10 
30 wt.% relative to total aggregate weight. Fly ash, 20 wt.% relative to cement and fly
ash weight, was used as binder substitute. After 28 days of curing, composite brick was
tested in terms of compressive strength, density and water absorption capacity.
Compressive test showed that the brick can only be used in less impacted area
considering that it does not meet the minimum standard to be considered as substitute to
the commercially available brick. A decreasing trend of its compressive strength is
observed as the amount of rubber crumbs increases from 10 to 30% of the total aggregate
weight. The addition of light rubber crumbs and fly ash desirably decrease the density of
the composite brick when compared to those commercially sold in the market. Water
absorption test revealed that the produced composite brick is more efficient in
minimizing water absorption. This study demonstrated that composite brick can be made
using industrial wastes as substitute for aggregate and binder, with huge implication in
brick concrete making.
According to the study about “Effect of Mount Pinatubo Volcanic Ash on the
Mechanical Properties of Styrene–Butadiene Rubber Vulcanizates” by Bedia et al.
(2004), Mt. Pinatubo volcanic ash, collected from Porac, Pampanga, was screened at 32
mesh screen, wet ground in a pot mill for 3, 5, and 7 days, and dried. The volcanic ash
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was characterized and compounded with styrene– butadiene rubber (SBR) vulcanizates.
Mineralogical investigation of the volcanic ash showed the presence of feldspar,
homblende, quartz, mica, and magnetite. The particle size of the volcanic ash ground for
3, 5, and 7 days ranged from 1440 to 4, 720 to 2, and 640 to 2 m, respectively. The
addition of volcanic ash did not significantly influence the mechanical strength of the
SBR vulcanizates. Stress–strain curves of the volcanic ash–filled SBR vulcanizates
showed a slight increase from that of the pure gum. As the particle size of the volcanic
ash decreased, the tensile strength and elongation at break points increased. Crosslinking
sites also increased with the addition of rubber. Furthermore, it was noted that the
addition of diethylene glycol hastened the curing reaction without affecting the
mechanical properties of SBR vulcanizates.
SYNTHESIS
Studies about utilization of volcanic ash has been gaining lots of attention after
Taal Volcano’s phreatic eruption. However, there are still lack of knowledge about how it
can be utilized for us to get benefited and how it can reduce its impact to the
environment. This study is conducted with a basis on the previous published studies. The
research conducted by other researcher’s like Betasolo et al. (2014) confirmed that
utilizing the volcanic ash will help to minimize the emission of CO 2 and also adheres to
the adverse environmental impact of the volcanic ash to aviation, infrastructure and
health.
This paper may be similar to the study done by Siti Salamah and Maryudi (2017)
in terms of the process or method of utilizing the volcanic ash as a raw material of bricks,
as well as the tesing of its chemical properties that will help to identify the suitability to
produce a certain product. The research conducted by Siti Salamah and Maryudi (2017)
also concludes that the quality of the concrete brick increases with the increase of the age
of the concrete brick in which it reveals that the mean compressive strength generally
increases with the increase of the age of concrete brick.

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Like the study carried out by Hwang et al. (2015) wherein they produce an
ecofriendly concrete bricks by utilizing fly ash and residual rice husk ash, this research
will also produce concrete bricks but we will incorporate the use of volcanic ash from
Taal since it produces a large amount of volume of ashes that causes some health
problems.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the research design and methods conducted for this research such
as collection of materials, testing of properties, and production of concrete bricks from
volcanic ash were discussed. Laboratory tests the samples gathered from this study will
undergo were addressed as well.
RESEARCH DESIGN
The researchers used the experimental method as the research design to utilize the
volcanic ash that was used in the production of concrete bricks.
Experimental method allowed the researchers to come up with a scientific and
systematic approach to solve the problem and it was thus, the most suitable method for
this study.
Ash Sampling
Component proportion and particle shape of the ash deposited at a given locality
depend on eruptive processes, but also on transport-related sorting, and may vary as a
function of height of the eruption plume and direction and speed of the wind. To
minimize the disturbing effect of sorting on the variability of our samples, the researchers
collected the ash from three different barangays in two different municipalities within the
seven-km radius and 14-km radius danger zone. The researchers selected and analyzed
only samples with particles in a given size range, assuming that similar grain size of the
samples would broadly correspond to a similar degree of sorting.
Preparation of Volcanic Ash
Ashes collected were composited to have a representative sample for the two
different places. Since the volcanic waste derived from the cleaning of urban public road
sand spaces could be contaminated by the presence of oils and other impurities that could
influence the hydration process of the cement. A sieve analysis was performed using 30-
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mesh sized sieve in the laboratory to provide more surface area with which water and
cement can chemically bind. 10 grams of sample from each sampling site was used for
the determination of bulk density.
Concrete Brick Production
The combined aggregate content in the concrete mix should not be more than 6
parts to 1 parts of sand to cement with a water to cement ratio 0.50. Properties of concrete
bricks having constant amount of sand with volcanic ash to sand ratio of 30:70, 50:50,
70:30 will be used.
Drying
Concrete shrinks slightly with loss of moisture. It is therefore essential that the
blocks should be allowed to dry out gradually in shade so that the initial drying shrinkage
of the blocks is completed before they are used in the construction work. A period of 7
and 14 days of curing or drying will bring the bricks to the desired degree of dryness to
complete their initial shrinkage.
Heat Exposure Method
Prior to heat exposure, the specimens were first dried at 100°C in an oven for 24
hours to remove the excess water to reduce the risk of breaking or cracking and were
placed inside a furnace, whose internal temperature was increased from room temperature
to 200, 400, and 800°C.After 2 hours, the furnace wasturned off, and specimens was
allowed to cool down inside the furnace for 2 hours, and after that, the specimens were
taken out of the furnace and were allowed to cool slowly for 24 hours in air at ambient
temperature.
Characterization of Volcanic Ash
Physical properties of ash such as color and texture were described as observed
while bulk density was computed after obtaining mass and volume data through
experimentation. The surface morphology and elemental composition were analyzed
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through Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (SEM-
EDX). The crystallinity property of the volcanic ash samples was tested through X-Ray
Diffraction Analysis. The data presented in the Chapter 4 of this study was collected from
the shared information from INANO Research Facility wherein the sample was collected
from Silang, Cavite and information shared by NASAT Labs wherein the sample that
they analyzed was collected from Cabuyao, Laguna. The researchers were not able to
send their samples for analysis because of the pandemic.
Characterization of Concrete Brick
Mechanical properties were tested at University of the Philippines Diliman to
determine the compressive strength and flexural strength while physical properties such
as crystallinity and thermal conductivity were tested at Department of Science and
Technology. The mechanical and physical properties present in the next chapter were
gathered from closely related studies since the researchers cannot proceed with the
experimentation due to the pandemic.
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
In this research, the statistical analysis or procedure that was used to interpret the
quantitative responses obtained from the experimental treatment. To be able to compare
the physical properties and elemental composition of the volcanic ash samples collected
from two different sites, t-test was used. While to determine the effect of different
variations in cement to volcanic ash substitution and the different curing times and
temperatures that were used on the mechanical and physical properties of the produced
bricks, two-way ANOVA was used.
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CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
This chapter oversees the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
gathered by the researchers. This study aims to utilize volcanic ash for the production of
bricks.The data and documents presented in this chapter were studied and examined to
answer the questions in the statement of the problem.
1. Physical Properties and Elemental Composition of Ash Samples
1.1 Color, Texture and Bulk Density
Volcanic Ash samples from two different sampling sites and were collected after the
eruption of Taal Volcano appeared to both be gray in color and have fine ash particles.
After sieving, the bulk density of the samples was analyzed using the mass and volume
displacement of the samples. Table 6 and 7shows the data collected and computed for the
analysis of bulk density of ash from the two sampling sites, Agoncillo and Lemery,
respectively. From the results acquired from the bulk density experimentation, the
computed average density of volcanic ash samples are 2.011g/ml and 2.180 g/ml and are
presented in the table below.
Table 6
Physical Properties of Volcanic Ash Samples from Agoncillo and Lemery
Agoncillo Lemery
Color Gray Gray
Texture Fine Particles Fine Particles
Bulk Density 2.011 g/ml 2.180 g/ml
According to the data recorded and presented above, the six samples collected
from three different barangays of the two sampling sites, Agoncillo and Lemery, and
were composited so as to have only two samples for analysis, appeared to be identical in
terms of its physical characteristics. They were identical in color and texture while the
computed values of bulk density were not remarkably greater or lesser from each other.
Utilization of Volcanic Ash for the Production of Bricks CHAPTER IV
CUADRA, K.A.V., ILAO, L. R. U., LLANES, J. M. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
1.2 Surface Morphology
The surface morphology characteristic of the volcanic ash samples and their
elemental analysis derived by Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-
ray Spectroscopy (SEM - EDX) are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The results presented in the
following figures are acquired from data posted by INANO Research Facility and
NASAT Labs. The samples analyzed by the laboratories were collected from Silang,
Cavite and Cabuyao, Laguna respectively. Through Scanning Electron Microscopy, the
particle size of the sample from INANO Research Facility was analyzed as well and
results are presented in Figure 2. Volcanic ash particles from Silang, Cavite were found
in all size ranges, but most abundant around the range of 1.09 to 1.84 microns.
Figure 2. SEM Analysis of Volcanic Ash

Source: INANO Research Facility (2020)
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Figure 3. Particle Size Analysis of Volcanic Ash

Source: INANO Research Facility (2020)
As presented in the figure above, it can be discerned that the minimum size
recorded was 0.34 µm and the maximum size was 7.84 µm with a mean of 1.78 µm, a
median of 1.78 µm and a mode of 0.96 µm.
For the second sample collected from Cabuyao, Laguna and analyzed by NASAT
Labs, the following results are presented. Figure 4 shows the photograph of its surface
morphology through scanning electron microscopy while the following graph shows the
particle size analysis. The graph shows that the minimum size recorded was 5.12 µm and
the maximum size was 229 µm with a mean of 66.46 µm, a median of 43.83 µm and a
mode of 141.44 µm.

Source: NASAT Labs (2020)
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Since the samples were tested through the SEM-EDX analysis, their elemental
composition was analyzed as well and presented respectively below. Tables 7 and 8 show
the element composition in weight percent concentration of the ash samples that were
analyzed with EDX. Results show that the volcanic ash particles are consisted of the
main components O, Si, C, Fe, Al, Ca, Na, S, Mg, K, and Cl in varying concentrations for
both samples. There is not much difference between the elemental composition of the two
samples except for the presence of nitrogen in the first sample presented and the presence
of titanium on the latter.So for the heavy metal content of the samples, only titanium was
detected and is present in only one of the two samples.
Table 7
EDX Analysis of Volcanic Ash
Source: INANO
Elements %Composition
Research Facility (2020)
Oxygen 40.99
Silicon 18.97
Carbon 10.45
Table 8 Iron 8.63
EDX Analysis of Aluminum 6.03 Volcanic Ash
Calcium 3.42
Elements
Nitrogen %Composition
2.93
Oxygen
Sodium 29.20
2.32
Silicon
Sulfur 23.86
1.99
Iron
Magnesium 14.13
1.57
Aluminum
Potassium 7.91
1.48
Calcium
Chlorine 7.61
1.23
Carbon 6.63
Sulfur 2.75
Potassium 2.40
Chlorine 1.39
Titanium 1.35
Sodium 1.20
Magnesium 0.84
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1.4 Silica Content
Table 9
Oxide Composition of Volcanic Ash
Oxides %Composition
Silica (SiO2) 74.3
Alumina (Al2O3) 3.31
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 1.79
Source: Karolina et al., 2015
Table 10
Oxide Composition of Volcanic Ash
Oxides %Composition
Silica (SiO2) 87.19
Alumina (Al2O3) 6.67
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 2.83
Source: Sinuhaji et al., 2015
The tables above show the silica content of volcanic ash samples spewed by
Mount Sinabung in Indonesia. Results show that the oxide content that is mostly present
in the ash samples is silica, otherwise known as silicon dioxide. Alumina and Calcium
Oxide are the other oxides that comprise the top 3 highest contents. Other oxides present
in volcanic ash include MgO, Fe2O3, and Na2O.
1.5 Mineral Composition and Crystallinity
The crystal structure analysis if volcanic ash samples were carried out using XRD.
The X-ray diffraction pattern of the volcanic ash samples indicate the presence of an
absolute majority of a vitreous amorphous phase.The following figures and tables present
the XRD phase analysis of the volcanic ash samples.
Figure 6. Diffraction Pattern of Volcanic Ash
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Volcanic ash of Mount Sinabung also contains 16.71% Quartz which has hexagonal
crystal structure, 58.12% Anorthite that has a triclinic crystal structure, and 25.17%
Albite which also possess a triclinic crystal structure. The lattice constants and their
densities are presented in the table below. The diffraction patterns portray each mineral
with different peaks. The maximum peak is Anorthite, and it is followed by Albite while
the minimum peak is imparted by Alunite.
Table 11
Crystalline System and Weight Percentages of Volcanic Ash Sample
Topography Lattice Constant
No Density Wt%
. (grcm-3)
Phases Crystalline a b c
System (Å) (Å) (Å)
1 Quartz Hexagonal 4.9134 - 5.4052 2.725 16.71
(SiO2)
2 Anorthite Triclinic 8.1813 12.8740 7.0970 2.725 58.12
((Ca,Na)(Si,Al)4O8)
3 Albite Triclinic 8.1535 12.8694 7.1070 2.615 25.17
(Na(AlSi3O8))
Figure 7. Diffraction Pattern of Volcanic Ash

As shown in the XRD analysis presented above, it can be discerned that the contents
of the volcanic ash sample include Anorthite (Al2CaO8Si2), Quartz (SiO2), Cristobalite
(SiO2), and Alunite (Al3H12K0.875O14.125S2). In the diffraction pattern demonstrated in
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Figure 7, the maximum peak is Anorthite, and is then followed by Cristobalite while the
minimum peak is imparted by Alunite. More importantly, the peaks indicate the quantity
of the stones’ contents. According Table 12, almost 90% of the composition is Anorthite
with orthorhombic crystalline system, while the lowest is Alunite with hexagonal
crystalline system (2.52%).
Table 12
Crystalline System and Weight Percentages of Volcanic Ash Sample
Topography Lattice Constant

Phases Crystalline a b c Density Wt%
System (Å) (Å) (Å) (grcm-3)
1 Anorthite Orthorhombi 8.174 12.844 14.204 2.768 89.20
(Al2CaO8Si2) c 2
2 Quartz (SiO2) Hexagonal 5.135 5.135 5.443 4.262 2.63
3 Cristobalite (SiO2) Tetragonal 4.957 4.957 6.779 2.308 5.65
4 Alunite Hexagonal 6.967 6.967 17.150 2.843 2.52
(Al3H12K0.875O14.125S2)
The data for the characteristics such as elemental composition, particle size and
surface morphology were the results of analysis of samples from Silang, Cavite and
Cabuyao, Laguna. The data showed similar elemental composition with varying
percentages. If the samples from Agoncillo and Lemery were analyzed, the elemental
composition will most probably be similar with also varying concentrations. With regards
to the particle size, since the sampling site was general, as in the exact sampling location
was not defined, there may be deviations if compared with the samples gathered in
Agoncillo and Lemery. It is also important to note that the preparation for the ash
samples before their analyses, whether they were sieved or not, was also not stated which
may cause the difference in the results. The surface morphology of the samples from
Cavite and Laguna revealed jagged and abrasive edges of rock fragments, mineral and
volcanic glass. The SEM analysis showed the irregular, angular and sharp microscopic
crystals of volcanic ash. This surface morphology will be the same with the morphology
of samples from Agoncillo and Lemery, after all, they are volcanic ash spewed by the
same volcano.
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For the remaining characteristics such as crystallinity and mineral composition
and oxide content, the data presented were from the two studies performed by Sinuhaji et
al. about the characterization and analysis of composition of volcanic ash of Mount
Sinabung which erupted on June 2014 and is located in Indonesia. This study was used
since no data about crystallinity or mineral composition of any volcano in the Philippines
was available. Also, as presented in their study, the elemental composition of the ash
samples from Mount Sinabung is comparable to the results of elemental composition of
the Taal Volcano with the top three elements being Oxygen (57.74%), Silicon (18.05%),
and Carbon (16.59%). It is highly likely that the amount of silica of ash samples from
Mount Sinabung is close to the amount of silica of ash samples from Taal Volcano. The
probability of containing similar minerals like quartz and crytallobite, which are basically
silica, is also high.
Table 13
Statistical Results for the Comparison of Physical Properties and Elemental Composition
of Volcanic Ash from Two Different Sampling Sites
t-
Properties t-stat p-value Decision Interpretation
critical
Bulk Density -1.0049 2.9200 0.4207 Accept Ho Not Significant
Particle Size 0.7419 2.9200 0.1927 Accept Ho Not Significant
Oxide Content 1.5896 2.9200 0.2529 Accept Ho Not Significant
Mineral Content -0.0004 2.9200 0.9997 Accept Ho Not Significant
Elemental Composition 0.7419 2.9200 0.5355 Accept Ho Not Significant
As presented in Table 13, the p-value is greater than the set confidence value
which is α = 0.05 and the t-statistical value is less than the t-critical value which means
that there is no significant difference between the physical properties and elemental
composition of volcanic ash collected from the two different sampling sites. This
statistical result indicates that though there are differences in the characteristics such as
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elemental composition and their varying concentrations, particle size, oxide content,
mineral content and bulk density, they are not remarkably different thus proving the
hypothesis that regardless of the sampling site, the physical and chemical characteristics
of the ash sample will more or less be the similar or identical.
2. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Bricks Produced at Different Ash to
Cement Percent Substitution and Temperatures.
To determine the crystallinity of the product, the study of Lu et al., 2020 was
used. The microstructure of concrete subjected to high temperatures was characterized by
Quanta 600 FEG scanning electron microscope (SEM, FEI, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA).
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Figure 8. The microstructure alteration of concrete after heating: (a) and (b) refer to the
reference concrete subjected to room temperature (RT) and 400 °C, respectively;
(c) and (d) refer to HPC-2 subjected to RT and 400 °C, respectively; (e) and (f)
refer to HPC-4 subjected to RT and 400°C, respectively.
Source: Lu et al., 2020
The crystallinity test results are shown in Figure 8 of the microstructure of
specimen (the reference concrete, HPC-2 and HPC-4) subjected to RT and 400 °C,
respectively. Higher internal structure and more hydration products of specimens could
be found on specimens (HPC-2 and HPC-4) than on the reference concrete, this due to
the pozzolanic reaction of the SCMs, as well as combined usage of SCMs that optimized
particle grading. Therefore, HPC modified with SCMs showed higher residual strength
than that of the control mix.
In Figure 8a, it shows the needle-like crystals of ettringite, CH and C-S-H gel. In
Figure 8b, it can be seen that the CH crystal began to decompose after exposure to 400 °C.
From Figure 8c–f, it can be observed that the hydration products (CH and C-S-H gel) of
cementitious materials began to decompose, and even increased in density as can be seen
in the sample exposed to 400°C. As UFFA was added as SCM (HPC-2), the
microstructure of concrete presented more compactness, since UFFA is quite chemically
stable below 500°C, the benefits of using UFFA as SCM, should be resulted from the
fineness and pozzolanic reaction of the composites binding materials, which promote the
effects of rehydration of the anhydrous cement on the heat resistance of concrete.
Interestingly, when MK was added as SCM together with FA and UFFA (HPC-4)
showed denser internal structure, this could be attributed to the higher amount of gel-like
hydration products and lower CH crystal contents, which increased high-temperature
resistance of concrete. Indeed, it has been reported that the pozzolanic reaction of
amorphous aluminosilicate present in MK with CH generated by cement hydration can
form an additional amount of C-S-H that has low Ca/Si with high strength, as well as
calcium aluminates hydrate (C-A-H) phases that deposit in the pore system. Both of
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which will bridge the pore system and lead to a reduction of the thermal stresses
generated around the pores. In addition, the fineness of the UFFA further reduce the
thickness of C-S-H gel and improve the heat resistance of concrete. Furthermore, calcite
could be found in the specimens and even increased in intensity at 400°C. Leading to a
slightly increased in residual strength of the specimen subjected to 400°C (Lu et al.,
2020).
Based from the study presented, crystallinity of the concrete is based on the
compactness at 400°C in which it can be attributed to water from the decomposition of
other hydration products resulting in rehydrate the anhydrous cement particles existed in
the capillary pores.
In order to determine the thermal conductivity of concrete using the thermal
constant analyzer (Hot Disk, TPS 2500S, Gothenburg, Sweden), the study of Lu et al.,
2020 was also used. The thermal conductivity of concrete is an essential parameter for
delaying the temperature increase when subjected to high temperatures. Figure 5 exhibits
the thermal conductivity of concrete at RT and high temperatures.
Figure 21. Thermal conductivity of concrete subjected to high temperatures.

Source: Lu et al., 2020
In Figure 21, it can be seen that the thermal conductivity of concrete slightly
increased at 400°C and significantly dropped at 800°C. In fact, the residual strength of
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concretes increased at 400°C, strongly supporting that some hydration products were also
formed, which can fill the pores and even more than compensate for the loss of strength
caused by the decomposition of some hydration products. The thermal conductivity of
concrete is mainly related to the porosity and pore size, a significantly drop of thermal
conductivity at 800°C due to the decomposition of CH and desiccation of pore system.
Due to its results, there’s a significant drop of thermal conductivity induced micro-
cracking and increased the porosity of concrete.
It can be observed that the thermal conductivity of the concretes approximately
increased by 1%–5% than that of the concrete at RT. Compared with the thermal
conductivity of concretes at RT, thermal conductivity of concretes at 400 °C increased by
2.1% (reference concrete), 3.4% (HPC-1), 1.8%(HPC-2), 3.8%(HPC-3), 4.8% (HPC-4).
We also found that the thermal conductivity of concretes modified with SCMs was higher
than that of the reference concrete. At 400 °C, with the addition of 20% FA (wt %), the
thermal conductivity of the sample (HPC-1) slightly increased to 1.5 W/(m·K). Replacing
FA with UFFA can further increase the thermal conductivity (HPC-2) to 1.7 W/(m·K),
which is mainly due to the UFFA’s lower fineness, which can make the HPC denser. For
the samples containing 30% UFFA-5% MK (HPC-3) and 20% FA-10% UFFA-5% MK
(HPC-4), thermal conductivity increased to 1.9 W/(m·K) and 2.2 W/(m·K) at 400 °C,
respectively.
Table 14
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of elevated temperatures
and different HPC formulations on thermal conductivity
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit

Temperature 0.836 4 0.209 16.0769 0.000683 3.837853
HPC formulations 6.781 2 3.3905 260.8076 5.21E-08 4.45897
Error 0.104 8 0.013
Total 7.721 14
Table 14 shows the temperature F-value is 16.0769 with the degree of freedom 4
and 8, and the p-value 0.000683 which is lower than 0.05 (level of significance), hence,
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thermal conductivity of concrete across different temperatures are significantly different.
For the different HPC formulations the F-value is 260.8076, with the degree of freedom 2
and 8, and the p-value 5.21E-08, which is also less than 0.05, hence, the thermal
conductivity across different HPC formulations are also significantly different.
Based on the study presented, it can be concluded that the difference of thermal
conductivity is much more evident between concretes than the difference attributed to the
temperature itself when the temperature below 400 °C. At 800 °C, thermal conductivity
of the concretes modified with UFFA-MK and FA-UFFA-MK fell to 0.3 W/(m·K) and
0.4 W/(m·K), respectively. This may be due to the internal structure of concretes had
destructed at 800 °C (Lu et al., 2020).
Table 15
Volcanic Ash Chemical Composition
Elements %Composition ASTM

C618-05
limits
SiO2 32.10 Al2O3
Al2O3 18.60 +
Fe2O3 24.10 SiO2
Na2O 0.10 +
CaO 2.30 Fe2O3
MgO 2.10 =
SO3 Not Detected 70 % min
K2O 0.70
TiO2 3.50
Cr2O3 0.03
MnO 0.10
NiO 0.30
L.O.I 14.20
Source: Hamza et al., 2020
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
From the table above, it shows that the summation of oxides content of volcanic
ash is 74.8% which qualifies to the 70 % oxides content requirement and loss on ignition
values not exceeding 15% requirement of ASTM C618-05 for a material to be called a
pozzolan.
Compressive strength of the volcanic ash blended cement Concrete:
Figure 9. Variation of Compressive Strength of Concrete Mix Types
Figure 9 shows the result of the compressive strength test with different VA
variation. The result shows increased compressive strength in seven days from 5% to
10% replacement of cement with volcanic ash as compared to the control concrete which
is 0%. Increments in strength are noticed with a value of 0.56% at 5% cement
replacement, 1.65% at 7.5% and 3.76% at 10% in comparison to the control (0%), while
reduction in strength are noticed for replacement above 10% as compared to 0% plain
concrete. At 5%, 7.5% and 10%, higher and improved strength above 0% control
concrete are seen during 14 and 21days curing periods. At 28 days curing however, the
result of the experimental study shows that 7.5% and 10% replacement of cement with
volcanic ash indicate higher strength among any other replacement, while 5%
replacement has same value with the control concrete. The trend of the compressive
strength shows that replacing cement with 10% is the ideal replacement. Beyond this,
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decrease in strength index will be seen but up-to 15% limit shows improved and
promising strength.
Flexural strength volcanic ash blended cement Concrete:
The results of the flexural strength test are shown in Figure 10. The flexural
strength was tested at seven (7) and twenty-eight (28) days. The strength at 5% ,7.5%,
10% and 12.5% increased beyond the control, while 15% has same value with the control
specimen during the seven days curing period. For 28 days, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 15%
increased beyond the control at 0%, while 12.5% maintain same strength index with 0%
replacement ratio. 20% replacement shows decreased in strength as compared to the
control sample. It is apparent that 10% volcanic ash replacement level produces the
optimum strength.
Figure 10. Variation of Compressive Strength of Concrete Mix Types
Table 16

C618-05
limits
SiO2 39.60 Al2O3
Al2O3 10.00 +
Fe2O3 26.50 SiO2
CaO 11.90 +
MgO 1.00 Fe2O3
SO3 1.00 =
L.O.I 10.00 70 % min
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Source: Januarti et al., 2011
From the table above, it shows that the summation of oxides content of volcanic
ash is 76.1% which qualifies to the 70 % oxides content requirement and loss on ignition
values not exceeding 15% requirement of ASTM C618-05 for a material to be called a
pozzolan.
Table 17
Mix Proportion of Volcanic Ash Concrete Mixtures
Replacement Water/Cement Cement Sand

Ratio (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
0 0.51 402 719
10 0.51 361.8 719
15 0.51 341.7 719
20 0.51 321.6 719
25 0.51 301.5 719
Source: Januarti et al., 2011
Table 17 presents the mix proportion to determine the most suitable replacement
of Portland cement volcanic ash (VA). Experiments were conducted to replace cement by
changing the composition of concrete mixture in the series of 10, 15, 20 and 25% of
volcanic ash with a constant amount of sand and a 0.51 water to cement ratio.
Compressive strength test was performed according to ASTM C109/C109M-05 testing
standard.
Compressive Strength
Figure 11. Effect of Volcanic Ash on Compressive Strength
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The compressive strength is found to decrease with an increase of VA content like
what previously mentioned studies proved. This is reasonable enough due to the
reduction of cement content in the mix with the increase of VA content. Although the
silica in VA can combine with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form stable
compounds which have cementitious properties like calcium silicates and such
pozzolanic action of VA contributes to the overall increase in strength.
In this study, tests were conducted on concrete mixtures replacing 0 to 25% by
mass of ordinary portland cement (OPC) by volcanic ash. The performance of volcanic
ash concrete mixtures was evaluated by conducting comprehensive series of tests on fresh
and hardened properties. The mechanical properties were assessed by compressive
strength which denotes that it is found to decrease with an increase of VA content.
Concrete with 15% volcanic ash showed better properties compared to concrete with
10%, 20% and 25% volcanic ash in this study.
Based from the results of the two studies presented which investigated the
utilization of volcanic ash as possible replacement of cement for concrete production, it
can be seen that according to Hamza et al., 2020, study suggests that replacing cement
with 10% shows it is the ideal replacement level but up-to 15% shows improved and
promising strength. While,Januarti et al., 2011 showed that concrete with 15% volcanic
ash showed better properties compared to concrete with 10%, 20% and 25%. The
different results of volcanic ash replacements in the two studies presented can be
attributed to the refinement of pore structure, and pozzolanic action of the volcanic ash.
Therefore, utilization of volcanic ash from 10-15% according to these studies are the
optimal replacement that can improve the mechanical properties of concrete made with
utilizing volcanic ash as cement replacement. Further studies are recommended on other
properties such as setting times, water absorption capacity, permeability, shrinkage
resistance, fire resistance, durability on concrete and mortars made with volcanic ash
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cement replacements, Admixtures may be added to improve performance, also using a
different mix and altering water cement ratio is also recommended.
Among the volcanic ash to cement replacement studies used in this,
Hamza et al., 2020 were similar to the ratios used in our study. This study suggests that
volcanic ash could be used as replacement up to 15% with 10% having the best mix using
water to cement ratio (w/c) ratio of 0.5. It also stated that volcanic ash is a good
pozzolanic material for concrete and at 10% optimum replacement levels can produce
very strong concrete but can be used up-to 15%. Given the circumstances that our study
was not performed but given the results presented by Hamza et al., 2020, it can be proven
that when our study was performed it can either produced a different or same result. It
may differ in the sense that volcanic ash came from different volcanoes with different
percentages of oxides content.
Using these ratios proven to improve concrete mechanical properties with the
incorporation of volcanic ash, further studies are gathered to prove that subjecting
concretes with these ratios to different elevated temperatures can sustain an acceptable
level of compressive strength and improve the overall characterization while reducing the
amount of CO2 released in the environment.
Table 18

(Mohamad et al., C618-05
2020) limits
SiO2 65.85 Al2O3
Al2O3 11.43 +
Fe2O3 1.37 SiO2
Na2O 2.07 +
CaO 3.87 Fe2O3
MgO 0.78 =
SO3 0.21 70 % min
L.O.I 6.43
Source: Mohamad et al., 2020
Table 18 presents the chemical composition of volcanic ash carried out by
Mohamad et al., 2020. The result satisfies the ASTM C618-05 requirement which stated
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that for a material to be a pozzolan the summation of Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Silicon
Oxide (SiO2) and Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) must be 70.0 % minimum. Mohamad et al., 2020
achieved 78.65 % for the summation of the chemicals composition which agrees to
ASTM C618-05 requirements.
Table 19
Mix Proportion of Volcanic Ash Concrete Mixtures
Replacement Water/Cement Cement Sand 28-day

Ratio (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Compressive
Strength
(N/mm2)
0 0.35 400 1100 32.6
5 0.35 380 1100 30.8
15 0.35 340 1100 30.5
25 0.35 300 1100 29.2
Source: Mohamad et al., 2020
Table 19 presents the result of test for determining the most suitable replacement
of Portland cement volcanic ash. The choice of these ratios is according to the limited
cement percentage to be replaced as adding more than 25% would result in a very low
strength of the mortar. Compressive strength test was performed according to ASTM
C109/C109M-05 testing standard. It shows that 15% and 25% replacement are higher
than those with 0% and 5% using 0.35 water to cement ratio (w/c) as the constant ratio.
Figure 12. Relationship between temperatures of the electric furnace with time
Figure above shows the time-temperature curve of the furnace for heat exposure.
After 1.5 hours, the furnace was turned off and specimens were allowed to cool down.
The temperature was applied at an incremental rate of 10°C/min from the room
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temperature of 25°C and maximum temperature was attained for 1.5 hours to attain
thermal equilibrium at the center of the specimens.
Compressive strength
Figure 13. Relationship between the compressive strength on 28-days age and different
elevated temperatures
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
The main components of the hydrated cement paste are calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH), calcium sulfate aluminate hydrate and calcium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2. SiO2 present
in pozzolans react with Ca (OH)2, and a by-product of hydration reaction forms calcium
silicate hydrates (CSH). As a result, performance at elevated temperatures are increased
since the amount of CSH is increased and Ca (OH) 2 is reduced. It can be seen that
compressive strength decreases with increasing the amount of VA replacement;
meanwhile, the compressive strength would increase with curing time. Therefore, the
minimum value of strength was for the mix with higher VA content replacement (25%).
This makes sense since replacing the cement with VA reduces the cement content in the
mix at short term.
Figures 13-15 illustrate that the compressive strength increased between 25 and
200 °C, which is due to the formation of tobermorite (calcium silicate hydrate mineral),
formed by reaction at high temperature between un-hydrated VA particles. There is a
decrease in the compressive strength for all curing ages and specimens at temperatures
ranging from 200 to 500 °C. This reduction can be attributed to the pore structure
roughening in concrete. All mixes at 500–800 °C temperature show severe loss in
compressive strength due to the dissociation of CSH gel which causes severe
deterioration.
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This study stated that choice of these ratios is according to the limited cement
percentage to be replaced as adding more than 25% would result in a very low strength
but volcanic ash is a good pozzolanic material for concrete and at 15-25% replacement
levels that can produce very strong concrete. Our study was not performed but given the
results presented by this study it can be proven that when our study was performed it can
either produced a different or same result. It may differ in the sense that volcanic ash
came from different volcanoes with different percentages of oxides content which may
affect the mechanical properties when subjected to elevated temperatures. Water to
cement ratio is also different. In this study it used 0.35 while in our study was
0.50.Mohamad et al., 2020 used four different temperatures (25,200,400 and 800°C) in
which compressive and flexural strength increased at 200°C but decreased when it
reached 500°C and severe deterioration was observed at 800°C. While in our study,
temperatures were room temperature, 400°C and 800°C. Although temperatures were
different, using these results, our study may also have the same result since the ratios are
closed to each other and the procedures done were similar too. An increase in
compressive and flexural strength may be observed at 200°C but at temperatures higher
than that, mechanical properties might start to decrease. It can be seen also that the
compressive strength would increase with curing time; meanwhile, compressive strength
decreases with increasing the amount of VA replacement. Therefore, the minimum value
of compressive strength was for the mix with higher VA content which is 25%. In our
study, the optimal ratio may be the 15% replacement, at 28 days curing time and an
elevated temperature of 200°C since according to Hamza et al., 2020, 15% was the
optimal ratio for the concrete to have optimal compressive strength and in this study,
ratios lower that 25% are the optimal ones. According to the result also in this study, at
200 °C, mechanical properties increased with curing time but decreased with an
increasing amount of volcanic ash. Generally, the strength loss decreased with the
increase amount of VA content when the temperature was varied from 200 to 800 °C
This paper demonstrates that the replacement of cement by a proportion of volcanic ash
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
can sustain an acceptable level of compressive strength and improve the overall
characterization of the concrete while reducing the amount of CO2 released.
Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Two-way analysis of variance test was carried out to determine the level of
significant difference on the percent of volcanic ash cement replacement on the
compressive strength of the concrete and also the level of significance on the influence of
elevated temperatures on the compressive strength of concrete. Table 20 shows the two-
way analysis of variance.
Table 20
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of elevated temperatures and
volcanic ash to cement replacement (%) on the compressive strength

Temperature 142.1875 3 47.39583 1.0675 0.4102 3.8625
Replacement 991.1875 3 330.3958 7.4420 0.0082 3.8625
Error 399.5625 9 44.39583
Total 1532.938 15
strength of concrete across different temperatures are significantly different. For the %
replacement, the F-value is 7.4420, with the degree of freedom 3 and 9, and the p-value
0.0082, which is also less than 0.05, hence, the strength of concrete across different %
replacement are also significantly different.
Flexural Strength
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Figure 16. Relationship between the flexural strength on 28-days age and different
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Figures 16-18 show the relationship between the flexural strength and the effect
of elevated temperatures for different percentages of VA replacement with cement. All
mixes show improved flexural strength with curing time but decrease in the flexural
strength with the increase in the amount of the VA replacement. Specimens with 15%
VA as a replacement had the best result. The loss of strength observed at higher
temperatures might be attributed to the increased porosity, loss of bound water, and
consequently, increasing permeability. Using the data presented, results of the flexural
strength of our study may be similar to this aside from we only used two curing time
which are 7 days and 28 days but regardless, the flexural strength that might be obtained
if our study was performed will be very similar to this.
Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Two-way analysis of variance test was carried out to determine the level of
significant difference on the percent of volcanic ash cement replacement on the flexural
strength of the concrete and also the level of significance on the influence of elevated
temperatures on the flexural strength of concrete. Table 21 shows the two-way analysis of
variance.
Table 21
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effects of elevated temperatures and
volcanic ash to cement replacement (%) on the flexural strength

0.00377
Temperatures 6.775 3 2.258333 9.4976 1 3.8625
Replacement 72.385 3 24.12833 101.4742 2.95E-07 3.8625
Error 2.14 9 0.237778
Total 81.3 15
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strength of concrete across different temperatures are significantly different. For the %
replacement, the F-value is 101.4742, with the degree of freedom 3 and 9, and the p-
value 2.95E-07, which is also less than 0.05, hence, the strength of concrete across
different % replacement is also significantly different.
Concrete exhibits superior resistance compared to more popular construction
materials like steel and wood. Being non-combustible, concrete forms a barrier that
prevents the further spread of fire; hence, its use does not increase risk of fire in
buildings. According to the study of Mohamad et al., 2020 which investigated the result
of subjecting concrete incorporated with volcanic ash as cement replacement to elevated
temperatures, it proved that the addition of volcanic ash to the mixtures showed a limited
reduction in the mechanical and physical properties, which indicates that it could be
suitable to use as partial replacement to reduce the carbon emission resulting from the
Portland cement reactions. As the temperature goes higher, the bond within cement paste
weakened causing the concrete to be more brittle. Conclusively, concretes were found to
be able to retain their strength and durability properties better at elevated temperature and
can be used in structures where there is a high risk of fire.
More so, the rate at which temperature increases is another factor affecting the
type and extent of the changes occurring in the mechanical properties of concrete when
subjected to high temperatures. When concrete is subjected to an elevated temperature,
the evaporation of free water takes place slowly at first, hence structural damage does not
occur. On the other hand, when heating takes place rapidly, the resulting higher vapor
pressure leads to the formation of cracks in the surface morphology of the concrete. As
the temperature increased, the evaporation of the trapped water in the paste of the
concrete starts to take place leading to the dehydration of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH),
which is the compound used in concrete mixture to achieve the bonding together the
diverse components constituting the concrete paste. When dehydration takes place in the
crystals of CSH, it was shown to irreversibly lower the strength of the concrete. At
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
maximum temperature, deterioration in performance is evident due to the degradation of
compressive strength.
There are limited studies on the effect of elevated temperature on the concrete
containing natural volcanic ash; therefore, the aim of this paper to study the viability of
incorporating volcanic ash to concrete subjected at elevated temperatures was proven
effective using the data from the studies of Hamza et al., 2020; Jauarti et al., 2011; and
Mohamad et al., 2020
Among the volcanic ash to cement replacement studies used in this, Hamza et al.,
2020 were closely similar to the ratios used in our study. This study suggests that
volcanic ash could be used as replacement up to 15% with 10% having the best mix using
water to cement ratio (w/c) ratio of 0.5. It also stated that volcanic ash is a good
pozzolanic material for concrete and at 10% optimum replacement levels can produce
very strong concrete but can be used up-to 15%. Given the circumstances that our study
was not performed but given the results presented by Hamza et al., 2020, it can be proven
that when our study was performed it can either produced a different or same result. It
may only differ in the sense that volcanic ash came from different volcanoes with
different percentages of oxides content.
In our study, the optimal ratio may be the 15% replacement, at 28 days curing
time and an elevated temperature of 200°C since according to Hamza et al., 2020, 15%
was the optimal ratio for the concrete to have optimal compressive strength and
according to Mohamad et al., 2020, ratios lower that 25% are the optimal ones.
According to the result also, at 200 °C, mechanical properties increased with curing time
but decreased with an increasing amount of volcanic ash. Generally, the strength loss
decreased with the increase amount of VA content when the temperature was varied from
200 to 800 °C This paper demonstrates that the replacement of cement by a proportion of
volcanic ash can sustain an acceptable level of compressive strength and improve the
overall characterization of the concrete while reducing the amount of CO2 released.
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MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Studies of Hamza et al., 2020 and Mohamad et al., 2020 were the studies used as
our basis to prove that when our study will be performed, results will be close to the
results obtained by these two studies since some factors such as ratios, temperature and
curing time were closely related.
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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter shows the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations
on the utilization of volcanic ash for the production of bricks.
SUMMARY
When Taal Volcano caught the citizens who reside near it by surprise, suddenly
exploding and spewing ash about 15 kilometers into the atmosphere covering the nearby
vicinities that are within a 14-kilometer radius, instances like these are what we call
natural hazards. Natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event that will have a
negative effect on humans. Volcanic ash impose great hazards for they are far reaching
and disruptive not only to people but to infrastructures, cars and other equipment such as
electrical posts as well. Ash fall may cause irritation in lungs and eyes for the people,
may kill vegetation and other agricultural plants, volcanic ash may also cause the death of
livestock and other animals as well as aquatic life.
Studies regarding the utilization of pozzolans in the construction industry has
been garnering attention as the demands for the building material industry increases.
Although applications of volcanic ash are based on its particle size, surface morphology
and chemical properties, it could be generally used in ceramics, as an abrasive, in
lightweight aggregates, cellular blocks and concrete. Thus, turning this material we
consider as hazard into something that is useful and beneficial became great interest to
researchers.
This main objective of this study is to utilize volcanic ash for the production of
bricks. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in the following properties of volcanic ash
obtained from two different sampling sites?

Utilization of Volcanic Ash for the Production of Bricks CHAPTER V
CUADRA, K.A.V., ILAO, L. R. U., LLANES, J. M. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
1.1.1 Color
1.1.2 Texture
1.1.3 Bulk Density
1.1.4 Surface Morphology
1.1.5. Crystallinity
1.2.1 Silica Content
1.2.2 Heavy Metals
1.2.3 Minerals
1.2.4 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)
2. What is the effect of variable proportion of ash to cement ratio (30:70, 50:50,
70:30) on the following properties of bricks produced at different temperatures (200℃,
400℃ and 800℃)
2.1.1 Crystallinity
2.1.2 Heat Conductivity
2.2.1 Compressive Strength
2.2.2 Flexural Strength
Experimental methods were used by the researchers to determine the physical
properties and elemental composition of volcanic ash samples. Volcanic ashes were
collected from three barangays in Agoncillo that is within the 7-kilometer radius from the
volcano and another three barangays in Lemery that is within the 14-kilometer radius.
Color and texture were identified as observed while the bulk density was computed after
78
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
performing an experiment. As for the identification of the elemental composition, mineral
composition and crystalline system were identified and analyzed through Scanning
Electron Microscopy with Elemental Dispersive X-Ray and X-Ray Diffraction. Bricks
were also produced in varying volcanic ash to cement percent substitution. The bricks
were allowed to harden and cure and then dried at the oven and was further subjected to
different temperatures. The mechanical and physical properties of the bricks produced
were also examined. Due to the sudden crisis brought about by the pandemic, the
researchers were not able to send samples for analysis or perform the experiment for the
brick production so the data presented in the study were gathered from previous studies
that are closely related to this research.
In this study, the physical properties and elemental composition of the volcanic
ash samples were determined and the physical and mechanical properties of bricks
produced using volcanic ash as substitute for cement were also established. Data and
results were collected and analyzed. Data were statistically tested using t-test and two-
way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
FINDINGS
Based on the analysis, the following results were obtained:
1. Volcanic Ash samples from two different sampling sites and were collected after
the eruption of Taal Volcano appeared to both be gray in color and have fine ash
particles. The computed average density of volcanic ash samples are 2.011g/ml
and 2.180 g/ml. Results show that the volcanic ash particles are consisted of the
main components O, Si, C, Fe, Al, Ca, Na, S, Mg, K, and Cl in varying
concentrations for both samples. There is not much difference between the
elemental composition of the two samples except for the presence of nitrogen in
the first sample presented and the presence of titanium on the latter.One volcanic
ash sample contains 16.71% Quartz which has hexagonal crystal structure,
79
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
58.12% Anorthite that has a triclinic crystal structure, and 25.17% Albite which
also possess a triclinic crystal structure while the contents of the other sample
include 89.20% Anorthite which has orthorhombic crystal structure, 2.63%
Quartz which has a hexagonal structure, 5.65% Cristobalite which has a
tetragonal structure and 2.52% Alunite which has a hexagonal structure like
quartz.
The statistical method t-test that was used to compare the physical
properties and elemental composition of volcanic ash from two different
sampling sites showed t-stat values of -1.0049, 0.7419 1.5896, -0.0004 and
0.7419 with p-values of 0.4207, 0.1927, 0.2529, 0.9997 and 0.5355 revealed that
there is no significant difference between the volcanic ash samples despite of
being collected from different sampling sites.
2. Different HPC formulations and different temperatures showed significant
difference on the thermal conductivity of concrete with p-values both less than
0.5, which is the level of significance. On the other hand, volcanic ash to cement
replacement and temperature has a significant effect on the mechanical properties
like compressive strength and flexural strength with p-values also less than the
0.5 level of significance.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were based on analysis of data and the in-depth
interpretation of the results and findings:
1. The physical properties and elemental composition of volcanic ash samples
collected from two different sampling sites are comparable.
2. The compressive and flexural strength are found to decrease with increasing
incorporation of volcanic ash. Thus, findings in this investigation provided an
insight about the limitation of its addition. Exposure to elevated temperatures is a
critical process of physical deterioration, and one that inflicts direct significant
effects on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete.
80
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based from the findings and conclusions of the study, the following
recommendations are suggested:
1. Chemical durability properties of concrete such as resistance to chloride
attack, resistance to sulfate attack, alkali-silica reaction has to be studied.
2. Utilization of volcanic ash for different purposes and other applications such
as a reusable catalyst, nuclei in ice nucleation experiments or as a potential
application as soil fertilizer so further study is recommended.
3. Optimum proportioning of the concrete mix of volcanic ash and cement is
highly recommended.
4. Addition of other reinforcements such as plastic materials, wood ash, or wool
fibres is recommended.
81
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES
Month February March
Week No. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Task
Collection of Volcanic
Ash from Agoncillo and
Lemery
Topic Proposal Defense
Sending of Ash Samples

for Physicochemical
Analysis
Production of Bricks
Curing of Bricks (28 days)
Send of brick samples to

testing center
April
82
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
Budget Allocation
MATERIALS AMOUNT (Php)

Cement 900
Sand 2000
TESTING
Physical Property Analysis 1500
Chemical Property Analysis 2320
Mechanical Property Analysis 5700
Scanning Electron Microscopy 6550
Miscellaneous Expenses 3000
TOTAL 21970
83
MANTUANO, C. P. D.
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UTILIZATION OF VOLCANIC ASH FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BRICKS

Cuadra, Kris Angelie V.

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

The Philippines is an area of persistent volcanism, being located in one of the

Philippines with a number of historical eruptions of 33 (PhiVolcs, 2020).

Taal Volcano erupted on January 12, 2020 spewing ash up to 10 - 15 kilometers

which includes, as reported by Inquirer, Agoncillo, Alitagtag, Balete, Cuenca, Laurel,

All explosive eruptions produce volcanic ash, fragments of volcanic rock

generated when magma or vent material is explosively disintegrated during eruption

aviation, and primary productioncan lead to significant societal impacts (Stewart et

disposing it is of great importance.

pozzolan is a finely divided material that contains silica or aluminosilicate (Bediako,

morphology and chemical properties,it could be generally used in ceramics, as an

abrasive, in lightweight aggregates, cellular blocks and concrete (Siddique, 2012).

environmental- friendly, low cost and lightweight construction materials in building

benefiting the environment as well as maintaining the material requirements affirmed

volcanic ash in the construction industry, theobjective of this research is to utilize

volcanic ash for the production of concrete bricks.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. Is there a significant difference in the following properties of volcanic ash obtained

from two different sampling sites?

1.1 Physical Properties

1.1.3 Bulk Density

1.1.4 Surface Morphology

1.2 Elemental Composition

1.2.1 Silica Content

1.2.2 Heavy Metals

1.2.4 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK)

different temperatures (Room Temperature, 400°C and 800°C)

2.1 Physical Properties

2.1.2 Heat Conductivity

2.2 Mechanical Properties

2.2.1 Compressive Strength

2.2.2 Flexural Strength

1. There is no significant difference between the properties of volcanic ash obtained

from two different sampling sites.

bricks with variable proportion of ash to cement ratio produced at different

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is focused on the utilization of volcanic ash in the production of

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The study

and thus diminishing problems regarding its disposal.

Construction Industry. The results of this study is beneficial to the

utilization of volcanic ash may be a potential building material that is environmental

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This study is conducted primarily to utilize volcanic ash in the production of

crystallinity of the collected ash samples. Elemental composition such as silica

be subjected to three different temperatures, particularly, room temperature, 400°C

affects the overall composition of the bricks to be produced.

Input Process Output

Analysis of the physical

Figure 1. Conceptual Research Paradigm

the manufacturing of bricks, researchers have devised the conceptual framework

concrete brick product.

meanings are provided.

carried hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from source falling out of

suspension over largeareas (Jenkins et al, 2014).

(Dunuweera et al, 2018).

Chemical Properties. Is a characteristic or behavior of a substance that may be

observed when it undergoes a chemical change or reaction. Chemical properties are

seen either during or following a reaction since the arrangement of atoms within a

sample must be disrupted for the property to be investigated. (Helmenstine, 2020). In

content, ash content and carbonaceous material of the collected samples.

Brick. It is a constructional building block to make walls, pavements and other