Chapter 7 Design of Hydraulic Structures 7.1 Introduction Hydraulic structures are used to control the movement of water, and the adequate design of hydraulic structures is usually essential in ensuring that water-resources systems function as intended. Hydraulic structures include culverts, gates, weirs, dams, spillways, and stilling basins. Culverts are used to pass small drainage channels under roadways; gates are used to control the flow of water in canals, and to control the discharge of water from storage reservoirs; weirs are used as discharge structures in stormwater-management systems, to control water-surface elevations, and for flow measurement; dams are used to regulate the flow of water, and to support the generation of hydroelectric power; spillways are used to discharge excess water from storage reservoirs; and stilling basins are used to dissipate energy downstream of spillways. 6297.2 Culverts Culverts are short conduits that are designed to pass peak flows under roadways or other embankments. Because of the function they perform, culverts are commonly included in a class of structures called cross-drainage structures, which includes bridges. Culverts perform a similar function to that of bridges, but, unlike bridges, they have small spans that are typically less than 6 m (20 ft), and can be designed to have a submerged inlet. Types of culverts. Typical cross sections of culverts include circular, arched, rectangular, and oval shapes. Culverts can have either a single barrel or multiple barrels. A typical single-barrel circular culvert is shown in Figure 7.1(a) (, and a multibarrel rectangular culvert is shown in Figure 7.1(b) (Q; rectangular culverts are sometimes called box culverts. Culvert pipes with bottoms buried in the flow way are called embedded culverts or buried-invert culverts, and culverts without below-ground bottoms are called open-bottom culverts or bottomless culverts. Embedded or open-bottom culverts are commonly used to facilitate the passage of fish and other aquatic organisms, since they do not produce high velocities at low flow rates as in the case of circular non-embedded culverts, and the natural streambed is maintained. Embedded and open-bottom culverts provide a natural channel bottom that might be preferable in channels with high sediment transport, particularly with coarse materials (e.g., gravels and cobbles) where abrasion caused by moving sediment can destroy the culvert invert. Multibarrel culverts are frequently necessary to pass wide shallow streams under roadways. Figure 7.1: Typical culverts 630(b) Multi-barrel rectangular (box) culvert 631Design objectives. Culvert design typically requires the calculation of the dimensions of a barrel cross section that is capable of passing a given peak flow when water is ponded to a given maximum-allowable height at the culvert entrance. Culverts can also be designed to restrict flow to reduce downstream peak flows, although such a design objective is less common. 7.2.1 Hydraulics In analyzing culvert flows, the normal and critical depths are both useful reference depths. The normal depth of flow is determined by solving the Manning equation, and the critical depth of flow is determined by setting the Froude number equal to unity (i.e., Fr=1). In cases where the cross section is circular, it is convenient to put the Manning equation in the form (7.1) (8n-sin6n)530n23=20.16nNQ2D83S0(SI units) where @n (radians) is the central angle under the normal flow condition, nis the Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless), Q is the flow rate (m3/s), SO is the slope of the culvert (dimensionless), and D is the culvert diameter (m). The central angle, 8c, under the critical flow condition can be conveniently obtained by solution of the following (Fr=1) dimensionally homogeneous relation: (7.2) @c-sin8c3sin@c2=512Q2gD5 where Q is the flow rate, D is the diameter, and g is the gravity constant. For given values of Q, n, SO, and D, Equations 7.10 and 7.20 can be independently solved for 6n and 8c, respectively. The normal depth (yn) and the critical depth (yc) are subsequently calculated using the following geometric relations: 632$f2b2[ 1-cos(8n2) J,yc=D2[ 1-cos(8c2) ] The solutions of Equations 7.1 (\G—7.3 (0 for yn and yc require numerical methods, since Equations 7.1 (0 and 7.2 (0 are implicit equations in @n and 8c, respectively. Approximate equations. Approximate equations are available for estimating the normal and critical depths, as well as the average flow velocity in circular conduits. In using these approximate equations, it is convenient to define the following grouped parameters: (7.4) Qn=nQD83(S0,Qc=QgD5 where Qn is a group parameter used in normal flow equations, with Q in m3/s, and D in meters; and Qc is a dimensionless group parameter used in critical-flow equations. Normal flow depth. Empirical equations that relate the normal flow depth, yn, to the normal flow parameter, Qn, are: (7.5) (7.6) ynD={ 0.935-(0.6 cos—12.98 Qn )1.183,Elhakeem and Sattar (2017)0.648 sin -1(1.6545 Qn0.47),Vatankhah (2018) where D is the pipe diameter. Equations 7.5(O and 7.6 (0 are both applicable for yn/D in the range of 0.02-0.93, and both equations have maximum relative errors of around 1.25%; the equations have different accuracies for any given value of yn/D. The exact solution for the normal flow depth, obtained by using Equations 7.1 (0 and 7.3, (for yn), is usually preferable to the approximate normal flow depth obtained by using Equations 7.5 and 7.60. Critical flow depth. Empirical equations that relate the critical flow depth, yc, to the critical flow parameter, Qc, are: (7.7) (7.8) (7.9) (7.10) yceD={ (1+0.77 Qc-6)—0,085,Swamee (1993)(1+13.6 Qc—4.227-13 Qc —4,2)-0.1156, Vatankhah and Essa (2011) 633(141.361.2 Qc4.92+Qc4.26)-0.1175, Vatankhah (2018)1.01D0.01Qc0.5,French (1985) where, according to the authors, Equation 7.7 (6 has a maximum relative error of 1.25% for yc/D in the range of 0.02—1, Equation 7.8 (C has a maximum relative error of 0.23% for yc/D in the range of 0.01—1, Equation 7.9 (0 has a maximum relative error of 0.13% for yc/D in the range of 0-1, and Equation 7.10 (0 is applicable for yc/D in the range of 0.2—0.8, where D is in meters. The exact solution for the critical depth, given by Equations 7.2 (0 and 7.3 (0 (for yc), is usually preferable to the approximate critical flow depth obtained by using Equations 7.7 | -7.10 0 Normal flow velocity. In cases where a culvert flows partially full at the normal flow condition, the velocity, V (m/s), can be approximated using the empirical equation (WSDOT, 2017) (7.11) V=0.646S00.366Q0.268(D0.048n0.732(SI units) where SO is the slope of the culvert (dimensionless), Q is the flow rate (m3/s), D is the diameter (m), and nis Manning's roughness coefficient (dimensionless). Equation 7.11 (0 is applicable for 0.110. The delineation criteria in Figure 7.3 0 applies to both circular and box culverts, where for box culverts D is the vertical dimension. Figure 7.3: Conditions for Type 5 and Type 6 flow 6490.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 Slope of culvert, S5 0.02 0.01 Length to diameter ratio, L/D Type 5 flow: NIST equation. Based on experiments conducted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, now the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the following (dimensionless) best-fit power relation has been developed to facilitate the description of Type 5 flow through culverts: (7.34) HWD=32.2cFr2+Y-0.5S0,for Fr20.7 650where D is the height of the culvert entrance, and Fr is the Froude number at the culvert entrance defined by Equation 7.18 (, SO is the slope of the culvert, and c and Y are empirical constants that depend on the culvert shape, material, and inlet configuration, and are given in Table 7.1\Q. The factor of 32.2 in Equation 7.34 (0 is equal to the acceleration due to gravity in U.S. Customary units (ft/s2), which is necessary to be able to directly use the values of c reported by NIST. Equation 7.340 is dimensionally homogeneous, and is applicable for Fr20.7. Equation 7.34 \O is predicated on the observation that a critical section (where critical flow occurs) exists in the culvert approximately one-half pipe diameter downstream of the entrance, hence the factor of 0.5 in Equation 7.34 (0 represents the ratio of distance to critical section divided by the diameter, and SO is the slope of the culvert between the entrance and the critical section. If the culvert is hydraulically long and the slope is mild, then a hydraulic jump can be expected to occur within the culvert, assuming that the normal flow depth is less than the culvert diameter. When applying Equation 7.34 (O to mitered inlets, a slope correction factor of +0.7SO should be used instead of -0.5S0. In specialized cases of embedded or bottomless culverts, more appropriate values of c and Y for use in Equation 7.340 can be found in USFHWA (2012). Of all the equations proposed for describing Type 5 flow, Equation 7.34 (Dis most widely used. Type 5 flow: Energy equation. A close approximation to the NIST equation (Equation 7.34) \ for Type 5 flow conditions can be obtained by applying the energy equation between a section just upstream of the culvert entrance and the critical-flow section just inside the culvert entrance. Considering a box culvert and neglecting the entrance loss gives (7.35) H=V22g+CcD where H is the headwater specific energy, V is the velocity within the culvert, Cc is the contraction coefficient associated with flow passing the crown of the culvert entrance, and D is the height of the culvert. Using Equation 7.35 \G gives the culvert discharge, Q, as (7.36) Q=(CbB)(CeD) V=CbCcA2g(H-CcD) 651where Cb is a width contraction coefficient associated with the culvert entrance edge conditions, B is the culvert span (width), and A is the cross-sectional area of the culvert '=BxD). Equation 7.36 ( can be expressed in nondimensional form as (7.37) HD=12(CbCc)2Fr2+Ce where Fr is the Froude number at the culvert entrance, defined by Equation 7.18 (0. Note that His equal to HW plus the headwater velocity head. Values of Cb and Cc that give the closest agreement between Equation 7.37 (0 and Equation 7.34 0 have been estimated by Charbeneau et al. (2006), and are given in Table 7.2.0. In applying Equation 7.37 0 to circular culverts, D is taken as the diameter of the culvert. The primary advantage to using Equation 7.37 0 rather than Equation 7.34 is that Equation 7.37 (0 contains less parameters, and is capable of estimating flows with comparable accuracy to Equation 7.340. Transition flow. As the culvert entrance becomes submerged, Type 1 flow becomes Type 5 flow, and curve-matching equations are typically used to describe the transitional behavior of the culvert flow. For example, the USFHWA HY-8 computer program uses a fifth-order polynomial to approximate the HW versus Q relation in the transition from Type 1 to Type 5 flow. Type 6 flow. In Type 6 flow, applying the energy equation between the headwater and outlet of the culvert gives (7.38) Ah=hitht+V22g where Ah is the difference between the headwater elevation and the soffit" elevation of the culvert at the outlet, hi is the inlet loss or entrance loss, hf is the head loss due to friction in the culvert, and V is the velocity in the culvert at the outlet. Equation 7.38 is approximate in that it neglects the velocity head of the headwater, which is usually small compared with the other terms. The head loss due to friction, hf, is calculated using the Manning equation, as given by Equation 7.22 (0, and the entrance loss, hi, is calculated using a local head-loss coefficient 652