USAF

EXPERIMENTAL
FLIRHT TEST PILOT SCHOOL

AERODYNAMICS
x> HANDBOOK
rH
FOR
fH PERFORMANCE
FLIGHT TESTING
Q
 2-8l line 4 spelling porous
M
2-82 line 5 change profile to parasite"
2-83 After Fig 2.4 2. i elim nate resf 'page
2-8^ eliminate page
2-85 eliminate first twelve lines
The following replaces pages 2-83 2-84 2-85 2.4.2(A)
PARASITE DRAG COMPARISON METHODS
Parasite drag is composed of skin friction drag and pressure
drag. Comparison of the paras te drag of aerodynamic shapes
ranging from a flat plate (if tkif can be called an aerodynamic
shape) to a complete airplane 's often desirable. Several
methods exist for making thil comparison.
2.4.2(A) 1 EQUIVALENT FLAT PLATE AREA
Wind tunnel experiments have shown that a drag coefficient
of approximately 1.28 is a good average figure for a flat plate
for Reynolds numbers in the flight range. The total parasite
drag of a flat plate, «hieb is almost entirely pressure drag,
is computed by the equation
L)p=1.28qSp Equation 2.4. 2. i
where Sp = plate area
The parasite drag cf an airp'ane lar be expressed in terms
of an equivalent fiat plate area. That is a flat plate of such
an area that its drag will ^e eq-. "alent to the drag of the
airplane. Since the aercdynanv.c coefficient Cj) s arbrtrarv
and based on any convenient area (generally w ng area). Uien.
Parasite Drag = Dp = Cn q Sw = 1 28 Q Sp Equation 2,4 2 2

S - i£P s = A
1.28
where Sp = Flat Plate Area
Ae = Equivalent Flat Plate Area

■
Equivalent Flat Plate Area it obtained by substituting the
CDp and Sw (Wing Area) of each particular aircraft into
equation 2.4.2.2. The resultant number, equivalent flat
plate area, Ae, gives a direct parasite drag comparison
between two different types of airplanes.
2.4.2(A) 2 EQUIVALENT PARASITE AREA
Equivalent Parasite Area, f, is defined as that area which
results assuming that the drag coefficient is i. 0 or:
Dp = 1.0 q f Equation 2.4.2.3
f = equivalent parasite area
2.4.2(Aj 3 CD , PROPER DRAG COEFFICIENT
Another Parasite drag coefficient, useful to aircraft designers
in making drag estimates is CD*» which is defined as the drag
coefficient based on frontal area. Therefore;
D CD q S
P * ir w Equation 2.4. 2.4
Sff s Frontal Area
2.4. 2. (A) 4 RELATION BETWEEN THE VARIOUS
COMPARATIVE DRAG TERMS
Dp = CDpq Sw = 1.28 qAe = 1.0 qfs CD» q Sir
or
CDp Sw = 1.28 Ae r f = CDw S, Equation 2.4. 2. 5
Drag comparison for different shapes may be made by
comparing equivalent flat plate area, equivalent parasite
area, proper drag coefficient or drag coefficient.
In figure 2.4.2.2, comparisons are made for bodies of
unit (1 ft^) cross section.
 Equivalent Equivalent Proper Pa -asite
Flat Plate Parasite Drag Drag
Area Area Coefficient Coefficient
OBJECT Ae f CD

^-PLATE 1.0 ft2 1.28 ft2 1.28 .0i28

.80-.94ft2 1.02-1.20ft2 1.02-1.28 .0i02..0i28

0.23 ft2 0.295 ft2 0.295 0295

[ 0. 035 ft2 0. 045 ft2 0. 045 .0045

[
[ 2-85 line 18 eliminate M
and conversely"
3-6 1st line below figures spelling parallel
3-14 line 1 straight and level flight unaccelerated, the thrust etc.. .
Equation 3. 2. 1
Dp = CDp = V2g Vt2 S
line 11
(^ = density of air
line 18
Di = CDiV2^ Vt2 S

'
 redraw and relabel Fig. 3. 7. 5B

Low Aerodynamic Drag ard High Friction

Total
Resistance

TD
4-35 equation 4c 4. 7
Thrust (T) r AAP = A f & V2 (V+J^)

I
I
I
I
I
I
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1
AFTTC-TN-60-28
JTTLY I960

AERODYNAMICS HA:a)BOOK
FOR
RBFORMANGE FLICHT TESTIHO
VOLUl'E I

JAliES J. HNG PHILIP £. NEAUE, JR.

Captain, 'JSAF Captain, USAF
Chief, Porformance Section Inatnietor, Performance Section

WILLIAM G. SCHWELKHARD THOl-iAS P. STAFFORD

Aero Research Engineer Captain, USAF
Inatnietor, Performance Secti m

This handbook has been reriewed and approved«

Major, USAF
Comnandant
 This is a preliminary copy of the Aerodynamics handbook which will

be published in the near future. Your comments and criticism will help

make the finished article a more useful yoluns. Suggested changes should
be submitted to William Schweikhard, FTTO or phone 27061 or U1761.
 TABIZ OF CONTEWTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS i

SECTION I FUNDAMENTAL REVIEW !_!
1.1 Physics - _. _. m 1,
1.2 Dinensional Analysis •■ 1..20
1.3 Fluid Mechanics 2^28
Ith Thermodynamics -------- ._ ----- i-6^
SECTION II BASIC AERODYNAMIC SUMMARY 2-1
2*1 The Atmosphere -----------. ------- p-l
2.2 Airspeed System Theory - . 2-13
2.3 Aerodynamic Forces 2I27
2,h Fundamental Drag Theoiy 2I7I1
SECTION III PERFORMANCE ^
3*1 Performance Equations 3_j
3.2 Level Flight Performance 3^3
3.2.1 Drag and Power Characteristics ^13
3.2.2 Propeller - Airframe Performance 3.33
3.2.3 Jet Ehgine-Airframe Performance 3.M
3.2.U Range and Endurance -- ---- o.to
3.3 Climb Performance I 3J7?
3.3.1 Temperature Effects . II 3I7?
3.3.2 Weight Effect and Corrections 3I86
3.3.3 Acceleration During Climb --- - _« 3.50
3.3.U Vertical Wind Gradients SQI
3.3tS Final Correction Equation 3.07
3.U Descent Performance . ,g7

3.5 Turning Performance 3-101

3.6 Specific Energy Analysis • ^t

3.7 Take-off and Landing 3-132

 1. Every body continues in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a

straight line, or uniform motion of rotation about a fixed axis, unless

compelled to change the state of motion by the action of some external force«

Inherent in the First Lav is the concept of inertia which is that property

of matter by virtue of which it tends to remain at rest or in uniform motion

unless acted upon by external forces» Bodies show opposition to being

translated or rotated« The nagiitude of this opposition to translation is

proportional to the mass of the body. The magnitude of the inertial

opposition to rotation is dependent on the mass distribution as well as

total mass«

2, The time rate change of momentum of a body is proportional to the

impressed force, or

F - d Cjavi Equation 1.1.1

dt

The linear momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass times

velocity. Thus a one pound ballet moving with a velocity of one hundred

(100) feet per second would have a linear momentum of 100 ft« poundr per
4

second (1 x 100 ■ 100). If a constant drag force of ten (10) pounds were

suddenly to be applied to the one pound bullet, the velocity would decrease

at the rate of 322 ft/sec • As shown, assuming the mass m remained constant:

F ■ d(m v) «■ {d v\
m /d Y\ * m a
dt \d t/
■

W a or a - Fg - (-10)(32«2)
g W 1

1~1U
]

T
the total distance covered would be

3 » V0 t ♦ at'
2'

Going back to the original equations

S = 1 at2 and t = 3£ then

t2 « Vf2
5 a
a2
V V 2
substutin^ S = 1 a f = f
f "7* —
V 2
or 2 a S - V

if the body had an orifinal velocity

2 2
V ♦ 2 a S = Vf
1
o
The above equations are summarized as follows;

Equation UUi
2
Vf = 70 ♦ at Equation 1.1.5
S » Vn t + at^ Eqiatijn 1,1«6

V02 + 2 a S = Vf 2 Equation l.".#7

1.1.11 SI^PGY:

Energy is drfined as the ability to uo work. The work rtqpiirttd to ttroteh

a sprinc is stored up a.s potential energy in the spring. Tho importar.L prinoipli
of the constrvacion of energy mei-ely states that in any body or system of bod-es,

the total amount of energy will remain unchanged if the system is neither

giving up or receiving energy. The energy may be transformed from one fom to

another such as heat and lirht, but the total amount of energy in the system

will remain unchanged. POTENTIAL energy is the energy a body has because of

its position. Lifting a mass above the surface of the earth stores potential

1-17
energy in the body, since the pull of gravity drawing the body back to the

earths surface is capable of being used to do useful work* KINETIC energy

is the energy a body has because of its motion« Any body in motion is able

to more other bodies by colliding with them and it's possible to refine this

collision so that useful work is done*

1.1.12 WORK AND POWER:

Work is equal to the product of the force doing the work times the distance

through which the force moves the object of the work. As such^the units of

work in our convention are foot pounds. Power is simply the time rate of doing

work. Power is therefore measured as foot pounds per unit time. The Biglish

unit of power is called horsepower which is equal to 550 ft-pounds of work per

second«

1.1.13 THE MEASUREMafT OF ENERGY:

The measure of the potential energy which a bocty" has by virtue of its

position is equal to the wo? k spent in lifting the bo<^y. The increase in

potential energy of a 500 pound weight lifted ten feet in the air for example

is equal to 5000 ft-lbs as shown.

Potential Ehergy ■ Work spent lifting the weight

Potential Energy ■ F x d - W h Equation 1.1.8

Potential Ehergy - 500 x 10 - 5000 ft. lbs.

The measure of the kinetic energy which a body has by virtue of its

motion is equal to the work expended in order to move the body at a certain

speed. In stopping, the body will give up an amount of energy equal to the

work done in starting the motion if losses due to friction, drag and so on are

neglected.

1-18

. t
 Rotational Speed (RPM) l/t
2/ 2
Temperature ^C Energy L /t
2
Density ^^

Viscosity ft/L
To illustrate the principle of dimensicnal analysis »let us derive the

equation of state and include an unnecessary variable. Let us suppose that

we have no idea of the form of the equation. Further more let us say that
we observe that nressiu^e varies with density ana temperature but we are not

sure whether it varies with viscosity or not, so let's include it as a part

of the analysis.

P ■ f Vjtj')
From our table we find the basic dimensional forms

P - F/L2 f ■ Ft2
L

T = L2/t2 ^ - Ft

We can express the abcve functional relationship as an exponential

equation with unknown exponents, (a,b,c,d,.0 )•

p = c(Ä>aT ^J

whore C = a dinensionless constant

We can find the value of these exponents by simultaneously adjusting the

exncnents of each basic dimension in such a way that it is the same on both

sides of the equation. This is done by solving a set of simultaneous linear

equations *

1-22

&
i^
 1

required by the steady flow condition. The net work done by the «ysten during
]
this inetdt ie

•
Het w>rk - w
♦ '2 2 " i i
X P X

Since 1^ and Ag ere the piston areas

f m m f
i\ \h\ H i
md
p p
2 2 2 ^ 2 2 2

so the net work is then

Net work - w
♦ P2 V2 " pl ^i

where V and V are the voluass occupied by their respective Basses«

The internal energies of the entering and leaving nasses are

^ ^ «d ^ .2

but since, BL - « is required by the steady flow condition, the increase in

internal energy of the syste* is
m (e2 - e^
similarly the change in kinetic energy is

i«
1 u2 -u2 )
2 1
and the potential energy change is

■g (.2 - «^

1-78
 Using the first 1m aid equating the change in heat and nork to change

in total mergy gives an expression of the first lav for an opened aystea under
steady flow conditions,

Q - V ♦ p2 V2 - p1 V1 - « (e2 - e^ ♦ i « fcj -vl) *mg(zz-zl)

by dividing through by « and rearranging

q-w - (e2 ♦pg v2 ♦ Ju2 ♦ gi2) . ^ ♦P1v1 <• Ju^ g «.)

Equation l«U«5c
In teras of enthalpies the equation is

q .„ . (hg ♦ | u2*g« ) • O^^l u|+gs ) Equation Uu5d

In either form the stateaant of first law gives considerable insight into
the workings of thermodynanic processes used in engine cycles. The so called
adiabatic process is of particular iwportance in thormodynawics. An adiabatie
process is defined as one in which no heat is transferre . .l,^., q-0).
Thus, an isolated system is adiabatic. Since the primary function of most
practical engines is to convert energy of some sort into work, they may be
assumed to be quasi adiabatic. That is, the heat transfer is small cohered
with the total energy expended in the cycle. If this assumption is good at
least to a first approximation then the first la» becones a siaple relationship
between the energy expended and the work done.
To allow flirther intrepretation of the first law it is convenient to
define the enthalpy and internal energy in terms of measurable properties of the
system namely the temperature.

1-79
l.U.2.1 SPECIFIC HEAT (HEAT CAPACITY) AND RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS

The heat capacity^ c> of a gas is defined as the heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass one degree or the heat per degree«

do Equation 1.U.6

From the first law it is seen that

dq - dv ■ de

dq * de + p d v Equation l.h.l*

A m it * T, JJl Equation IJuTb

Thus, the value of c depends on whether there is a change in volume or not«

Hence, defining the specific heat requires a definition of how the change is
to occur (i«e.r constant pressure, volume, etc«)«
The specific heat at constant volume is obtained directly from equation
l«U.7b wtere dr « 0 and is written

c
v - fäJ . ä£ Equation l.b.8
W
This shows that under constant volume conditions the specific heat is

equal to the rate of change of internal energy with respect to temperature.

This quantity might be measured by the insulated system shown in Figure l«U«Ua«

Measuring the temperature of the constant volume system under the influence of a
known heat input and dividing the heat input by the temperature rise gives the
specific heat at constant volume, Oy«

.1
1-80
 fkv\\\N\ \ V\\'

Fieure Uuk

The specific heat at constant pressure may be obtained by modifying

equation l.U.7a

dq » de •»• p dv Equation l«U«7a

by adding and subtracting v dp

dq - de ••• p dv ■•• v dp - v dp
dq « dh - v dp

do _ dh m v dp Equation 1#U«9
3? W "Sf
Therefore

cp . dq dh Equation l.h.10
" dT

Like cv, Cp can be neasured by a system such as that shown in Figure l.if.i^b

where the constant volume container nas now been equipped with a frictionless
movable piston which is weighted to provide constant pressure during the

heat addition. It is evident fron Figure 1.U.U that it takes less heat per

1-81
another system causes a decrease in the entropy of the original system that
•

its entropy is increased by at least the amount of the decrease in entropy of

the original system.

l.U.3.3 MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF OTTROPY

A physical interpretation of the entropy is not as easily obtained as are

other properties. In a mathematical sense it is rather abstract; however,

f
some attention nust be given to its mathematical representation. It was
previously seen that the work can be measured as a function of the two
intensive properties p and v.

m dv
^rev P Equation l#U.lli
where subscript rev is included as a reminder that this definitLcn assumes
a reversible process.

As yet no such representation for heat has been formulated since it is a function

of bfea temperature only. This weakness is remedied by defining the heat in terns
of tvo state variables namely the temperature and the entropy as follows.

dQ rev - T dS Equation 1.U.15

As arbitrtry as this definition may seem its use may be mathematically justified
by showing that the quantity dS ■ dQ/T Is an exact differential but this is be-

yond the scope of this writing. It will suffice to accept the definition perse. .
A physical interpretation of the entropy of a system is gained when it is
realized that the entropy is simply a measure of the disorder of a system.

This is apparent in the original example of the rapid expansion process of an

isolated system. When the valve was opened, directed or ordered flow of the

gas occurred. When the process was completed it was found that all that re-
mained was the random chaotic motion of the molecules of the gas. From the

1-86
previous discussion the entropy of an iscxated system was seen to be a

maxinuin under equilibrium conditions. Therefore, tlie entropy of the more

ordered initial condition must be less than the final condition in fact it is

found that the initial entropy is a minirauin, Thu? it is seen that inoieased

entropy means increased disorder. With this j*:treoretation the concept of the

entropy may oe peneralized to aimobt any systeir, rcr instance- by this

reasoning a pile of buildinp block.? has maximm entropy bat when they are

piled in mam ordered fashion the entr ipy beron.es IM?« Likewise a ball

sitting on the vdge of a bowl represents the mininiuni entropy oondltion but

when it is released and allowed to ocme to rest at the bottOB of the bowl its

entropy is a maximum. Thus the iLinimum energy oondi-oion is often associated

with the maximum entropy. Since it is veil known that 01 system left to itself

will seek ■ -ninimum enerfy condition it is ippartrit tn^ entropy is measuring

the sa^e sort of thing enly in reverse ma^nitudfs, Ilany examples of the

physical sicnificance of entropy can be visualized but it will suffice to say

now that the entropy is a measure of the I1, sorder of a sys :en. It is also

found to be a measure of the eff.l.-:er j wi-ch «bicn the process is r-arried out.

Sin:s the entropy of an ii elated i/vtMi i in aot dUeraaM the most

efficient process is perforn.ed at BOCstAnt «itxt>pj« Such a p:voess is jaid

to be isentrppi-.

An iMBtVOpie pro:ess la one in whio.i dS • Cc Froir the basi- n^finitior..,

equation l,[i,l5, it is apparent that an iMntropic process must be botn

adiabatic and reversible. If a process la adiaocti;. but not reversible the

entropy «ill increase and the process is not isentropi.c Therefore, a reversible

adiabatic norsess is isentrcpi:-.

i-b;
l.U.u GOMBZHB) FIRST MO GECCND LAW
The real usefulness of thermodynanics is realized when the principles of
the first and second laws are combined. By the first law

dq - dw » de
substituting from the second law

dq = T dS
and also substituting

dw = p dv
de ^ Oy dT

a basic expression of the combined first and second laws is obtained

T dS ■ cv dT ♦ p dv Equation l#U.16a

The change in entropy is then flven in terms of thermodynamic coordinates,

p , T, and v

do « cv dT Equation l.u.lbb
-S 4^4,
Substituting ^ g R from the equation
s
T v

dS ' c_ dT . p dv

and integrating from condition 1 to condition 2

-H-j Si d3 « c^ dv

S T T
2-S- c^ In 2 R U 2 Equation l.U.lTa

1-88
 By putting aquation l#i:,16Ä in t€nns of c another expresoion for the change

in entropy is obtained,

TdSacdp+pdT ^vdp -vdp

T dS - dh = v dp = cp dT - v dp

dS « c dT v dp

subatituting ▼ R fro» the equation of state

T p
dS-<» — - tt
T> JäE BquafeLor l.L.lbc
"^ ^p T ^^

Itaiagrating gives from 1 to 2

.5 2

d3
/
Si

P
s 2 _ o ^ Equation l.lulTb
2 - $1 * o- in -njp - R In
1

UuS CHANGE TU STATE

When a particaiar proeass !• specified such ,as constant ternperatura^

pressure, voluTne and entropy, the expression for a change in s^ate can be

¥f"'
sin^llüed. The oxr.ression for the first three :ondi-cions abov^ gn be

obtained by simDlifmnr the equaiaon «.f £tnte which ap^iles to any prooitrr.
Constant Tenperaturs
R
Equation l#U,laa

Constant Pressure

1L -I Equation i.h.lUb
wm

Constant Volume
-.L ■ T,1 Equation lab«li|0
P2 T.
I-8y
 If some instrument were available to measure density the same type of
technique could be employed and density altitude determined,

A third technique, and a much more practical one, is bases on pressure

measurementc A pressure gage is used to sense the ambient pressure. In-
stead of reading pounds per square inch, or millimeters of mercury, it

indicates the corresponding standard altitude for the particular pressure

sensed^ This altitude is called pressure altitude and is the one on which
all fiignt testing is based today,

2.1.6 PRESS RE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

This third technique is the one on which present day type altimeters
are desifned. It should be obvious that the instrument will not give a true

readmr except v/hen the pressure at altitude is the same as that for a stan-

dard day. This vail only be true if the pressure and temperature at sea level
is standard and the temperature lapse rate is also standard. Except under
these conditions, the altitude indicated on the altimeter will be incorrect«
To further our understanding of the atmosphere let us consider the
pressure variation with altitude as applied to the operation of the altimeter.

Usinc the equation of state and the U.S. standard atmosphere assumptions,
the pressure lapse rate equation:.

p, - pc (1 - 6.87535X10-6 h) 5.2561 Equ«tion 2.1.1

can be derived and used to determine the standard variation of pressure

with altitude below the tropopause. An example of this variation is

plotted in Fifure 2,1,1

.1
2-8
i
 or
L « rerrrr
•* * o e
Equation 2«3*10

In terms of Mach number

->

a 1?

V. ^ = M a.2
fc
■. M"
M2
^P

q = jeaM2 2^ - i-rpM2

or q - | T? 8 M2 = 1U818M2
Equation 2*3*11

where T= l.U P ■ 29*92 "Kg ■ mo7 lb/in*

c

nW
Equation 2«3.12

2.3.U REINOUDS NUMBER AND MACH NUMBER EFFECTS

, In section 2 3.2,2 it was seen that the aorodynardc coefficients vary

with Rsynol ä number and Nach number, therefore, a brief discussion of these

effects is in order. While both effects may occur at the 3ane time in actual

practice we shall discuss each separately for the sake of clarity,

2.3.1t.l KtfflOLDJ .'UT-EER EFFECTS

Figure 2.3.9 shows that the effects of Reynolds number become significant

at high lift coefficients and that higher maximum lift coefficients can be

attained by increasing the Be^nol number. In section 1.3 it was seen that

the Rejnoldf number determines whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent

and that the pressure gradient is the prime factor responsible for separation.

2-U8

T
Further, it was seen that turbulent boundary layers resist separation oetter

than laminar but create more skin frictionn reparation on the other hand is

equally undesirable because it increases the pressure drag. Therefore, some

compromise must be reached between laminar and turbulent boundary layers on

an airfoil. The boundary layer on a tvpical airfoil is laminar over the

forward portion and becomes turbulent and eventually separates toward the

trailing edpet let us consider the flow over an airfoil at a constant

Reynolds number and varvinn anple of attack. As the angle of attack in-

creases the local velocity an^ hence the local Reynolds number increases

over the upper surface. The increase in velocity decreases the pressure

on the upper surface causing a larger adverse pressure t*radient' on the aft

portion. The increased local Reynolds number and pressure gradient causes

transition and separation to occur farther forward on the wing. This forward

movement proceeds slowly as the inr-le of attack is increased through moderate

angles (less than 8 tc 10 dc'rees), but increases rapidly at higher .ingles..

Thus, for any riven Refolds number, drag increases slowly at low angles of

attack and rapidly at the hirher angles.

Mow let us consider v:nat happens to the lift and drag at moderate to

high anrles of attack when the free stream Reynolds number is increased. An

increase in the free stream Reynolds number repiosents an increase in the

energy of the flow, because of this additional energy the boundary layer be-

comes turbulent farther forward on the surface and is able to remain attached

longer, separating nearer the trailing edfe. Because there is less separation

the airfoil has lower drag and a higher CT .

2-h9

'
 Since Rtjnoldj number effects are most apparent at high lift coefficients,

we would expect it to have a great effect on t he stalling speed of an aircraft.

We can best evaluate the effects on stalling speed if Reynold's number and

CT are defined in terns of equivalent airspeed

f Tt 1

The coefficient of viscosity,^/ , varies little with pressure and temperature

(negligable vlthin « 70 C).

Considering viscosity as constant along with f and 1 we see that for the
o
sane V_e Reynolds number decreases with altitude.

The lift equation in terms of V is

nW
Tnax i o ?T
< s
o

or
nW
• -^
CT
Equation 2.3.13
^o0 -max 3

From this we see that as Reynolds nunber decreasesr causing a decreased

CT^ ,the stall speed increases* Note* Since equivalent airspeed and calibrated

airspeed are anproxina+ely the sane this trend can be noted in flight from

cockpit instruments on stalls perfomed at low and high altitude.

2.3eU.2 MACH EFFECTS

Ilach effects result because air is a compressible fluid. While the

c^mpressiblility of air is negligable at low speed it becomes very important

at speeds approaching Mach 1,0.

2-50
 As the velocity of the air increases over an airfoil at low speed f,nere

is virtually no ehang« in the 'iensity; hov/ever, at hipn speed the sa-io change

in velocity causes a large change in the oenslty., This effect can be seen

from the follovdnr equation

dP M2 dV
jr - " |
At lov speed, say M = 2. a 10 percent increase in velocity over the wing

causes a «1| percent decrease in the densityc However,, at high speed (M ■ ,8)

a 10 percent increase in velocity causes ft ö.li percent decrease in the

density» Thus, the compressibility cf the air becomet ftlgniflcvit ci the 'iach

number increases* Since Mach number is r,he controilinc factor in determining

the amount of compressibility thftt o^^urs,the terms compressibility effects and

Mach effec'3 are used interchangably«

The effect of conpreosibility on th lift :oefficlent nay be seen from an

equntK •. proposed n Olauert for thin airfoilr

C
Q ],<0 ' .ore Cj is .he
L ■ , r p
Equation 2.3.1U
"yl - li incompressible Gr

In the linear range thia nay be wrjtton

where a^ is the slope of the C, »^ rurve for incompressible flew

(Fig« 2 3.10) endq^ifl the «Igle of ettack naferred to the zero lift line rather

t an '.he chord.

Differential ng thia equation with reepect to e( :;ives

2 51
an additional drap is added to account for the losses due to shock vaves which

are caused by thr cornrcGcitility of the :J.r, The total drag is then written as:

^otai ' V Di + D
„ E< uatl ,Il 2 3 18
^ •' --
where
C
D is the parasite drag = D q S

D^ is the induced drag = D^ ^ ^

C
D.. is the wave drag ■ D« q S
M M

since
D - (^ q S

D
tota \oz ^s • Sp q S
* Si q S +
\ q S

or
C ■ CL ♦ OU ♦ CL Equati.on. 2.3.19
D D
tot p ^i %

2.3.6.2 DRAG COEFFICIENTS

Induced Drag

Induced drag was defined in the previous section as the drag due to lift.

By circulation and down wash theory it can be shown that for an elliptical lift

distribution the induced drag coefficient is given by

fl 2
CJJ a ^L (elliptical lift distribution)

In order to account for deviations from the theoretical elliptical lift distri-

bution the efficiency factor, e, is included in the denominator.

2^0
 C
Cr, L (for any lift distribution) Boaatiao 2.3.20

The efficiency factor is constant at subsonic speeds but tends to decrease

at speeds in excess oi the critical Mach nmbcr« For the elliptical lift

distribution the efficiency factor is l,0e ^"or all other lift distributions

it is less than 1,0,thus giving a higher induced drag for non-elliptical

lift distributions. It is apparent t len that the nininum induced drag is

obtained from an elliptical lift distribution,

T
Jhile an efficiency factor of one is not obtained in rractice, it may be

approached by using an airfoil whose ^lanf orm is an ellipse by chin ring the

airfoil section along the span or by warpin - th« wine to different angles of

attack along the span. Any combination oi the above may be used but it should

be noted that if the warping technique is used an elliptical lift distribution

will generally occur only at one speed. The other methods approach the optimum

throughout the subsonic speed ran~et

With the new expression fur C3. the total dra:: coefficient is

l
C
Cri _ CL _r for subsonic flight Equal 1 r. 2,3.21
u
P Tf/Re

2
C
CQ ' Cß + L ^ C for trai.sonic and Equation ?. 3.22
P /T^Be M sup^rsunU ili^nt

Another forn of the induced drag -.Mich is sometimes used is given bj the

following:

D C 3
i * D.1 ^ - Z^ « S
TTiRe

2^.
 where
C = L
L
qs

. L2 1
D
i - ( L
V ■ qS
qS TT^6

but
• * b2/S
2
„ L2 . . M Equation- 2.3,23

Note thct LA) IS the span wise loading and that it is not necessary to know

the aspect raoio or the induced drag coefficient.

Parasite Drag
The parasite drag of an aircraft is the total drag other than that caused

by lift and compressibility effects. It represents the minimum drag C an

aircraft, and is a cons tart. The minimum drag '.s that which exists at zero

lift and can only bo obtvned in flight by flying at "zero §".

Drag Polar
The relationship between lift and drag is normally sh^wn on a plot of C

versus CL which is known as the drar polar. Figure 2.3.16.

actual

Relation

CD

Subsonic Polar Transonic Polar

Figure 2,.3,l6a Flflirt 2.3.16b
2-62
Since in the subsonic region

C 2
D* C L Fx^uation 2.3.2U
P irRe
and CQ and l/lfft« are constant, th^ curve is a narabola. This theoretical
P
result holds in practice at all but the ex^erae «iglM cf attack (high C ).
J_I

The minirrram parasite drag coefficient is seen at CL = 0 and CQ is seen to

vary with C^ as snown.

When the flight speed is r-rciter than the critical Mach number an additional

increment is added as discussed -reviouslv. The basic low speed polar is un-

changed bit the curves shift to the rigolt as ■hoim In Figure 2,3.l6bc The slopes

of the higher Mach number curve will change depending on the variation of Cj
'%

with C,,

Since the relationship between C and CD closely approximates a parabola.,

plotting CT versus GL i« a straight Ixtie as shown in Figure 2.3.17

Figure 2.3.17

2 63
 Since a wing causes circulation, the wing may be replaced by a vortex

extending from tip to tip. The line defining the center of this vortex re-

placing the wing is called the lifting line or bound vortex« In general, the

line defining the center of a vortex is called the vortex filament.

Two of the vortex laws are of significance at this point,

1, A vortex filament cannot have an end but must either continue to

infinity or foima closed path.

2. The strength of a vortex filament is constant along its length.

A smoke ring is an example of a vortex filament which forms a closed path.

In a wing with tips ,the bound vortex cannot stop abruptly at the t ips but must

form a closed path or extend to infinity. It could not continue in the same

direction beyond the wing tips since it would still be perpendicular to the

uniform linear flow and still produce lift which obviously doesn't occur beyond

the wing tips. The only logical way for the vortex filament to continue to

infinity is to bend perpendicularly back at the tips towards and beyond the

trailing edge of the wing as shown in Figure 2.b.3.11i. These Vortices extending

back from the wing tips are called trailing vortices. These trailing vortices

produce a downwash in the flow behind the wing in addition to the downwash

caused by the bound vortex^ An example of the downwash caused by the trailing

vortices off the tips of a rectangular winr: is shown in Figure 2.lu3.l5. Note

that these trailinr vortices extend back to infinity so that there will still be

net downwash behind the wing with tips even at distances from the trailing edge

where the downwash caused by the bound vortex is negligible. This is not true

for winps without tips as discussed in the nrevious section.

2-106
 Bound and TraUlng Vortices

Leading
Edge "

Figure 2.h.3.2h

Spanwise Downwash of Rectangular Wing

[ Bound Vortex or T.iff.inr Une
9 Down Wash
Velocities

figure 2.1;. 3.15

In air vdth viscosity, the trailing vortices eventually da^p out and do
not extend to i^inity but they r^ain for a considerable distance behind the
«Of M U evident from tnt- quote fror. lUSl Ti: lie. 3377: "Experience to date
indicates that the exhaust blast fron jet airplanes dissxpate, quickly *

■**
N

2-107
about 300 ft. with minor air disturbances to followinG aircraft; but the vortex

wake turbulence may persist for several minutes in a very powerful form«" For

an airplane flying 8 miles per minute, this statement indicates that the

trailing vortices still have considerable Btvtngth 16 miles or more behind the

airplane.

Up to now v.e have considered rectangular winps so only one bound vortex

of constant strength is needed to replace the wing. If the wing were

tapered or of any planform other than a rcctannilnr nlanform, each unit span

section of the "in- iiould not ^oduce the same lift. Therefore, the circulation

must be greater for some sections oC the viBg than other sections. Since one

vortex filament murt have a constant strength along its entire length, we must

consider many vortex filaments arranged similar to that shown in Fig, ?.U,3.l6

to obtain the desired lift aistribv.tion along the span. For a tapered wing,

or one where the lift contribation of each small section of the wing gradually

decreases as the tips are amroached, the winr my be considered to be re-

placed '.:ith an infini'.e number of weal: 'ortcx filaments. The trailing vortices

of all these filanents -rould extend off the trailing edgt continuously from

tip to tip and form a sheet of vortices railed the trailing vortex sheet.

Each of the trailing vortices would contribute to the overall downwash behind
+
he winr' thus ten din- to ive a more uniform dowm-iash velocity from tip to tip

as shovm in Fig. 2,h.3.17fc

2-108
 Vortices For-ned by Tapered Wing

T ifting
Line

Vortex Sheet

Figure 2Ju3cl6

on ■ndM Dowwafh of . v^pered \Jinp,

Lift: ng Line

^ijrure 2.h..3.17

2-109
 Note that the majanun level flicht speed is the speed where the

thrust is equal to the drag. The speed for naximun acceleration is the speed

where the excess thrust is a maxiram. ihe speed for nayiraum rate of climb is
the speed where the product of the excess thrust (T-D) and true airspeed is a
naximunu Thus,the speed for best rate of climb is a higher speed than the
sneed for best acceleration,
3.2.1.3 V/EIGirr EFFECT:

We have only considered the drac curve for one weicht. We will obtain
a different drag curve for other wei-hts since the induced drag depends on

the weicht. The total drag curves for various wei-hts are shown in Figure 3.2.3.

Drag vs V^
One Altitude

Drag

True Airspeed

Figure 3.2.3

3-18
 •ote that the wcirht affects the ta« curves noi- it low speeds than at

high speeds, and that the mninuin draf speeds increase ulth a weight increase.

Therefore, the speed for best endurance and best ^lide «ill chan-e to s- ne

extent with ch-nn ns in weight, if we consider tne thrast curve without drag

curves as shown in Fi ure 3.2.1i we vail sec that our naximun speed will depend

on the weicht of the airplme.

'Ihrust &. Jrac vs V

t
One Mtitude
'hrust at 100 i

Thrust
or
Drag

V,

Tr-ic Airspeed

Fifure 3.2.u

Also, tht excess thrust is lOHtr at. all speeds for the heavy weight

airplane as compared with the light wei.-ht. xh-refore, the a?relerations

and rate of clinb will be less for the Iwavy airplane, 3y looking at the

equations for acceleration and rate of !limb ue see tnat the weirht of the

airplane enters in the denominator« This will also reduce the acceleration

and rate of climb potential of a heavy airplane as compared to a light air-

3-19
 The maxiraura level flipht speed may or may not increase with altitude* This

performance item depends on hov much the thrust will change with altitude.

Recall that so far we are only discussing flight at subsonic speeds. There-

fore, the conclusions regarding the maximum level flight speeds which we obtain

from these curves do not apply for transonic airplanes such as the F-86 and

F-100. Generally the drag curves discussed will apply for all airplanes at

subsonic speeds such as the loiter, climb and cruise speeds,

3.2.1.5 TEIPEROJRE EFFECT

The effects of temperature on the drag curves have not been discussed.

The previous discussions have been considered with standard tenperature condi-

tions. A temperature change at a constant pressure altitude will cause a

change in density of the air in the same manner as altitude will cause a

density change. This is evident from the equation of state. Therefore, a hot

temperature will affect the drag curve in the same manner as a higher altitude.

This effect is shown in Fip.^re 3.2.8«

Drag vs V.
One Weight

One Altitude Cold

Day

Drag

True Airspeed
Figure 3.2.8
3-23
 i
The minimum drag -Ulli remain the same just as it did in changing the
i
altitude* At the same altitude^ a change in temperature will change the
thrust of the engine at a constant throttle setting. This effect is shown in

Figure 3.2.9*
Thrust & Drag vs V
One Weight
One Alti t -de

Thrust 100^

Thrust
or
Drag

Drag St'd Day

Hot Day

True Airspeed

Figure 3c<?.9
tor a subsonic airplane the maximum speed will decrease as the

temperature increase since the temperature has more effect in reducing the

thrust output than in riecreasinp the drag at a given true airspeed.

3~2U
 This effect of temperature on performance is one of the major

corrections made durinr the data reduction of performance flight test

results. It is obvious fiom the above plot that tests results obtained during

a non-standard day will not apply directly for standard day conditions. The

maximum level spoed, rate of climb, acceleration and cruise performance depends

on the temperature of the air, therefore, the best data musL be corrected to

standard diy temperature conditions. The method of making these corrections

depends on the manner with which the test data is plotted. The drag of an

airplane maj be determined from flight tests if a means of measuring the

thrust accurately is provided, since in stabilized level flight the thrust is

equal to the drag. Therefore, we can aetemine the drag curve by stabilizing

the airplane with various power settmrs to obtain the complete range of air-

speeds iesi-ea: If we plotted the drag data against true airspeed we would

get a different curve from one temperature day to another so we canr

datendJM the standard day dl ' j cu^'e directly.

.3.2olo6 DRAG vs BQUIVALENT AIRSPESD

3y looking at our drag aqurrtion wt - that we can express it as:

D
-SffV)5 -S* S since q^Pv^

but q.jpvt^ ft . i ^crv^

88
J f« Vr/: 3
*• (v-ü in
ft/sec)
^ c Hirr
sin re V *1^V
r
a t
V
therefore D , gp e S (V 9 in ft/sec)
""Ha—

>25
V.'e can apply the sme reasoning to the -.irasite and irvtaccd drag equations.

Thus
2 .2
Sp
JL Ve S Dj . 8U1 (VVb;
' ^a— V 2 e
e

Note that the density ( P ) aoas not appear in either equation so if we

plotted drag against equivalent airspeed (V ) instead of true airspeed y^)

vre will cet one drag curve for all eondltiona of density. Therefore^ this
drag wurve octained will apply for one weight ac all altitudes and tempera-

tures. Figure 3 2 10 ahova the drag surve \ra 7e fd three ^-ross weights:

T7
Draf vs

All Aititudos

All Tenperatrref

Drag

Equivalent Airspcea (Ve]

Figure 3 2,10

3-26
3.2.1.7 PCF.'/HR EOBQUItiB) C1IH7E3

So far in this discussion we have considered the forces acting on an

airplane, principaUy the drag and thrust forces, Instead of considering

the forces wt may think in terns of newer, Power is the time rate of doing

work« If the for ce is not acting parallel to the motion of the object, the

parallel component of the force is nsed in defining the work.

Work . F x d
Fovr r unit time

Since d/t is Telocltyj rower nay be exnr2ssed as:

Power = -? x .'
t
The tem horsepoweris a unit of power mich is commonly used.

ont HorMpoiwr (HP) ■ 33.000 ft-lb/min - 550 ft-lb/sec. Thus vwhen the
velocity xprescei in ft/se:, horserjo^er is expressed as:

P . yy^'t \' m it/seCc

If we consider thrast as the force,va have a power tem knoT^n as thrust

horsecoT.- . Kileble (Tffl .)
V
THP. . T x v V in f* W

And if w consider drag as the force ve have thrust horsepower required (THP ).

THP . D >: \
13o
AssundLng we know a drag and thrust carve for an airplane, the power
required and power available curves can be calculated from the equations above

3-2?
We will, obtain the same performance data from the power curves as we will

obtain from the drag and thrust curves. The maximum speed where the thrust

is equal to the drag is the speed where the THP. equals the TKP .
a j»

The use of the power curves has an advantage in determining the best

climb speed and rate of climb. The rate of climb equation is derived con-

sidering the forces :

R/C 3
(T-D) Vx
"""IT
R/C - T»vVt
A - D. •. V..^
u
Since I xV,i. - THP. x bSO

and D xV » T\Vr x 550

R/C (ft/se:) , (THPa =

THP
r; 550
I
and R/C (ft/nin) ,.. (THPa - THP
r) 33 QQO Equation 3,2,3
W

The term THPa - THP^ is called the ex:ess thrust horsepower and given

the symbols of i^T'.V or THPÄ-, From thf equatAor. above it can be seen that

the rate of climb will be a maximum At the speed v'ao.ve the A THP is a maximum.

So the best climb speed o^n be easily determined from the power curves by noting

the speed where thei-e is the largest difference between the THP,. and THP
a r curves.
Figure 3.2.11 shows typical nower curve for a subsonic airplane. The THPa

curve is typical for a turbo-jet engine. Note that the speed for minimum drag
is at a hipher speed than the speed for minimum thrust horsepower required.

3-28
 TIP V8 V,

TI^ Turbojet

TIP,a
and
r
I'I'P.
.'T

Dr«g i B«st ClUb

ndn f ■"l SpMd

L 1 ± i
figure 3.2,11
The speeds less than the speed for minimuin THPr are known as the speeds
on the "back side" of the power required rarvea

The thrust horsepower available curve for a reciprocating engine has a

different shape than for the turbo-jet engine. At a given manifold pressure
and Rftf the reciprocating engine delivers the same brake horsepower (BHP) at

all speeds. The THPa delivered by the engine propeller combination will vary
with speed as determined by the propeller efficiency (W,) since:

3-29
 THP « X x 3HP
a P
Propeller efficiency iray be as hifh as ^G% to 88p under optimum conditions,

but at*'other conditions the propeller efficiency will vary. At hi^h speeds the

propeller efficiency drops rapidly due to propeller tip losses. A typical plot
)f THPa for a reciprocating engine - propeller combination is shown in

Figure 3.2.12 Tip & WL vs V.

4.

B%
rap T»\
and
TIF
a

Figure 3.2.12
Since it is easier io detemine the 311? of a reciprocating engine than
the thmst delivered, the power curves are used la flight testing of propeller-

type aircraft. The ?.HP may be determined from enpine charts or by the use of
a torque meter on the crank shaft. These methods ire aoplicable to turbo-prop
enrines as well as reciprocating engines. The output of the turboprop engine
is termed equivalent shaft horsepower. It should be noted that in level

stabilized flight the THP equals the THPr since the thrust equals the drag.

3-30
 The thrust horsepower required carves will change with weight, altitude

and temperature for the same reasons that the drag curves changed. We will

first invest!pate the effects of altitude and temperature on the power required

curveso We know that altitude and temperature have similar effects on the
curves since the chanre is due to a change in the density of the air. The power
required curves would not only move to the right as did the drag curves (with

decreasinr density) but would also move upward. Thus,the value of the minimum
power required would increase is the density decreased,

THJ. vs Vt

One V.Teight

High tensity

H3 Low Density
r

Fipure 3c2e13

3-31
 In the case cf the drag curves, we would obtain one curve if we

plotted the drag vs Ve„ This is not the case for the power required curves.

If we plotted the THPr vs Ve the low density curves would shift to the left.

The resulting c^irves are shown in Figure 3.2.11^.

T^ vs V.

One Weight

TIF High Density

r

Figure 3,2,ih

This fact rr.a." be nrrved by the following derivation:

V
THPr u D x t
TTo"

S
(*p ^ ) .
?1M
Dynamic pressTe nay be expressed as:

3-32
 JJ vithVj. in ft/sec.

D
• ^ .Us. L2 gy.
b^ircr 1 e

BO x 550 ' b2TTö'vt x

^0 e

This equation nay be expressed in terms of equivalent airspeed instead of

true airspeed since

V 3
Thus, THPr m ^p e S L2 gq

Fron this equation we can see that tht density will have an effect on the
THP^ ennraa when plotted «giiiBt Ve. The lower the density the higher the TUP ,
r
3.2.2 PFDPELr.SR-AIRFP.'JE oSRF0?J!.TCE
In order to have one curve r°presenw the pover required for one weifht at
all values of density,, we can modify the power required further. If we multiply both
sides of the equation byfä^ we will have:

7e3
^iw , fop ._s L2 gq
r
* öal x 550 * b2TrVe ^ü •"

yO^TP'F ■ K
i v
e' + K2A'e

where K. _^p S
torrsss
K
and 2 . L2 811
2
b TT 550 e

3-33
 It car; be seen that the parameter, iffy THP , for an airplane at a

constant weicht demands only en the equivalent airspeed. Thus,we can plot

TK?- aa 53ho\-n in 1 uro

VCT'TH^ vs V
One V/eipht
All Altitude
All Temperature

V^T^

Figure 3.2.1S

V/e wilj. obtain different curves for different vreiphts since the constant

K contains the lift produced by the ?lrplnnefc V/e e« consider lift as a

variable and vnte our power required equation in the following manner:

P
it i A
«i ^ > J^:
71

where K- 8ai
b^ TT 550 e

To introduce the weight of the airplnne we will replace lift with nW.

A/O* THPr K K
3 n2 W2
i V ♦
e

3-3u
 For load factors of one we get the curves on Figure 3.2,16 for various
rross weights.
Y^TIP vs Ve

Three Weights
All Temperatures
All Altitudes

♦^1*

Figure 3.2.16

3.2.2.1 PIW-VIW CURVE

It is desirable to be able to obtain one curve for the power required

for all weights. This type of plot would enable the engineer to use all the

flight test points fron a level flirht performance test to determine one power
required curve. It is apparent from the previous figure that test points

obtained at differenct weights would give much scatter on a plot of V?"THP

vs Ve. Many test points must be determined for each of the curves and all the

points must be obtained at the same airplane weight, so an excessive amount of

flight time would be required. If it were possible to obtain one curve to re-

present the power required data far all weights, we could use each level flight

3-35
 3/2
Investigate first the endurance equation. Divide both sides by l/C, '

The condition for naxinun endurance may be found by setting the ierivative of

c3/2
L ■ 0 and solving

yaTv (c- : 1*1** e)2

HulUply both sides by (CUp + cL2/rrAR e)2 we have (CDp + tf/yttR e) 3/2 •
C. (2 CT/rrAR e) -
L
,* CDp - V/STTAR • • V»
Therefore,to obtain best endurance the aircraft ic required to fly at an
an^le of attcck or a speed where the parasite drag is 1/3 of the induced drag.
Investigation of the range equation is shorn below« Divide the
coefficient of drag equation by l/C, and it becomes

C
1 . L

Tlie condition for naximum ranee ray be found by setting the -c rivp.tivc; of
CJ/CJ. ■ 0 and solving

3-6U
 d I I.l . . [%> • CL2ArAR e) - C
L (2 h/ytA e)
a?nvi
2 2
Multiplying both sides by (Cn ■•• CT /TTAR e)
L
P

C^ - CL2/TrARe - CJJ
i
P
Therefore,to obta-in maximum range it is necessary to fly at an angle of
attack or a speed where Cn ■ Cr. , or the point of minimum drag«
P ^i
Figure 3.2.28a sho^s the relationship of D versus V^ for a typical
reciprocating cnrXne aircrcft. Figure 3.2.28b shows the relationship of
iHPr vorcus V^ for the sane aircraft.

Drag vs V.

Parasit«
Drag

l-i-uro 3.2,28a

3-65
 TIP vs fv
r t

TIPr
or Line of D
DV
t

^^ax 7*Rmax

Finure 3.262ßb

The speed for maximum endurance is the speed where minimum THP

occurs or where the horizontal target touches the curve. The speed for

naximum endurance is also the speed for the minimum #fuel/hr. The speed
for maximum range occurs where the tangent to the curve is drawn from the
origin. The maximum range speed can also be r of erred to as the speed for

the maxinum ratio of V^/#fuel-hr.

D, IIEADUIÜD .MID TAIUr/IND EFFECTS:
The thrust horsepower required curve is drawn in reference to true

airspeed, »hen a steady wind acts on the aircraft the shape of the curve
is not changed,but the true airspeed is no lonper equal to the ground speed»

The endurance remains the same but the range is effected*

The velocity for naximum range with a headwind or tailwind may be

determined by locating new origins on the abscissa. These origins are

displaced from the first origin by the amount of either the headwind or

tailwind component. Tangents are drawn from these new origins to the same

curve and the speed for maximum range determined, reference Figure 3«2«29*

3-66
 The figure indicates, in order to obtain maximum range in a headwind
the true airspeed should be increased slightly and decreased slightly in
case of encountering a tailwind. In both cases .the amount of true airspeed
changed will be less than the wind component encountered.

THP vs Vx
r t

TIP
r

— V^ 1^ Headwind

V^R No Wind

Rj,^ Tail Wind

Tailwirri Headwind

Figure 3.2.29

3-67
Writing the force equation as before gives

T - D - W sin ?
g

■ultiplying by V.. as before

W (Vtsin If) . (T -D) Vt.| V

or R/C . (T - D) Vh m Vt £
W^ g a^E

R/Cc , R/C . V, d7 Equation 3.3.23

g Ht

where
R/C rate of climb with no acceleration

R/C • rate of climb with acceleration

a
This indicates that as the aircraft accelerates while climbing it does not

achieve its maximum rate of climb since some of the» thrust produced by the

power plant is beinp used to accelerate the aircraft.

For comparison purposes and for determination of climb schedules it is

generally desired to correct the accelerated rate of climb s ch as is obtained

at constant indicated airspeed or ilach number to zero acceleration. This is

done by algebraicly manipulating equation 3.3.23 to a more convenient form

R/C R/Cfla * It SL
g dt

R/C R/C Vj. d7 dh

3-90
where

ä!l . R/Ca
dt

R/C « R/C a r""-. V, dv"l Equation 3.3.2Um

|_ i U
The term in brackets is called the acceleration factor and is determined once
the true speed and the change in true speed with altitude are determined fr<r

the particular altitude beinp considered. An incremental correction

is obtainea by using only the second term of the acceleration factor. That is

^R/Ca -fL flr"U/Ca Equation 3.3.2Ub

Some more expanded forms of these equatiors and some charts for simpli-
fied conj:'itatic\ are found in AFTR No 6273, Flirht Test aigineering Manual.

3.3.U VERTICAL WDB GRADHHTS

Wind velocities vary sifmficantly with altitude because of Jet streaos
and other meteor.. 1--gi'^1 phenomena. A vertical wind gradient is defined as
the change in the horirental wind velocity, V^r with altitude.

dVw
Wind gradient ■ J:

The wind gradient is positive if the wind velocity increases with altitude.
As a matter of convention a headwind is taken as positive and a taiiwind is

negative.

Climbing through a vertical wind gradient has a very significant effect

on the performance of an aircraft. Consider an aircraft climbing into a

3-91
positive wind r-radient at a fiven indicated speed, Firure 3.3.6a. Under

zero or steady wind conditions the aircraft would follow the flight path

indicated by the dotted line, "owever, wnen flyinp along this path into

a vertical wind -radirnt^ as shown, the aircraft appears to accelerate;

that is. the indicated speed increases. Since the pilot is flyinf a

climb schedule^ (either airspeed or Mach n;mber) he will convert the

apparent acceleration into increased rate of climb and follow some steeper

flirht rath indicated by the solid line Thus, an aircraft flyinp into a

Dositive wind gradient accelerates relative to the air mass. This accele-

ration can be and is converted to climb oerformance w.th the indicated climb

soeed is held constint.

V.rhen the Mind -radient or the üroction of r

li"ht relative to the wind

^radient chin^es, the overall effect on the climb oerfomance chanpes. All

possible effects of wind rradients on flight path and rate of climb are

qualitiatively summarized in Firure 3.3.t)v

3-92
 //
Attz N

i»—
Alt
y^ rfind

Distanc? Distance

a) Increasing headwind results in b) T.v reasing tailwind results in

hipher rate of climb tnan with lower rate of climb than with
no wind rio wind

Distance Distance
c) Decreasing headwind results in d) Derreasing tailwind results in
lower rate of climb than with no higher rate of climb than with
wind no wind

Figure 3.3o6
Note in eich case where the climb path steepens the aircraft is essentially

tendinr to accelerate due to the changin,: wind velocity with altitude. This

,? -;3
 i
(c) There are no effects due to varying load disbritution, local velocity

variations and the like. The drag coefficient in turning flight is identical

with that obtained in level unaccelerated flight at the sane angle of attack

and Mach number.

During a steady turn, where tha above assumptions hold, there is a

simple relation for turning performaiice

n f (M , */nr ) Equation 3o5.1

B^ lo.-icLag oo iht abov»-» relation it (MS be resn that at & constant weight,

I'ach and N/VS"5the nc/mal load fa-.to»" is only a function of the pressure ratio.
This states that a steady level turn at one altitude may be simply related to

the performance at any other altitar s, With this m mind a simple plot of
height, or pressure ntio may be plotted wwmiM Maca> On this plot is shown

a line ot majümum xevel High-, Mach number for each heightc This plot may
no*i be used to detormine the steady turning perfomaru.-. at various heights.

This is shown in Figure 3.5.1.

Maximiffl Level
Flight Mach Number
(zi 1)

rU.
obtained from
n s 1 data
A***S*

i
Niax at n - 1
at n 2
KMX "

Fig-re 3.^.1

3-i:,i
 In Piriry 1 :'otrto ccieialiseu ^ai.a ..- •. 1 i.cd above is not r/.ways obtained.

The only reason, presumably, is due to Reynolds number effects on the effects

of absolute pressure on the engine and aircraft. Even with the errors involved

in this rrencralization it is well worth the effort to atteimt to predict turning

performance. The use of Fn/g instead of N/V* may avoid some of the

difficulties since a large change of drac due to Reynolds number is hard to

imagine»

Consider an aircraft in straight and level flight, the performance

equation may oe written as:

'l " (CDnP + V1

q

8
P
•^^(i. «tt/t »)
TTÄle

Taking the sane aircraft at tne sane speed and height with, ag, acceleroraeter

reading. This increase in g forces is an increase above level flight where

n = 1.

1
\ ' r'2^
■8« \«»Vt
f
»KÖu atV«
' VtST x ' Vs
Of
t"2 -« « * Vt2 s)
niRe

103
By comparin,; D^ to Dp it can be seen that an incieaoe in drag in

the last tern of Dp, by mcreasinp P. is the amount of additional thrust that
will be required to maintain airspeed and height.

The change in induced drag due to turning (constant weicht) is:

2 2
AD. W ^-r )., ^K -^) Lunation 3«5»2
b TTqe If »Rh qS

and the following is true consider! n^ a ^'.ght ,'hamge during a change of g.

AD Equation 3.5.3
h2n qe

The next few curves are used to explain how drag changes with weight

and tenperature daring naneuverinr flight. Consider the first curve below.

Thrust and Drag vs V...

or
D

Figure 3.5«2

3-1'^
 Tliis curve considers ore iMpwrstnr« but tvo different weights. There-

fore, thrust is one line and sc I DL. Ml to-al drag is alffeient for each
P
weight due to change of induces irar. The different total drag lines can also be

considered to be due to a chanre of nW as veil as a chanre of weight. From

this a chanre of drag can be noted and also a caanfe of excess thrust.
To go further lets consider the following curve:

Thrust and Drag vs V

T
or

Figure .3.5.3

3-105
Tnis envelop it consti acted for a maximum power settinp at all points.

Supersonic Fiphter rhvelop

Temp
Limit
Line

/vLT

FT Gtructual
Limit
Line

Mach lie.
Figure 3 6.1

From this Figure it is seen that the final altitude can be reached at a

wide range of speeds or at a wide range of energy heirhts. Therefore,the

problem of a climb s.'l.edule may be presented as the problem to minimize the

time to go from one level of energy height to a higher level. The use of the

concept of specific energy is also useful due to the fact that a rapid estima-

tion can be made of the maximum altitude obtainable in a zoom or the maximum

speed in a dive.

The determination of the minimum time to change from one altitude and

airspeed combination to another combination is solved a? the minimum tine to

go from one energy level to the desired level. An equation using energy

altitude as the independant variable can be written that will solve the

minimum time problem .

3-115
 he-

t - Equation 3«6,8
■aE?73t ' dhd

he

From the previous derivation we have

he - h + V /2g Equation 3.6.2

dhe (T > D) V - ,. ^v
dt • Ü ■ f (h; O

Since from equation 3-6,2

he - f (h, V)

or h • f (he, V)

and V « f (he, h)

It follows that

1
m
i , f. (he, V) - f2 (he, h)

t ■ f (he; ?) dhe

or he.

t f2 (he, h) dhe

The problem reduces tc ndnimizing the above intergals,which in turn

minimizes the time to change from one energy level to another. Since two

variables are involved the calculus of variations is used and the integral is
at a minimum value when

>116
 dt
^ iTie he - I

or Equation 3.6.9
5h L^J he - K

Now if ^__ f ( 3c , y J • 0 it then follows that 2 P^ "lf 3c ,"y)] - 0

Th»t is to say- if the slope of the function f (x , y) equal zero the slope

of l/f^ x i y) is also equal to zero as shown in the following figure.

t (x ,. y)

f(x , y)
Slopes equal ^erc

f S , y)

From this relationship we can write equation 3.6„9 as

■1
^ t dhe
^V L_dtJ he ■ K

or Equation 3.6,10
ah L dt J he ■ K

3-13«-I
 n

Since a jet engine derives its thrust from the change in momentum of the air
= M
passed through it. T t (v# - V
i); the raaxiraum thrust should result when

the velocity., V^, of the incoming air is zero. This is truly the case if there

are no inlet losses as with a bellmouth in a test stand. Engines installed in

aircraft, however, do suffer losses because they are designed to give best

efficiency at some design forward speed. These losses are caused by the re-

duction in effective duct area when incoming air approaches the duct from all

directions as shown in Figure 3*7,3«% The sharp lipped inlet tends to form

a dead air region Just inside the lip caus.vf *n effective reduction in inlet

area which results in a lower mass flow and, therefore,lower static thrust.

The low speed inlet does not suffer as much from this effect because of its

more favorable streamlined shape for static conditions and,, therefore, may

nearly develop rated thrust. These losses are reduced rapidly as forward speed

increases.

As forward speed is increased the inlet velocity and momentum is propor-

tionately increased causing a reduction in the net thrust; Tn#to This reduction

in net thrust is normally more than offset by the increase m duct efficiency

of the high speed inlet resulting in increased thrust during ground roll.

Figure 3o7v3bc For the low speed inlet the increase in duct efficiency is not

too great so that the increase in inlet momentum may :au£-i the thrust to de-

crease slightly but generally it is considered constant for a first approxima-

tion.

Another effect which is closely akin to the low speed duct loss problem

is the duct losses caused by angle of attack during the transition and air

phase. The flow pattern ia the sane except that it occurs on only one side of

3-138
th« duct «s shown in Figurt 3c7 3b Thia loss will causs a reduction in thrust

when the aircraft is rotate'* to a flight attitude just prior to takeoff and

its magnitude will depend on the duct configuration, takeoff speed, etc.

From this it is seen that the thrust of a jet powered aircraft may in-

crease, decrease or remain constant during the takeoff roll depending on the

duct configuration.

A propeller driven aircraft is a different story. The thrust of a pure

propeller type aircraft (no jet thrust or JATO) almost always decreases

during takeoff with a constant horsepower output. This is qualitatively seen

for a constant speed propeller from the fact that the thrust horsepower avail-

able is defined as

TIF - 3!P x ^J p - TxVt Equation 3.1.3

* * T5o"
Where
M is the propeller efficiency

T is the thrust

V is the true speed

During takeoff the br-»1-^ horsepower, KP , is constant at the «yy-i mn avail-

able and the )i increases slightly causing the thrust horsepower to increase

slightly« However, the increase in velocity is very large, therefore, if the

thrust horsepower increases only a small amount the thrust, T, mist decrease

in some proportion to the velocity, Vt

The thrust of a fixed pitch propeller decreases even more than the constant

speed prop since the blade angle cannot increase as the forward speed is in-

creased. This reduces the angle of attack of the blade and consequently the

thrust. Though not generally the case some fixed pitch propellers give

3-139
increased thrust with increased speed for ^ brief period during takeoff. This

is expected for very large blade angles where the blade is partially stalled

under static conditions and,therefore,becomes more effective as forward speed

is increased because of the lower ancle of attack of the blades.

3,1.1.2 TAKEOFF PBVOIKtflGI EQUATIONS

How that we have observed the forcos actirv and how they behave during

the takeoff run, let us see more precisely how they effect the takeoff per-

formance Considering the ground roll, the takeoff distance is given by

S
pro
S -j dS Equation 3.7.U

which can be expressed in terms of velocity and acceleration

V
TO
dS
S -l-|Ld7 Equation 3c 7.5
/•
0 dt

i
vi;

where i
V » velocity

a = acceleration

The rxcelcration is obtained from I.'ewton's 3econd Law uhich states

F = ma

3-liiO
where

F c
T - R = excess thrust ■ Tex

I » D*></(W-L)= total resistance

Therefore

(T - R )
a * „; '
w/l

Substituting in equation 3.7.5

S » W [ VdV Equation 3.7.6

« i I —TTTTT
0
Thus, if the velocity and the excess thrust as a function of velocity can be
determined at each point the mimiraum distance to attain any r^-ven speed can

be detemined, Exceot for preliminary calculations, thJs is not normally done.

For flight test data correction purposes a less exact formulation is required,
A glance at rip^ire 3.7.2 suf^sts that during the nroand roll the excess thrust
is nearly constint, that is (T - P.) in the above equation does not change

creatly. Using the mean vilue of T - R and inttt:ratin:' fives

V.

mean
/ 0

2
V
S W TO Equation 3.7.7
K v
'mean

Tote that rearranring this equation says that the work done durin^ the ground
roll is equal to the increase in kinetic enery of the aircraft ,

3-1U1
BLANK PAGE
■i»
 3SCTI01: k

FOHB PLAIiTS
h*l QSÜERAL TirRODlCTICN

before we can i;o on idth our analyses cf flight test methods for

aircraft performance we must learn some fundanentr».]? of the oower plarts

used to prooel aircraft. This study is WMltial toward an understanding

of tho uses cr these engines and of their relationship to tho performance

of the airplane.

The design of the first successful aircraft engine roes back tc 1901

when Charles H« uanly developed a five cylinder water-cooled radial engine.

The cn-ine weirhed less than three pounds per horsepoWT« ihe engine vat

developed for Professor Linpley's experimental airplanes. The Wright brothers

engine was the first to fly, but Ihnly's engine vas much more of a enrinocring
achieve-lent ♦

Pressing needs of IJITI provided the t^itQi for dvrtlopWBl of chc Liberty

engineo This engine was unique perhaps bwwsa of the speed in whicn it was

designed and fanilt« KhM wj considei- that the narsml time f-cn the Initial
conception to the actual runnin- of tha engine is several yaara, the uomat 3

months lor this vork daring the sumer cf 1^17 stands cut as a remarkabl«
achievemento

- tha lata l?20!s the tvues and aii-.-i. -.T-:;1,^ of onginaa riad pratty well
exystallitad, and nrogress for the next de-ado \ias .nrgaly devoted to
rafinenent of daaign« In -eneral, all during v- thirtiea md up until ^he

inpatu« of T.'II began to be felt, each year caw a eartain percentage incroase
in reliability and ope rat in.; life.

1^1
■

Then in the early IPhO's 'Whittle, in EUglandi succeeded in ais efforts

to denonstr?it^ * m ••or*h and possibiliti"S for aircraft use of the turbine

jet type of pover plant. The idea of jet propilsi.m was further brought

into foeot by Vm .err!r>r. ise of the IvpalM jets in the V-l and the use of the
rocket power plant in the V-2. In England and perhaps elsewhere the athodyd

(ramjet) was receiving serious attention. It is interesting to note that the

underlying principles for all these types have been, known for many yearso
The r-eneral nerformance tart could be fxoected from zhe various types

of enrines to oe discussed cnn be best shown in the rifoire U.l.l.

Engine Performance Regime

Fir;. ),.! i
U-2
h, 2 I'ECIPPOCATING EMJINE

VJe snail begin our study of engines by first considering the internal

combustion enpine. Neither tine or facilities are available here at the

Test rilot School to füve a complete course in internal combustion engines,

Jet engines or rocket engines, nor is the purpose of the school to do soo

Such a course would require months of graduate study at an accredited

Universityc It is mandatory, however, that the test pilot have some under -

standing of the basic fundamentals of these power plants. Much detail has

bsen Mdtted from the following material^ but annlication of the individual

to son» outside study will greatly increase uis knowledfie over that presented

here.

ht2,l SchMMtic diagrams of the general typtt of recinrocating engines in

current use and listing Of their major component parts follows:

a Juperc-;arged engine:

ntake air

Exhaist Gases

Pig, L2.1
1-3
 1. Kugln«
2« Gears
3« Saptrohargsr
U« Torbln«
5* Aft«Pcooler

b. Coapound engine:

eotheuet guee

F:g. U.2.2

!• Engine
2. Oeare
3« TuxWjie

U4i
 Cc Unsupercharged engine c A basic engine without a means for increasing
the intake manifold pressure«

li,2e2 Bach engine above has the sams basic operation with variations in the

means for boostinR the power output c A piston engine gets its power by burning

fuel in a cylinder and moving a piston which is attached to a crankshaft«

Normally an engine makes either one revolution (2 cycle) or two revolutions

(U cycles) per power stroke,thus getting its name 2 cycle or k cycle. The

injection of fuel, ignition, compression and the exhaust is regulated by a

camshaft which opens and closes valves« To get a better understanding of the
■

operation of a reciprocating engine lets take a brief look at the strokes of

a typical Otto cyclOo The name of Otto bears the name of the person who

first built the Beau De Rochas engine in 1876. In 1862 Beau De Rochas first

put the internal combustion engine on paper as follows?

Strokes of a typical Otto cycle.

«c Inta'ce - Induction of the combustible material (fuel-air mixture)«

The engine operates as a vacuum pump,

b6 Compression - The cylinder volume is decreased^ increasing the pressure

of the fuel air mixturec

c, Combustion and expansion or power stroke - Ignition occurs and the

chemical reaction increases the pressure of the fuel-air mixture even more

and moves the cylinder back,

df Exhaust - After the mixture has served its useful purpose or done

the required work, it has to be removed form the cylinder to make room for

the next charge. Following the exhaust the cycle is repeated and since the

operation requires four strokes the engine is called a "Four-stroke-cycle".

M
 ■

14.2,3 In speaking of the ideal or theoretical Otto cycle the following

assumptions must be made:

Assume no effect on:

a. Fuel air ratio

b. Characteristics of a particular fuel
c. Change in the characteristics of the fuel as it is burned
d. Variations in specific heat
e. Heat transfer losses
f• Dilution of the workinp medium with exhaust. All the burned gases

have been removed and a fresh charge is introduced

g. Leakage or throttling during induction or exhaust

lu2#U Air is assumed to be the workinp substance, and the cycle is often

referred to as the "Air standard cycle", There is no loss of heat in the

system and heat is assumed to be supplied or rejected without heat transfer

losses, A pressure-volume (P-V) diagram of an ideal Otto cycle is as follows:

3 i^ Ideal Otto Cycle

Heat
in

Pressure
(p)

Heat out

Intake

Volume
(?)
Fig. h.2 3
U-6
 1-2 Isentropic compression

2-3 Constant volume heat addition

3-h Isentropic expansion - power stroke

Ii-1 Constant volume heat rejection

\xr2fS To determine the net work developed during the cycle mentioned we must

determine the area under the curve or, work ■ f? dVc The area under the

curve ■ F ? • (lb/ft2) (ft3/lb of air) »ft - lb/lb of air - work done •

weicht of air x B T U /lb of air

where

n
1
v^ ., -'3000 ft -Ib/nin . ,,, ; 3TU ,-: - ITU
* " 77» ft-lb/3W " ^«U EH ^ 25u5
IST
u<:2e6 A means of determining the P-V diapram of a reciprocating engine is

accomplished ;rith a planimeter. As an engine piston reciprocates an

attached indicator moves with it» ThuSj the indicator pointer moves

horizontally in proportion to volume changes in the cylinder. The pressure

will be tr.insmitted through the connecting tube to the indicator piston so

that it will compress the indicator spring and move the pointer vertically in

porportion to pressure changes in the cylinder. The resultant path of the

indicator pointer is in a line representing the pressure and volume in the

cylinder at all points throughout the cycle c If the planineter were reading

the pressure and volume of an ideal Otto cycle the resultant picture would

be as shown in Figure Ue2c3. If we were to consider the actual cycle then all

th« losses would have to be considered.. These losses are^

U-7
 '.•>

1 - engine
2 - gears
3 - supercharger
•'
h - turbine for supercharging
5 - turbine for compounding
The above diagram SP.OWS that area (A-S'9) is required to drive the super-
--
charger whicii is negative work. Area 1-10-11-9 is the work output of the
compoundinp and the resultant work output of both supercharging and compounding
is area (l-lC-r.-o).
U.2,11 ENGINE LOSSES
ib The approximate heat losses in the actual reciprocating engine are as
follows:
(1) In the combustion prjces-:, of total heat added 0.3^
(2) C^bu&ticr pvooess duo to heat transfer - - - . - j>#($
(3) Irjompr.Qte combustion ----- 2,0^
(a) EJcpanslon of pOMT stroke ----- a. 05?
(5) Heat loss to oil 0.352
(6) Intake and exhau^c ----- 2,6/^
Total snorgy loss iT.?"
This indicates that^l^ ^f titt rjcipioatinp engine 3.3 about 88,8 psreent
of the thermal eriic:«.»jnc3r. At 50,000 feei tlw density is approximately 12
percent of the density at sea level; therefore, at 50,000 feet the power
output of the engine will just about make up for the losses and there is no
useful work available from the engine. Some slight differences between engine
may be expected, but for a first approximation this simple relationship is

).i.l6
 !

very useful. This situation requires that the engine is at wide open

throttle, giving its «SJIM horsepower. There ars a couple of equations

vhich may be used to apprarLmate the horsepower at altitude« The first is*
BHPalt BHPqT ((T- 1- (T ) Equation U.2,9
735-
Consider BHP at 20,000 feet vhere is «5327, therefore.

■»Ml - 1 (.5327 - 1 - .5327 ) - ,14708

This states that the BHP at 20,000 feet is equal to approxlnately U7 percent
of the horsepower at sea level«
The second equation is:
BHP BHP,SL ( -.1 ) Equation lu2#I0
alt

therefore
l
BH^OM " ( iflg : -1> . Jl227 m .U8

U-17
lj.3 TQR90-JST Mr"';" -3

)4.3.1 III3T0RY MD DITILQREMI

'
As far back as 1680 Sir Isaac RiWtoil had built a model horseless

carriare usinr the jet propulsion principle to demonstrate his third law
of motion: "for each cction there is an ecunl and onposite reaction".» There

are no records sho-jin" that this Model WM operational. The theory was that
the jet of steam escaoinf fron the nozzle at the rear of the boiler uould

propel the carria^e^ but it is very doubtful that rnou::h thrust was produced

to move the carriage The records 3'ow that the first ras turbine in the
'Jnit(.d Jtatcr, MM be-un in 1902 under tne supervision of Stanford A, .loss at
Cornell university. The iaforwfttion he i'eceived tlirou^h this project was the

basis for Ms doctor;s thesis ^

The Heinkttl lircraft Conpanj of Germany developed a research aircrr.Ct^

desiiinatod the He 17G,with a J^t meine for power This la the first aircraft
to fly usinr the principle of je-o propulsion and made its first flight 27 August

1939. The power plant wee e Heinkel turbojet, the He S3B, vdth a thrust of

880 to 1^100 oounds.

In 192" ^ir Frank v:hitt]e. a cadet it RAF Collofc in Snr^land, prepared

a thesis deeortbinn the possibility of usinr Jet ptx>pulsioa to po'?cr an air-

craft and in January 1730 le applied for his first potent« Because of lack
of funds axl a soonsor he was not able to develon the engine until 1936 at
which time be i'orr.ied the company called Power oets, Limited. The Air idnistry

li.lfl
supplied the financial backing, thus uking it possible to proceed with the
development of the enpine. The first successful fllrht of this engine and the

first jet flight in England was on li* Nay 19U1 using a Gloster E 26/39 air-
craft. The pilot was Flight lieutenant P. E. G. Sayer,

The United States and England had an agreemsnt during World War II

whereby there was a constant Interchange of ideas so that the derelopnent

and production could be expedited. The first Whittle engine under this
T
agreement arrived in this country on 1 October 191*1. he General Electric
Company was called on to build the engine to American standards and Bell

Aircraft Corp. was to build the airfrane. One year was allotted for the
project and the actual time was one year and three weeks to the first flight,

date* The first pilot to fly the P-59A, the first USAF jet aircraft, was

R. Ne Stanley« Colonel Laurence 0« Cralgle was the first United States

military person to fly the P-59A which was the day after the fllrht by

H. M. Stanleyt These flights were conducted at Edwards AFB, California.

This is a very quick look at the history of the gas turbines «id
considering the progress made we may safely conclude the future of jet
type propulsion cannot be predicted.
U.3.2 GENERAL:

The basic principles of the turbo-jet are quite similar to those of the
reciprocating, except that it employs the Brayton cycle which is not so

familiar to most Air Force people. Most present day reciprocating engines

employ the Otto cycle. The fact that the turjo-jet deals with large changes
in temperature, pressure and velocity with greater volumes

a-19
 Nozzle performance curves are normally presented as in Figure lu3.U.

Nozzle Performance

w^/f

Vs

Pressure Ratio Across ItoitaXi

Figure I4.3.U
It can >>e seen that the thrust continues to increase as pressure ratio
increases despite the fact that the iirflow has reached a maximum at a low
pressure ratio.
An afterburner may be used inside tlio BOMI« ■Sfth like a raiajet engine.
An afterburner, or reheatcr, is a device to MgflMit thrust by burning fuel
in the unused oxygen of the turbojet exhaust gases. The afterburner has a
very hifjh rate of fuel consumption which may run about two or three times
more than the basic engine, but its take-off thrust augmentation can reach $0%

• •-/'ft
and at high speed as «ich as 100^« For short range Interceptor type aircraft
the disadvantages of the additional weight of the burner, the lowered per-

foraance of unaugmented operation, aid the large fuel flew are more than
offset by the large thrust Increase.

The theory and the design of the nozzles are discussed in another section
of this handbook and will not be covered here.
U.3.U EFiICIHICY

For an air breathlt g engine the propulsive .xflclency «ay be written as:

7* . T x vo
^p Kinetic Energy of the system
Consider mechanical work as a change of kinetic energy which is
J M (V - V)
Vw - velocity of wake
V0 ■ velocity

M - Mass - W/g
then:

"^P - i S M> 1° rm— *n*tioii Ju3#i

and T - M (7W • V0)

fVw . Vrtx V 0 v
t M ^w. v0j (vw * v0) ? ; vw
W ♦ o
V
0
2
»5
iT5

U-29
The followine can be deducted:

When:

V0 - Vw , T^p - 100JK and T - 0

Vy < V0 there is drag

V > V there is thrust

W © #

A plot of ?7p versus W is shewn below, (see section on Rocket Engines also)
o

1.8 r \

1.6 • \

1.U

1.2

1.0
^P .8

.6L
«
•4

.2
Apprcjc. some for a?J. air breathing engines

0
0
r^A,
Figure U.3.U

1-30
 U.li PROPELLERS

h.h.l INTRODJCTION

Propeller theory nay seera a rather obsolete subject; however, rather

recent developments such as the turboprop, ducted Tan designs, 3T0L aircraft

and helicopters, to nane a feu, should convince the reader that propeller

theory is indeed a live subject and should be for some time to come. This

section covering propeller theory is very basic and will present two

motiiods used extensively to develop the propeller momentum theory and one
••
basic developnent of the nropellcr blade element theory,

h.h.2 PROPS! IZR Ir:[ERTOM THBQRT '

The nomentun Vaeory for propellers considers the propeller as a devise

which changes the momentum of the air as the air passes through it. The

chai-e in momentum of the air by the propeller creates a thrust. For con-

tinuity of air flow through the propeller,i.e,,uniform air flow in front of

and behind the oropeller, the propeller is considered to have an infinite

number r: blades nd is usually called an actuator disk< This is only one of

the sssurmtions used in the momentum theory that obviously causes the results

to be a little less than nerfect. Other losses not considered in the develop-
ncnt of this theory are:

1. Energy lost in the slipstream rotation

2, Pi^opeller profile drag losses

3 3. Losses due to nrn-uniform thrust loading

It, Blade interference losses

5, Losses due to increased drat in the compressible ranse, i.e., tip losses

li-31
U.6.2 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

The ramjet consists of a diffuser, fuel injector, flame holder,

combustion chamber and deLavel Nozzlec In referring to Figure U.6el it can

be seen that the pressure uill rise between station 0 and the flame holdere

This is normally accomplished by two stages. First,the erternal compression

due to the air changing direction. Second, further compression is obtained in

the diverging section of the diffuser due to the air slowing down» The velocity

is the lowest at the flame holder, which is favorable to flame propagation,

and this is where the burning takes place. The burning mixture recirculates

within the sheltered area and ignites a new charge as it passes the edge of the

flame holdere As the buminc cases nass through the combustion chamber the

temperature is raised,thus increasing the volume. As the volume is increased

the gases must speed up to allow room for a new charge of aire The velocity

of the air is again increased as it passes through t he converging-diverging

nozzlec As the gases leave the exit nozzler the temperature is many times

higher than that of the entering air and as a result so is the velocity.

Uo6,3 THRUST

The pross thrust. Fg, is the actual thrust of the jet stream. The gross

thrust is the product of the mass gas flow «S/s, and its effective velocity 7..
J

V V
F
r ^ i
g « -2 i. Equation U.6.1

U-5S
 In ■♦•he case of the ramjet the gross thrast is meaningless becaase it is

never obtained, but is useful in understanding ramjet performance. The net

thrust, FR, is the Fg minu^ the momentum diag imposed by accelerating the air

swallowed by the engine to the forward velocity of the engine or ram drag.

rB Equation U.6.2
g g
The c^oss thrust can be represented bf ttesunr« in Fifnire li.6,2

^ i

-^ o

Finure U. 6U2

U'56
This curve shews that as the pressure ratio, Pto/p0* across the nozzle is

increased the thrust increases alto« Also,as the conl .stion ^enpprature is

incrensed the thrust per pound of air also increases. To determine the F
n
Tfhich acts on the aircraft,the ram drag must be subtracted from the -ross thnitt.

If we assume that the inlet weight flow, W0, is equal to the outlet weight

flow, W., \ie can construct the curve in Figure )4.6.3. Only one combustion

temperature is shown.

FAJ

Uozzle Pressure Ratio oy P. /P

Figure Iu6,3

U-57
 The combustion efficiency is affected by the following (causes lower 7) )
1. Decreased Tt
2. Decreased Px

3« Increased combustion inlet velocity

U« Change of fuel air ratio from design
Figure U.60IO shows a plot of 7^ versus fuel air ratio.

Inc

Fuel Air Ratio

Figure U.6.?C

U-66
b.6,7 NOZZLE

The jet nozzle accelerates the hot gases fro« the combustion chamber to

a high velocity at the nozzle exitc Thrust performance and air flow capacity-

are two characteristics which are important for jet performa/cec The thrust

of a nozzle does not equal the thrust of an actual nozzle as shown in Figure

ii.6.3. The reason for the difference is the following losses.

(1) Friction

(2) Angularity of flow at the exit

(3) Under expansion

(h) Over expansion

(5) Lack of one dimensional l^ow

Considering all these losses as a proup, thrust efficiency of the

nozzle may be expressed by a so called velocity coefficient.

C^ » velocity coefficient . (Fg^j) actual Equation U,6eU

a e4
(FE/5^) ideal ^

uhereI

=
^V^V actual Actual gross thrust per pound of gas flow

m Ideal
^g^j^ideal gross thrust per pound of gas flow

A plot in Figure U.6.11 shows how (^ varies with nozzle pressure ratio

U.67
1

Design Condition

N'-szle Pressure Ratio f\) Px /P.

Figure I4.6.II

For a more complete discussion of nozzles,reference should be made to

Section § on Supersonic Aerodynanics,, -

lu6.8 OVERALL ENGINE OPERATION

By establishing the value of (1 ••• fuel air ratio)x Jl^ A^ for a

'2

given operation then the values of W *je~/ ^^w , P,. /P and 7]kj are four^d.
*0
^ '".t ^"J
,5 to
<: d

These are the parameters that are necessary for romputing the engine thrusb and

economy. Figure li.6,12 may be constructed anc' will f^ive an understanding of

the operation of a supersonic ramjet» At a fixed speed ^»n increase in fuel

air ratio will decrease diffuser loss find loss across tne combustion chamber.

U-68
 T?

\'\

-P

+
.-I

v;0 V5
2 \Jk,.
Figure h.6.12

The above rnentioned condition will also move the operating point toward

the "buzz" limito There is a continual compromise between sufficient buzz

margin qnu optimum performance. The tendency of the designer is to obtain
minimum loss and maximum efficiency. This occurs at ,he buzz limit and
produces a very interesting enpineerinp problem.

If the process in Fifure U^t12 is repeated for a series of flight

speeds and fuel air ratios,the curve in Figure U.6.J3 may be constructed«

U«69
 It can be seen from the drawing that the gas generator is replenished

after the turbopuraps build up pressure to the combustion chamber« This allows

the pump to work until all the fuel is expended, thus giving a very long
burning duration. The system can be made much lighter than the pressure feed
system»however, the system requires that all parts work perfectly which affects
reliability.

U.7.2b. PHDPELLANT TANKS

Spherical tanks would be ideal as far as stress concentration and weight,

but would not be economical in rocket construction. The propellant tank must

be strong and light weight. Two types are used: The first is the pressurized
type used in the pressure feed system.and the second is the^low pressure type
used with pump feed system. These are very thin-walled and have a tendency

to collapse under severe external load. These tanks are normally pressurized
for storage and transportation,

U.7,2c. THRUST CHAMBER

This Is the section of the engine where the propellant is burned at very
high pressure to form gaseous products which in turn are accelerated and

ejected at high velocities« The thrust chamber assembly includes propellant

inlet manifolds, injectors, combustion chamber and the de Lavel nozzle.
The function of the injector is similar to a carburetor of an internal

combustion engine« To be effective,an injector must distribute an even

propellant pattern or hot spots will develop as a result of disturbing the

boundary layer« The size, number and pattern of the orifices must be carefully

U-78
desifTied to avoid adverse effects on the injectors strength, i-'igure h,7.k
shows a few of the desipns oossible.

Doublet
»r» /| V
TTTV
'IN.

Self-Impinging

'tv /i^
Showerhead Triplet

m Qxidizer
D Fuel

Injector Designs

Figure 1K7.II

U-79
 The deslnn of the combustion chamber may be infiuanced by many factors.

Some of the most important are:

(1) HanufactorinT ease

(2) Size

(3) Weight
(u) V.nzzle inlet design

(5) C ^.oi.t, pressure drop

It is covious that the most desirable chamber is the one that will produce

the maximum thrust in relation to the veignt and propellant flow. Any increase

in thrust output wo üd be desirable if the weight cou]d be held down,, The

factors ihlch oontrlbutt to the oveiall parformance wat be weiched against the

undeairabr.e features to 3?e if it is profitable. These selectioxis are usually

accomplished aft-^r an extensiv« research and djTHloptnt period.

The terrri "oharactnrlstio length'' is usually used in conjunction with

combustion chamber?« Characteristic length is equal to the ratio of combustion

chamber voluirie to the area of the nozzle throa* e This is represented in the

formuio:

The combustion criamber volume is the volume of the chunber plus the volume

of the converging portion of the de Lavel nozzle« The^e is usually one

characteristic length for each particular propellant combination, mixture ratio,

chamber pressure^ and injector.

U-80
I
I
1 Throughout the buniqg process one woild expect the thrust chamber to

become veiy hot and some type of cooling would be required. The temperatures

inside the chamber could run as high as 5000 ^ which is a large amount of

heat on the chamber wallsc The heat transfer ranges in various engines run
2
about 2 to 10 3TU/Sec/in . The throat of the nozzle is usually the

I hottest as can be seen in Figure b«7#5«

I
1

Heat
Transfer
Intensity

(BTU/Sec/in2)

Fifnire lu? L'

U-81
 F.'^- RE, v/ gi'air. CftiLgre tht 3;q:G'i-i:i baxnlng AVM ohangss s-". tht prc^?Jlant
is burned; rh.jv.ix i.v., oattulng R tfUBgo la bBsa5;ig L-»'to and chciibci1 prezvjrs,, Thla
wiil ohflBfi Ve bhroa* MM propta but w'v a.^e eontroüläbla and pwn to '^e
sdvan tagecr^ t?*, tljews« A typlo&l solid p^c^jilant. tlt'A^i time peogW Ifl
shown lc "''iir^'to ';/.Vi'..

Thrust
^M^ Iff^kiT« BurDlng TIä
re—• n

Bn^ilag
'orLr;-;

**; > ^

r 2 xj
M

Tr>. t j. •.-Txll>:,..p^,:.graja

FiguTij U.?#l

ii-ae
 Static and dynainic loads 'will effect the rrain configuration. The
propellant raust be able to withstand normal handling loads as ^ell as those

imposed by thermal expansion. Host dynamic loads, such as axial acceleration

and combustion gas friction push the ?rain toward the nozzle and of the chamber

The p;rain must be able to avoid crumbling whieh will seriously limit crain
Ceo.'.ietry, especially a confi^ration which will allow burning normal to the
chamber axis.

h.l.h ROC Klirr FJ NDAHEI.TALS

b.TJia FTiTnA:!Er:TAL THRUST EOUATION

Force is defined as a rate of change of nomentum, that is, the thrust is

equal to the product of mass flow rate (m) and theoretical exhaust gas velocity
(vw) Fhich is the average velocity across the nozzle exit. The exit velocity
and the nass flow rate remains constant,

therefore F1 ^ m ^ Equation U-7.1

where
A ■ slugs per second

vw = feet oer secondf velocity of jet wake

FT
i ■ momentum thrust in pounds

The nomentum timist does not represent all of the thrust. It often
happens that the exit pressure is either greater or smaller than the ambient
pressurec Although the exit nressure remains QOMtant with respect to time,
the anbicnt pressure mil decrease with height. Any unbalance between the tvo

h-89
pressures will cause a force on the enpireo If the difference in pressure
were multiplied by the exit area the force could be expressed as follows:

F J
2 ^e " Pa) K
where
p'e ■ exit pressure in psia
p •- ambient pressure in psia

A ■ exit area in square inchM

F., ■» pressure thrust in poondt

The total thrust of a rocket engine is the sum of the momentum and pressure

thrust, and is fx^ressed by the fundamental, thrust equation as

F ■ Ä v - ip - r ) A Equation h.7c2
w r
' r ■+ e

TD obtain the optimum thrust irom * rock&t engine p^ must equal p , This
is called optiiram expansion. This would only t£ possible at all altitudes if

the nc-izle conflgortitioa could be variedc Wher i^ iö less thar pa tyww expansion
is said to occur. Normally a rocket will be designed to assure maximum total

impulse for the powrtd phase of the flight« A rocket which changes altitude, such

as an ICEM is usually designed to produce ovc.r expansion at Ion altitude and under

expansion at higher altitude, There is wom intermediate altitude where Pe ■ p

i-?0
and this is the altitude where the optimum thrust is obtained. It must be kept

in mind that the optimum thrast is the maximum thrust obtainable at a particular

altitude. The rocket engine output or thrust will always be greater at

altitude than at sea level. A typical curve is ^resented in Fi/^ure l4.7,120

Line one shows a curve for a rocket encine if p e could be kept equal to p
a
at all timeso Line 2 shows a typical rocket of fixed * It can be noted

that where ^e »sPa the two are equal,indieating that this is the maximum

thrust obtainable at that altitude-

|
•H
0)

cd
u
Xi

Thrust Pounds

Firure 14.7.12

U-91
luT.lib SPECIFIC IMFQLSI

Th» ptrfomance of a rocket is oomreniently expressed as specific

impulse. The units are Ib/lb/sec and is shortened to nsecn« The tent

means the amount of thrust available for each pound of propellent flow
per-eecond.

Shown as

>.. Equation lu7.3

W

The effective exhaust velocity "c" is defined as P/m|^herefore

m J o A . Equation h.T^h
g

To avoid g becoming vexy small in space and I becoming infinitely

i
s
large »the value of g is set as g. or 32*2 it/sec x

therefore

u
Equation U.7.5>

Specific impulse will vary with altitude even though g is fixed because
thrust will vary, A typical curve shows how altitude will change F, c and I #

The values of m, v. PA and V will remain constant but P will

•* o c a

decrease•

U-92

i
 * c> K

* V Pe' P<

Sea Lerel 150,000

Altitude A/Feet

Finure li.7a3

li.7.5 EI':ICI)::CY

For a rocket enpine the propulsive efficiency may be mitten as foUoifs

whore m V.
and

mechanical work - J m (V 2
♦ V 2)
o v
where
o velocity of aircraft
Vrw ■ velocity of jet wake

U-93
 therefore
V
A • o
• 'V V \ I / /

'h? ^~-^ Equation 1.7.7

if

V > v., thfl 7) t btfimi v« diortfta«

when

Vw ■ 0 UMS lip ** 0
alsc
V ■ f then >) " :.X perc^i.r

When Vw ■ VG then all the enorgj is utilised in p'.'-.pilling the airplane

and no energy is ccnsumM Zcs pPQpailüJLag |Mtftio?jM in the ./«ike. The vcCooity
of these v/SLke partloltte with refere^je to the earMt -.r. ther r.^rr.

At ze?^ apeed V^ - 3 a^d V-,^^ " co ?iid7jp ■ 0 and ajJ. of th» energy of
the rocket is i»: the JeL. being uatd to propel the particles ^.nthe wake«

Generally Tl^ of a rockat in Ism beccTu-'e of tne high jet velooltgr raquirod«

Mil
It is desirable to have a 71 and high thrust, but the problem is to get
high thrust with as low a V^ as possible. Figure luT.ll* shows 71 plotted

arainst the dashod line for a turbojet, raijet or turboprop as obtained from
section h*3.h.

Figure lu7.1ii

U-95
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