CHAPTER- 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Rational of the Chapter

Literature review is a previous research work in the particular area , adding more
knowledge to the research study. The purpose of this chapter is to be aware the past
activities related to the topic of overgrazing and vulnerability. This chapter explores the
problems, history and important component related to the topic. Vulnerability research
covers a complex, multidisciplinary field including development, poverty public health and
climate studies, security studies engineering, Geography political ecology and disaster risk
management. In this chapter the role of overgrazing in Vulnerability are reviewed in three
phases. First it is studied and Reviewed in global context , then national context and finally
on study area.

2.2 Global Context

Overgrazing leads to an increase of soil compaction and soil crust compaction and soil crust
formation and a decrease of biotic crust and perennial grass cover (Munir,2010). The chief
ecological impacts of overgrazing are loss of biodiversity, irreversible loss of top of soil and
increase of turbidity in surface water and increase flooding frequency. Further more he also
suggested that overgrazing is significant driver of climate change by reducing climate change by
reducing global photosynthesis carbon dioxide sink by increasing the production of the potent
greenhouse gase, methane by altering retention of surface waters and by increasing the albedo of
the earth surface by altering the reflective electromagnetic spectrum. Micheal Hogan(2010).
Ecosystem health is threatened by deforestation, encroachment in to fragile lands, Overgrazing
and improper land management. These practices have resulted in soil erosion, loss of vegetation,
and loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services throughout much of developing
world.Mortimer(2009).

The fact that Overgrazing is not a function of animal numbers, but rather a function of time , has
to emphasized. Overgrazing occurs when animals are kept in a paddock too long or brought back
too soon, the latter means that a plant is grazed before it has recovered from a previous
grazing .He suggested to farmer to move livestock out of a pasture before growth begins to
prevent pasture land from overgrazing .During the periods of fast growth, Overgrazing will occur
if livestock are kept in a paddock for more than three or four days. Equally important is that
animals should not be turned out to pasture before plants have recovered Pratt (2002). Grazing
practices are one of the important determinants of forest vegetation distribution patterns and have
a direct impact on the floral biodiversity of an area.Valentine(2001).

Heavy grazing can cause grassland deterioration because of heavy defoliation and treading, and
is often use for weed control. Sheep Night Penning, a form of heavy grazing, has developed in to
a successful method of removing the native vegetation and establishing a new pasture. Results
show that high sheep density for a short duration removes almost all of the aboveground natural
vegetation, but does not significantly affect the soil bulk density, the penetration resistance, and
the air permeability. Zhang et al(2001).

Rayborn analyzed overgrazing and published his article on overgrazing namely “Overgrazing
can hurt environment ‘’. In his article he has written that overgrazing can increase the soil
erosion. Reduced soil depth, soil organic matter, and soil fertility hurt land future productivity.
Overgrazing can occur under continuous or rotational grazing. It can be caused by having too
many animals on the farm or by not properly controlling their grazing activity. Overgrazing
minimizes the potential land productivity which take a long time to be compensated.Ed
Rayborn(2000). High grazing pressure changes the botanical composition of the pasture.Javor,
(1999).

Willamil pointed out those in appropriate cattle grazing practices, such as overgrazing harm the
quality of natural pastures and soil properties. The soil structural degradation in the upper
horizons are approved by high bulk density values, high dry mechanical resistance and low
structural stability in comparisons with the climax situation.Willamil et al(1997). An average of
12.4% of the total carbon initially stored in soils (0-20cm soil layer) has been lost due to
overgrazing over the 40 year periods. Most carbon loss was from the active and the slow soil
carbon pools which had a residence time of decades. Lings Hao et al(1997).Overgrazing is a
contributing factor to soil erosion among others e.g . poor irrigation ( kinlund 1996) ,
deforestation (sandstorm 1995) and over-cultivation (Lindberg 1996) Of overgrazing. Brizuela
stated that the first sign of overgrazing were decrease in legumes and an increase in forbs and in
bare soil.Brizuela and Cid(1993).

Permanent degradation due to overgrazing is still rare in Africa , and livestock densities
promoting it are normally the direct result of some form of government intervention such as
fencing. Behnke and Scoones (1993). Overgrazing can be caused either by too many animals or
their uncontrolled activity. Gordon and illus( 1992). Overgrazing can be considered to be the
major cause of soil degradation worldwide which accounts 35.8% of all form of soil degradation.
Oldemann et al (1991). Usually overexploitation by grazing is called overgrazing. Also the term
overstocking are used . Theoretically overgrazing occurs if the carrying capacity of rangeland
will be exceeded. Leeuw and Tothill (1990).

In the absence of grazing pressure the plant cover ware 30% trees , 10% tall shrubs and 25 %
sub –shrub. Under high grazing pressure the plant cover was mainly low woody shrubs.
Arianoutsou et al(198). Overgrazing, unregulated browing and all economic measures leading to
the loss of biodiversity have been of global concern. The uncultivated lands around Kashmir
village present a pathetic scene at the outcome of intensive grazing. Polunin and Stainton
( 1948).In summer especially , livestock migration from the villages to the temperate forests and
the alpine meadows contributes to eliminate rich flora. Local herdsmen need wood for fuel thus
the seriously damage shrubs and trees of the alpine forest zone.

Hyder pointed out that repeated heavy grazing during any particular month in the growing
season had approximately three times higher effect on key species as did grazing during the
month when plants ware senescent. Hyder et al (1975). in tropical grassland and savannas
overgrazing induced desertification is considered the greatest threat to the integrity of these
ecosystems.( Jacobs et al). In arid and semiarid dry lands around the globe overgrazing in the
major cause of desertification.(Miller).The most important aspect of livestock production which
is occupying the mind of Government is the accumulated and continuing deleterious effects of
overstocking and overgrazing in communal lands which are causing severe and potentially
irreversible ecological degradation. A comprehensive national programme that focuses on these
problems will be implemented. Such programme will include stock control, better land
management and destocking necessary.
2.3 District level

A land of mountains and glaciers, was hit by worst floods during July - August 2015. These
unprecedented floods spread devastation beyond proportions and most of Chitral and Mastuj
Subdivisions ware destroyed. The major cause of floods was torrential rain and Glacier lake
Outburst Floods (GLOF); there are sub factors such as excessive deforestation and grazing that
contributed heavily to communities’ mud slide. PDMA, PARRSA (2015)Chitral.

M. Rashid and S.H Abbas studied the pasture management in high altitude Phasti village of
chitral. In their research they have stated that overgrazing has led to the depletion of many useful
species like Scorzonera , Astragalusand centaurea spp. Etc.The overgrazing may lead to the
absence of seed for the year and over use of palatable species and dominance of non-palatable
and injurious plants like khhamboi (Heracleumpolyadenum), zarjoshu and wahjoshu .Because of
overgrazing topographical and environmental conditions, the vegetation in pasture was quite
scare show growing and xerophytic in nature resulting in the fodder shortage. Besides reducing
the cover of the palatable species which ultimately resulted dominance of non palatable species.
M. Rashid and S.H Abbas (2011).

Julie Dekans, international center for integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)Chitral, the
north –westernmost area of pakistan, is a region of glaciated mountain ranges and deep , narrow
valleys. Flash Floods occur regularly from june to August. Property, agricultural land , and
irrigation channels are demaged due to floods. In Chitral , some communities regulate grazing
and deforestation through customary rules. Many people belive flash flood are caused by
environmental degradation, especially deforestation and overgrazing by goats. Deforestation and
overgrazing have decreased the plant diversity of these fragile ecosystem. Many plant species
have become threatened or endangered. Pinsusroxburghii, Quercusincana and pinuswallichiana
forest have converted to scrubs and grassland. Stated that deforestation, overgrazing, uprooting
of plants and terrace cultivation have not only accelerated soil erosion but decreased plant
diversity in the area. (Hussain and llahi,1991; Ahmad and Quratulann).
Overgrazing is directly related with the destruction of natural vegetation and also decrease the
spread of species both by directly consumption and also disturbing the their natural habitats.
Sher ali et al(2005). Studies conducted in Chitral Gol have Revealed that overgrazing by sheep
and goats resulted in retrogression of the herbaceous vegetation. Aleem(1977). According to the
District Forest Officer of Chitral (Shabir Hussain, NWFP Forest Depertment ,September9, 1987)
and representatives of the world Wildlife Fund Pakistan (Dr.Abdul Chaudhry and Zaheer
Ahmad, September 1, 1987), the productivity of rangelands in Chitral is low and the livestock
number is higher than the carrying capacity of the range. Excessive grazing pressure on wild
lands has resulted in poor wildlife habitat and adversely affected the plant succession. USAID
(1987). indicated that overgrazing and competition with livestock a major problem facing
wildlife and wildlife habitat in chitral. Dr.George B. Scholor of the Newyork Zoologist society
(october21, 1987).

2.4 Summary of the chapter

Literature review provides researcher with further orientation to the problem. Overgrazing occur
when plant are expose to extensive grazing for extended period of time or without sufficient
period of time. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agriculture application
gamer resources or nature resources. It reduces the usefulness productivity of the land and a
cause of the desertification and erosion (Winona, laduke 1999) .Munir analyzed the relationship
between soil and overgrazing and found that overgrazing lead to an increase in soil compaction.
Michal Hogan (2010) Studies overgrazing and conclude the chief ecological impact of
overgrazing are loss of biodiversity. He also suggested that it reduces the productivity. Pratt
(2000) suggest to farmers to move their livestock out of pasture before regrowth begins to
prevent pasture land from overgrazing. Zhang et al (2001) stated that heavy grazing can cause
grassland deterioration because of heavy deforestation and treating. E.d . Rayborn (2000)
analyzed overgrazing and published his article on overgrazing. He state that overgrazing
minimized. The land potential productivity which takes a long time to be compensated. Jacob et
al (2000) in tropical grassland and savannas overgrazing induced desertification is considered the
greatest threat to the integrity of the ecosystem . Miller (1999) in arid and semi arid dry land
around the globe. Javor (1999) high grazing pressure changes the botanical composition of the
pasture. Overgrazing is contributing factor to soil erosion among others of e.g poor irrigation
(Kinlund 1996). Villamil et al (1997) pointed out those in appropriate cattle grazing practices.
Brizuela and Cid (1993) stated that the first sign of overgrazing are decrease in legumes.
Oldeman et al (1991) worldwide which accounts 35.8% of all form of soil degradation. Leeuw
and Tothill (1990) usually over exploitation by grazing are called overgrazing. Arianoutsou et al
(1985) in the absence of grazing pressure the plant cover were 30% trees, 10% tall shrubs and
25% sub shrubs. Hyder et al (1975) pointed out. The repeated heavy grazing during any
particular month in the grazing season of important determinants of forest vegetation ,
distribution patterns and have a direct impact on floral biodiversity of an area. Polunin and
Stanton (1984) Overgrazing unregulated browsing and all economic measure leading to the loss
of biodiversity have been global concern. The most important aspect of livestock production
which is occupying the mind of government is the accumulated and continuing deleterious
effects of overstocking. M. Rashid and S.tt Abass (2011) studied the pasture management in high
altitude phasti village of Chitral. Deforestation and overgrazing have decreased the plant
diversity of these fragile ecosystem . Aleem (1977) studies overgrazing in Chitral Gol. Studies
conducted in Chitral Gol have related that overgrazing by sheep and goats resulted in aggression
of the herbaceous vegetations. Excessive grazing pressure on wild lands has resulted in poor
wildlife habitat and adversely affected the plant succession.