Section 1: Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids

Shape and Volume of Solids and Liquids

The common and simple way by which the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of matter are distinguished is by
comparison of their shape and volume. We recall the concepts that:

1. Matter in the gas state has indefinite shape and volume.

2. Matter in the liquid state has definite shape and indefinite volume.
3. Matter in the solid state has definite shape and volume.

Section 2: Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular Forces

 There are forces that hold molecules together because gaseous substances condences to form liquids which in
turn, form solids.
 Intermolecular forces- include dipole-dipole forces, ion-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding, and London dispersion
forces. Collectively, these intermolecular forces are also known as Van der Waals Forces, named after a Dutch
chemist, Johannes van der Waal (1837-1923).

Johannes Van Der

 He was an outstanding Dutch physicist who was the first to obtain an equation of state that describes the
condition of both gasses and liquids in terms of their pressure, temperature, and volume.

Intermolecular Forces

 Van der Waals forces are fundamentally electrical in nature; that is, they result from the attraction between
centers of opposite charge in two molecules close to each other.
 When two nonpolar molecules approach each other, the electron, clouds in which the positive nuclei are
embedded repel each other. This distorts or polarizes each molecule that gives rise to induced dipoles and weak
Van der Waals forces which momentarily exist between them. The greater the number of atoms in molecule, the
more readily it is polarized. Hence, in general, van der Waals forces increases with increasing molecular weight.

The four Types of Intermolecular Forces

London Dispersion Forces

 LDF, also called as London Forces or simply dispersion forces, are weak attraction that are used to explain the
attraction between nonpolar molecules as it is apparent that even nonpolar molecules can have dipoles for
short period of time.

Dipole-dipole Forces

 It is the attraction of bond dipoles in different molecules. The Bond dipoles arise from the unequal sharing of
electrons.
Ion-dipole Forces

 These forces exist when polar molecules are attracted to ions. The positive pole is attracted to a negative
(anion), while the negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).

Na+2 + H 2O

Hydrogen Bond

 The hydrogen bond or hydrogen bridge is a weak bond formed when hydrogen with partial positive charge is
close to an atom in a molecule with lone pairs of electron or with excess electronic charge (negative)

Section 3: Intermolecular Forces of Matter and Properties of Liquids

 Surface Tension - is the force that causes the molecules on the surface of a liquid “tighten their hold to one
another”, creating the effect of a thin membrane on the surface. At the liquid surface, the attractive forces are
mainly downward and inward. The molecules occupy the least surface area possible, which pulls the surface into
spherical shape when a small amount is dropped. Substances with strong attractive forces between the
molecules have high surface tensions. Surface tension is temperature-dependent; it decreases as temperature
increases.
 Viscosity of a Liquid - is a measure of its tendency to resist flowing motion. Polar molecules and molecules with
complex structure (with “branches”) tend to have higher viscosity, being less able to slip and slide over one
another than those with simple structures and less polarity. For example, cooking oil (with chains of more than
12 carbons) is more viscous than gasoline (with 7 to 8 carbons) due to stronger London dispersion forces;
Glycerol, With 3 OH groups, is more viscous than rubbing alcohol because of more h-bonding.

A liquid with high viscosity is said to be viscous or simple “thick”. When viscosity is so high that it cannot flow
anymore, the matter is said to be glassy or vitreous. the opposite of the viscosity is fluidity. highly fluid liquid is said
to be free- flowing, mobile, or “thin”.

 Capillary Action - or the spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube, is also observed in liquids. This
action results from the cohesive forces (Intermolecular forces) within the liquid and The adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the container. When the attraction between the liquid and the walls of
the container is greater than the attraction within the liquid itself, the liquid will with the container. This
property of matter in the liquid state explains how plants get nourishment ( water and dissolved minerals)
from the Soil through their roots and all parts.
  Incompressibility - under ordinary conditions is another property of liquids . Since the molecules in a liquid
are already close, Touching one another, They cannot be crowded together anymore unless they are
squeezed and Deformed, Which would require a great amount of energy.
  Diffusibility - is much less in a liquid then in a gas, But it takes place at an easily measured rate. one liquid
made diffuse through another, or a solid made dissolve and diffuse through a liquid. The particles in a liquid
are attracted to one another, but they are not rigidly held together that they can still move at all times.
Thus, They can slide over one another to effect diffusion.
 Evaporation is an indication of the Escape of molecules From the surface of the liquid. it is an evidence of
molecular motion. a liquid in event eventual evaporates completely.
 Cooling Effect of Evaporation the molecules that escapes are the ones with greatest velocity. Therefore,
The average velocity in the average kinetic energy (KE) Of the molecules left in the liquid are reduced as
evaporation proceeds. The amount of heat energy for given number of molecules Is reduced as well as their
temperature; thus, Evaporation always results in a cooling effect.
 Vapor Pressure - is when a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space above the liquid becomes
saturated with vapor and an equilibrium state exists between the liquid and the vapor. The equilibrium
equation is. At equilibrium, the molecules in the Vapor exert a pressure. the pressure exerted by a vapor in
equilibrium with its liquid is known as the vapor pressure of the liquid. this may be considered as a measure
of the “ escaping” tendency of molecules to go from the liquid to the vapor state.
 Boiling Point - is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure
( atmospheric pressure above the liquid). Thus, when The boiling point is given, the pressure should also be
stated. when we expressed the boiling point without the pressure, it is interpreted to be the normal boiling
point At the standard atmospheric pressure of 760mm hg at sea level. The boiling point is one of the most
commonly used physical properties for characterizing and identifying substances.
 Heat of Vaporization - Expressed in cal/g or in kcal/g-atom or in kl/kg, Is the energy required to change
exactly one gram of liquid to vapor at its normal boiling point. The attractive forces between the liquid
molecules are overcome during vaporization. Only when all of the liquid has become a gas will the
temperature of the substance again increase as more heat energy is added.