Unit I

Unit I: Design Criteria
Criteria For Design:

Design for Strength: Type of loading, Magnitude of stress
Design for Rigidity: Magnitude of deflection (Stationary or Moving

elements)
Design for Wear: Components having relative motion, High speed.
Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 1
Unit I: Factor of Safety
How to quantify Safe Design: Factor of safety

Factor of safety depends upon:
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑠 • Consequences of failure
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ
• Nature of load
Sut • Degree of force analysis

Brittle Materials: σ • Material of component
𝑓𝑜𝑠
• Nature of Application/usage
Syt • Cost of component

Ductile Materials: σ
𝑓𝑜𝑠 • Testing of Machine element
• Service condition
• Quality of Manufacture
Factor of Safety
Selection of Magnitude of fos.
 Cast Iron (Ultimate Tensile Strength, non-Homogenous, fos = 3~5)
 Ductile Materials (Static Loading: Yielding Strength, Homogenous, fos = 1.5~2)
 Ductile Materials (Fluctuating Load: Endurance Limit, stress concentration, surface finish, size, fos = 1.3~1.5)
 Cams & Followers, Rolling Contact Bearings, Gears (High contact stresses, High Hardness, Wear, fos = 1.8~2.5)
 Piston Rods, Power Screws, Studs (Buckling failure, critical load, fos = 3 ~ 6)
3
Unit I: Direct Axial Load
Nature of Stress: Direct Stress (Compressive/Tensile)

P 𝜹𝑙
σt ε𝐸 𝐸
𝐴 𝑙
σt : Tensile stress (N/mm2)
P : External force (N)
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2)
Ε : Young Modulus (GPa = 1009 N/m2)
ε : Strain
l: Original Length
𝜹𝑙: Change in length
Units: MPa = 1 N/mm2 = 1006 N/m2
PL
𝜹𝑙  𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 ∶ 𝜠 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝐴𝐸
 Grey Cast Iron: E = 100 GPa Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 4
Unit I: Shear Load
Nature of Stress: Shear Stress
P
τ =Gγ
𝜏 : Shear stress (N/mm2)

P : External force (N)
A : Cross-sectional area of rivet (mm2)
G: Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (GPa)
γ : Shear Strain
μ : Poisson Ratio
 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 ∶ 𝑮 𝟖𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂  𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 ∶ μ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗

 Grey Cast Iron: G = 40 GPa  Grey Cast Iron: μ = 0.21
𝐸 = 2G (1+μ)
Unit I: Bending Load
Nature of Stress: Bending Stress

 The beam is straight with uniform cross section.
 The forces acting on the beam lie in a plane

perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
 The material is homogeneous, isotropic and

obeys Hooke’s law.
 Plane cross-sections remain plane after

bending.
Mb
σb y σb: Bending stress (N/mm2)
𝑰 Mb : Bending Moment (Nmm)
I : Area moment of inertia about neutral axis (mm4)
Unit I: Torsional Load
Nature of Stress: Torsional Stress

 The shaft is straight with a circular cross-section.
 A plane transverse section remains plane after twisting.
 The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law
Mt Mtl
τ y θ
𝐽𝐺
τ: Torsional stress (N/mm2)
Mb : Twisting Moment (Nmm)
J : Polar Area moment of inertia about shaft axis (mm4)
G: Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (GPa)
l : Length of shaft
Unit I: Eccentric Loads
Nature of Stress due to eccentric Loading
Unit I: Eccentric Loads
Nature of Stress due to eccentric Loading
P P Mb
Pe σ 𝒐𝒓 y
σt σb y 𝑰
𝐴 𝑰
Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT
New Delhi 9
Unit I: Combined Static Loading
Problem: A machine frame shown in the figure below is subjected to a horizontal force of 600 N parallel to z-
direction. Determine the normal and shear stresses in MPa at point P (at outer fiber on z axis).
Problem: A machine frame shown in the figure below is subjected to a horizontal force of 600 N parallel to z-
direction. Determine the normal and shear stresses in MPa at point P (at outer fiber on z axis).
Problem: In a simply supported beam (50 mm x 50mm) loaded as shown below. Locate critical point and evaluate
bending stress.
Unit I: Impact Loads
Impact Loads
Vertical Impact Loading (Fi):
Static load: W = mg
Stiffness of material: k
Static deformation : 𝜹st W/k
Dissipation coefficient: 𝜼
Vertical Impact Loading (Fi):
Static load: W = mg
Energy stored in material: E = Wh + W𝜹i
Dissipation coefficient/ correction factors : 𝜼
1 Fi2
E = 𝜼Wh + W𝜹i Fi 𝜹i =
Fi 2 Fi 𝜼h
) -2 -2 =0
𝜹st
.
Fi 𝜹 2𝜼h 05
= i 1 1
𝜹st 𝜹st
Horizontal Impact Loading (Fi):
Static load: W = mg
1
Energy of mass: E = mv2
Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT 16
New Delhi
Horizontal Impact Loading (Fi):
Static load: W = mg
1
Energy stored in mass: E = mv2
1 1 Fi2
E=𝜼 mv2 Fi 𝜹i =
WW 2
Fi2 = 𝜼 v
𝜹st g
.
Fi 𝜹 𝜼 05
= i 𝑣
𝜹st g𝜹st
How to calculate 𝜼 : Burr, Roark and Young
1
𝜼=
1 + mmb
m is the mass of the striking object, and mb is the mass of the struck object
Legends
 Color line: an axial rod
 Black-solid line :a simply supported beam struck at mid span
 Black-dotted line: a cantilever beam struck at the free end
UNIT I: Impact Loads
The axial rod shown in Figure is hit by a mass moving at v m/sec. a. The length/diameter is 10. m=1 kg. l=100 mm.
The rod and moving mass are steel. Determine the velocity required to create an impact force of 13000 N.
Material Selection
20
Material Selection
 Material selection plays a very significant role in machine design.

 There are systematic and optimizing approaches to material selection.
 M. F. Ashby has developed a powerful systematic method using
materials selection charts.
 Bubble Chart-Specific modulus, or Specific stiffness.
 This ratio is of particular interest when it is desired to minimize
weight where the primary design limitation is deflection, stiffness,
or natural frequency, rather than strength.
 Machine parts made from materials with higher specific modulus
will exhibit lower deflection, higher stiffness, and higher natural
frequency.
21
Material Selection
Young’s modulus E for various materials
22
P = f (F,G,M) Material Selection
P : Performance Metric
F : Functional Requirement
G: Geometric Requirement
M: material Property Requirement
𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
P PL3 𝝅D4 A2 kL3

k ; 𝜹 ; 𝑰 ; 𝑨 𝟐 𝑰𝝅 𝟐 𝝅
𝜹
𝟑𝑬𝑰 𝟔𝟒 𝟒𝝅 𝟑𝑬
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎: 𝒎 𝑨𝑳𝝆 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2 𝑳 1/2𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2
F : Functional Requirement 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2
G: Geometric Requirement 𝑳 1/2
M: material Property Requirement 𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2
23
Material Selection
P = f (F,G,M)
P : Performance Metric
F : Functional Requirement
G: Geometric Requirement
M: material Property Requirement
𝒎 𝑨𝑳𝝆 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2 𝑳 1/2𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙: 𝑴 𝑬 1/2/𝝆

β = 1 : Axial Loading
𝑴 𝑬 β/𝝆 β = 1/2 : Bending
β = 1/3 : ? 24
Material Selection
𝑴 𝑺 β/𝝆
β = 1 : Axial Loading
β = 2/3 : Bending
25
Stress Strain Diagram (Tensile Test of Ductile Materials)
(b) Necking and rupture in low (c) Annealed High-Carbon Steel

(a) Low-Carbon Steel carbon steel specimen
 pl: Proportional Limit (Full Recovery) Hooke’s Law: Within proportional limit stress is directly proportional to
 el : Elastic Limit the strain.
 y: Yielding point (0.2% permanent set)
𝑃 𝛿 𝑷𝑳𝟎
 u: Ultimate Tensile Stress 𝝈 𝑬𝜺 𝐸 𝜹
 𝑓: Fracture Point 𝐴0 𝐿0 𝑬𝑨𝟎
26
 E: Young's Modulus/Modulus of Elasticity Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT Delhi
PRINCIPLE STRESS
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 ,𝜎 𝜏
2 2
𝜎 >𝜎 >𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏 2𝜏
2 2 2 tan 2∅
𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎
𝜏 𝜏
2 Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 27
Static Theory of Failures
Maximum Principle Stress Theory (Brittle Materials)
Maximum Shear stress Theory (Ductile Materials)
Distortion Energy Theory (Ductile Materials)
Maximum Principle Stress/Rankine Theory
Failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the
maximum principal stress reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the material.
Failure Condition: 𝝈𝟏 𝑆 or 𝝈𝟐 𝑺𝒚𝒄
𝑺𝒚𝒕 𝑺𝒚𝒕
Safe Condition: 𝝈𝟏 or 𝝈𝟐
𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝒔
𝐒𝐲𝐭 : Yielding stress in tension

𝐒𝐲𝐜 : Yielding stress in compression
𝜎 , 𝜎 & 𝜎 : Principle stress
Relation between Yielding tensile strength and yielding shear strength
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 ,𝜎 𝜏
2 2
𝜎 = 𝜎 𝜎 = 0
𝜏 = 𝑆
Maximum Shear Stress/Tresca & Guest Theory
Failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the
maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear
stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts.
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
2 2 2
𝜎 𝜎 𝑆 𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
Failure Condition: 𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
𝑆 𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
2 2
𝜎 𝑆
𝜏 = 𝑆 𝜎 𝑆
𝜎 𝑆
𝜏 = 𝑆 𝜎 𝑆
𝜎 𝑆
𝜎 𝑆
𝐒𝐲𝐭 : Yielding stress in tension
𝐒𝐲𝐜 : Yielding stress in compression
𝜎 , 𝜎 & 𝜎 : Principle stress
𝑆 : Yielding shear stress Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 31
Maximum Shear Stress/Tresca & Guest Theory
Failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the
maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear
stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts.
𝜎 𝜎 𝑆 𝑆 𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
Safe Condition: 𝜎 𝜎
2 2 𝑓𝑠 2 2 𝑓𝑠 2 2 𝑓𝑠
Shear diagonal or line of pure shear is the locus of all points, corresponding to
pure shear stress
𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
𝜏
2 2
𝜎 𝜎 𝑆
𝑆
2 2
Distortion Energy Theory/Huber-R Von-Mises- Hencky Theory
Failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the
strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any point in the component, becomes equal to the
strain energy of distortion per unit volume in the standard specimen of tension-test, when
yielding starts
Strain Energy: U = 𝜎 ε 𝜎ε + 𝜎ε
Von Mises stress: Equivalent uni-axial stress that produces same distortion as produces by all combined stresses.
1 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 6 𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
2 2
1
Failure Condition: 𝑆 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
2
𝑆 1
Safe Condition: 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝑓𝑠 2 33
Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi
Distortion Energy Theory/Huber-R Von-Mises- Hencky Theory
1
Failure Condition: 𝑆 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
2
2𝐷 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒: 𝜎 0
𝑆 𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎𝜎
shear diagonal or line of pure shear is the locus of all points, corresponding to pure
shear stress.
𝑆 𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜏 𝜎 = 𝑆
34
Comparison of Static Failure Theories
 In ductile materials, yielding is

failure criteria. One should use
Maximum shear stress or Von-Mises
stress theory.
 Maximum shear stress is conservative

theory as compared to Von-Mises
stress theory.
 In brittle materials, fracture is failure

criteria. So, Maximum principle stress
theory should be preferred.
35
Static Load Design Problem
A wall bracket with a rectangular cross-section is shown in Figure. The depth of the cross-section is twice of the
width. The force P acting on the bracket at 600 to the vertical is 5 kN. The material of the bracket is grey cast iron
FG 200 and the factor of safety is 3.5. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the bracket. Assume maximum
normal stress theory of failure.
A wall bracket with a rectangular cross-section is shown in Figure. The depth of the cross-section is twice of the
width. The force P acting on the bracket at 600 to the vertical is 5 kN. The material of the bracket is grey cast iron
FG 200 and the factor of safety is 3.5. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the bracket. Assume maximum
normal stress theory of failure.
Cross Section: 35 mm x 70 mm
The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is shown in Figure. The shaft is made of plain carbon
steel 45C8 and the tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the diameter of the shaft
using the maximum shear stress theory.
The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is shown in Figure. The shaft is made of plain carbon
steel 45C8 and the tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the diameter of the shaft
using the maximum shear stress theory.
d =31.06 mm
Analysis of Knuckle Joint
Free Body Diagrams
𝑃
Tensile Failure of Rods: 𝜎 𝜋
𝐷
4
knuckle joint
Crushing Failure of Pin in Eye
Shear in pin
𝑃
𝜎
𝑃 𝑏𝑑
𝜏 𝜋
2 𝐷
4
Analysis of Knuckle Joint 𝑎
𝑥
3
1 𝑏 𝑏
𝑧
2 2 4
𝑃 𝑏 𝑃
𝑀 𝒙 𝑧
2 2 2
𝑃 𝑏 𝑎
𝑀
2 4 3
𝜋𝑑 𝑑
𝐼 𝑦
64 2
Crushing Failure of Pin in Fork 𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑

Bending Failure of Pin 𝑀 2 4 3 2
𝜎 𝒚
𝐼 𝜋𝑑
𝑃 64
𝜎
2𝑎𝑑
𝑷
Tensile Failure of Eye: 𝝈𝒕
𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
𝑷
Shear Failure of Eye: 𝝉
𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
𝑷
Shear Failure of Fork: 𝝉
𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
(a) Tensile Failure of Eye (b) Shear Failure of Eye
Design Procedure of Knuckle Joint
𝑃
1. Calculate the diameter of each rod: 𝜎 𝜋
𝐷
4
2. Enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship: 𝐷 1.1𝐷
3. Dimensions a and b by empirical relationship: 𝑎 0.75𝐷; 𝑏 1.25𝐷

𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑
𝑃 𝑀 2 4 3 2
4. Diameters of the pin: 𝜏 𝜋 𝜎 𝒚
2 𝑑 𝐼 𝜋𝑑
4
64
5. Dimensions do and d1: 𝑑 2𝑑; 𝑑 1.5𝑑; knuckle joint
𝑷 𝑃 𝑷
6. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the eye: 𝝈𝒕 ; 𝜎 ; 𝝉 ;
𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅 𝑏𝑑 𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
7. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork:

𝑷 𝑃 𝑷
𝝈𝒕 ; 𝜎 ; 𝝉
𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝟎 𝒅 2𝑎𝑑 𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
It is required to design a knuckle joint to connect two circular rods subjected to an axial tensile force of 50 kN. The rods are co-axial and a small
amount of angular movement between their axes is permissible. Design the joint and specify the dimensions of its components. Select suitable
materials for the parts.
𝑃
𝐷
4
2. Enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship: 𝐷 1.1𝐷
3. Dimensions a and b by empirical relationship: 𝑎 0.75𝐷; 𝑏 1.25𝐷

𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑
𝑃 𝑀 2 4 3 2
4. Diameters of the pin: 𝜏 𝜋 𝜎 𝒚
4
64
knuckle joint
5. Dimensions do and d1: 𝑑 2𝑑; 𝑑 1.5𝑑;
𝑷 𝑃 𝑷
6. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the eye: 𝝈𝒕 ; 𝜎 ; 𝝉 ;
𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅 𝑏𝑑 𝒃 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
7. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork:

𝑷 𝑃 𝑷
𝝈𝒕 ; 𝜎 ; 𝝉
𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝟎 𝒅 2𝑎𝑑 𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝟎 𝒅
Analysis of Cotter Joint
𝑃
Tensile Failure of Rods: 𝜎 𝜋
𝑑
4
𝑃
Tensile Failure of Spigot: 𝜎 𝜋
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑡 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝒅
𝑃
Tensile Failure of Socket: 𝜎 𝜋
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑃
Shear Failure of Cotter: 𝝉
2𝑏𝑡
𝑃
Shear Failure of Spigot: 𝝉
2𝑎𝑑
𝑃
Shear Failure of Socket: 𝝉
2 𝑑 𝑑 𝑐
𝑃
Crushing Failure of Socket: 𝜎
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
𝑃
Crushing Failure of Spigot: 𝜎
𝑡𝑑
1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑥
3 2
1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑧
2 2 4
𝑃 𝑑 𝑃
𝑀 𝒙 𝑧
2 2 2
𝑃 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑀
2 4 6
𝑡𝑏 𝑏
𝐼 𝑦
12 2
𝑃 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑏
Bending Failure of Cotter 𝑀 2 4 6 2
𝜎 𝒚
𝐼 𝑡𝑏
12
Design Procedure of Cotter Joint
𝑃
𝐷
4
𝑃
2. Calculate diameter d2 of spigot: 𝜎 𝜋 𝑡 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝒅
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑃
3. Calculate diameter d1 of socket: 𝜎 𝜋
4
4. Calculate diameter d3 and d4: 𝑑 1.5𝑑; 𝑑 2.4𝑑;
5. Calculate collar a and c: 𝑎 𝑐 0.75𝑑

𝑃 𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑
6. Determine the width b of the cotter by shear and bending consideration: 𝝉 𝑀 2 4 3 2
2𝑏𝑡 𝜎 𝒚
𝐼 𝜋𝑑
𝑃 𝑃 64
7. Check the crushing and shear stresses in the spigot: 𝜎 ; τ ;
𝑎𝑑 2𝑎𝑑
𝑃 𝑃
8. Check the crushing and shear stresses in the socket: 𝜎 ; τ ;
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡 2 𝑑 𝑑 𝑐
9. Spigot Collar: 𝑡 0.45𝑑 Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 50
It is required to design a cotter joint to connect two steel rods of equal diameter. Each rod is subjected to an axial
tensile force of 50 kN. Design the joint and specify its main dimensions.
𝑃
𝐷
4
𝑃
2. Calculate diameter d2 of spigot: 𝜎 𝜋 𝑡 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝒅
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡
4
𝑃
3. Calculate diameter d1 of socket: 𝜎 𝜋
4
4. Calculate diameter d3 and d4: 𝑑 1.5𝑑; 𝑑 2.4𝑑;
5. Calculate collar a and c: 𝑎 𝑐 0.75𝑑

𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑
𝑃 𝑀
6. Determine the width b of the cotter by shear and bending consideration: 𝜏 2 4 3 2
𝜋 𝜎 𝒚
4
𝑃 𝑃 64
7. Check the crushing and shear stresses in the spigot: 𝜎 ; τ ;
𝑎𝑑 2𝑎𝑑
𝑃 𝑃
8. Check the crushing and shear stresses in the socket: 𝜎 ; τ ;
𝑑 𝑑 𝑡 2 𝑑 𝑑 𝑐
9. Spigot Collar: 𝑡 0.45𝑑 Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi 51
Stress Concentration
Stress Concentration
 Stress Concentration: A sudden increase in Magnitude of

stress.
 Reason: Non-linearity (Material , Geometric, Type of

contact)
 Material discontinuity: internal cracks, cavities, foreign

inclusions, non-homogenous materials etc.,
 Type of contact: Point, contact, line contact and Area contact.
 Geometric non-Linearity: Steps in shaft, oil grooves, holes,

splines, screw threads, scratches, stamp marks, inspection
marks etc.
Stress Concentration factor
P
σt
𝐴
Highest value of stress 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦

Stress concentration factor: Kt
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
σmax
Kt
σo
Stress Concentration charts (FEM/Mathematical Model)
σmax
Kt
σo
4P 4P Mb
P σ σo y
σo σo o
𝑑𝑡: 𝐼:
(w−d)t: πd :2
Stress Concentration (Theory of elasticity)
a
Kt 1 2
b
a = half width (or semi-major axis) of the ellipse

 Case I : b=0; Kt~𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 perpendicular to the direction of the load
b = half width (or semi-minor axis) of the ellipse
 Case II: a=b; circular hole; Kt =3
Stress Concentration Reduction
Reduction of Stress Concentration due to V-notch: (a) Original Notch (b) Multiple Notches
(c) Drilled Holes (d) Removal of Undesirable Material
Reduction of Stress Concentration due to Abrupt Change in Cross-section: (a) Original

Component (b) Fillet Radius (c) Undercutting (d) Addition of Notch
Reduction of Stress Concentration in Shaft with Keyway: (a) Original Shaft (b) Drilled
Holes (c) Fillet Radius
Failure Resulting from Variable Load
60
61
Rotating shaft subjected to transverse load P and axial Load R

 Fluctuating stress induced by P and Rotation of shaft: 𝜎 to +𝜎
 Static stress Induced by constant radial load R: +𝜎 (Tensile stress)
(a) Fluctuating stress (b) Repeated stress

Dr. Vivek Kumar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NSUT New Delhi (c) Completely reversed stress (R=0) 62
(a) Fluctuating stress (b) Repeated stress (c) Completely reversed stress (R=0)
 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜎
 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜎
In some cases of cyclic loading, even if 𝜎 is less than

𝑆 , still failure occurs, this time delayed failure is known as 𝐟𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐠𝐮𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐮𝐫𝐞.
Fatigue Failure and Endurance Limit
Specimen for Fatigue Test Fatigue Test Rig
Stress distribution Stress variation w.r.t angle or time 64

Fatigue Failure and Endurance Limit (S-N curve)
Fatigue Test results (ferrous metal): Failure stress vs number of cycle
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles
without fatigue failure. 65
S-N curve High cycle and Low Cycle Fatigue
Low Cycle Fatigue: less than 1000 cycles (studs and screw sets); Plastic deformation.
High Cycle Fatigue: more than 1000 cycles (Moving elements); designed on basis of endurance limit
66
Notch sensitivity and fatigue stress concentration
Highest value of stress 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦
Stress concentration factor: Kt
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 P

Fatigue Stress concentration factor: Kf σo
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 (w−d)t:
Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging

effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading
Notch sensitivity factor: 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

q
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Kf 𝜎 𝜎
q
Kt 𝜎 𝜎
Kf 1
q Kf 1 q (Kt 1
Kt 1
67
Notch sensitivity and fatigue stress concentration
Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed Notch Sensitivity Charts (for Reversed
Bending and Reversed Axial Stresses) Torsional Shear Stresses)
68
Endurance Limit Approximation
Se Ka Kb Kc Kd Se’  For Axial loading: Sae = 0.8 Se
 Torsional shear stress: Ste = 0.5 Se or 0.577 Se
Se : Corrected endurance strength
Ka : Surface finish factor
Kb : Size factor
Kc : reliability factor
Kd : modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
Se ’ : Un-corrected endurance strength
Sut : Ultimate tensile strength
Un-corrected endurance strength for bending Se’)

 Steels: Se’ = 0.5 Sut
 Iron and Cast Steels: Se’ = 0.4 Sut
 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑠: Se’ = 0.4 Sut
 𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑠: Se’ = 0.3 Sut
Surface finish factor (steels):Ka a Sut b
69
Se Ka Kb Kc Kd Se’
Size factor for cylindrical components
Kb : Size factor
Kd : modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
Effective diameter (de) for non-circular components: According to Kuguel’s equality, the effective diameter is
obtained by equating the volume of the material stressed at and above 95% of the maximum stress to the equivalent
volume in the rotating beam specimen.
.
𝐴 = 0.0766𝑑
𝐴
𝑑
0.0766
70
Se Ka Kb Kc Kd Se’
Reliability factor
Kb : Size factor
Kd : Modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
Modifying factor to account for stress concentration:
1
𝐾
𝐾
𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐾 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 to reduce endurance limit
71
Estimation of Endurance Limit and Life Cycles
A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is shown in Figure. It is subjected to a
completely reversed axial force of 50 kN. The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The size factor
is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infinite life, if the notch sensitivity factor is 0.8.
72
A rotating shaft, subjected to a nonrotating force of 5 kN and simply supported between two bearings A and E is
shown in Fig. 5.32(a). The shaft is machined from plain carbon steel 30C8 (Sut= 500 N/mm2) and the expected
reliability is 90%. The equivalent notch radius at the fillet section can be taken as 3 mm. What is the life of the
shaft?
73
The section of a steel shaft is shown in Figure. The shaft is machined by a turning process. The section at XX is
subjected to a constant bending moment of 500 kN-m. The shaft material has ultimate tensile strength of 500
MN/m2, yield point of 350 MN/m2 and endurance limit in bending for a 7.5 mm diameter specimen of 210 MN/m2.
The notch sensitivity factor can be taken as 0.8. The theoretical stress concentration factor may be interpolated
from following tabulated values:
74
Fatigue Life in Cumulative Damage (Milner Equation)
 Completely reversed stresses with amplitude: 𝜎 , 𝜎 , 𝜎 ………………….. 𝜎
 Corresponding Life for a respective stress: 𝑁 , 𝑁 , 𝑁 ………………….. 𝑁
 Corresponding number of cycles for which component is operated in respective stress: 𝑛 , 𝑛 , 𝑛 ………………….. 𝑛
 Life consumed in respective stress: , ,
 N is the total life under different stress.

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑁𝜶 𝑁𝜶 𝑁𝜶 𝑁𝜶
1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝜶 𝜶 𝜶 𝜶 1
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
75
Fatigue Life in Cumulative Damage (Milner Equation)
Problem: The work cycle of a mechanical component subjected to completely reversed bending stresses consists of the
following three elements:
(i) ± 350 N/mm2 for 85% of time
(ii) ± 400 N/mm2 for 12% of time
(iii) ± 500 N/mm2 for 3% of time
The material for the component is 50C4 (Sut = 660 N/mm2) and the corrected endurance limit of the component is 280 N/mm2.
Determine the life of the component.
76
Design under Fatigue Loading
σ σ
Yielding line: 1
𝑆 𝑆
σ σ
Goodman line: 1
𝑆 𝑆
σ σ
Soderberg line: 1
𝑆 𝑆
Gerber line: σ σ
1
𝑆 𝑆
 Yielding line: leads to failure in single cycle for completely reversed stress
 Gerber Line: Fits all failure points along a parabolic curve. Margin of safety is minimum.
 Goodman Line: Increase margin of safety as compared to Gerber line.
 Soderberg Line: Conservative approach. Leads to overdesign of member.
Modified Goodman Line (OABCO) for Bending
Some components with very high value of mean stress and very low amplitude stress fails according to Goodman criteria.
σ σ
Yielding line: 1
𝑆 𝑆
σ σ
Goodman line: 1
𝑆 𝑆
𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =
Steps:
1. Evaluate amplitude of stress and mean value of stress.
2. Determine corrected endurance strength.
3. Plot S-N curve.
4. Locate point (σ , σ and find intersection point X (S , S .
5. Point X corresponds to maximum limit of stress values corresponding to safe design.
6. Define factor of safety and determine dimension of member.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓(σ , σ : σ = σ =

Modified Goodman Line (OABCO) for Torsional shear
Note: up to certain value of 𝜏 the endurance limit

remains constant (point B )
τ τ
1
𝑆 𝑆
Steps:
1. Evaluate amplitude of stress (τ and mean value of stress (τ .
2. Determine corrected endurance strength.
3. Plot S-N curve.
4. Locate point (τ , τ and find intersection point X (𝑆 , 𝑆 .
tan θ =
𝑆 16𝑀
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓(τ , τ : τ τ
𝑓𝑜𝑠 π𝑑3
Design of Mechanical Element under fatigue Loading
Problem: A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 4OC8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 and Syt = 380 N/mm2) is shown in
Figure. The force P acting at the free end varies from –50 N to +150 N. The expected reliability is 90% and the
factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the beam at the
fillet cross-section.
80
Problem: A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (Sut = 500 N/mm2 and Syt = 300 N/mm2) is subjected to
a fluctuating torque which varies from –100 N-m to + 400 N-m. The factor of safety is 2 and the expected reliability
is 90%. Neglecting the effect of stress concentration, determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume the distortion
energy theory of failure.
81
Unit I: Design of Mechanical Element under fatigue Loading
Problem: A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (Sut = 500 N/mm2 and Syt = 300 N/mm2) is subjected to
a fluctuating torque which varies from –100 N-m to + 400 N-m. The factor of safety is 2 and the expected reliability
is 90%. Neglecting the effect of stress concentration, determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume the distortion
energy theory of failure.
82
Design of Mechanical Element under combined fatigue Loading
Problem: Shaft subjected to fluctuating torque 𝑀 to - 𝑀 ) and fluctuating moment 𝑀 to - 𝑀 ) .
Steps:
1. Evaluate amplitude 𝑀 , 𝑀 ) and mean value 𝑀 ,𝑀 ) of moments.
2. Evaluate corresponding values of amplitude τ , σ ) and mean value τ , σ ) of
stresses.
3. Compute amplitude and mean value of vonmises stress.
𝜎 𝜎 3𝜏 𝜎 𝜎 3𝜏
4. Plot S-N curve.
5. Locate point (σ ,σ and find intersection point X (S , S .
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓(σ , σ : σ = σ =

83
Problem: A transmission shaft carries a pulley midway between the two bearings. The bending moment at the
pulley varies from 200 N-m to 600 N-m, as the torsional moment in the shaft varies from 70 N-m to 200 N-m. The
frequencies of variation of bending and torsional moments are equal to the shaft speed. The shaft is made of steel
FeE 400 (Sut = 540 N/mm2 and Syt = 400 N/mm2). The corrected endurance limit of the shaft is 200 N/mm2.
Determine the diameter of the shaft using a factor of safety of 2.
84
Problem: A machine component is subjected to two-dimensional stresses. The tensile stress in the X direction
varies from 40 to 100 N/mm2 while the tensile stress in the Y direction varies from 10 to 80 N/mm2. The frequency
of variation of these stresses is equal. The corrected endurance limit of the component is 270 N/mm2. The ultimate
tensile strength of the material of the component is 660 N/mm2. Determine the factor of safety used by the designer.
85

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Unit I: Design Criteria

Criteria For Design:

Design for Rigidity: Magnitude of deflection (Stationary or Moving

Design for Wear: Components having relative motion, High speed.

How to quantify Safe Design: Factor of safety

Sut • Degree of force analysis

Syt • Cost of component

 Cast Iron (Ultimate Tensile Strength, non-Homogenous, fos = 3~5)

 Ductile Materials (Static Loading: Yielding Strength, Homogenous, fos = 1.5~2)

Nature of Stress: Direct Stress (Compressive/Tensile)

Nature of Stress: Shear Stress

𝜏 : Shear stress (N/mm2)

 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 ∶ 𝑮 𝟖𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂  𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 ∶ μ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗

Nature of Stress: Bending Stress

 The forces acting on the beam lie in a plane

 The material is homogeneous, isotropic and

 Plane cross-sections remain plane after

Nature of Stress: Torsional Stress

 A plane transverse section remains plane after twisting.

 The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law

Nature of Stress due to eccentric Loading

Vertical Impact Loading (Fi):

Vertical Impact Loading (Fi):

Horizontal Impact Loading (Fi):

Horizontal Impact Loading (Fi):

How to calculate 𝜼 : Burr, Roark and Young

 Material selection plays a very significant role in machine design.

Young’s modulus E for various materials

𝑺𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

P PL3 𝝅D4 A2 kL3

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎: 𝒎 𝑨𝑳𝝆 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2 𝑳 1/2𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2

F : Functional Requirement 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2

G: Geometric Requirement 𝑳 1/2

M: material Property Requirement 𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2

𝒎 𝑨𝑳𝝆 𝟐 𝝅/𝟑 1/2 𝒌1/2 𝑳 1/2𝝆/ 𝑬 1/2

𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙: 𝑴 𝑬 1/2/𝝆

(b) Necking and rupture in low (c) Annealed High-Carbon Steel

Maximum Principle Stress Theory (Brittle Materials)

Maximum Shear stress Theory (Ductile Materials)

Distortion Energy Theory (Ductile Materials)

Failure Condition: 𝝈𝟏 𝑆 or 𝝈𝟐 𝑺𝒚𝒄

𝐒𝐲𝐭 : Yielding stress in tension

 In ductile materials, yielding is

 Maximum shear stress is conservative

 In brittle materials, fracture is failure

Free Body Diagrams

Crushing Failure of Pin in Eye

Crushing Failure of Pin in Fork 𝑃 𝑏 𝑎 𝑑

2. Enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship: 𝐷 1.1𝐷

3. Dimensions a and b by empirical relationship: 𝑎 0.75𝐷; 𝑏 1.25𝐷

7. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork:

2. Enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship: 𝐷 1.1𝐷

3. Dimensions a and b by empirical relationship: 𝑎 0.75𝐷; 𝑏 1.25𝐷

7. Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork:

4. Calculate diameter d3 and d4: 𝑑 1.5𝑑; 𝑑 2.4𝑑;

5. Calculate collar a and c: 𝑎 𝑐 0.75𝑑

4. Calculate diameter d3 and d4: 𝑑 1.5𝑑; 𝑑 2.4𝑑;

5. Calculate collar a and c: 𝑎 𝑐 0.75𝑑