Engineering Properties of Food Materials

Engineering Properties of Food
Materials
Instructor: Feyera G.
Students: 2nd year FPE
Academic Year: 2016
Thaught by: Feyera G.

01/06/2016
Target group: Year II FPE students
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
1.1. Definition of food properties
1.2. Classification of food properties
1.3. Application of food properties
1.4. Structural levels in foods

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1. Introduction
I. Definition of Food Properties
• A property of a material is any observable attribute or
characteristic of that material.
• The state of a system or material can be defined by listing
its properties.
• A food property is a particular measure of the food’s
behaviour as a matter, its behaviour with respect to energy,
its interaction with the human senses, or its efficacy in
promoting human health and well-being.
• Food properties, in turn, define the food functionality
• Food functionality refers to the control of food properties
that provides a desired set of organoleptic properties,
wholesomeness (including health-related functions), as
well as properties related to processing and engineering, in
particular, ease of processing, storage stability, and
minimum environmental
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Introduction (2)
II. Classification of Food Properties
• It is proposed that food properties can be
classified into four classes:
1. Physical & physicochemical properties
2. Kinetic properties
3. Sensory properties
4. Health properties

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Introduction (3)
1. Physical & physicochemical Properties
a. Mechanical properties
b. Thermal properties
c. Thermodynamic properties
d. Mass transfer properties
e. Electromagnetic properties

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a. Mechanical
• Mechanical properties are related to food’s
structure and its behavior when physical force
is applied. These are:
– Acoustic properties
– Mass–volume–area-related properties
– Morphometric properties
– Rheological properties
– Structural characteristics
– Surface properties
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b. Thermal properties
• Thermal properties are related to heat transfer
in food. These are:
– Specific heat
– Thermal conductivity
– Thermal capacity
– Thermal diffusivity
– Surface conductance
– Emmisivity
– Transmissivity
– Absorptivity
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c. Thermodynamic properties
• Thermodynamic properties are related to the
characteristics indicating phase or state
changes in food. These are:
– Water activity
– Sorption Isotherm properties
– Glass transition

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d. Mass transfer properties
• Mass transfer properties: are related to the
transport or flow of components in food.
e. Electromagnetic properties
• Electromagnetic properties are related to the
food’s behaviour with the interaction of
electromagnetic energy
– dielectric constant
– dielectric loss
– electrical resistance
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2. Kinetic Properties
• Kinetic properties are kinetic constants
characterizing the rates of changes in foods.
• These can be divided into two groups.
– Kinetic constants characterizing the rates of biological,
biochemical, chemical, physicochemical, and physical
changes in food.
– Kinetic constants characterizing the rates of growth,
decline, and death of microorganisms in food.

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3. Sensory Properties
• A sensory property can be defined as the human
physiological–psychological perception of a
number of physical and other properties of food
and their interactions.
• Sensory properties can be subdivided into:
– tactile properties
– textural properties
– color and appearance
– taste, odor, and sound.
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4. Health Properties
• Health properties relate to the efficacy of foods in
promoting human health and well-being.
• Foods have positive or negative impacts on health.
• Positive effects can be subdivided into:
– Nutritional properties: defined by nutritional composition tables
– Medical properties: these are those that prevent and treat
diseases
– Functional properties: these are those that impact on an
individual’s general health, physical well-being, and mental
health, and slow the aging process
• Negative health properties are grouped as:
– toxic at any concentration
– toxic above a critical concentration level
– Toxic at excessive orTarget
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group: Year II FPE students
Applications of Food Properties in
Food engineering
• Knowledge of food properties is necessary for:
– defining and quantifying a description of the food
material,
– providing basic data for food engineering and unit
operations, and
– predicting behaviour of new food materials
• The application of food properties are:
– Process design and simulation
– Quality and safety
– Packaging design
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Food structural levels
• Food structure can viewed at three levels:
1. Molecular level
2. Microscopic level
3. Macroscopic level
• These structural levels can be applied in:
– The study and evaluation of food texture and quality
– The analysis and correlation of the transport
properties of foods, such as rheology (viscosity),
thermal properties (conductivity/diffusivity), and mass
transfer properties (MSIs).

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Molecular level
• At the molecular level, food biopolymers
(proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) of
importance to transport properties are:
– structural proteins (collagen, keratin, and elastin),
– storage proteins (albumins, globulins, prolamins, and
glutenins)
– structural polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses,
pectins, seaweed, and plant gums)
– storage polysaccharides (starch–amylose and
amylopectin)
– Lignin (plant cell walls).

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Microscopic level
• The microscopic level refers to the cells of food
materials that contain several components, essential in
living organisms, such as water, starch, sugars, proteins,
lipids, and salts.
• As food materials undergo different processes, their
microstructure may be preserved or destroyed for the
production of useful processed products (e.g., refining
of starch, oil seeds, sugars, grain, and milk), while other
processes such as freezing, crystallization, milling, and
emulsification cause changes in the food material
structure

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Macroscopic level
• Macroscopic level structural properties can be defined as
quantitative parameters of physical meaning, for the
characterization of structural changes of foods during
processing and storage. These are:
– Particle size
– Shape
– Density
– Porosity
– Shrinkage
• These properties are strongly related to the transport
properties of solid and semisolid food materials.
• These properties are dealt with in Chapter 2 of this course

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Chapter 2
Structural & Geometric properties
Size, shape, Area & Volume related properties

Density, shrinkage & porosity related properties

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2.1. Size, Ahape, Area & Volume
• Volume and surface area of some common
shapes (next slide)

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4
Sphere: V  r 3 , A  4r 2
3
Cylinder : V  r 2 L, A  2r 2  2rL
Cube : V  a 3 , A  6a 2
Brick : V  abc, A  2(ab  bc  ca )
1
Pyramid : V  abL, A  ab  aL  bL
3
Right  circular  cylinder : V  r 2 h, A  2r (h  r )
prolate spheroid.( rotation.about.major.axis)
4 2ab 1
V  ab2 , A  2b 2  sin e
3 e
prolate.spheroid.( rotation.about. min or.axis)
4 2 b 2  1  e 
V  a b, A  2a  2
ln 
3 e 1 e 
1
Right.circular.cone : V  r 2 h, A  r r 2  h 2
3
Frustam.right.cone.(truncated.right, circular.cone) :

L(r1  r1r2  r2 ), A   (r1  r2 ) L2  (r1  r2 ) 2
2 2
V
01/06/2016 3 Thaught by: Feyera G.
Size
• Size and shape are used in:
– screening solids to separate foreign materials,
– grading of fruits and vegetables, and
– evaluating the quality of food materials.
– heat and mass transfer calculations of fluid flow
• Particle Size:
– Size of the particulate foods is also critical, especially
in the beverage industry, as the distribution and
concentration ratio of particulates present in
beverages greatly affect their flavor

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Size (measurement-1)
• Size can be determined using the
projected area method in which
three characteristic dimensions
are defined:
– Major diameter (Length), a, which is
the longest dimension of the
maximum projected area;
– Intermediate diameter (width), b,
which is the minimum diameter of
the maximum projected area or the
maximum diameter of the minimum
projected area; and
– Minor diameter (thickness), c, which
is the shortest dimension of the
minimum projected area.Thaught by: Feyera G.
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Size (measurement-2)
• Particle sizes are expressed in different
units:
– Coarse in millimeters (mm),
– Fine particles in terms of screen size
– Very fine particles in micrometers (m)or
nanometers (nm).
– Ultrafine particles are sometimes
described in terms of their surface area
per unit mass, usually in square meters
per gram
– Particle size of particulate foods can be
determined by:
• sieve analysis
• passage through an electrically charged
orifice
• settling rate methods
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Shape
• Shape is used in:
– heat and mass transfer calculations
– screening solids to separate foreign materials
– grading of fruits and vegetables
– evaluating the quality of food materials
• The shape of a food material is usually expressed
in terms of its sphericity, aspect ratio, radius of
curvature and roundness

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Sphericity: Definition:
1. Definition of (Mohsenin, 1970):
Sphericity is the ratio of volume of solid to
the volume of a sphere that has a diameter
equal to the major diameter of the object so
that it can circumscribe the solid sample. For
a spherical particle of diameter Dp, sphericity
is equal to 1
1/ 3
 Volume of solid sample 
Sphericity   
 Volume of circumscribed sphere
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2. Definition of (McCabe, Smith, & Harriot, 1993)
Sphericity is the ratio of surface area of a sphere
having the same volume as the object to the actual
surface area of the object:
If Dp = equivalent diameter or nominal diameter of
the particle (m), Sp = surface area of one particle
(m2), Vp= volume of one particle (m3), then
2
Dp 6V p
Sphericity()   
Sp Dp S p
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3. Definition of (Mohsenin, 1970)
sphericity is the ratio of the diameter of the largest
inscribed circle (di) to the diameter of the smallest
circumscribed circle (dc)
di

dc
4. Definition of Bayram (2005)
If Di = any measured dimension (m),
D = average dimension or equivalent diameter (m),
N = number of measurements
 Di  D 
2

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Sphericity values for granular materials

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The aspect ratio (Ra) is term used to express the
shape of a material. It is calculated using the
length (a) and the width (b) of the sample as:
b
Ra 
a
Radius of curvature is important to determine how
easily the object will roll. The more sharply
rounded the surface of contact, the greater will
be the stresses developed.
Roundness is a measure of the sharpness of the
corners of the solid.
Ap Ap = largest projected area of object in natural rest position (m )
2
Roundness
Ac Ac = Area of the smallest circumscribing circle (m ) 2
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• Definition of roundness
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Angle of repose:
• It is important physical property used in
particulate foods such as seeds, grains, and fruits.
• It is a definite angle made at the sides of the pile
when granular solids are piled on a flat surface
• It is important for the design of processing,
storage, and conveying systems of particulate
material

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Particle size distribution
• The size of a regular-shaped particle can be defined with the help of a
small number of dimensions: e.g. spheres or cubes, cylinders etc
Circle D 2
A 2
 r
4
r 2
Sphere A  D 2
2
4 3 D 3
V  r 
3 6
Cylinder A  2rh  Dh

V  r 2 h
• Food materials however, are made of irregular particles => How can we
define particle size?
– Most common approach is to assign to the particle an equivalent diameter.
• Equivalent Diameter: is the diameter of a sphere that would behave like
the particle in question when subjected to a certain measurement or test

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Particle Size Distribution (PSD):
• PSD refers to the proportion of particles within a
certain size range in a population of particles
• It is used in characterizing the variability of particle size
that is needed in designing the processes for many
biological materials
• PSD of flour plays an important role in its functional
properties and the quality of end products
• PSD is equally applicable to droplets in an emulsion or
in a spray, to a shipment of fruits (apples, oranges,
potatoes, etc) arriving from the field or to a batch of
legumes, seeds and grains leaving a farm
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Particle size distribution (Measurement )
• Particle sizing is done by
sieving, i.e. classifying the size
of particles by measuring the
quantity that can fall through
the openings in a given sieve
– Each fraction can be weighed or the
individual particles in it can be
counted
• A pre-weighed sample of bulk
particulate material placed on 1: engine housing
the top sieve 2: vibrating plate
3: set of sieves (sieve tower)
– the particles would be allowed to
4: straps for mounting of sieve tower
fall through the series of sieves
5: pan
– stack is vibrated mechanically 6: sieve
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over a period of time 7: cover
Mesh Clear opening (mm)
21/2 7.925
3 6.68
31/2 5.613
4 4.699
5a 3.962
6 3.327
• Standard screens: 7a 2.794
8 2.362
– Tyler Standard Screen 9a 1.981
Series is the most 10 1.651
commonly used sieve 12a 1.397
series 14 1.168
16a 0.991
• Particle size analysis 20 0.833
can be done in two 24a

28
0.701
0.589
different ways: 32a 0.495
– Differential analysis 35
42a
0.417
0.351
– Cumulative analysis 48
60a
0.295
0.246
65 0.208
80a 0.175
100 0.147
115a 0.124
150 0.104
170a 0.088
01/06/2016 200 0.074
A. Differential analysis:
• Mass or number fraction in each size increment is plotted as a
function of average particle size or particle size range.
• The results often presented as a histogram with a continuous
curve to approximate the distribution

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• If the particle size ranges are all equal, the data can
be plotted directly. However, it gives a false
impression if the covered range of particle sizes
differs from increment to increment. Less material
is retained in an increment when the particle size
range is narrow than when it is wide.
• Therefore, average particle size or size range versus
Xiw/Dpi+1 − Dpi should be plotted, where Xiw is the
mass fraction and (Dpi+1 − Dpi) is the particle size
range in increment i
w
Xi
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Dpi 1 - Dpi Thaught by: Feyera G.
B. Cumulative Analysis
• Cumulative analysis is obtained by adding,
consecutively, the individual increments,
starting with that containing the smallest
particles and plotting the cumulative sums
against the maximum particle diameter in the
increment in percentage.
• In a cumulative analysis, the data may be
represented by a continuous curve

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Table: Typical screen analysis
Mesh X wi D pi D pi % smaller than D pi
28 0
32 0.08
35 0.06
42 0.08
48 0.14
60 0.14
65 0.14
80 0.09
100 0.09
115 0.06
150 0.04
170 0.04
200 0.02
pan 0.02 Thaught by: Feyera G.
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• In a sample of uniform particles of diameter Dp,
the number of particles in the sample is:
m
N
 pV p
Where
N = the number of particles
m = mass of the sample (Kg)
p = density of the sample (Kg/m3)
Vp = volume of one particle (m3)
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• Thus, if the particle density and sphericity are
known, the surface area of the particles in
each fraction may be calculated as:
6m
A  NS p 
 p D p
• The surface area results for each fraction are
added to give the specific surface area of
mixture.
• The specific surface area is defined as the
total surface area of a unit mass of particles.
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• For constant density (ρp) and sphericity (), specific
surface area (Aw) of the mixture is:
n w
6 Xi
Aw  
 p i 1 D pi
where
i = subscript showing individual increments,
Xiw = mass fraction in a given increment,
n = number of increments,
D pi = average particle diameter taken as the arithmetic
mean of the smallest and largest particle
diameters in the increment and expressed as:
D pi  D p (i 1)
D pi 
01/06/2016 2 Thaught by: Feyera G.
• Various types of particle size distribution can be defined,
depending on the parameter by which the individual
diameters are measured:
– If the particles are counted, the result is the ‘arithmetic’ or
‘number’ PSD.
– If the particles are weighed (as they are in sieving analysis), the
result is the ‘mass’ PSD.
• Assuming that the true density of the particles is uniform,
this is also the ‘volume’ PSD.
• Similarly, ‘surface’ and ‘surface/volume’ PSDs can also be
defined.
• Each type of PSD provides a different type of ‘mean
particle diameter’ .

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• Average particle diameter of a mixture can be
calculated in different ways
– Volume surface mean diameter (Sauter mean
diameter), Ds
– Mass mean diameter, Dw
– Arithmetic mean diameter, DN
– Volume mean diameter, DV

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Parameter (calculation of Average For Differential Analysis For Cumulative Analysis
Particle diameter of mixture)
w 1
6 n
Xi 6 dX w
Specific Surface Area
Aw 
 p

i 1 D pi
Aw 
 p 0 Dp
1 1
Volume surface mean diameter Ds  n w Ds 
Xi 1
dX w
(Sauter mean diameter)

i 1 D pi
0 D p
n 1
Mass mean diameter
Dw   D pi X i Dw   D p dX w
w
i 1 0
n 1
Arithmetic mean diameter D pi Ni  D dN
p
DN  i 1
DN  0
NT NT
w 1
1 Xi n
1 dX w

Number of particles in the mixture
 p 0 D 3 p
NT  NT 
(Volume shape factor ()) V  p i 1 D 3 pi
 p
3
D p
1/ 3
   
1/ 3
Volume mean diameter    

1 1
DV   n  DV   1 
Thaught by: FeyeraXG. i 
  dX w 
w
01/06/2016  3   3 
 i 1 ( D pi ) 
0 D p 
Example
• Wheat flour is made by grinding the dry wheat grains.
Particle size is an important characteristic in many of the
wheat products. For example, in making wafers, if the flour
is too fine, light and tender products are formed. On the
other hand, incomplete sheets of unsatisfactory wafers are
formed if the flour is too coarse. Therefore, it is important
to test the grinding performance of flour by sieve analysis
in wafer producing factories. Determine:
– Show tabulated differential Analysis results
– Volume surface mean diameter
– Mass mean diameter,
– Volume mean diameter
by differential analysis using the data given in Table 1:

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Table 1: Sieve Analysis of Wheat Flour
Mesh Quantity of wheat flour retained (g)
8/10 1.98
10/20 11.69
20/32 4.51
32/42 1.20
42/60 2.43
60/80 0.63
80/100 0.69
100/pan 1.47
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Volume
Definition:
• Volume is defined as the amount of three dimensional
space occupied by an object, usually expressed in units
that are the cubes of length units, such as m3, or in
units of liquid measure, such as gallons and liters.
– In the SI system, the unit of volume is m3
• Volume is the space occupied by a material.
– Two types of volumes are usually used by food scientists
and engineers:
• Boundary volume
• Pore or void volume
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Boundary Volume:
• It is the volume of a material considering the geometric
boundary
• A material’s boundary volume can be:
1. Estimated from the material’s geometric dimensions (e.g. next
slide): Simplified form of cucumber (A) and pear (B and C)
2. Measured by buoyancy force; liquid, gas, or solid
displacement (see here)
Pore volume:
• It is the volume of the voids or air inside a material
• Can be measured by:
– pycnometer
– mercury intrusion
– gas adsorption
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Estimating boundary volume from the material’s
geometric dimensions

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Previous figure shows:
A. Simplified shape of a cucumber considering a
cylinder for the middle part and two truncated
right circular cones for the two ends.
B. Simplified shape of a pear, which considers
one-half sphere and one circular cone (with
truncated or without truncated).
• Thus, the volume and surface area of cucumber
and pear can be estimated from the following
equation (next slide):
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Vcucumber  Volume of cylinder  Volume of right circular cone on two ends
1 
Vcucumber  r 2 L  2 r 2 h 
3 
Acucumber  Area of cylinder  Area of right circular cone on two ends

Acucumber  2r 2  2rL  2 r r 2  h 2 
Vpear  Volume of half sphere  volume of right circular cone
14 3 1 2
V pear   r   r h
23  3
Apear  Area of half sphere  Area of right circular cone
Apear
1
 
 4r 2  r r 2  h 2
2

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Volume can be expressed in different forms. The most
commonly used definitions are:
– Solid volume (Vs) is the volume of the solid material
(including water) excluding any interior pores that are
filled with air. It can be determined by the gas
displacement method in which the gas is capable of
penetrating all open pores up to the diameter of the gas
molecule.
– Apparent volume (Vapp) is the volume of a substance
including all pores within the material (internal pores).
Apparent volume of regular geometries can be calculated
using the characteristic dimensions. Apparent volume of
irregularly shaped samples may be determined by solid or
liquid displacement methods.
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– Bulk volume (Vbulk) is the volume of a material
when packed or stacked in bulk. It includes all the
pores enclosed within the material (internal
pores) and also the void volume outside the
boundary of individual particles when stacked in
bulk (external pores).

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Buoyancy force based measurement of boundary
volume
Volume of solids can be determined by :

1. Liquid Displacement Method
2. Gas Displacement Method
3. Solid Displacement Method

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Liquid Displacement Method
• This method is used when
the solid sample does not
absorb liquid very fast
• volume of food materials
can be measured by
pycnometers (specific
gravity bottles) or
graduated cylinders (figure
shown)

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• The volume of a sample can be measured by
direct measurement of volume of the liquid
displaced by using a graduated cylinder or
burette.
• The difference between the initial volume of
liquid in a graduated cylinder and the volume of
liquid with immersed material gives us the
volume of the material.
• The increase in volume after addition of solid
sample is equal to the solid volume.
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• In the liquid displacement method, liquids used
should have a low surface tension and should be
absorbed very slowly by the particles.
• Most commonly used fluids are water, alcohol,
toluene, and tetrachloroethylene.
• For displacement, it is better to use a non-wetting
fluid such as mercury.
• Coating of a sample with a film or paint may be
required to prevent liquid absorption.
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Gas Displacement Method
• This method is used to measure Volumes of particulate
solids and materials with irregular shape
• Air pycnometres are used (shown in figure)
• The most commonly used gases are helium and
nitrogen.

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• The pycnometer consists of two airtight chambers of
equal volumes, V1 and V2,that are connected with
small-diameter tubing (see Fig.)
• The material to be measured is placed in the chamber
2.
• The exhaust valve (valve 3) and the valve between the
two chambers (valve 2) are closed.
• The inlet valve (valve 1) is opened and the gas is
supplied to the first chamber until the gauge pressure
is increased up to a suitable value (e.g., 700–1000 Pa)
• The inlet valve is then closed and the equilibrium
pressure is recorded. Assuming that the gas behaves
ideally:
01/06/2016
P1V1  nRT 1 by: Feyera G.
Thaught
P1V1  nRT1
where
P1 = equilibrium pressure when valve 2 is closed (Pa)
V1 = volume of the first chamber (m3),
n = moles of gas (kg mol),
R = gas constant (8314.34 J/kg mol K),
T1 = absolute temperature (K).

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• After the equilibrium pressure is recorded, the
valve between the two chambers is opened
(valve 2) and the gas within the first chamber is
allowed to fill the empty spaces (pores) in the
second chamber.
• The new pressure (P2) is recorded. When valve 2
is opened, total mass of gas (m) is divided into
two, one of which fills the first tank (m1) and the
other fills the pore space of the second tank (m2).
m  m1  m2 Thaught by: Feyera G.
01/06/2016
• Assuming the system is isothermal:
P1V1  P2V1  P2Va 2
• where Va2 is the volume of the empty spaces
within the second chamber and can be
expressed as: P1  P2
Va 2  V2  Vs  V1
P2
• where Vs is the volume of the solid (m3) and can
be calculated from the following equation:
 P1  P2 
Vs  V2  V1  
01/06/2016  P2 TargetThaught by: Feyera G.
group: Year II FPE students
Solid Displacement Method
• The volume of irregular solids can also be
measured by sand, glass bead, or seed
displacement method.
• Rapeseeds are commonly used for determination
of volume of baked products such as bread.
In the rapeseed method, first the bulk density of
rapeseeds is determined by filling a glass
container of known volume uniformly with
rapeseeds through tapping and smoothing the
surface with a ruler.
• All measurements are done until the constant
weight is reached between the consecutive
measurements.
01/06/2016
• The densities of the seeds are calculated from the
measured weight of the seeds & volume of the
container.
• Then, the sample and rapeseeds are placed
together in the container.
• The container is tapped and the surface is
smoothed with a ruler.
• Tapping and smoothing are continued until a
constant weight is reached between three
consecutive measurements.
01/06/2016
• Volume of the seeds and the sample can thus
be determined :
Wseeds  Wtotal  Wsample  Wcontainer
Wseeds
Vseeds 
 seeds
Vsample  Vcontainer  Vseeds
Where
W = weight (kg),
V = volume (m3),
ρ = density (kg/m3)
01/06/2016
2.2. Density, shrinkage and porosity
• These properties are included in the mass-
and volume-related properties
– they constitute one of the main groups of
mechanical properties ( with rheological,
morphological, acoustic, and surface properties)
• The importance of these properties is
illustrated by the following applications (next
slide):

01/06/2016
Importance
• Process design, operation, and optimization (e.g.,
for the prediction of the solids height in a belt
dryer during dehydration)
• Product characterization—quality determination
• Estimation of other properties (e.g., thermal
conductivity of food materials using the porosity
of individual components or diffusion coefficient
of shrinking systems using porosity and volume
change)

01/06/2016
Importance (cont’d)
• Handling of food materials
• Grading of fruits and vegetables (e.g.,
according to density)
• Separation of impurities in food materials by
density differences
• Estimation of floor space during storage and
transportation (using the bulk density)

01/06/2016
Density
• Quality of food materials can be assessed by
measuring their densities.
• Density data of foods are required in
separation processes, such as centrifugation
and sedimentation and in pneumatic and
hydraulic transport of powders and
particulates.
• Measuring the density of liquid is required to
determine the power required for pumping.

01/06/2016
• In most of the engineering problems, solids and liquids are
assumed to be incompressible, that is, the density is hardly
affected by moderate changes in temperature and
pressure.
• Gases are compressible and their densities are affected by
changes in temperature and pressure.
• The densities of gases decrease as temperature increases
whereas they increase with increase in pressure.
• Under moderate conditions, most gases obey the ideal gas
law. Molecular weight of any gas in kg (1 kg-mole) occupies
22.4 m3 at 273 K and 1 atm. For example, density of air can
be calculated from:
29kg / kgmole
 air 
22.4m 3 / kgmole
01/06/2016
Measurement
• The density of liquids can be determined by using a
pycnometer.
• Wide-mouthed bottles can be used for very viscous
materials such as tomato paste, batter, or honey.
• Liquid density can also be measured by placing a
hydrometer in a beaker filled with the liquid sample (see
Fig. ).
• The hydrometer has a stem that extends from a tubular
shaped bulb. The diameter of the stem is approximately
equal to the diameter of thermometer.
• The bulb may be filled with a dense material to give it an
appropriate weight so that the whole hydrometer sinks in
the test liquid to such a depth that the upper calibrated and
marked stem is partly above the liquid.
01/06/2016
• The depth to which the
hydrometer sinks depends on
the density of the fluid
displaced.
• The deeper the hydrometer
sinks, the lower the density of
the solution.
• The constant weight
hydrometer works on the
principle that a floating body
displaces its own weight of
fluid. Thaught by: Feyera G.
01/06/2016
• The density of liquid is calculated from the
ratio of weight of the hydrometer to the
volume of the displaced liquid:
W
l 
AX  V
Where
W = weight of hydrometer (kg),
A = cross-sectional area of stem (m2),
X = the length of the stem immersed (m),
V = Volume of the bulb (m3).

01/06/2016
• Specific names are given to various kinds of
hydrometers:
– Lactometers for milk and
– Oleometers for oil.
– Twaddell hydrometer for liquids denser than water.
• A variety of hydrometers are also available for specific
purposes other than density such as:
– Brix saccharometers for percentage of sucrose by weight in
a solution
– Alcoholometers for percentage of alcohol by volume
– Salometers for determination of the percent saturation of
salt solutions.
• The density of solids can be calculated from their
measured weight andThaught
01/06/2016
volume.by: Feyera G.
• Density can be expressed in different forms.
e.g., for particulate materials such as grains,
one may be interested in the density of
individual particles or the density of the bulk
of the material which includes the void
volume.
• The most commonly used definitions are (next
slide):

01/06/2016
• True density (ρT ) is the density of a pure
substance or a composite material calculated
from the densities of its components
considering conservation of mass and volume.
n
1 Where
T   X i  i  v
n
ρi = density of ith component (kg/m3)
 Xi i
i 1 w X vi = volume fraction of ith component
X wi = mass fraction of ith component
i 1
n = number of components.

01/06/2016
• The density of food materials depends on
temperature
• Temperature dependence of densities of
major food components [pure water, CHO,
protein, fat, ash and ice] has been presented
by Choi and Okos (1986) (next page)
• where densities ρ are in kg/m3 and T are in ◦C
and varies between −40 and 150◦C (see)

01/06/2016
 water  997.18  3.1439103 T  3.7574103 T 2
CHO  1599.1  0.31046T
 protein  1330  0.5184T
 fat  925.59  0.41757T
 ash  2423.8  0.28063T
ice  916.89  0.1307T

01/06/2016
Example
Calculate the true density (T) of spinach at
20◦C having the composition given in the
following table. Assume the total mass of the
spinach is 100g.

01/06/2016
• Solid density (ρs) is the density of the solid
material (including water), excluding any
interior pores that are filled with air.
– It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight
by solid volume determined by the gas
displacement method
– In this gas is capable of penetrating all open pores
up to the diameter of the gas molecule.

01/06/2016
• Material (substance) density (ρm) is the
density of a material measured when the
material has been broken into pieces small
enough to be sure that no closed pores
remain.

01/06/2016
• Apparent density (ρapp) is the density of a
substance including all pores within the
material (internal pores).
– ρapp of regular geometries can be determined from
the volume calculated using the characteristic
dimensions and mass measured.
– ρapp of irregularly shaped samples may be
determined by solid or liquid displacement
methods.

01/06/2016
• Bulk density (ρbulk) is the density of a material
when packed or stacked in bulk.
– ρbulk of particulate solids is measured by allowing the
sample to pour into a container of known dimensions.
– Special care should be taken since the method of
filling and the container dimensions can affect the
measurement.
– It depends on the solid density, geometry, size, surface
properties, and the method of measurement.
– It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight by
bulk volume.
01/06/2016
Porosity
• Porosity expresses the volume fraction of void
space or air in a material and is defined as the
air or void volume per total volume.
Void volume
Porosity 
Total volume
• Porosity can be defined in various ways to
characterize food products or for food process
calculations (next slide).
01/06/2016
a. Open pore porosity (op):
• It is the volume fraction of pores connected to the
exterior boundary of the food material, expresses the
volume of open pores per total material volume, and is
given by:
a
 op  1 
p
• Open pores can be classified in two types:
– those that are connected to the exterior boundary only
(blind pores)
– those that are connected to other open pores and to the
exterior geometry boundary (through pores) (see fig.).

01/06/2016
Different kinds of pores

01/06/2016
b. Closed pore porosity (cp):
• It is the volume fraction of pores closed inside
the material and not connected to its exterior
boundary.
• It expresses the volume of closed pores per
total material volume and is given by:
p
 cp  1 
m
01/06/2016
c. Apparent porosity (a):
• It is the ratio of total air or void space to the
total volume of the material enclosed inside
the material boundary
• It expresses the volume of all pores per total
material volume, and is defined as:
 app Vs
 app  1   op   cp or  app  1 
m Vapp
01/06/2016
d. Bulk porosity (b):
• It is the ratio of the volume of voids or air
outside the boundary of individual materials
to the total volume of the packed or stacked
materials as bulk and is given by :
bulk Vbulk
 bulk  1 or  bulk  1
 app Vapp

01/06/2016
e. Total porosity (T):
• It is the total volume fraction of air or void
space (i.e., inside and outside of the materials)
when material is packed or stacked as bulk
and is expressed by the equation:
εT  εa  εb  εop  εcp  εbulk
εop  εbp  εop
where
εbp  blind pores
ε  open / through pores
op
01/06/2016
Measurement
There are different methods for determination of
porosity
1. Direct method:
• In this method, porosity is determined from the
difference of bulk volume of a piece of porous
material and its volume after destruction of all
voids by means of compression.
• This method can be applied if the material is
very soft and no attractive or repulsive force is
present between the particles of solid.
01/06/2016
2. Optical method:
• In this method, porosity is determined from the
microscopic view of a section of the porous medium.
• This method is suitable if the porosity is uniform
throughout the sample, that is, the sectional porosity
represents the porosity of whole sample.
• Pore size distribution can be determined if a suitable
software is used to analyze images.
Image J (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/) is a software used
to analyze the pores and to determine area
based pore size distribution, median pore diameter,
and percent area fraction of pores.

01/06/2016
3. Density method:
• In this method, porosity is calculated from
the measured densities and specific volumes
as shown in apparent (app), bulk (bulk) and
total (T) porosity formulas

01/06/2016
4. Gas pycnometer method:
• Porosity can be measured directly by
measuring the volume fraction of air using
the air comparison pycnometer (refer our
previous lecture). P1  P2
Va 2  V2  Vs  V1
P2
• Porosity can thus be calculated from:
Va 2 P1  P2
 
V1 P2
01/06/2016
5. Using porosimeters:
• Porosimeters are the instruments based on the
principle of either liquid intrusion into pores or
liquid extrusion from the pores
• In intrusion porosimetry, as intrusion liquid
mercury, oil, or water is used.
• In intrusion porosimetry, liquid is forced into
pores under pressure and intrusion volume and
pressure are measured.
• This method can detect pore volume, pore
diameter, and surface area of through and blind
pores. Thaught by: Feyera G.
01/06/2016
• Extrusion methods can be either capillary flow
porosimetry or liquid extrusion porosimetry.
• Pore diameters, mean flow pore diameter,
open (through) pore surface area, and liquid
and gas permeability are determined by this
method

01/06/2016
Determination of pore volumes
• Total specific pore volume within the material
VTP can be calculated if the specific volume of
all kinds of pores—closed pores ( VCP ) blind
pores, ( VBP ), and flow-through pores (VOP ) are
known:
VTP  VCP  VBP  VOP

01/06/2016
• Total specific pore volume within the material
can be calculated by measuring specific bulk
( Vbulk ) and the specific solid volume
determined after compacting the sample to
exclude all the pores (Vc):
VTP  Vbulk  Vc

01/06/2016
• The difference b/n the specific solid volume
determined by gas pycnometer ( Vs )and
specific solid volume after compacting the
sample (Vc ), gives the volume of closed pores
since in a gas pycnometer, gas enters into the
open and blind pores but not the closed ones.
• From these results, the specific volume of
closed pores can be calculated:
VCP  Vs  Vc Thaught by: Feyera G.
01/06/2016
• Volume of flow through or open pores of the
sample, (VOP ), can be measured directly using
liquid extrusion porosimetry.
• From equation VTP  VCP  VBP  VOP , the
specific volume of the blind pores is:
VBP  VTP  VCP  VOP
• By substituting VTP  Vbulk  Vc and VCP  Vs  Vc
into the above eqn,
V
01/06/2016 BP
 Vbulk  Vs  VOP Thaught by: Feyera G.
Examples
1. The porosity of dried apples was measured
using an air comparison pycnometer with
two identical chambers. The dried apple
sample was placed in chamber 2. Valves 2
and 3 were closed and air was supplied to
chamber 1. Valve 1 was closed and pressure
P1 was read as 0.508 atm. Then, valve 2 was
opened and the new equilibrium pressure,
P2, was read as 0.309 atm. Calculate the
porosity of the dried apple.
01/06/2016
2. Cherry has a moisture content of 77.5% (wb).
The apparent and bulk densities are 615
kg/m3 and 511 kg/m3 at 25◦C, respectively.
Assuming cherry contains only carbohydrate
and water, calculate the total porosity of
cherries when stacked as bulk. The densities
of carbohydrate and water are 1586 kg/m3
and 997 kg/m3, respectively.

01/06/2016
3. Rapeseeds are commonly used for volume
measurement of baked goods. In a bakery, first the
bulk density of rapeseeds was determined by filling a
container of 100 g weight and 1000 cm3 volume
uniformly with rapeseeds through tapping and
smoothing the surface with a ruler. The weight of the
container filled with rapeseeds after constant weight
was reached was 750 g. Then, the volumes of the
muffins were measured at different baking times
using rapeseeds before and after compressing the
pores using a 1000 N load cell and the experimental
data are given in Table (next page). Calculate the
porosity of muffins during baking. How does it change
during baking? Explain the reason.
01/06/2016
Table A: Experimental Data Obtained from Rapeseed Method Before and after
Compressing the Pores of Muffin Samples During Baking

01/06/2016
Shrinkage
• Shrinkage is the volume change of a food material,
which undergoes processes such as moisture loss
(dehydration) during drying, ice formation during
freezing, or pore formation by puffing (e.g., during
extrusion cooking).
• When moisture is removed from food during drying,
there is a pressure imbalance between inside and
outside of the food.
• This generates contracting stresses leading to material
shrinkage or collapse
• Shrinkage affects the diffusion coefficient of the
material and therefore has an effect on the drying rate.
01/06/2016
• Apparent shrinkage is defined as the ratio of
the apparent volume at a given moisture
content to the initial apparent volume of
materials before processing:
Vapp
S app 
Vappο
where
Vapp  apparent volume at a given moisture content (m3 )
Vappο  Initial apparent volume (m3 )
01/06/2016
Shrinkage Models
• Shrinkage during drying was modeled in the
literature by using empirical and fundamental
models.
• Empirical models correlates shrinkage with
moisture content.
• If the porosity development during drying is
negligible, linear models can be used.
• If porosity increases sharply during the final stage
of drying, shrinkage can be explained best by the
exponential model.
01/06/2016
Model of Perez & Calvelo, 1984
V 1   ( X  X  ) 
 1 
V 1      w (1  X  ) 
where X is moisture content in dry basis, ρ is

the density, the subscript 0 denotes the initial
condition, and the subscript w denotes water.

01/06/2016
Model of Mayor & Sereno, 2004
• This model was developed by improving the
model proposed by Perez and Calvelo (1984)
by taking the initial porosity of the material
into account
V 1    X  X   
 1    
V 1      w 1  X   

01/06/2016
Model of Rahman et al. (1996)
• Interaction between the phases of the material is accounted
for by means of the excess volume due to the interaction of
component phases. 1  ε  ε 
ρ  m ex w
V   1  X  
Xi
   11 (ρT )i
V  1  X  
where
w
X i  mass fraction
εex  excess volume fraction
• Excess volume fraction is the ratio of the excess volume,
which is defined as the change in volume that results from
the mixture of the pure components at a given temperature
and pressure to the total volume.
01/06/2016
Chapter 3
Rheological Properties

01/06/2016
Rheological properties
Definition:
• Rheological properties are defined as mechanical
properties that result in the flow and deformation
of material in the presence of a stress.
Importance
• Rheological properties are used:
– in product quality evaluation
– engineering calculations
– process design
– to determine the size of the pump and pipe and the
energy requirements
01/06/2016
Classification of rheology

01/06/2016
Flow of material
• When a shearing force is applied to a fluid, this will
cause a deformation; this deformation is termed flow
• If a shearing force F is applied to a fluid between two
parallel plates of area A, separated by a very small
distance Y, then the lower layer of the fluid will move
with a velocity V, while the upper layer will remain
stationary (see illustration).
• The layer below in turn drags the upper layer , with a
slightly reduced velocity; this in turn drags the next
layer
• Consequently a velocity gradient is set up within the
fluid.
• The nature of the velocity gradient will depend upon
the viscosity of the fluid.
01/06/2016
• The force required to maintain the motion of
the lower plate per unit area is proportional to
the velocity gradient, and the proportionality
constant, µ, which is the viscosity of the fluid:
F V dvz
 τ yz   μ   μγyz
A Y dy
Newton law of
where
viscosity
τ yz  shear stress (N/m 2 )
μ  vis cos ity (Pa·s)
01/06/2016
γyz  shear
Thaughtrate ( 1G. /s)
by: Feyera
01/06/2016
Viscosity
• Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a fluid
to flow. The unit of dynamic viscosity is (Pa · s)
in the SI system
• The dynamic viscosity is defined as the ratio
of the shear stress to shear rate:
shear stress
dynamic vis cos ity 
shear rate
01/06/2016
• kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to density of fluid. Its unit is m2/s in
SI: 
v

• Data for fluids are often presented in the form

of shear stress-shear rate diagrams

01/06/2016
Temperature effect on viscosity
• Viscosity varies with temperature
• The difference in the effect of temperature on viscosity of
liquids and gases is related to the difference in their
molecular structure
• Viscosity of most of the liquids decreases with increasing
temperature
Eyring Theory
This theory sates:
– There are vacancies in liquids
– Molecules continuously move into the vacancies
– This process permits flow but requires energy
– This activation energy is more readily available at higher 0T & the
fluid flows easily.
– The temperature effect on viscosity can be described by an
01/06/2016Arrhenius type equation (next slide):
 Ea 
μ  μ exp 
 RT 
where
E a  activation energy (J/kg mol)
R  gas cons tan t ( 8314.34 J/kg mol K)
T  absolute temperature(K)
μ  cons tan t (Pa·s)
• The temperature dependence of viscosity can also be
explained by cohesive forces between the molecules
• As temperature increases => cohesive forces between the
molecules decrease and flow becomes freer => viscosities
of liquids decrease
01/06/2016
Kinetic Theory
• Resistance to relative motion is the result of the exchange
of momentum of gas molecules (random motion from a
region of low bulk velocity to mix with molecules in a
higher velocity region (and vice versa)) between adjacent
layers
• As temperature increases => random molecular activity
increases =>viscosity increases
• Consider a pure gas composed of rigid, non-attracting
spherical molecules of diameter d and mass m present in a
concentration of N molecules per unit volume.
• According to kinetic theory, it is assumed that an average
molecule traverses a distance equal to the mean free path
between impacts
01/06/2016
Viscous fluids
• Viscous fluids tend to deform continuously
under the effect of an applied stress.
• They can be categorized as:
– Newtonian fluids
– Non Newtonian fluids
• Shear thinning (pseudoplastic)fluids
• Shear thickening fluids

01/06/2016
Newtonian Fluids:
• These are fluids that follow Newton’s law of
viscosity
dvz
τ yz   μ   μγ yz
dy
• They are fluids whose viscosity is constant and
independent of shear rate
• The slope (viscosity) of the shear stress vs shear
rate graph is constant
– e.g. Gases; oils; water; and most liquids that contain
more than 90% water such as tea, coffee, beer,
carbonated beverages, fruit juices, and milk
01/06/2016
Non-Newtonian Fluids:
• These are fluids whose viscosity may increase or
decrease with increasing shear rate (see fig.).
• These fluids do not follow Newton’s law of
viscosity
– i.e. the slope of shear stress versus shear rate graph is
not constant for these fluids
• They can be:
– Shear thinning
– Shear thickening
01/06/2016
The slope of shear stress versus shear rate graph is not constant
for non- Newtonian fluids.

01/06/2016
Shear thinning (Pseudoplastic) fluids:
• These are fluids whose viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate
• In these types of fluids, as shear rate increases
friction between layers decreases.
• Shearing causes entangled, long-chain molecules
to straighten out and become aligned with the
flow, reducing viscosity.
– e.g. Fruit and vegetable products such as applesauce,
banana puree, and concentrated fruit juices
01/06/2016
Shear thickening fluids:
• In these types of fluids, as shear rate increases,
the internal friction and apparent viscosity
increase.
• In food systems, corn starch suspension is an
example of shear thickening fluids.
• If the increase in viscosity is accompanied by
volume expansion, shear thickening fluids are
called dilatant fluids.
• All the dilatant fluids are shear thickening but not
all shear thickening fluids are dilatant.
01/06/2016
• Shear thinning or thickening fluids obey the
power law model (Ostwald-de Waele eqn):
 dvz 
τ yz  k    k γ yz n
d 
 y 
where
k  the consistency coefficient (Pa·s n )
n  flow behavior index
For shear thinning (pseudoplastic) fluids n < 1,
For shear thickening fluids n > 1 Thaught by: Feyera G.
01/06/2016
• Since different viscosities are observed at
different shear rates, apparent viscosity () is
used for non-Newtonian fluids

 ( ) 

• The variation of apparent viscosities with
shear rates for different types of non
Newtonian fluids is shown Fig.
01/06/2016
Apparent viscosities of time independent fluids

01/06/2016
Plastic Fluids
• Plastic fluids are normally defined in terms of a yield
stress  and a plastic viscosity pl .
– Yield stress () can be defined as the maximum shear
stress required to initiate flow
• The main characteristic of these types of fluid is that at
low shear stresses (below ) they behave like solids
and there will be no deformation until a critical (yield)
shear stress is reached.
• Beyond that shear stress, the fluid will flow.
• Plastic fluids can be:
– Bingham plastic fluids
– Non-Bingham plastic fluids

01/06/2016
Bingham plastic fluids
• In these types of fluids, fluid remains rigid when the magnitude of
shear stress is smaller than the yield stress (τ) but flows like a
Newtonian fluid when the shear stress exceeds τ
• The graph of shear stress versus shear rate is linear.
• Behaviour of Bingham plastic fluids is shown by:
 dvz 
 yz   0  k    0  k  
d 
 y 
• The apparent (plastic) viscosities for Bingham plastic fluids is
determined from ratio of shear stress to corresponding shear rate
 0  k ( )  0
 pl   k
 
• In food systems, mayonnaise, tomato paste, and ketchup are
examples of this type of fluid.

01/06/2016
Non-bingham plastic fluids
• Similar to Bingham plastic fluids, Non-Bingham fluids do
not flow until shear stress exceeds yield stress ()
• But, the graph of shear stress vs shear rate is not linear.
• Fluids of this type are either shear thinning or shear
thickening with yield stress.
• They obey Herschel-Bulkley & Casson Model
Herschel-Bulkley model Casson Model
 yz   0  k  yz  n
  yz
0.5
  0   k  yz 
0.5 0.5
e.g. Minced fish paste e.g. Molten milk chocolate

01/06/2016
raisin paste Thaught by: Feyera G.
Time dependent fluid behavior
• Some fluids become thinner or thicker with time when
subjected to a constant shear rate, (see Fig.)
• They can be:
Thixotropic fluids (shear thinning with time):
– fluids that exhibit decreasing shear stress & apparent viscosity
with respect to time at a fixed shear rate
– due to the breakdown in the structure of the material as
shearing continues
– e.g. Gelatin, egg white, and shortening
Rheopectic fluids (shear thickening with time):
– fluids that exhibit increasing shear stress & apparent viscosity
with respect to time at a fixed shear rate
– Due to the building up of the structure of the material as
shearing continues
– e.g. Starch–milk–sugar pastes
01/06/2016
Time-dependent behaviour of fluids
01/06/2016
Viscosity Measurement
• Most commonly used viscosity measurement
devices are:
– Capillary flow viscometers
– Orifice type viscometers
– Falling ball viscometers
– Rotational viscometers

01/06/2016
Capillary Flow Viscometers
• In capillary flow viscometers, the time
for a standard volume of fluid to pass
through a known length of capillary
tubing is measured (see Fig.)
• The flow rate of material due to a
known pressure gradient (usually force
of gravity) is determined.
• For Newtonian fluids gravity-operated
glass capillaries are used
• For non-Newtonian and more viscous
fluids, external pressure is applied
01/06/2016
Measurement procedures:
The viscometer is accurately filled with an accurately known
volume of test fluid & is immersed in a constant T bath
Fluid is sucked up from the other limb through the capillary

tube until it is above the marked level (A)
Suction is removed & fluid flows through the capillary tube and
the time for the fluid to flow from mark A to B is recorded.
This time is a direct measure of the kinematic viscosity () since

it depends on both viscosity
01/06/2016
andG. density of fluid  = Ct
Thaught by: Feyera
• Assuming that the flow is laminar, fluid is
incompressible, velocity of the fluid at the wall is
zero (no-slip condition) & end effects are
negligible
• Macroscopic force balance eqn for a fluid flowing
through a horizontal cylindrical tube of length (L)
and inner radius (r), is:
ΔPπr  τ 2πrL
2
• Where P is the pressure drop causing flow and 

is the shear stress resisting flow.
01/06/2016
• From force balance eqn, shear stress can be solved:
ΔPr
τ
2L
For a Newtonian fluid
• Both shear stress and shear rate vary linearly from zero
at the center (r = 0) of the capillary to a maximum at
the wall (r = R).
– this results in the parabolic velocity profile
• The shear stress on the fluid at the wall (w) is related
to the pressure drop along the length of the tube:
PR
w 
01/06/2016
2L Thaught by: Feyera G.
Hagen Poiseuille equation
• The flow in capillary viscometers is described by
the Hagen Poiseuille equation:
8vL
P 
R2
PR
• Substituting Hagen Poiseuille eqn into  w 
2L
4v 4 v 4Q
w   for Newtonian fluid, w   3
R R R
where Q is the volumetric flow rate

01/06/2016
• Newton’s law of viscosity can be written in
terms of pressure gradient and volumetric
flow rate as:
PR  4Q 
  3 
2L  R 
• Viscosity of the fluid thus can be determined

from the pressure drop and volumetric flow
rate or velocity data.
01/06/2016
For non-Newtonian fluids
• Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation is used to
determine the shear rate at the wall for non-
Newtonian fluids
dQ  
3Q   R 3   equation (A)
w  3   w  
R  d w 
 be written
Equation (A) can  as (next slide) in terms of
the apparent wall shear rate
app  4Q 3
R
01/06/2016
3  τ w  dγapp 
γw   γapp   
4  4  dτ w  equation (B)
Equation (B) can also be written as
 3   1  d( ln γapp )  equation (C)
γw        γapp
 4   4  d( ln τ w ) 
Equation (C) can also be written as
 3n  1 
γw   γapp
 4n 
where n is the point slope of the ln (τ w ) versus ln (γapp )
d( ln τ w )
i.e. n 
01/06/2016
d( ln γapp ) Thaught by: Feyera G.
• If the fluid behaves as a power law fluid, the
slope of the derivative is a straight line & n  n
• Different shear rates can be achieved by varying
the flow rate for a single capillary section or by
using several capillary sections of different
diameters in series.

01/06/2016
Chapter 4
Water Activity
&
Sorption Properties of Foods

01/06/2016
Water Activity
• Water activity and sorption properties of
foods is important physical properties in food
formulations and processes.
• Most of the biochemical and microbiological
reactions are controlled by the water activity
of the system,
– It is thus useful parameter to predict food stability
and shelf life.

01/06/2016
WATER ACTIVITY
• Water content alone is not a reliable indicator of stability.
• Differences in the intensity with which water is associated
with nonaqueous constituents
• water engaged in strong associations would be less likely to be able to
support degradative activities such as growth of microorganisms and
hydrolytic chemical reactions, than would weakly associated water
• “Water Activity” (aw) was developed to reﬂect the intensity with
which water associates with various nonaqueous constituents.
• Food stability, safety, and other properties can be predicted
far more reliably from aw than from water content
• aw correlates sufficiently well with rates of microbial
growth and rates of many degradative reactions to make it
a useful indicator of potential product stability and
microbial safety (FIGURE).

01/06/2016
Food Stability map as f(aw)

01/06/2016
WATER ACTIVITY (Contd.)
Definition:
• Water activity (aw)is, at a given temperature, the ratio
of the fugacity, fw, of water in a system, and its fugacity,
fow, in pure liquid water at the same temperature.” i.e.
 fw 
aw   o 
 f w T
Fugacity is measure of escaping tendency of a substance.
It can be replaced by vapor pressure, p, provided that
the vapor pressure behaves as an ideal gas.
Standard state is pure water

01/06/2016
Definition:
• Substance “activity”: is a ratio of the fugacity of the solvent
(f) to the fugacity of the pure solvent (fo) in a defined
standard state.
• At low pressures (e.g., ambient) the difference between f
/fo and p/po is less than 1%, so

aw   p T
p 
 o
NB! This equality is based on the assumption of
thermodynamic equilibrium.
BUT! This assumption is generally violated in food
systems, so

aw   p T
p 
01/06/2016
 o
• p po T and Relative Vapor Pressure (RVP) are
the same and can interchangeably be used
– RVP thus, does not imply equilibrium
• However, still aw – RVP is NOT perfect
estimator of Food Stability
– Two reasons for this! (read pp. 42 & 43)
1) Violation of the assumption of aw = (p/po)T
2) Solute specific effects
RVP  (p/po )T  %ERH/ 100

01/06/2016
WATER ACTIVITY
Measurements
• Methods based on the following properties
can be used for measuring water activity of
foods:
– Colligative properties
– Isopiestic transfer
– Hygroscopicity of salts and
– Hygrometers can be used

01/06/2016
Measurements based on Colligative properties
• In this method, water activity of foods can be
determined by:
– measuring the vapor pressure of water in food
directly
– using freezing point depression

01/06/2016
Vapor Pressure Measurement method
• This method gives a direct measure of vapor
pressure exerted by sample.
• Water activity is calculated from the ratio of
vapor pressure of sample to that of pure
water at the same temperature.
– See schematic diagram setup of the method

01/06/2016
Vapor pressure measurement setup

01/06/2016
Measurement Procedure
• A sample weighing 10 to 50 g is put into a sample flask and sealed
on to the apparatus. The air space in the apparatus is evacuated.
• After the vacuum source is isolated and equilibration for 30 to 50
min, the pressure exerted by the sample is recorded as h1.
• The level of oil in the manometer will change by the vapor pressure
exerted by the sample.
• The sample flask is excluded from the system and the desiccant
flask is opened.
• Water vapor is removed by sorption onto CaSO4 and the pressure
exerted by volatiles and gases are indicated by h2 after
equilibration.
• Then, water activity can be calculated using the following equation:

01/06/2016
A sample (10 - 50 g) is put into a sample flask & sealed on to the apparatus.
The air space in the apparatus is evacuated.
after the vacuum source is isolated & equilibration for 30 to 50 min
The pressure exerted by the sample is recorded as h1
Level of oil in manometer will change by vapor pressure exerted by the sample.
The sample flask is excluded from the system and the desiccant flask is opened.
Water vapor is removed by sorption onto CaSO4
The pressure exerted by volatiles &Thaught

gases are indicated
by: Feyera G. by h2 after equilibration.
01/06/2016
Measurement Procedure (contd.)
• Then, water activity can be calculated using the
following equation:
(h1  h2 )
aw  0
g
P
• Temp. must be constant during measurement. If the
temperatures of the sample (Ts) & vapor
space in the manometer (Tm) are different, water
activity is corrected as:
(h1  h2 )  Ts 
aw  0
  g
P  Tm 
01/06/2016
Freezing Point Depression method
• This method is applicable only to liquid foods & gives water
activity values at freezing point rather than at room
temperature
• It is very accurate at water activities above 0.85
• It is suitable for materials having large quantities of volatile
substances which may cause error in vapor pressure
measurement and in electric hygrometers.
• In two-phase systems (ice and solution) at equilibrium the
vapor pressure of water as ice crystals and the interstitial
concentrated solution are the same and water activity
depends only on temperature.
• Thus, water activity of solution at a certain temperature
below freezing can be expressed as:
Vapor pressure of ice
aw 
01/06/2016
Vapor pres
Thaughtsure
by: Feyera of
G. liquid water
Isopiestic Transfer method
• Water activity measurement in this method is achieved
by equilibration of water activities of two materials in a
closed system.
• Mostly, microcrystalline cellulose is used as the
reference adsorption substrate because:
1. It is stable in the temperature change of −18 to 80 oC with little
changes in sorption characteristics.
2. It is stable in its sorption properties after two to three repeated
adsorption and desorption cycles.
3. Its sorption isotherm is in sigmoid shape and its sorption model
is known.
4. It is available as a standard biochemical analytical agent.
• This method is not recommended for samples that are
susceptible to foaming such as protein solutions during
evacuation of desiccators
01/06/2016
Sample & microcrystalline cellulose are placed in vacuum type desiccator.
The desiccator is closed & evacuated for about 1 min & then held at constant
temperature for 24 hours
After 24 hours, the vacuum on the desiccator is slowly released.
The cellulose is reweighed and the change in weight is recorded.
The moisture content is calculated & water activity is determined from a

standard cellulose isotherm that was previously prepared with H2SO4-water
mixtures as the medium.
01/06/2016
Measurements using hygrometers
• In this method, the sample is equilibrated with in
a closed vessel and then the relative humidity of
the air is determined by using a hygrometer.
• Many hygrometric instruments work on the
principle of measuring:
– Wet and dry bulb temperature
– Dew point
– Change in length of material
– Electrical resistance or capacitance of salt
01/06/2016
Measurements using hygrometers (contd.)
Measuring aw by Wet & dry bulb temperature:
• This method has been used primarily to determine the
relative humidity of large storage atmospheres and
commercial dehydrators
Dew point measuring equipments:
• In dew point temperature measuring instruments, an air
stream in equilibrium with the sample is allowed to condense
at the surface of a cold mirror.
• The relative humidity can be determined from the measured
dew point temperature.
Mechanical hygrometers:
• In mechanical hygrometers, relative humidity of the
environment is measured by using dimensional changes in a
material.
01/06/2016
Measurements using hygrometers (contd.)
Electrical resistance or capacitance hygrometers:
• These are based on measurement of the conductivity of
salt solution that is in equilibrium with the air. Usually LiCl
is used for this purpose.
• These types of hygrometers provide rapid and reliable
means of measuring water activity.
Electronic Sensors (Pawkit)
• uses a capacitance humidity sensor to measure the water
activity of a sample.
• The sensor is suspended in the headspace of the chamber
and uses a special polymide material sandwiched between
two electrodes to sense humidity changes.
• The sensor converts the humidity value into a specific
capacitance, which is then measured electronically by the
circuit & translated to aw
01/06/2016
Moisture Sorption Isotherms (MSI)
Definition:
• MSI is a plot of water content in g H2O/g DM of a food vs.
(p/po)T (FIGURE)
• It is also called the equilibrium moisture content curve.
• Information derived from MSI are useful for:
1) studying and controlling concentration and dehydration processes,
because the ease or difficulty of removing water is related to RVP
2) formulating food mixtures so as to avoid moisture transfer among
the ingredients
3) determining the moisture barrier properties needed in a packaging
material required to protect any particular system
4) determining what moisture content will curtail growth of
microorganisms of interest within a system
5) predict the chemical and physical stability of foods as a function of
changes in their water content
01/06/2016
MSI (for high moisture foods)

Back
01/06/2016
MSI (contd.)
• MSI data of great interest are those in low MC.
• Omission of high MC region is normal practice
– Low MC region expanded
– Gives much more useful MSI (FIGURE)
• Several substances have MSIs of markedly
different shapes (FIGURE)

01/06/2016
MSI (for low moisture foods)

01/06/2016
MSI (contd.)
Legends:
1- confection
2 - spray dried chicory
3 - roasted coffee
4 - meat powder
5 - native rice starch

01/06/2016
MSI (contd.)
• The shapes and positions of the isotherms are
determined by several factors:
– sample composition
• Molecular weight distribution and
• hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics of solutes
– Physical structure of the sample (Crystalline/ amorphous)
– Sample pre-treatment (grinding, drying, …)
– Temperature
– Methodology (adsorption/desorption)
01/06/2016
Interpreting MSIs
• MSI regions are divided into zones (FIGURE) and properties
of water associated in each zones differ:
ZONE I:
– Most strongly sorbed and least mobile water
– This water is associated with accessible polar sites by water–ion
or water–dipole interactions
– It remains unfrozen at −40◦C
– It does not act as a solvent
– it is not present in sufficient amount to have a plasticizing effect
on the solid
– It behaves simply as a part of the solid
– It is an amount corresponding to just a tiny fraction of the total
water content in a high moisture food material
– This amount of water clearly is less than the potential “sorption
sites” represented by all of the polar or other active groups of
01/06/2016 the solute molecules
Interpreting MSIs (contd.)
BET Monolayer:
– It is moisture content of the food at the end of
zone I (boundary of zones I and II)
– BET Monolayer water corresponds to the amount
of water needed to form a monolayer over ONLY
the READILY accessible, highly polar groups of the
dry matter

01/06/2016
ZONE 2:
– It is a second water population
– Additional water added in an amount not exceeding
the limit set by the zone II boundary is considered to
populate the first-layer sites (left unoccupied by
monolayer water) that are still available
– It associates with neighbouring water molecules in
this first layer and solute molecules primarily by
hydrogen bonding
– It is slightly less mobile than bulk water
– Most of it remains unfrozen at −40◦C

01/06/2016
Vicinity of the low moisture end of zone II (B)
– Moisture added in the vicinity end of zone II exerts
a significant plasticizing action on solutes
– causes incipient swelling of the solid matrix
– Exchange of all water molecules is enhanced
– leads to acceleration in the rate of most reactions
due to increasing interaction and accessibility

01/06/2016
Vicinity of the junction of zones II and III
– the amount of water is sufficient to complete a
true monolayer hydration shell for individual
macromolecules

01/06/2016
ZONE 3:
– It is a third population water
– Further addition of water causes a glass–rubber
transition in samples containing glassy regions
– Leads to very large decrease in viscosity
– Leads to a large increase in molecular mobility
– Leads to large increase in the rates of many reactions
– This water can be frozen
– It is available as a solvent and readily supports the
growth of microorganisms

01/06/2016
Beyond ZONE 3:
– Beyond zone 3, additional water behaves as bulk-
phase water
– Its addition to the system does not alter the
properties of existing solutes

01/06/2016
RVP & Food Stability
 p 
 
01/06/2016  p  Thaught by: Feyera G.
 Tgroup: Year II FPE students
oTarget
Preparation of MSIs
• Sorption data of foods is obtained by storing a weighed sample of food
in an enclosed container maintained at a certain relative humidity, at
constant temperature, and reweighing it after equilibrium is reached.
• Theoretically, at equilibrium water activity of the sample is the same
as that of the surrounding environment.
– However, in practice a true equilibrium is never attained because that
would require an infinitely long period of time.
– Therefore, the sample is weighed from time to time during equilibration.
• When the difference between successive weights of the sample
becomes less than the sensitivity of the balance being used, it is
accepted that equilibrium is reached.
• The moisture content of the sample is then determined.
• Desiccators can be used for preparation of sorption isotherms.
• In the desiccator method, saturated salt solutions, H2SO4 or glycerol
solutions are put into the bottom of desiccators (see figure).

01/06/2016
MSI Models
• MSI Models are semi-empirical equations with
two or three fitting parameters to describe
moisture sorption isotherms.
Langmuir Equation
 1 1  1
aw    
 M w M 0  CM 0
where C is a constant and M0 is the monolayer
sorbate content.
01/06/2016
• Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Equation
M 0Caw
Mw 
(1  aw )[1  (C  1)aw ]
• where Mw (m) is moisture content, M0 (m1) is the
monolayer moisture content and C is the energy
constant related to the net heat of
sorption
• Monolayer moisture content represents the moisture
content at which water attached to each polar and
ionic groups starts to behave as a liquid-like phase.

01/06/2016
Determining the Monolayer Value
• Data of low moisture end of MSI are needed
• BET equation is used:
aw 1 c 1
  aw
m(1  aw ) m1c m1c
m – moisture content
m1 – BET monolayer moisture value
c – constant
aw values of this eqn is (p/po)T value
01/06/2016
Exercise
• Estimate the BET aw m(g/g DM)
monolayer value (m1) of 0.08 0.04
a food sample whose 0.11 0.05
data is given below 0.15 0.063
measured at constant 0.22 0.075
temperature of 20oC. 0.33 0.096
0.45 0.122
• Sketch MSI 0.54 0.156
0.77 0.284
0.89 0.452

01/06/2016
Chapter 5
Thermal Properties of Foods

01/06/2016
Thermal properties
• Thermal properties data are required in:
– Engineering and process design
– An energy balance for a heating or cooling process
– Determination of temperature profile within a material
• Thermal properties to be discussed are:
– thermal conductivity
– specific heat
– enthalpy
– thermal diffusivity

01/06/2016
Thermal conductivity
• Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a material
to conduct heat.
• It has a unit of W/m K in the SI system.
• Thermal conductivity of foods depends on:
– temperature
– Composition
– porosity of material
– factors that affect the heat flow paths through the material,
such as
• void fraction
• shape, size and arrangement of void spaces
• the fluid contained in the pores and
• Thermal conductivities of food materials vary between that of water (kwater =
0.614 W/m◦C at 27◦C) and that of air (kair = 0.026 W/m◦C at 27◦C), which are
the most and the least conductive components in foods, respectively
01/06/2016
• Thermal conductivity of ice is nearly four
greater than that of water (kice = 2.24 W/m◦C
at 0◦C).
This partly accounts for the difference in freezing
and thawing rates of food materials.
During freezing, the outer layer is in the frozen state and the ice propagates toward the
center replacing nonflowing water by a better conductor.
Heat is conducted through the ice layer, which has higher thermal conductivity than that
of water. However, in thawing, the frozen part is at the center and heat is conducted
through the thawed region, which has lower thermal conductivity or higher resistance
than that of ice. As a result, the thawing process is slower than freezing process.

01/06/2016
• Thermal conductivities of pure water,
carbohydrate (CHO), protein, fat, ash, and ice
at different temperatures can be empirically
expressed according to Choi and Okos (1986)
as follows:
kwater  0.57109  1.7625  10-3T - 6.7036  10-6 T 2
k CHO = 0.20141+ 1.3874×10-3 T - 4.3312×10-6 T 2

k protein = 0.17881+ 1.1958×10-3 T - 2.7178×10-6 T 2

01/06/2016
-3 -7 2
k fat = 0.18071 - 2.7604 × 10 T - 1.7749 × 10 T
k ash = 0.32961 + 1.4011 × 10-3 T - 2.9069 × 10- 6 T 2
kice = 2.2196 - 6.2489 × 10-3 T + 1.0154 × 10- 4 T 2
k air = 0.0076 + 7.85 × 10- 4 T + 0.0156R H

where thermal conductivities (k) are in W/moC;
temperature (T ) is in oC ; and var ies between 0 and90o C
R H is the relative humidity, changing from 0 to 1,

01/06/2016
Thermal conductivity Models
• There are models that assume an isotropic
physical structure.
• The most well known models in literature are:
– Parallel and series models;
– Krischer model,
– Maxwell-Eucken
– Kopelman models

01/06/2016
Parallel Model
• In the parallel model, components are assumed to be
placed parallel to the direction of heat flow
(Fig. ).
• The effective thermal conductivity of a food material

made of n components can be calculated using volume
fractions (Xiv) and thermal conductivities (ki) of each
component (i) from the following equation:

01/06/2016
n
k pa   ki X i
v
i 1
where
w
v X i /ρi
Xi  n
 (X
w
i /ρi )
i 1
where
v
X i = volume fraction of the ith constituent,
w
X i = mass fraction of the ith constituent,
th 3
ρ i =
01/06/2016
density of the i constitue nt
Thaught by: Feyera G.(kg/m )
• The parallel distribution results in a maximum thermal
conductivity value.
• If the food material is assumed to be composed of
three components (water, solid, and air), effective
thermal conductivity can be calculated from:
k =k Xv +k Xv +k Xv
pa w w s s a a
where
X wv  volume fractions of moisture
X sv  volume fractions of solid, and air
X av  volume fractions of air and
k , k , k a are the correspondi
w
01/06/2016 s Thaughtng thermal
by: Feyera G. conductivities
Series (perpendicular) Model
• In the perpendicular model, components are assumed
to be placed perpendicular to the direction of heat
flow (Fig. ).
• The effective thermal conductivity of a food material

can be calculated from the
following equation:
n v
1 X
 i
K se i 1 ki
01/06/2016
• The perpendicular distribution results in a
minimum thermal conductivity value.
• If the food material is assumed to be
composed of three components (water, solid,
and air), effective thermal conductivity can be
calculated from:
v v v
1 X X X
   w s a
k se k w ks ka
01/06/2016
Krischer Model
• Krischer proposed a generalized model by combining the parallel
and series models using a phase distribution factor.
• The distribution factor, fk, is a weighing factor between these
extreme cases (Fig. )
• Krischer’s model is described by the following equation:
1
k
1 f f
k  k
k k
pa se
where
k  the effective thermal conductivity by the Krischer mod el
k pa  the effective thermal conductivity by the parallel mod el
k se  are the effective thermal conductivity by the series mod el
.

01/06/2016
Maxwell-Eucken Model
• The effective thermal conductivity of a food, for a
two-component food system consisting of a
continuous and a dispersed phase, by this model
is defined as:
 2k  k  2 X v (k  k ) 
 c d d c d 
k k  
c v
2k  k  X (k  k ) 
 c d d c d 
where
. kc  the thermal conductivities of continuousphase
k d  the thermal conductivities of dispersedphase
01/06/2016
Kopelman Model
• Kopelman model describes the thermal
conductivity of a composite material as a
combination of continuous and discontinuous
phases. k 1  Q
k c

1  Q 1  ( X dv )1/ 3 
where
 kd 
Q  ( X ) 1 
v 2/3
d

 kc 
01/06/2016
• The approach chosen in Kopelman equation is to
successively determine the thermal
conductivity of two-component systems, starting with
water continuous and carbohydrate dispersed
phases.
• Then, the water–carbohydrate phase is taken as
continuous and protein as dispersed phases and the
iterative procedure is continued through all phases
using the order: water (phase 1), carbohydrate
(2), protein (3), fat (4), ice (5), ash (6), and air (7).
• The following iterative algorithm was obtained for the
thermal conductivity of a system of i + 1 components:
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k i [1 - Q i 1 ]
kcom , i 1  v 1/ 3
1 - Q i 1[1 - (Xd, i 1 ) ]
where
 ki 1 
Q i 1  X  v
d, i 12/3
1  
ki 

Vi 1
X v
d, i 1  i 1
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V
i
i Thaught by: Feyera G.
Specific heat
• Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of unit mass of the substance by unit degree.
• Specific heat can be expressed as a function of composition
or temperature
• Knowing the specific heat of each component of a mixture is
usually sufficient to predict the specific heat of the mixture
• Specific heat of aqueous solutions such as vegetable and
fruit juices or pastes can be written as:
c p  0.837  3.349X ww
c p  0.837  1.256X ww (for food materials below freezing point )
where X ww is the mass fraction of moisture within the sample
specific heat, c p is given inThaught
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kJ/kg K. G.
by: Feyera
• The reason for the lower values of cp below
freezing is that the specific heat of ice is about
one half of that of the liquid water.
• This also partly explains the higher thawing times of
foods as compared to their freezing times.
• To estimate the specific heat of foodstuffs
using the mass fraction of its constituents
(water, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and ash):
c p  4.180X water
w
 1.547X prot
w
 1.672X wfat  1.42 X CHO
w
 0.836X ash
w

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• Thus, for products containing n components:
n
cp   X c i
w
pi
i 1
where
w
X = mass fraction of component i
i
c pi = specific heat of component i (J/kg K).

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• The specific heat of pure water, CHO, protein, fat, ash, & ice at
different temperatures can be expressed empirically in J/kgoC as:
cp water = 4081.7 - 5.3062 T + 0.99516T2 (for -40 to 0 oC)
c p water = 4176.2 - 0.0909 T + 5.4731× 10-3 T 2 (for 0 to 150o C)

c p CHO = 1548.8 + 1.9625 T - 5.9399× 10-3 T 2 (for - 40 to 150o C)
c p protein = 2008.2 + 1.2089 T - 1.3129× 10-3 T 2 (for - 40 to 150o C)
c p fat = 1984.2 + 1.4373T - 4.8008× 10-3 T 2 (for - 40 to 150o C)
-3 2 o
c
. p ash = 1092.6 + 1.8896 T - 3.6817× 10 T (for - 40 to 150 C)
c p ice = 2062.3+ 6.0769 T
c p moist air  c p dry air (1 + 0.837RH)
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• Experimentally determined specific heat is
than the predicted value. The reason may be:
– the presence of bound water
– variation of specific heat of the component phases
with the source
– interaction of the component phases

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Thermal diffusivity
• Thermal diffusivity measures the ability of a material to
conduct thermal energy relative to its ability to store
thermal energy.
• Thermal diffusivity can be calculated indirectly from the
measured thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat.
• Materials with large thermal diffusivity will respond quickly
to changes in their thermal environment while materials of
small thermal diffusivity will respond more slowly, taking
longer to reach a new equilibrium condition.

01/06/2016

Engineering Properties of Food Materials

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Engineering Properties of Food Materials

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Engineering Properties of Food

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Structural & Geometric properties

Size, shape, Area & Volume related properties

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Cylinder A  2rh  Dh

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can be done in two 24a

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Volume mean diameter    

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Volume of solids can be determined by :

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VTP  VCP  VBP  VOP

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where X is moisture content in dry basis, ρ is

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