1.Anglo-Saxon Period.

 The Song of Beowulf.

The Anglo-Saxon period began in the early 5th century when the Roman armies withdrew from
Britain. It lasted for about 600 years up to 1066.

The British history is considered to begin in the 5th century, when it was invaded from the
Continent by the warlike tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Most of the information we have
about the Anglo-Saxons comes from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a year- by- year account of all
the major events of the time.  In those early days songs called epics were created in many
countries. The epics tell about the most remarkable events of a people’s history and the deeds of
heroic men.

The Song of Beowulf.

The first masterpiece of English literature, the epic poem “The Song of Beowulf”, describes the
historical past of the land from which the Angles, Saxons and Jutes came. The poem dates back
to the 7th century.

The story of Beowulf tells of the time when king Hrothgar ruled the Danes. Hrothgar decided to
build a splendid hall, Heorot, for himself and his warriors. There was a great feast when the hall
was over. The gay songs irritated an evil monster, Grendel. He used to come to the hall, carried
away the sleeping men and ate them. Hrothgar had lost nearly all of his warriors.

Unexpectedly, young Beowulf, a prince of the Geats of southern Sweden, offered to cleanse
Heorot of the monster. He was received with great joy. That night Grendel appeared again, and a
great struggle began. Grendel couldn’t escape Beowulf’s powerful grip and left mortally
wounded. Then Beowulf defeated the Water Witch, Grendel’s mother. Enriched with honours
and rich gifts, he returned home.

The second part tells of Beowulf’s deeds when he was king of Norway. Beowulf saved his
country – he killed a fiery dragon that was destroying his country. But the monster wounded him
with its fiery breath. Beowulf died and was buried on a high cliff near the sea-shore.

So, the epic “The Song of Beowulf” tells of some events from a people’s history, sings the heroic
deeds of a man, his courage and desire for justice, his love for his people and self-sacrifice for
the sake of his country.

The poem is a classic example of Anglo-Saxon poetry. It has no rhyme, but each line
has alliteration, which is a repetition at close intervals, of the same consonant, eg. Fiend – fire,
bright homes burned. Another characteristic feature of the poem is the use of picture names,
or kennings. The unknown poet calls the sea a “sail-road”, “salt streams”, the musical
instruments “joy-wood”, “glee-wood”, etc.   

The poem is of great historical value, also it is a powerful work of art.

2.The Pre-Renaissance Period. The Canterbury Tales by G. Chaucer.

 The Pre-Renaissance period covers the 14th and 15th centuries in the history of England. After
the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the written form of the  Anglo-Saxon language
became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, Law French became the
standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society. As the invaders integrated, their
language and literature mixed with that of the natives and Anglo- Norman dialects appeared. At
the same time Anglo-Saxon developed into Middle English.

During the 14th century the English nation was being formed. English became the spoken
language of the country. English literature was born. It was marked with a new optimistic spirit,
unknown to the Middle Ages. It was best reflected in the works by Geoffrey Chaucer, the last
poet of the Middle Ages. He was the first among English writers who broke away from medieval
forms and approached realism. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote his works in the London dialect of the
English language, which at that time was becoming the spoken language of the majority of the
people. Chaucer’s works contributed to the formation of the English literary language. The most
important of his works was the Canterbury Tales.

 The Canterbury Tales  is a collection of stories in verse told by people of different social

standing. The Prologue tells about a group of pilgrims who were on their way to the Cathedral of
Canterbury. Harry Bailey, the innkeeper, proposed to the company that each pilgrim should tell
two stories on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way home. They would decide whose
story was the best and a dinner would be given to the winner.

 The Canterbury Tales  was the first great realistic work in verse in English literature. Chaucer
painted a vivid picture of English society, as it was in his day. Each of the characters is shown as
an individual typical of his time. Among the pilgrims there was a knight, a doctor, a merchant, an
Oxford student, a carpenter, a miller, a lawyer, a sailor and a cook. There were also some
women, some monks and a pardoner among the company.

The pilgrims tell their stories according to their rank or social standing. The knight tells a
romance, the miller – a fabliau, the pardoner – a moralizing tale.  Chaucer showed life as it was.
He gave masterly description of both Good and Evil.

After Chaucer the native English language began to become the medium of poetic expression as
well as Latin, Greek, French and Italian. That is why Chaucer is often called the father of
English poetry.

 3.The Renaissance. Works of W. Shakespeare.

 The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late
15th to the early 17th century. There was a revival of interest in the ancient culture of Greece and
Rome. The study of the works of ancient philosophers, writers, and artists helped to widen the
people’s outlook, to know the world and man’s nature better.

The progressive ideology of the Renaissance was humanism. Human life, the happiness of
people and belief in man’s abilities became the main subjects of fine arts and literature. The
development of a new social order (capitalism) presented great possibilities for man’s creative
powers. The humanist outlook was marked with bright optimism, belief in man’s great mission.
It was opposed to medieval ideology.

The most outstanding dramatist of the time and of all times was William Shakespeare (1564 –
1616). He was born in a small town of Stratford-upon-Avon, about seventy-five miles from
London. At twenty-one he left his native town for London. There he joined a theatrical company
and worked as an actor and a playwright. Shakespeare is the author of 2 poems, 37 plays and 154
sonnets. The tragedy “Hamlet, Prince of Denmark” (1601) is one of the greatest of 
Shakespeare’s masterpieces. It is the most profound expression of his humanism and his
criticism of the epoch. The tragedy tells of the struggle between Hamlet, the embodiment of the
Renaissance ideals, on the one hand, and the evil, false world of kings and courtiers, on the
other.

     Hamlet does not believe the strange story about his father’s death. He was told that his father
had died because a serpent stung him in the garden while he was asleep. The Ghost of Hamlet’s
father tells him the true story of his death. He was poisoned by Claudius [o:], the king’s brother
in his sleep. From now on Hamlet thinks only of revenge. But he understands that Claudius is not
the only source of evil, that the whole world is corrupt. Hamlet understands that the task of
“setting the world right” is difficult and dangerous. Evil is strong and it is everywhere. And he
has to fight alone. If he perishes in the struggle, there will be nobody to carry out the task.
Hamlet’s meditations and doubts are best reflected in the central monologue of the tragedy “To
be, or not to be”.

To find out the truth, Hamlet pretends to be insane. His false madness allows him to express his
opinion. The tragedy ends with the death of the main characters of the play. But unlike other
“bloody” tragedies, it is a tragedy of “thought”. Hamlet is the first thinker that ever appeared on
the stage. He tries to understand the world, its good and dark sides. He fights with words and
exposes Evil.

The tragedy of Hamlet stirs people’s conscience, makes them fight for the triumph of Justice and
Good. Shakespeare’s greatness lies in the depth of his humanism. For more than four centuries
Shakespeare has remained one of the best loved playwrights and poets in world literature. Every
new generation finds in his works some problems of particular interest. Shakespeare “belongs
not to the century – but to all times”, as Ben Johnson, one of his contemporaries said.

 4.The Enlightenment. The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe by

D. Defoe.

The 17th and 18th centuries are known in the history of European culture as the period of
Enlightenment. The Enlighteners defended the interests of the common people – craftsmen,
tradesmen, and peasants. Their criticism was directed against social inequality and religious
hypocrisy, the immorality of the aristocracy. The central philosophical problem of the
Enlightenment was that of man and his nature. The Enlighteners believed in reason as well as in
man’s inborn goodness. They also believed in the great educational power of art and literature.
They considered it their duty to enlighten people and help them see the roots of evil and the
means of social reform.

One of the most outstanding authors of the Enlightenment was Daniel Defoe. He is rightly
considered the father of the English and European novel. Due to Daniel Defoe the genre became
firmly established in European literature.

Defoe’s first and most popular novel was The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe. At that time a lot of stories about voyages and all kinds of adventures were
published. One of them, published by Richard Steele in his magazine The Englishman told about
the adventures of a Scottish sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years and four months on
an uninhabited island. The story was used by Daniel Defoe for the plot of his novel The Life and
Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe.

The novel opens with an account of Crusoe’s youth in England and his escape from home. Then
comes a story of his numerous sea voyages and adventures including a period of slavery and his
four years as a planter in Brazil. After this he goes on a slave-trading expedition to Africa.
After a shipwreck Robinson Crusoe finds himself on a deserted island and spends twenty-eight
years there. With a few tools that he got from the ship he builds a hut, makes a boat. He tames
and breeds animals, cultivates land, hunts and fishes. He is never idle. He is a man of labour,
untiring, industrious and optimistic. His passion for life and his inventiveness helped him
overcome the hardships and return to England.

Robinson Crusoe was a typical figure of the period. His adventurous and enterprising nature, his
common sense were the features most characteristic of the English bourgeoisie. He was the first
bourgeois character ever created in world literature.

As a true Enlightener, Defoe set himself the task of improving people’s morals. He provided his
books with moralizing comments. The influence of Defoe’s work on literature can hardly be
overestimated.

5.Romanticism. Works of G. G. Byron.

 The Romantic period lasted about thirty years, from the last decade of the 18th century to the
1830s. Romanticism in literature was a reaction of different strata of society to the French
Revolution. The people were disappointed with the outcome of the Revolution. The common
people did not obtain the liberty, fraternity and equality. There was the feeling of general
discontent in the society. The new trend in literature (Romanticism) reflected it.

The Romantics paid a lot of attention to the spiritual life of man. The so-called exotic theme
came into being, and great attention was paid to Nature and its elements. The writers used such
means as symbolism, fantasy, grotesque. Legends, tales, songs and ballads became part of their
creative world.

One of the great poets of England was the romantic revolutionary George Gordon Byron. The
"Luddite" theme is quite important in Byron's poetical work. It is with this theme that he began
his defence of the oppressed, his biting satirical poetry directed against the ruling classes.

He first approached the "Luddite" theme in his speech in the House of Lords in 1812. He stood
out against the ruling class of his country defending the men who broke weaving machines.
Parliament passed a death sentence upon them. Byron's famous speech in defence of the weavers
became a speech of accusation against the ruling classes.

Four days after his speech in Parliament an anonymous Ode appeared in a morning newspaper.
The title (Ode) was very ironic, because an ode is supposed to be a dignified poem, or a song,
recited on formal occasions. Byron's Ode to the Framers of the Frame Bill was a combination of
biting satire, revolutionary romanticism and democratic thought.

In the Ode the anonymous poet showed how to deal with the rebellious weavers, who came to
their masters to ask for help. He suggested that the best thing to do was to hang them. This would
save both the money and the meat they asked for. The poet stressed that men are cheaper than
machinery; and if they were hanged around Sherwood Forest for breaking the machinery, it
would improve the scenery. Here are the first two stanzas of the Ode.

Byron’s last long poem. Compared to “Childe Harold”, it is based on a deeper insight into the
ethical, political and economic aspects of the society. The poem is called the great “Epic Satire”,
considered one of the most important long poems published in England since John Milton’s
“Paradise Lost”. 
“Don Juan” is a lyrico-epic poem, it combines narration with lyricism. Byron was looking for a
hero. He couldn’t find the real hero of his time, so he chose an “ancient” one, Don Juan. Don
Juan lives in Spain. During the 17th and 18th centuries Spain experienced a quick decline in power
in Europe. This fall was accompanied by what many saw as cultural poverty (if compared to
France). By Byron’s time, Spanish culture was often considered archaic and exotic. English
Romanticists were fond of Spanish culture.

The poem narrates the adventures of a young Spanish gentleman first in his native Seville, then
in Greece, Turkey, Russia and England. Don Juan’s ship is wrecked and he finds himself on an
island where he is taken care of by Haidee, the beautiful daughter of a Greek pirate Lambro.
Their love blossoms though they can’t understand each other’s language. Their happiness is
destroyed by Lambro who sells Don Juan into slavery.

In Constantinople Don Juan gets to a harem. From there he manages to escape to the Russian
army which is besieging Ismail. Suvorov, the Russian commander-in-chief, sends him to St.
Petersburg on a diplomatic mission. Then Don Juan gets to England. Byron mocks at the
idleness, arrogance, pretention, hypocrisy and other vices of the English high society.

 He wrote his famous ‘mock-epic’, exposing and satirizing hypocrisy and the corruption of high
society. However, to make it effective
he used wit, humour, irony, exaggeration etc.  Byron satirizes the education and marriage
through Donna Inez using exaggeration. Byron exaggerates Inez by portraying her as “a learned
lady, famed for every science known in every Christian language ever named”.  

Byron had a deep faith in man, in his desire for freedom, in future revolutionary changes. But at
times it gave way to pessimism, to individualistic themes, to motifs of the so-called “world
sorrow”.

Byron’s works are well-known and much read all over the world. They have been translated into
many languages of the world.

6.Romanticism. Ivanhoe by W. Scott.

 Walter Scott’s creative work was an important stage in the development of English literature.
He accomplished the transition from Romanticism to realism in literature.

Walter Scott (1771 – 1832) was a writer, a poet, a ballad-collector, critic and man of letters. He
spent his childhood in the rural Borders where he heard a lot of Scottish tales and poems of
adventure. There his interest in the old Border tales and ballads had been awakened. He was
prepared to paint the Scottish scenery and Scottish character so vividly, that he practically
created a new country and showed the glory and beauties of Scotland to the world.

In 1802 – 1803 Scott’s first major work “The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border” («Песни
шотландской границы») appeared. The description of medieval castles, Scottish landscape,
hunting scenes, fairy-tale adventures – all this was characteristic of his early books. They
prepared the ground for his famous historical novels.

Historical novels by W. Scott. At college W. Scott read the best novels of the day, the works by
Richardson, Fielding, Smollett. As a writer, he created the historical novel as a literary genre and
made it popular. Following the plot of W. Scott’s novels, the reader was able to enter the lives of
both great and ordinary people caught up in violent, dramatic changes of history.
In 1814 W. Scott published his first historical novel “Waverley”. It was a success and from then
on he dedicated himself to prose. He wrote twenty-nine historical novels. Nineteen of them are
on Scottish subjects. They depict events of the 17th and 18th centuries. Among these books are
“Waverley”, “Guy Mannering”, “Rob Roy”. In many of his novels W. Scott chose the common
men of Scotland for his heroes. They fought for their country, for its freedom, against the
English oppression.

 Scott wrote six historical novels about England. He chose the periods of the late 12th century, or
the Norman Conquest, the end of the 16th century, or the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the
middle of the 17th century. Here he wrote about the English Revolution and the Restoration that
followed it. Among these novels are “Ivanhoe”, “The Abbot” and others.

Four novels are written on different subjects. Among them is “Quentin Durward” in which the
portrait of King Louis XI of France, one of the most influential politicians of Europe at that time
is presented.

“Ivanhoe”.  “Ivanhoe” is one of the best W. Scott’s novels. It describes the events of the late
12th century. The Normans, who had conquered England in 1066, were now fighting for absolute
power in the country. There were great conflicts between the Anglo-Saxon feudal lords and the
Norman nobles. Richard Plantagenet, known as Richard the Lion Heart was then king of
England. He had left the country to take part in the crusades in Palestine. In the meantime his
brother, Prince John, tried to seize the power in the country.

Against this historical background of the 12th century Walter Scott gives the story of a young
Anglo-Saxon knight, Ivanhoe, who had quarreled with his father and was sent away by him. He
joined Richard the Lion Heart in the crusades, and returned with him to England secretly to join
his beloved – lady Rowena.

Walter Scott described the customs and habits of previous times with great talent. His narrative
is extremely colorful. His ability to include popular legends, songs and tales into the plot is well
known. In “Ivanhoe” an important part is played by Locksley, the legendary Robin Hood.

Walter Scott was a master of dialogue, which helped him better portray his characters. He also
introduced Scotch dialects into these dialogues. Scott is now seen as an important innovator and
a key figure in the development of world literature, as the principal inventor of the historical
novel.

 7.Critical Realism. Works of Ch. Dickens.

 Critical realism in Victorian literature. Works of Charles Dickens (1812-1870). The rise of

the social novel that described social and political problems of the day. Writers of critical realism
who followed the traditions of English realist literature begun by the Enlighteners and further
developed by the historical approach of Walter Scott. Criticism of vices and drawbacks of their
time – social injustice and in equality, poverty, lust for money, hypocrisy.

The portrayal of all social levels of the society, the upper and middle classes, the underclass.

The emphasis on the social environment in shaping human character; sympathy to the lower
classes of the society, idealization of their representatives.

Charles John Huffman Dickens as an exemplary novelist of the Victorian Age. The popularity of
his works with the readers of his day and time.
The writer’s education of the University of Hard Knocks, his introduction to the world of the
working poor. The autobiographical element in his works.

Early works by Charles Dickens: a story “A Donner at Poplar Walk” (“Обед на Поплар-Yok”),
1833; “Sketches by Boz”, 1836(“Очерки Боза”); “The Posthumous Papers of the Pick-wick
Club”, 1836 (“Посмертные записки Пиквикского клуба”).

The development of the English social novel, the creation of a wild gallery of pictures of
bourgeois society and its representative types.

The topic of the work houses of England and the tragedy of the children who lived in them
(“Oliver Twist”, the problem of education (“Nickolas Nickleby”), child labour, marriage and
love in the bourgeois world (“David Copperfield”.

The criticism of American customs and democracy (“Martin Chusslewit”, Terrible, destructive
power of money over men (“Dombey and Son”).

Dickens’s later novels. The problem of law and justice (“Bleak house”, “Холодный дом”); the
life of the debtors’ prison of London (“Little Dorrit”, “Крошка Доррит”); class struggle between
the capitalists and the proletariat (“Hard Times”, “Тяжелые времена”), a new feeling, that of
disillusionment, (“Great Expectations”, “Большие надежды”, “Our Mutual Friend”, “Наш
общий друг”).

Dickens’s historical novels (“Barnaby Rudge”, “Барнаби Радис”; “A Tale of Two Cities”,
“Повесть о двух городах.”).

One of the greatest Dickens’s novels, “Dombey and Son”, 1848. The full title is “Dealings with
the Firm of Dombey and Son: Wholesale, Retail and for Exportation”.

Mr. Dombey the head of a shipping company a man’s of wealth and power. His power to disturb
comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money.

 One of the themes of the novel, its attention to failures of feeling.

“Dombey and Son” has all the satirical indignation of the author’s early fiction, an also new
shades of darkness and a new narrative complexity.

Dombey’s hopes are dashed when his only son Paul’s health is broken by the hardships of
boarding school.

The novel as the beginning of Dickens’s later period. The combination of vivid caricature with a
stronger sense of personality. The use of symbolism in order to give his books greater thematic
coherence. The novel in which a pervasive uneasiness about contemporary society takes the
place of an intermittent concern with specific social wrongs.

Dombey’s callous neglect of his family triggers his professional and personal downfall.

At the end of the novel the feminine virtues of patience, nurturing, and understanding triumph
over machine-age indifference.

The critical realistic approach to society was established by Dickens at the very beginning of his
creative life. His criticism of reality became sharper as his outlook and art matured. The soft
humour and light-hearted laughter of his first works gave way to mockery and satire. His novels
were socially effective because they drew the wide public’s attention to various problems and
made the authorities introduce reforms into such spheres as education, law and others.

Up to our days Dickens has remained one of the most widely read writers. He is loved and
honoured by readers all over the world.

8. DECADENCE

 A new stage of social development began during the last two decades of the 19th century. Great
Britain became a highly developed capitalist country and a great colonial power. A violent
economic crisis occurred in the early 80s. The worker’s movements became stronger and
reaction intensified. In 1899  the shameful colonial Boer War in South Africa was unleashed by
Great Britain. It was accompanied by degradation of moral and cultural values. New trends were
reaction to the atmosphere in Britain.

         Decadence [ˈdekədəns]was the philosophical basis for non-realistic trends-aestheticism,

neoromanticism, symbolism, and impressionism. Aestheticism is a movement in search of
beauty. It was governed by the principle “Art for Art’s sake”. The manifest of this trend is
considered to be the preface to the novel “The Picture of Dorian Grey”.  The main points were
the following- “the artist is the creator of beautiful things <…> there is no such thing as a moral
or an immoral book. Books are well written, or badly written”. It was a challenge to realism.

         The bright representative of aestheticism was Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), a writer,

playwright, poet: he wrote prose and poetry of different genres His works, like his outlook on
life, were contradictory. His only novel “The Picture of Dorian Grey” has contradictory message.
It seems that there are two Wildes who wrote this work (one wrote the preface, the other created
the novel itself). Dorian Grey, a beautiful young man, wants to be young forever. His friend
Basil paints his portrait. It has an extraordinary quality to get older instead of Dorian. So, Dorian
Grey lives a long life full of pleasure and luxury and the picture shows his moral degradation and
age instead of him.  Beautiful Dorian committed crimes and kills Basil because he hates the
picture, which is the reflection of his soul.   So eternal youth cannot make him happy without
morals, so, beauty is not higher then morals in this novel.

         Oscar Wilde was a master of paradoxes. The themes of his paradoxes are three “m”-
money, marriage, morals. They are the objects of his mockery. The paradoxes are evident not
only in his novel but also in his brilliant comedies. “An Ideal Husband” discloses the dirty
intrigues in the business and political circles of England. His criticism in this play is mild and
everything is settled in favour of Sir Robert Chiltern, a politician. His friend Arthur Goring is a
bright dandy, a master of witty remarks has much in common with Oscar Wilde himself.

         “Salome” [sə'ləumɪ] is a tragedy by Oscar Wilde. The original 1891 version of the play was
in French. Three years later an English translation was published. The play tells in one act the
Biblical story of Salome. This play is full of decadent symbols.

          O. Wilde wrote two volumes of fairy tales “The Happy Prince and Other Tales” and “A
House of Pomegranates”. The tales do not have depth of critical judgment on all aspects of the
society but being satirical, they touch upon serious problems. One of his best tale is “ The
Devoted Friend”.

 9.  Neoromanticism also took up protest against bourgeois reality. They also searched for an
escape from a life without beauty and interest. But they concentrated first of all on adventures
and courageous optimism. Neoromanticism had many common features with romanticism but
there were also realistic aspects in this trend. Neoromanticism was a kind of mix of realism and
romantic type of art consciousness. The bright representative of this trend were R. L. Stevenson,
J. Conrad, A. C. Doyle, R. Kipling.

         Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894), a Scottish author of novels, poems, and essays. A

literary celebrity during his lifetime, Stevenson remains popular for his celebrated contributions
to neoromanticism. He is best known for the novel “Treasure Island”, “Kidnapped”, “The Black
Arrow” and the short novel “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde”.

         Dr. Jekyll, who is aware that he has in him both Good and Evil, experiences a terrible urge
to create his own double that would possess the darker side of his nature.He makes a medicine
which transforms him into another person, whom he calls Mr. Hyde. Hyde posses all hidden evil
traits. The experiment leads to a terrible misfortune. It is more and more difficult to him to return
to Dr. Jekyll. Dr. Jekyll commits suicide. A parallel may be drawn between this work and “The
Picture of Dorian Grey” by O. Wilde. “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” appeared
two years before the novel of Wilde. The both authors explored the problem of double nature.

         Stevenson published a series of stories “New Arabian Nights”. This work includes the
cycle “The Suicide Club” which illustrates vividly a mixture of realism and romanticism. The
two main characters Prince Florizel of Bohemia and Colonel Geraldine roam in search of
adventure. Colonel is a typical “little” man of realism and Prince Florizel is a bright,
extraordinary personality like a romantic hero. Unlike romantic heroes of the 19th century Prince
is never isolated from the real background. Stevenson dreamt about the blend of the real and
ideal in art. In theoretical works Stevenson proclaimed that art is indifferent to any moral
purposes and writers should create beautiful and extraordinary pictures for pleasure. But in his
works he dealt with moral problems.

          Stevenson also liked to return to the historical past of Scotland (for example, in his poem
“Heather Ale” which is based on history and legends).

          Rudyard Kipling (1865 –1936) was the son of well-to-do parents, born and brought in
India: his first impressions were those of India’s countryside and people.  He was an English
journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist. At the age of 41, he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize and its
youngest recipient to date. Kipling glorified the cult of courageous optimism. He depicted strong
personalities and brave behaviour. He supported imperialistic propaganda and was the singer of
Empire. He made stress on the white man’s responsibility. He asserted the white man’s right to
rule over the native people, calling it “a white man’s burden”. Admiration for strength and
activity sounded as a call to submit the weaker peoples. At the very beginning of his work as a
writer Kipling created his famous poems dedicated to the soldiers of British Empire. His best
poems were “The Barrack Room Ballads” addressed to Tommy Atkins, who isa generalized
name for the British soldier. The poems were written in the form of traditional English folk
songs. But content is entirely new; it is military and racial.

         As a prose-writer, Kipling is known for his novels “The Light That Failed”  “Kim” and
works for children. “The Light That Failed” is set in London, but many important events
throughout the story occur in Sudan and Port Said. It follows the life of Dick Heldar, an artist
and painter who goes blind, and his unrequited love for his childhood playmate, Maisie. “Kim”
is set in an imperialistic world, in India. Two men - a boy who grows into early manhood and an
old ascetic priest, the lama - are at the center of the novel. A quest faces them both. Kim is a spy
for  the Secret British Service. Kim is mature beyond his years, while the aged lama is childlike.
         Literary tales of R. Kipling were based on folklore of India and other faraway exotic
countries. Among Kipling’s best works are the “Jungle Book”, a collection of stories of the
jungle, in most of which Mowgli, a child brought up a pack of wolves. By means of a logical
system of images, in very simple but carefully selected words, Kipling creates his story of man’s
mastery over the nature. He gives the jungle beasts Indian names that make the stories sound
mysterious (Sheer Khan, Bagheera, Baloo, Kaa).

           Just So Stories for Little Children is a collection of origin stories, fantastic accounts of
how various features of animals came to be. This book considered a classic of children's
literature. Kipling began working on the book by telling the first three chapters as bedtime
stories to his daughter Josephine. These had to be told "just so" (exactly in the words she was
used to) or she would complain. The stories describe how one animal or another acquired its
most distinctive features, such as how the leopard got his spots, how the whale got his
throat, how the camel got his hump, how the rhinoceros got his skin, how the elephant's trunk
became long, explains how man domesticated all the wild animals even the cat, which insisted
on greater independence and so on. For the book, Kipling illustrated the stories himself. The
book includes the stories — “How the Whale Got His Throat”, “How the Camel Got His Hump”,
“How the Rhinoceros Got His Skin”, “How the Leopard Got His Spots”,  “The Elephant's Child/
How the Elephant got his Trunk”, “The Sing-Song of Old Man Kangaroo”, “The Cat That
Walked by Himself”.

         Some stories begin with humour and irony. For example, the story “The Cat That Walked
by Himself” begins with the following words, “Originally all the tame animals were wild, but
especially the Cat: he walked by himself and all places were alike to him. The Man was wild too
until he met the Woman, who chose a Cave for them to live in…”.So, man is more animal if
compared with a clever woman amd he must be tamed. The capitalised words and lack of
individual names of animals suggest that the characters are archetypes, as the “Cave” is an
archetypal home. The conflict of the tale lies between the cat and Woman, not over a question of
social accommodation, but on an issue of principle and of attitude. Notably, it is immediately
after the Cat, “the wildest of all the wild animals”, that the Man is introduced to the story. So,
Woman domesticates them all, and it is made clear that although they gain much by their
bargain, they lose their freedom. Only cat is independent. In a letter to the Kipling Journal, it was
written: “I am prepared to state my conviction that somewhere from that enigmatic myth arises
the impression that the Horse, Dog and Cow at one level are meant to reflect Husband the lover,
defender and provider; while at that point the Cat mirrors whatever else in him the Woman may
never domesticate – though she is obliged to live with it, for it comes with the others!”. Animals
stand for some human qualities. They can be punished, can get into a scape, but they can  regain
something important and convey clear messages.

         R. Kipling wrote a great number of verses for adults and for children. His poem “If” can be
called an instruction and admonition for younger generation. He glorifies strong, young people
who must overcome various difficulties to be called “Man”. Kipling also wrote poems for and
about small children, for example, “I Keep Six Honest Serving Men”.

     10.    Herbert George Wells (1866 –1946) is a bright representative of critical realism at the
turn of the century. Wells was a biologist and for some time worked as an assistant to a well-
known English scientist, a follower of Charles Darwin. He was interested in social problems and
politics but his socialism was very peculiar. He became an active socialist, and in 1903 joined
the Fabian Society, though he soon began to criticize its methods. According to Wells, it was not
revolution but evolution via certain reforms that could change the world. The October
Revolution was, in his opinion, a social experiment. He did not have much faith in it. In1920 he
visited Russia and was received by Lenin. He depicted his impressions in “Russia in the
Shadows” and called Lenin “the Kremlin dreamer”.

         Wells was prolific in many genres. The glorification of scientific discovery led him to
creation science fiction. He was a founder of this genre. Science fiction is a genre of literature
deals principally with the impact of actual or imagined science upon society or individuals.
Critical analysis of what capitalist civilization was, combined with the study of what civilization
ought to be. His works suggested that the development of science benefited society only on
condition that this society was built up human principles.

In Wells’ novel science and technology formed the background against which the plot develops.
There is a strong social aspect in his works. His fantasy served as a basis of criticism. He called
himself a follower of Swift (the author of “Gulliver’s Travels”).

          In his early cycle of science fiction he wrote about the fate of civilization.  “The Island of
Doctor Moreau”, “The Invisible Man” are about reckless experimentation. “When the Sleeper
Wakes” shows the betrayal of revolution and manipulation by the use of technology and
provision of pleasure.  In “The First Men in the Moon” Wells makes satirical observations about
humanity in general and utopian ideas in particular.

         “The War of the Worlds” shows that great intellect can become stronger than human
feelings and can turn into destructive force. The Martians occupy the Earth. They have enormous
heads without bodies and no feelings, no emotions. They cannot listen to reason, for that requires
feeling.

          “The Time Machine» is about a machine that can travel through time instead of through
space. Wells shows degradation of classes as well as the human beings. The pessimistic theme
that the earth is a temporary phenomenon and the human race is doomed, is evident.

11.         George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) an Irish playwright who made a revolution in

British theatre. He wrote over 50 plays. His plays are called plays-discussion. In his plays much
attention was paid to dialogue. Shaw used long descriptions of places and characters in his large
remarks before acts. He described the thorniest social issues in a realistic way and widely used
paradoxes in his plays. He considered that the theatre should make people think and suffer.
People should be taught to look at life intelligently. An important aim of his plays was to face
people with completely new points of view, ways of looking at themselves and society. He
thought that the new drama should not be afraid to shock and should concentrate on ideas. Shaw
turned the conventional assumptions of English society upside-down, so that woman becomes
the stronger sex and man – the weaker, man- the dreamer, woman- the realist. He attacked
everything: war, law, false patriotism, politics, capitalism, prostitution, bourgeois ['buəʒwɑː]
marriage.  

         Among his best plays, one should mention “Widower’s houses”, “Mrs. Warren’s
Professions”, “Pygmalion”[pɪgˈmeɪlɪən] , “Heartbreak House: A Fantasia in the Russian Manner
on English Themes”. “Heartbreak House” refers to the style of Anton Chekhov. The heroes are
the representatives of the bourgeois intelligentsia  [ɪnˌtelɪ'ʤentsɪə] интеллигенция (following
the traditions of Chekhov, Tolstoy)

         Shaw stood for reform of spelling and punctuation. He was awarded the Noble Prize in
literature in 1925. Shaw paved the way for social problems in the English drama of the XX th
century.(Подробнее смотри          Кортес, Л. П. Английская литература от Средневековья
до наших дней = English Literature from the Middle Ages to Our Days / Л. П. Кортес, Н. Н.
Никифорова, О. А. Судленкова.)

12.MODERNISM

The main question of modernism is man and his inner world of instincts and subconscious mind

          Modernism as a trend in literature has its historical and philosophical backgrounds.
Modernism came into being after WW1. It was the reaction of the society which was shocked by
mass destruction of the war. Modernism was a kind of attempt to hide from the fearful reality
into the inner world of instincts.

         Modrnists fell under the influence of philosophical ideas Friedrich Nietzsche (/ˈniːtʃə,
ˈniːtʃi/of  and Sigmund Freud /frɔɪd/. Nietzsche‘ s statement "God is dead," has become one of
his best-known remarks. It means the crisis of European civilization. Freud’s ideas about
subconsciousness also had a great impact.

         The main features of modernism are searching for new forms and themes, disregard for
social problems, emphasis on the hero’s private world and subconscious life, pessimism.
Modernism was not one trend. It was subdivide into different schools. Each school has its own
technique For  Great Britain it was the school of stream of  consciousness. The stream of
consciousness is a technique to show the thoughts as they are in reality. The stream of
consciousness is an inner, associative, illogical, chaotic, endless monologue.

         James   Joyce (1882-1941) is a bright representative of the school of stream of 

consciousness. ) He was an Irish novelist, short story writer, poet, teacher, and literary critic. He
contributed greatly  to modernism and is regarded as one of the most influential and important
authors of the 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark work in which
the episodes of Homer's Odyssey /ˈɒdəsi/; are paralleled in a variety of literary styles, most
famously stream of consciousness.  The  stream of consciousness is increasing from the
beginning to the end of his novel. The action of the novel covers one specific day, June 16, in
Dublin in the year 1904. Joyce shows life and history through fragments of thoughts,
recollections, feelings of the main characters Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and young
intellectual man Stephen Dedalus. The novel consists of 18 episodes. Every episode refers to
Homer's “Odyssey”. Characters are comic allusions on Homer’s characters. Leopold Bloom
refers to Odysseus /oʊˈdɪsiːəs/ (Odysseus is also known by the Latin variant Ulysses /juː
ˈlɪsiːz/,) Molly Bloom refers to Penelope /pəˈnɛləpiː/, and Stephen Dedalus stands for
Telemachus/təˈlɛməkəs/. There are 3 types of stream of consciousness in the novel belonging to
these three characters. Bloom is the embodiment of primitive man, Molly embodies nature and
womanhood, Stephen conveys the idea of intellect. (Более подробно про сюжет, тематику
романа и другие символы смотрите в лекции, которая читалась вам    по программе на
предыдущем курсе). 

13.eXISTENTIALISM

The main question of EXISTENTIALISM  is man and his existence

                   Existentialism is a trend and philosophy. As a literary trend it came into being after
WW2 .This trend was influenced by the existentialist philosophy of the French writers Sartre
/ˈsɑːrtrə/, and Camus/ˈ kæˈmuː/.
“The Myth of Sisyphus” /ˈsɪsɪfəs/ (French: Le Mythe de Sisyphe) is a 1942 philosophical essay
by Albert Camus which had a great influence on the development of existentialism. Camus
introduces his philosophy of the absurd, that life is inherently devoid of meaning and
consequently absurd, but humans will nevertheless forever search for meaning. Camus compares
the absurdity of man's life with the situation of Sisyphus, a figure of Greek mythology who was
condemned to repeat forever the same meaningless task of pushing a rock up a mountain, only to
see it roll down again.

Literature of Existentialism ( or the Philosophical novel) tries to answer such questions as “ Who
am I?”, “ What am I for here?”, “ What is my destination?”, “ What should I do to fulfill
myself?”  Existentialists show people as lonely creatures which are doomed to be misunderstood
and unhappy. Their life is tragic because the end of life is death. Only in the situation of freedom
of choice (often in tragic situation) man can understand his real nature.

The novel of existentialism can be of two types. The novel of ideas and the allegorical novels.
For example, “Lord of the Flies” by W. Golding is an allegorical novel full of symbols. This
novel is a result of Golding’s reflection’s upon fascism and its roots. It shows that without
restrictions of civilization people can turn into savages because they are cruel inborn. ( про
роман подробнее смотрите в конспекте предыдущего года и книге Кортес, Л. П.
Английская литература от Средневековья до наших дней = English Literature from the
Middle Ages to Our Days / Л. П. Кортес, Н. Н. Никифорова, О. А. Судленкова.)

14.Muriel Spark (1918-2006) is a bright representative of the English satirical school. The

Times ranked Spark as No. 8 in its list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". Her works
present a kind of comic encyclopedia of sins. They (her works) are marked by bitter satire. Spark
is a Catholic convert and she shares with Murdoch and Golding a pressing commitment
(обязанность, долг, приверженность) to moral issues. Her type of art consciousness has much
in common with realism. Her works are built on a contrast between what people seem to be and
what they really are. Like Thackeray, Spark sees no hero (герой в значении кто-
то, совершающий нечто героическое) in the society, that is why there is no character who is an
embodiment of God. Her middle-class personages are narrow-minded, cruel, selfish, greedy.
They are full of vices and prejudices. At first they look like decent people but when the plot is
rising to culmination, the reader can see their demerits and drawbacks. Spark’s criticism deals
with different aspects of personal lives which are connected with social life. Inner conflicts are
interconnected with outer conflicts.

         Characters of her works have different professions. Their ambitions help them to build up
careers and   make them demonstrate their bad characteristics. In the novel “The Abbess of
Crewe”, nuns are to elect a new abbess. The two candidates stop at nothing in their struggle for
the post. They use bribery (взяточничество), slander and lies.

         The novel “The Public Image” is a satire on mass culture. It describes the life of a film
actress who skilfully builds up her public image and ignores the real problems in her family life.
Her husband is involved in this public image too. He resents his wife success because he envies
and hates her. Finally his constant failures drive him to suicide. (Подробнее смотри     Кортес,
Л. П. Английская литература от Средневековья до наших дней = English Literature from the
Middle Ages to Our Days / Л. П. Кортес, Н. Н. Никифорова, О. А. Судленкова.)
         “The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie” is the best known novel by Muriel Spark. Six ten-year-
old girls, Sandy, Rose, Mary, Jenny, Monica, and Eunice are assigned Miss Jean Brodie, who
describes herself as being "in my prime," as their teacher.

Brodie imposes on the girls the idea that they are the best ones. She likes Mussolini and fascist
ideas that she teaches at school. (Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945), Italian statesman; prime
minister 1922–43; known as Il Duce ('the leader'); full name Benito Amilcaro Andrea Mussolini.
He founded the Italian Fascist Party in 1919, annexed Abyssinia in 1936, and entered World War
II on Germany's side in 1940). Once the girls are promoted to the Senior School (around age
twelve) though now dispersed, they hold on to their identity as the Brodie set. Miss Brodie keeps
in touch with them after school hours by inviting them to her home as she did when they were
her pupils. The novel configures the  theme of wrong upbringing.

         Spark is also well known for her short stories. The short story “The Black Madonna“gives
a (vivid) portrait of the hidden racism of British inhabitants in the 1950s. It can also be
understood as a criticism on people who pretend to be religious but do not behave like that. In
“You Should Have Seen the Mess” we have the theme of obsession and isolation.  The main
heroine Lorna appears to have put herself and her family on a pedestal and judges people
negatively. All people seem dirty to her. “The Pawnbroker’s Wife” deals with the problem of
wrong upbringing. The story “Portobello Road” is a ghost story which is narrated by a dead
woman. She haunts her murder. The lady was killed by her friend whom she knew since
childhood. In this story one can find such themes as life and death, friendship, love, interracial
relationships, crime and punishment, remorse (угрызения совести, раскаяние).

15.pOSTMODERNISM

The main question of postmodernism   is  the reader and the world of culture

For understanding literature of postmodernism we should use different terms (characteristics of

postmodern texts).We can say “postmodern” or “postmodernist” works (texts).

         Double code of reading means that postmodern text has two ways of understanding. It can
be interesting for wide public and for intellectual readers. On the one hand, it can be interesting
because of popular genres (detective story, love story), on the other hand, it attracts readers
because of numerous intertextual references and intellectual play.

         Intertextuality It means numerous borrowings ( quotations, allusions, reminiscences).

         Collage [ˈkɒlɑːʒ, kəˈlɑːʒ] (a patchwork ['pæʧwɜːk]) stands for a mixture of forms (styles,

genres) and meanings. Postmodern texts are deconstructed into different forms and meaning. The
term collage also means a collage of borrowings (intertextual references).

         Author’s mask is a kind of attempt to disguise the author’s attitude towards his work. The
author put the mask of the author of different genres and the tone of narration is constantly
changing. It not only entertains readers but also forces to make their own interpretations.

         Play means that the author plays with the reader, with masks and meanings.

The reader is suggested different variants for his choice.

         Metafiction can be described as fiction about the nature and purpose of fiction. Many
postmodern works have a self-reflective character, which means that they deal with the problems
of novel-writing.

          Many works of modernism and postmodernism share the same features. The principle
difference between them consists of two points (deconstruction and double code of reading).
Modernism is a construction and postmodernism is deconstruction. Double code of rending can
be found only in postmodernism. Modernism is interesting only for intellectual, well-prepared
readers.

        

  “The French Lieutenant’s Woman” (1969) by John Fowles is set in the 19th century
England. This text abounds in quotations, allusions, reminiscences from Dickens, Thackeray,
Bronte, Hardy, Tennyson, Max, Darwin which are reinterpreted. The self-conscious omniscient
narrator reminds the reader that we judge from the ideology of the 20th century. Fowles draws
parallels between the Victorian period and the present time. The novel focuses on sexual guilt
and female sexuality. The plot is based on love triangle. Charles has to choose between
respectable Ernestina and Sarah, a woman of little reputation: there are rumours that she was a
lover of the French lieutenant who left her alone. The Victorian binary opposition “angel/whore”
is deconstructed. Following the postmodern idea of endless deconstruction of meanings, Fowles
plays with three endings: the reader must discover himself how this novel ends.

«The French Lieutenant's Woman» is a bright example of postmodern text. It has a lot of
postmodern features. Double code of reading- it is a love story and a neo-victorian novel with
many borrowings from the 19th century. Intertextuality- there are a lot of references to fiction
and non fiction. Chapters have numerous quotations as epigraphs. Collage [ˈkɒlɑːʒ, kəˈlɑːʒ] (a
patchwork ['pæʧwɜːk])-there are many genres and styles and we can find 3 endings with
different meanings. Author’s mask- Fowles puts the mask of the writer of the 19 th century, the
mask  of the writer of pop culture and the mask of the writer-existentialist and plays with the 3
endings and with the reader. The central theme of the novel is criticism of Victorian worldview
(the worldview of the 19th century); metafiction can be found in the fragments of the novel
where John Fowles addresses the reader and reflects on the process of writing and on Victorian
literature.

“The Collector” by John Fowles  ( смотри в книге Кортес, Л. П. Английская литература от

Средневековья до наших дней = English iterature from the Middle Ages to Our Days / Л. П.
Кортес, Н. Н. Никифорова)