12:37 Ome. (search Q = §3 SCRIBD Download now W STARCH Starch or amylum is « suchas consisting ofa large number of glucose units joined together by glususidic hous. This pulssacchasi is produced by all green ‘plauls as an energy slore It is generally deposited in the form of small granules or cells with diameters between 1-100 jm Starch is found in seeds and in tubers o roots of the plants. Its the most important carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in Such salu fos as potatoes, wal, mui (corn, sie, and cassava, re starch is a whit, tasteless and odorless powder that i insoluble in eold water oraleohol. It consists of bo types of molecules: the linear and heigl amylose and the branched a lopesin. Depeing onthe plan starch generally eontsns 2019 amylose und 75 10 80% amylopectin. Glycogen, the glucose slow of animals amor bnchod venion of lapel, Starch is processed to produce many of the sugars in processed foods. When dissolved in warm wate, it can be used as a thickening stitTening or gluing agent giving whieatpaste. STRUCTURE ‘tur isa polymer consisting oF any droglucose (AHG) units. Two types of AHG polymers are usually present in starch: amylose andamylopectin [2-3 6]. Amylose is essentially a linear polymer in which AHG unitsare predominantly consected through a-D-(14}elucasidic bonds, The moleculanweight of amylose isa function fof the plant source and processing method, butusualy inthe range of 1.6-7 x 105 Da , Amylopectin isa branched polymer. containing periic branches like! with the backbones through a-D-(1,6)-glucosidie bonds, Each branch contains about 20-30 anbydroglacose units, Themolecular weight of amylopectin is higher than that of amylose and is lpivally 4-Sx 108 Da. The contem of amylose and amylopectine in starch varies and largelydepends on the starch source. Typically, the amplose conten is between 18-28% Page| Tela toa ole kg S MH a A Home Books Audiobooks Documents C a)ty 12:37 Otte =8 ( = § SCRIBD ( search Q) Download now W Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plat in semi-erystalline granules. Each latively smal (about ger granules (up to 100m). Although in < only about one quarter of the starch granules in plans consist of 1¢ are about 180 times more amylose molecules than amylopectin hele Anplose na uch salle teul in anlpecin CHARACTERISTICS Sturch is insoluble i cold ‘water, but it vey °\ hygroscopic and PA, binds water reversibly Starch &ecomes soluble in water when heated, The eranules swell and burst, the semi Page [10 Tela toa ole kg S MH a A Home Books Audiobooks Documents C a)12:37 Ome. = §3 SCRIBD (search Q Download now W crystalline structure is lost andthe smaller amylose molecules start leaching out of the granule, forming a network that hokds water and increasing the mistur's viscosity. This process is called stach gelatnization. During cooking the starch becomes a paste an increases futher in viscosity, During cooling oF prolonged storage of the past, the semicrystalline structure partially recovers nd the starch paste thickens, expelling water. This is mainly caused by the zsicogridation of the tmylose, This provess is responsible forthe hardening of bread or laling, and for the water layer on top of a starch yel(synexesis) I starch is subjected to dry heat, it breaks down to form pyzmiexicins, ina process known as dextinization Pyrodextrins are brown in color. This process is partially responsible for the browning of toasted bread The exzyunes that break down or bydealsze starch int the constituent sugars are known as amylases. Alpha-amglases are found in plants and in animals. Human saliva js rich in amylase, and the pancreas also seeretes the enzyme. Individuals from populations witha high-starch diet tend to have more amylase genes than those with low-strch diets; ehimpanzees have very few amylase genes.t possible that turing to a highsstarch diet was a significant event in human evolution, Betaamylase cuts starch into maltase uns. This process i important in the digestion of starch and is also used in hurswing, where the amylase from the skin ofthe seed grains is responsible for converting slarch to maltose ( Malting Mashing), odie solution is used to test for starch; a dark blue color indicates the presence of Starch, The details of this reaction are not yet fully known, but it is though thatthe fodine (1, and I. tons) fit inside the coils of amslose, the charge transfers between the iodine an the starch, and the energy level spacings inthe resulting complex correspond tothe absorption speetrum in the visible light region. The strength of the resulting blue color depends on dhe amount of amylose present, Waxy’ starches ‘with itis oF no amylose present will color rd ‘Stanch indicator solution consisting of water, stareh and iodine is often used in ‘elas titrations: inthe presence ofan axaiziageagent the solution tums blue in the presence of rsscing agen! the blue color disappears because Irie {Ir} ions break up into three inde ions, disassembling the stareh-iodine complex. A 0.3% {4 solution isthe standard concentration for starch indicator. It is made by adding 3 grams of soluble starch to I lite of heated water; the solution is cooled before use (strch-iodine complex becomes unsinble at temperatures ubove 35 °C). Microscopy of stare granules = Each species of plant has a unique shape of starch granules in granular size, shape and crystallisation pattern, Under tbe misrossupe. Page [22 Tela toa ole kg S MH a A Home Books Audiobooks Documents Cc a3 III Cfy 12:38 Oot GZ xX @ Project On Natura... Q ad : scribd.com §3 SCRIBD (search Q) Download now W Which surrounded the necks ofthe well-to-do Aside fi gave 16 clothing, i served practical purposes as Clothing, and would easily wash away along withthe the starch would be reapplied. Today, the product is sold in gaxasa caus for home Suwwh is used to produce various hioplastics, synthetic polymers that are biodegrdable. An example is palais kn el exploration, stare is used to adjust the viscosity of | whieh is used to lubricate the drill head and ding residue ta elcum extacton Glucose from starch canbe Sumer fermented to biafucl sihano) un eam use starch as the raw material, sing enzymes What is Scribd? S m 2 A Home Books Audiobooks Documents G People also view x (PDF) Natural Polymers- A = Cc a312:38 Obi Download now RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) Ribonueleie acid (RNA) is a biologically important type of molecule that consists ofa long chain of nucleotide units. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sibose sugar, and a phosphate. RNA is very similar to DNA, but differs in a few important structural details: in the cell, RNA is usually single-stranded, while DNA. is usually double-stranded; RNA nucleotides contain ribose while DNA contains deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom); and RNA has the base sutacil rather than shyunine that is present in DNA. RNA is transcribed from DNA by enzymes called RNA polymerases and is generally further processed by other enzymes. RNA is central to protein_synthesis. Here, a type of RNA called messenger RNA carries information from DNA to structures called sibosomes. These ribosomes are-made from proteins and ribosomal RNAS, which come together to form a molecular machine that can read messenger RNAs and tzanslate the information they carry into proteins, There are many RNAs with other roles in particular regulating which genes are expressed, but also as the genomes of most sinuses. STRUCTURE, Each nucleotide in RNA contains a sibose sugar, with carbons numbered I" through S'. A base is attached to the 1' position, generally adenine (A), cytosine (C), ‘guanine (G) or uracil (U). Adenine and guanine are purines, eytosine and uracil are ‘pytimidines. A phosphate group is attached to the 3! position of one ribose and the 5" position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each at physiological pH, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). The bases may form hydrogen bonds between eytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil. However other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge, or the GNRA teiraloop that has a guanine-adenine base-pair. ro12:38 Obi xX @ Project On Natura... Q ad : scribd.com Sy wee ee Download now l B-form most commonly observed in DNA. This results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove. A second consequence of the presence of the 2hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone. RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil), but there are numerous modified bases and sugars in mature RNAS. Pseudouridine (2), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C-N bond to a C-C bond, and ribothymidine (T), are found in various places (most notably in the TYC loop of tRNA). Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine, a deaminated adenine base whose nucleoside is called inosine (1). Inosine plays a key role in the suabble bypothesis of the genetic cade, There are nearly 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides, of which pseudouridine and nucleosides with 2-O-meihylrihase are the mast common, The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that in ribosomal RNA, many of the posttranseriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the peptidyl transferase center and the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal function The functional form of single stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific tertiary structure. The scaffold for this structure is provided by secondary stuctural elements which are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like ‘haizpin loops, bulges and internal loops. Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as Mg" are needed to stabilise many secondary and tertiary structures. CHARATERISTICS AND FUNTIONS RNA, which is made up of nucleic acids, has a variety of functions in a. cell and is found in many organisms. including plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) differ functionally. DNA primarily serves as the storage material for genetic information, RNA can function as a carrier of genetic information, a catalyst of biochemical reactions, an adapter molecule in protein synthesis, and a structural molecule in celhular organelles, Page | hat is Scribd?