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The Continent of Africa

Introduction:
Africa is the second largest and second most populous continent of the world after Asia. The
present name Africa was given to this continent by Romans. Romans ruled over the northern part of this
continent for a long time and called the southern part of the continent as Afriga or the land of Afrigs.
Afrigs was the name of a Berber community in Tunisia.
Africa was called a “Dark Continent”, not because it has preponderance of black population
(Negroes) but because very little was known about the interior of Africa until 19 th century. Its interior
has put obstacles to its exploration by white people. The inter-tropical interior of the continent has the
Sahara Desert on the north and the Kalahari Desert in the southwest and is bounded by escarpment on
the sea sides. The large interior is densely forested and abounded with marshes and swamps. Hot and
humid equatorial climate is difficult to bear. The rivers also did not allow penetration because they have
many rapids and falls to obstruct movement by boats. Moreover, the interior is inhabited by few tribes
who were hostile to the foreigners.
Location and size:
Africa straddles the equator and most of its area lies within the tropics. It is bounded by the
Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Indian Ocean on the east, Red Sea on the east-northeast, and the
Mediterranean Sea on the north. In the northeastern corner of the continent, Africa is connected with
Asia by the Sinai Peninsula. On the south, it is bounded by the mingling waters of the Indian and the
Atlantic Ocean.
Africa extends from 37° 21’ N latitude (Al-Ghiram point in Tunisia) to 34° 51’ S latitude (Cape
Agulhas in South Africa) and from 17° 33’ W longitude (Cape Verde in Senegal) to 51° 28’ E longitude
(Ras Hafun in Somalia). It measures 8,000 km from north to south and about 7,400 km from west to east
and covers an area of 30.35 million sq. km which is about 21% of the world’s total land area. Its
mainland coastline is 26,000 km long.

Physiography of Africa:
Africa is in fact a vast plateau consisting of ancient crystalline rocks. It rises steeply like an
escarpment from the narrow coastal fringe. The average elevation of the continent is about 600 m
above sea level. Lands under 180 m occupy only a small part of the surface and the area of the land over
3000 m is also insignificant. Moderately elevated table lands are thus the characteristic feature of the
continent. The plateau is dotted with depressions and usually low mountains. The plateau is higher in
the southeast and slopes gently towards northeast. The continent can be divided into the following
relief units:

1, Mountains

2, Plateaus

3, Deserts

4. The Great Rift Valley

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1, Mountains:
There are a number of mountains of different types in Africa but these mountains are not
extensive and are not equivalent to fold mountains of Asia or Europe. The regional mountainous areas
owe their origin to uplift and differential erosion of ancient rocks as also to volcanic activity and much
less to compression and folding of younger sedimentaries. The important mountain ranges of Africa are:

Atlas Mountains: At the northwestern edge of the continent are Atlas Mountains formed by the
collision of the African and the Eurasian tectonic plates. Extending from northeast to southwest, they
rise to a maximum height of 4165 m at Jabel Toubkal in southwest Morocco. They stretch for about
2200 km across Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia collectively called the Maghreb. The Atlas Ranges separate
the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastline from the Sahara Desert. The Atlas ranges are separated by
many plateaus –the largest one is called the Plateau of Chotts because it is studded with shallow salt
lakes called chotts. Towards the east, the Atlas Mountain consists of two parallel ranges: the Tell Atlas to
the north and the Saharan Atlas to the south.

The Ahaggar Mountains: Ahaggar Mountains, also Hoggar Mountains lie in the southeast of Algeria, in
the center of the Sahara. These spread a little bit into Libya. It rises to the maximum elevation in Mount
Tahat (3,003 m). Ahaggar Mountains are a volcanic massif and are eroded into rugged relief.
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The Tibsti Mountains: These Mountains are mostly situated in the northern part of Chad and spread
into northeast Niger and the southern Libya. They are also volcanic and the highest peak in Tibsti
Mountains is Emi Koussi (3415 m).

East African Mountains: These Mountains spread from Red sea to Zambezi River and are flanked by
highlands. All these mountains are of volcanic origin except that of Ruwenzori. They rise majestically
from the surrounding plateaus to the heights if 4900 m. In spite of the equatorial location, the high
peaks of these mountains are snow clad. These mountains lie close to the Rift valley.

Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m) is the highest mountain in Africa. It is located in northeastern

Tanzania. It is a dormant volcano. To the west of Mount Kilimanjaro there is Mount Meru whose highest
peak lies at 4565 m. Along the border of Kenya and Uganda lies Mount Elgon (4321 m). Its caldera is
8km in diameter.

The other mountain type found in the region is the Block Mountains. These are
associated with tensional and vertical movement. These mountains occur on the either side of the Great
Rift Valley. Mount Ruwenzori which rises from the western rift valley and runs parallel to it. It rises to a
height of 5109 m and is an example of Block Mountains.
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Drakensberg Mountains: Drakensberg Mountains, located mostly in South Africa, extends for about
1125 km and forms the eastern boundary of Lesotho. It forms the highest part of the Great Escarpment.
Among its peaks are Thabana Ntlenyana (3,482 m) and Mount-aux-Sources (3299 m), near which the
scenic Royal Natal National Park is located. They are remnants of the original African Plateau. It rises
from south in three great stages—the lower Karoo, the great Karoo and the upper Karoo.

2, Plateaus:
Africa on the whole is a plateau continent. Within this great plateau, there are variations in
height and topography. Therefore, a series of plateaus can be identified within it. They are:

 South African Plateau

 East African Plateau
 Abyssinian Plateau
 Futa Djallon Plateau of West Africa
 Adamawa Plateau
 Ahaggar and Tibsti plateau of Sahara

These plateaus are marked by extensive basins and mountains mostly block and volcanic mountains.

South African Plateau: The whole of South Africa is a plateau whose relief drops steadily towards north
merging with the Kalahari Basin. The general elevation is about 1000 m. The Great escarpment including
the Drakensberg range marks its southern boundary. Here, Mount Aux Sources is the highest point
which is 3300 m high. The western edge of this plateau forms a lower escarpment rising to about 2000
m.

East African Plateau: East African Plateau is large, oval shaped plateau occupying large parts of Uganda,
Kenya, Tanzania and northwestern Mozambique. The average height of this plateau is 1000 m and a
large part in southwest Kenya rises above 1600 m. To the west lies the Congo Basin, a vast shallow
depression which rises to form an almost circular rim of highlands.

Abyssinian Plateau: It is a high plateau. It is cut through in northeast to southeast direction by the
northern part of the East African Rift Valley which contains several narrow elongated lakes. The plateau
as a whole is faulted and tilted towards north. The eastern part of the plateau is called the Harar
plateau. The main Abyssinian plateau is formed of thick layers of Basalt. The highest peak is Ras Dashan
(4620 m). The plateau is much dissected.

Futa Djallon Plateau: It extends over Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia. It rises in some areas to above
1300 m and in the east it is called Joss plateau which is over 1900 m above sea level.

Adamawa Plateau: It is a small plateau covering western and northwestern part of Cameroon. Its
average height ranges between 1000 and 2000 m. Its highest point is represented by Cameroon
Mountains whose highest point is Mt. Cameroon (4070 m). It is a volcanic mountain.

Ahaggar and Tibsti Plateau: These plateaus lie in the Sahara Desert. Ahaggar plateau is more extensive
and spreads over Algeria and Niger. Its average height is more than 1000 m. The Tibsti plateau spreads
over northern parts of Chad and Niger. Its highest point in Chad is 3415 m above sea level. Ahaggar and
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Tibsti are volcanic uplands whose uplift has been matched by subsidence within large surrounding
basins. Many of the basins have been filled with sand and gravel creating vast Saharan lands.

3, Deserts:
Arid lands cover approximately 60% of Africa. The prominent deserts are the Sahara, the
Namib and the Kalahari. These occur around the Tropic of Cancer in Northern Africa and Tropic of
Capricorn in Southern Africa.

Sahara: Sahara is the world’s largest hot desert. It spreads over an area of 9.1 million sq. km i.e., 25%
of the continent’s area. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea and from the Mediterranean
Sea and Atlas Mountains southward for 2,000 km until it merges imperceptibly into the semi desert
region (Sahel). It spreads over Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Sudan and Tunisia. Its
length is 4800 km from east to west. The Sahara as a whole is a tableland with an average elevation
from about 400 to 500 m. Only comparatively small areas are elevated as little as 150 m above sea level.
In Egypt and Algeria limited areas, such as the Qattara Depression, are below sea level. Its surface is not
uniform. It is dotted with highlands and depressions.

The Sahara has a number of physical features including ergs, regs, Hamadas and oases. Ergs
cover 20% of the Sahara. They are sand dunes that stretch for hundreds of km at heights of more than
300 m. Ergs can contain large quantities of salt. Regs are plains of sand and gravel that make up 70% of
the Sahara. Regs are remains of prehistoric sea beds and river beds that are now nearly water less.
Hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of barren, hard, rocky plateaus with very little sand. An
oasis is a hub of water in the desert often in the form of springs, wells or irrigation systems. About 75%
of the Sahara’s population lives in oases which cover 207,000 sq km of the vast desert area. Besides
these features there are also dry valleys (Wadi), dry lakes, salt flats etc. The central part of Sahara is
hyper-arid with almost no vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the Desert along with the
highlands have areas of sparse grasslands and desert shrub.

Ergs
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Namib Desert: The Namib is a temperate desert which stretches for about 2000 km along the Atlantic
coasts of Angola, Namibia and South Africa. It stretches inland 130-160 km to the foot of the Great
Escarpment. The southern portion merges with the Kalahari. The desert basically consists of relatively
smooth platform of truncated bedrocks of various types and ages. Mica-schist and other metamorphic
and granite predominate. The platform rises gradually from the coast to about 900 m at the foot of the
Great Escarpment. The dunes run in lines from north to south.

Kalahari Desert: The Kalahari Desert is a large, semi -arid sandy savannah in southern Africa covering
about 930000 sq. km. spread over much of Botswana, parts of Namibia and South Africa. It’s a semi
desert, with huge tracts of grazing lands. The Kalahari sand dunes compose the largest continuous
expanse of sand on earth. These dunes of Kalahari are covered with abundant vegetation including
shrubs, grass and deciduous trees.

4. The Great Rift Valley:

Rift valley is an elongated tectonic trough formed by subsidence of a segment of earth’s
surface between normal faults. One of the most extensive rifts on the earth’s surface is the Great Rift
Valley which extends from Jordan in Southwest Asia, southward through Red Sea and Eastern Africa to
Mozambique. The system is 6400 km long and 48-64 km wide. It enters Africa at the Afar Depression on
the coast of Eritrea and Djibouti. In the north the rift is occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea and
the Gulf of Aqaba. It passes through Ethiopian Danakil Plains to lakes Rudolf (Turkana). Here it splits into
two—the Western and the Eastern Rift Valleys. These two parts join again at the southern end of Lake
Tanganyika and extends into Malawi Valley and then to Zambia where a part of the Zambezi River flows
in the rift. From here it continues southward through Mozambique to the coast of Indian Ocean in South
Africa. The rift valley is flanked by towering escarpments of up to 1,000 m in southern Ethiopia, 1500 m
along the Eastern Rift in central Kenya, and 1,300 m in the northern part of the Western Rift, along the
DRC’s border with Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. The southern extremities of the rift system are much
less spectacular in size and appearance. The Eastern and Western Rift Valleys enclose an interior plateau
which contains Lake Victoria—the largest lake in Africa.
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Several major lakes, typically long and narrow, are loca-

ted on the floors of the Western and Eastern rift valleys. The
Western Rift contains Lake Albert, Lake Edward, and Lake
Kivu to the north, Lake Tanganyika in the middle, and Lake
Malawi (Lake Nyasa) to the south. The lakes of the Eastern
Rift tend to be smaller and include Lake Naivasha, Lake
Natron and the southern part of Lake Turkana.
The rift has been forming for some 30 million years and
has been accompanied by extensive volcanism along its length
producing such massifs as Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya. The
Rift is in the process of splitting the African Plate into two
new plates—the Nubian plate and the Somali plate.

5, Lowlands and Basins:

Africa has not large lowlands or plains. There are narrow coastal plains which are flanked by
plateau escarpment. The coastal plains are wide in Mozambique, Somalia and Guinea Coast in West
Africa. However, there are a number of river valley plains and basins which include Orange Basin in
South Africa, Makarikari Basin in Botswana, Congo Basin in Central Africa, Lake Chad Basin in Chad, Niger
Basin in Mali and Nigeria, and Sabat Basin in Sudan. Many of these are inland drainage basins. There are
Nile and Behr-el-ghazal river valley plains in Sudan which slope northwest; Congo basin in Zaire and
Congo, Niger River Plains in Nigeria, Volta River valley in Ghana, Senegal and Gambia and the Zambezi
plains in Mozambique.

Climate of Africa:

Lying between latitudes 37° north and 35° south latitudes, Africa is the most tropical of all
continents. Africa does not show many variations in temperature. It has the most uniform climate. The
absence of major mountain chains, cool ocean currents, and its location in the Tropical Zone contribute
to the general uniformity of the climate. The continent also has large arid regions, including the Sahara,
Namib, and Kalahari deserts. Africa has virtually the same climatic zones in the Northern Hemisphere as
in the Southern Hemisphere but certain factors modify the ideal existence of such a climatic pattern.
The various factors which affect the climatic pattern of Africa are:

I, Absence of long mountain chain: Africa has not any massive mountain ranges as found in Asia, Europe
and America. Hence there is not abrupt change in the continuation of climatic belts which fade into one
another. The altitudinal climatic zones of high mountains are also absent.

II, The east west extent: The continent has much larger east-west extension in the north than in the
south. Therefore, the southern part has more maritime influence than the northern part.
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III, Sub-tropical high pressure belt: This belt develops in the Heart of North Africa (Sahara) but it is
feeble in the southern part.

IV, Cool Ocean Currents: The cool Benguela current on the western coast, south of Equator cools the
climate along the western coast of southern Africa by chilling the wind which blows over them.

Summer Conditions:
Temperature: During summer of Northern Hemisphere i.e., in June-July, there is great heat in Northern
parts of Africa. Average July temperatures are above 30°C in Northern Mauritania, Niger, Mali, Chad and
Sudan. Here, afternoon maximum temperatures may go up to 50°C. The whole of Central, Western and
Eastern Africa have average July temperatures varying from 20-30°C. In South Africa, July is the coldest
month with winter as prevailing season. In South Africa, July temperatures range between 10° and 20°C.

Pressure and Winds: Low pressure develops over the region of high July temperature i.e. much of North
Africa. The pressure is below 1010 mb. Pressure increases southward. Over larger parts of South Africa
and adjoining countries, July pressure is more than 1020 mb. Due to the location on either side of the
Equator, greater part of the region lies in the belts of northeast and southeast trade winds. There is,
however, local modifications in wind direction due to seasonal distribution of high and low pressure
areas. Greatly heated Sahara pulls S.E Trade winds of Southern hemisphere across the Equator as
southwest monsoons over Gulf of Guinea coast and these penetrate inland as far as Ethiopia.

In South Africa the high pressure cell over veldt is source of diverging winds towards southeast,
south and northwest. The general southeast trade winds prevail over South Africa but Westerlies blow
over Southern parts of South Africa.

Rainfall: The southwest monsoons cause heavy rainfall over Guinea coastal region, central Africa and
adjoining islands. Rainfall decreases northwards, there is mild cyclonic rainfall from the westerlies in the
Cape Province. South African Plateau receives moderate rainfall. Central Equatorial Africa gets heavy
convectional rainfall.

Winter Conditions:
Temperature: During winter the sun is overhead over Tropic of Capricorn in December. As a result, low
temperatures prevail over Northern parts of the continent in winter. The average January temperatures
are below 20°C over Northern areas and Ethiopian Highlands. But over larger parts of Central Africa,
south of 10°N and the whole of South Africa, average January temperatures are over 20°C and range
from 27-30°C.

Pressure and Winds: Almost the whole of Africa, south of 10°N, has a low pressure--less than 1010 mb.
However, over the adjoining southeastern Atlantic Ocean and South Central Indian Ocean are the high
pressure cells. These high pressure cells (parts of Sub-tropical high pressure belt) give rise to south east
trade winds over South Africa. They are pulled by the heated interior of South Africa which causes heavy
rainfall in eastern coastal areas, in areas to the north of equator the prevailing winds are N.E trade
winds. They are called Harmattan over West Africa. They are hot and dry winds.

Rainfall: There is usual convectional rainfall in the Congo Basin and moderate monsoon- cum-
convectional rainfall over Guinea coast. There is moderate rainfall over larger parts of South Africa
except the Kalahari region. Northern Africa receives very little rainfall.
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Climatic Zones:

Most of Africa lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn and has high
temperatures throughout the year. The amount, duration, and seasonal distribution of rainfall are
therefore the most important factor differentiating its climates. Africa has six types of climatic zones:
tropical wet, tropical summer rainfall, semiarid, arid, highland, and Mediterranean.

A. Tropical Wet:

Tropical wet climates, also called equatorial climates, occur close to the equator in West and Central
Africa, and in eastern Madagascar. Rainfall is high, typically exceeding 150 cm per year and 320 cm in
some places. Rainfall occurs in every month. Temperatures remain high throughout the year, averaging
more than 27°C and rarely falling below 21°C.
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B. Tropical Summer Rainfall:

Tropical summer rainfall (Savanna) climate occurs north and south of the tropical wet zone, in much of
West Africa and southern Africa and most of Madagascar. This climatic zone is marked by a well-defined
dry season of three to eight months. Annual rainfall is usually between 50 and 150cm. The tropical
savanna climatic zone is a transitional zone between tropical wet and semiarid zones, so there is a
progressive decline, moving pole ward, in total rainfall and the duration of rainfall. Temperature ranges
in this zone are slightly higher than in the tropical wet zone, and increase with distance from the
equator. In the northern section of this zone, daily high temperatures average more than 30°C over the
course of the year. Temperatures in the southern and eastern sections of this zone tend to be cooler
because of higher altitudes.

C. Semiarid and arid:

Surrounding the tropical summer rainfall zone (savannah) are areas of semiarid and then arid climates in
North Central Africa, East Central Africa, and Southern Africa. The semiarid or hot steppe, zone has a
short rainy season of up to three months with about 25 to 50 cm of rain per year. Precipitation is
unreliable and scarce, creating difficult conditions for plant growth. Temperatures vary in the semiarid
zone, with average daily highs ranging from 25° to 35°C. Africa’s arid desert regions receive little rainfall.
Although classified as hot deserts, these regions have significant annual variations in temperature and
extreme fluctuations in temperature over the course of a day. In the Sahara, daytime summer
temperatures can exceed 50°C and winter nighttime temperatures can drop below freezing.

D. Highlands and Mediterranean:

Tropical highland climates are common in much of East Africa. Temperatures in the highlands of
Ethiopia and Kenya average 16° to 21°C, on average about 5 Celsius degrees cooler than the lower
plateau areas of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. In most parts of the world, higher elevations receive
higher levels of precipitation, but the highlands of East Africa are an exception, experiencing rather low
levels of rainfall. However, the highest mountains and the southeastern flank of the Ethiopian plateau
receive greater precipitation on their windward slopes.

The coastlands of the Cape region of South Africa and the North African coast from Morocco to Tunisia
have Mediterranean climates. These areas have mild, rainy winters followed by a prolonged summer
when conditions are warm and dry. They receive 25 to 100 cm of rainfall per year
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Summer drought cool summer

Hot and semi arid
Winter dry hot summer

Hot and arid Tropical wet and dry

Wet short dry Wet and long dry season

season

Demographic set-up of Africa:

Africa was the birthplace of the human species between 8 million and 5 million years ago. Today,
the vast majority of its inhabitants are of indigenous origin. People across the continent are remarkably
diverse. They speak a vast number of different languages, practice hundreds of distinct religions, live in a
variety of types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities.
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Distribution:
Of the 7.24 billion people in the world in mid-2014, 1.15 billion or 15.7% of the total world
population lives in Africa, making it the 2nd most populous continent after Asia.

Much of Africa’s population is concentrated around water sources. Areas such as Nigeria are
close to sea making it more densely populated due to availability of port facility for trade and therefore
work. Areas such as Ghana are densely populated due to availability of water from lakes e.g. Lake Volta.

Nigeria is the most populous country with 182.6 million people in 2015 followed by Ethiopia (90
million), Egypt (88.5 million), DRC (77.3 million), South Africa (55 million), Tanzania (48.8 million), Kenya
(44 million), Algeria (40 million), Sudan (38.4 million) and Uganda (35.8 million).

High concentration of population is found along the Gulf of Guinea, the eastern coast of South
Africa, Mozambique and Tanzania and around the East African lakes such as Lake Malawi, Lake
Tanganyika, Lake Edward, Lake Albert and Lake Victoria. Equally high concentration of population is
found along the lower Nile valley. Population is sparse in too hot and wet interior, too hot and arid
Northern countries (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, etc.) and Southwest Africa (Kalahari Desert).
Important cities and big towns of the continent are mostly located on or near the sea coast. The overall
distributional pattern of population in the region is peripheral. Moderate marine climate, easy access
and foreigners’ collaborated development is primarily responsible for this pattern.

Density of population:
Most of Africa is sparsely populated having the vast expanse of almost empty deserts, and large
areas of sparsely populated savannah.

In 2015, Africa had an average density of population of 27.72 persons per sq. km. Western
Africa has the highest density (55 persons /sq. km) followed by Eastern Africa (54 persons/ sq. km).

On the basis of population density, Africa can be divided into the following five population
density regions:

1, Region of very high density of population: This region includes those African countries where
population density is above 300 p/sq. km. The group includes small countries of Mauritius, Burundi,
Reunion, Rwanda and Comoros.

2, Region of high density of population: It includes countries of Africa having a population density
ranging from 100-300 p/sq. km. It includes main countries like Nigeria, Gambia, Uganda, Ghana, etc.

3, Region of moderate density of population: It includes countries with population density of 50-100
p/sq. km. The main countries in this group are Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia, Tunisia, Kenya, Senegal, etc.

4, Region of low density of population: It includes countries with population density of 25-50 p/sq. km.
The important countries in his category are Tanzania, South Africa, Cameroon, DRC, etc.

5, Region of very low density of population: It includes the countries with population density of less
than 25 p/sq. km. The countries that fall on this group are Sudan, Algeria, Chad, Libya, Niger, Mali,
Zambia, Namibia, Botswana, etc.
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Growth of population:
The population of Africa has grown rapidly during the last four decades and it still continues.
While the world population has grown by 60% in the last 30 years, Africa’s population has more than
doubled. The population of Africa doubled in the period 1982-2009 and quadruped from 1955-2009
according United Nations estimates. As per mid-2014 statistics, overall rate of natural increase in
population was 2.5% per annum as compared to 1.2% world average. Niger records the highest increase
(3.9%) and Botswana the lowest (0.7%). Consequently, Africa has a large youth bulge further reinforced
by low life expectancy of 50 years in some African countries. In some African countries half or more the
population is under 25 years of age.

Fertility rate:
Compared to 20 births per 1000 population at global level, Africa registered almost double this
rate during 2014 at value of 36 births per 1000 population. Many variations are found at regional level.
Middle Africa registered 45 births per 1000 population; South Africa recorded just 21 births per 1000
population.

Death rates:
Whereas the average death rate for the world as a whole was 8 deaths per 1000 population, it was
10 deaths per 1000 population for Africa in 2014.The deaths per 1000 people for Sub- Saharan Africa
was 11. Northern Africa, Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Mid Africa and Southern Africa had death rates
of 7, 12, 9, 15, and 11 respectively.

Life expectancy at birth:

Life expectancy at birth is defined as the average number of years that a new-born could expect to
live if he or she were to pass through life subject to age specific mortality rates of a given period.

Africa in 2013 had the lowest life expectancy among all the continents of the world. Whereas the
global average was 71 years for both the sexes in 2013, in case of Africa it was only 59. Malnutrition due
to lack of adequate food, diseases, inadequate health care facilities, poor sanitation, poverty ,etc. are
important causes of high mortality rates of Africa. An increasing incidence of infection with the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has actually
resulted in the decline of life expectancy in some countries. For example, Botswana, after achieving a
life expectancy of 60 in the early 1990s, saw the figure fall into the 30s in the first decade of the 21st
century. The country’s population will soon be in decline due to the loss of large numbers of young
adults to AIDS and the children they would have produced. South Africa is in a similar predicament and
several other countries may soon be as well, depending on whether or not infection rates can be
lowered. Across the continent, life expectancy in 2005 averaged 50.4 years.

Economic set-up:
Since prehistoric times, the majority of Africans have been farmers and herders who raised crops
and livestock for subsistence. Even today, the traditional subsistence sector persists in Africa. In general,
the majorities of African people farm, herd livestock, fish, make handcrafted products, and trade their
goods much as they have for hundreds of years.
Farming is by far the most important subsistence activity, and it dominates rural production in
the tropical forest and tropical savanna zones of West, Central, and Southern Africa. The average rural
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household has no access to scientifically improved seeds, farm machinery, or sophisticated methods of
farm management. On most African farms, the soil must be worked with hand tools or small, animal-
drawn plows. Use of artificial fertilizers is almost nonexistent. Insects and vermin are constant threats,
sometimes eating away more than half of the crops. Farmers raise crops primarily to supply food for the
family. However, there may be small surpluses, and these are sold to purchase other foods and essential
goods.
Cottage industry employs almost one-third of the rural labor force. It is largely responsible for
the local supply of clothing, footwear, farm implements, and construction materials, as well as for
processed foods. This sector also produces crafts, cloth, jewelry, and decorative artifacts to sell to
tourists in urban areas and at tourist attractions. Small-scale commerce, taking place in small, often
periodic, markets, is vital to people's sustenance in Africa's rural areas. At these markets, rural Africans
sell crop surpluses and cottage industry products to traders.

Migratory herding, based on extensive and frequent movement of livestock, declined in

importance over most of Africa in the second half of the 20th century. The area required for migratory
herding has been greatly reduced as pasturelands have been taken over for agriculture—particularly
modern plantations—and wildlife reserves.

Fishing is a minor subsistence activity in most of Africa because of a general scarcity of good
fishing grounds and because most of the continent’s rural population lives in the interior.

From 1960 to 1980 most newly independent African countries launched ambitious development
plans to lift the standard of living of their peoples. Development projects were launched to spur
economic development by promoting manufacturing and other industries.

Agriculture:

Agriculture is not only a vital source of food in Africa; it also is the prevailing way of life. An
average of 70% of African population lives by farming and 40% of all exports are earned from
agricultural products. One third of national income is generated by agriculture. Crop production and
livestock husbandry account for about half of household income.

Three main types of agriculture are practiced in Africa viz Shifting Agriculture, Fixed agriculture
of food crops, tree crops and plantation crops and Ranching and livestock rearing.

Shifting cultivation is subsistence farming and it is important in Central Africa, West Africa and
East Africa. It is primitive type of farming. Fixed agriculture of various crops is practiced in regions of
high population density such as Guinea coastal lands, Ethiopian highlands, Eastern coastal plains, Kenya,
Tanzania, and Uganda. Ranching and stock rearing are important in High Veldt, grasslands of Zambia,
Zimbabwe and South Africa and in Savanna grasslands. Here, sheep and cattle are reared on commercial
scale or on subsistence level in Sudan, Ethiopia, Sub-Saharan countries and semi arid areas of Southwest
Africa.

A number of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate crops are produced in Africa. Wheat, barley,
maize, cotton, tobacco, date palm, olive, coffee, cocoa, rubber, rice, millets, wine and other fruit crops
are produced.
Main crops:
Maize: Maize is an important cereal crop of Africa. It is grown widely. It is produced as summer crop
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everywhere with wet climate or irrigation. South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Nigeria, Ethiopia,
Egypt etc, are important producers. It is a staple food for most of the inhabitants. It is also widely used
as fodder.

Wheat: Wheat is a temperate crop and therefore South Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Ethiopian
highlands are suitable for wheat cultivation. About 75% of wheat of the region is produced in South
Africa and Ethiopia.

Millets: It is a summer crop and is produced in all countries of Africa particularly in Savanna region
because this crop can withstand dry conditions. Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Sudan, Chad, Uganda etc. are
important producers.

Rice: With modernization, rice has become a popular food crop of urban areas. It needs irrigation. It
is largely produced in Guinea coastal lands, Nigeria, Egypt, Tanzania, and Madagascar.

Cotton: Cotton is a major cash crop of Africa. The important producers are Egypt, Sudan, Mali, Nigeria,
Zimbabwe and Tanzania.

Beverages: Cocoa, coffee and tea are the main beverage crops produced in Africa. Africa produces
about 15% of world’s tea, about 20% of world’s coffee and more than half of the world’s cocoa.
Important tea producers are Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi. Nigeria, Cameroon
and Guinea are important producers of cocoa. Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar are
important producers of coffee.

Fruits and vegetables: The main fruits grown in Africa are dates, pineapples, bananas, olives, figs and
citrus fruits.

Livestock: The bulk of livestock consists of cattle, sheep and goats. The main purpose is to get meat.
The sheep in the North and Southern Africa give wool. South Africa is the main producer of wool which
is of excellent quality. It produces half of the wool production of Africa. South Africa is also important in
dairy farming.

Agricultural regions:
Tropical wet region:

In this region, occurring close to the equator in West and Central Africa and Eastern
Madagascar, dense natural vegetation requires periodic clearing and burning to obtain plots for
cultivation. Both small-scale and plantation agriculture are practiced in the zone, but small-scale
production predominates. Major crops include coffee, oil palms, and cacao, cassava, bananas, and
legumes. Most of Africa's exports of coffee, cacao, and oil palm products come from small-scale
producers in this region. In some areas of Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria, plantations using
modern mechanical equipment and artificial fertilizers have been established, e.g., the Firestone rubber
plantation of Liberia.

The Savanna Agricultural region:

The Savanna Agricultural region and highland agricultural regions are less agriculturally viable
than the tropical wet zone. In these regions—covering a huge area that includes much of the tropical
savanna land of West and southern Africa, as well as the East African highlands and most of
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Madagascar—rainfall is lower and less reliable, and the soil is often difficult to work by hand. This forces
subsistence producers to limit cultivation to isolated areas of relatively high fertility, such as river valleys
with rich, easily worked sedimentary deposits. Legumes and grains such as millet, sorghum, maize, and
wheat dominate subsistence agriculture. Large-scale plantations are uncommon, except in wetter
plateaus of Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania, which support plantations of tea,
coffee, tobacco, pyrethrum, and fruit.

Arid and semiarid region:

Subsistence farming in the semiarid region is carried out on small plots. The region’s aridity
limits farmers to low-yield crops like millet and cowpeas. More productive farming of crops such as
cotton, rice, and peanuts occurs in the valleys of the Nile, Niger, and Senegal rivers.

Mediterranean region:

The Mediterranean region—found only at the northern and southern extremities of the continent, on
the coasts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and South Africa—has soils and topography suitable for the
cultivation of vineyards and orchards of citrus and olive trees.

Food scenario:
Despite being the most agriculture-based continent in the world, Africa does not produce enough food
to feed its people. There are a variety of reasons for this problem, notably Africa’s high rate of
population growth, the loss of farm labor due to widespread movement of workers from rural areas to
urban areas, the economic priority given to the production of export crops, and a general lack of
adequate investment in modern agricultural technology. Many African countries must import food
staples and require food aid.

The continent’s different climatic zones have their own opportunities and limitations for agricultural
development. The lack of modern agricultural technology among African farmers renders them
powerless to overcome the climatic limitations of their regions.

According to UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Africa is the only continent where the absolute
number of undernourished people has increased over the last 20 years. In 1990, less than 20%
undernourished persons were living in Africa while today the figure has risen to over 25%. Africa is the
continent most seriously affected by food insecurity. However, the situation varies from region to
region. The consequences of chronic food insecurity in Africa are evident in the prevalence of hunger.
Nearly 200 million people in Africa are undernourished. In Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, more
than 40% of the population is undernourished. Although West Africa has the largest total population of
any African sub-regions, it has the fewest undernourished people. East Africa by contrast is the most
severely affected region. Ethiopia, DRC, Tanzania, Kenya and Sudan are the home to over half the
undernourished people living in Africa. However the situation is not everywhere grim. A number of
countries have made substantial strides in food security in recent years due to agricultural and economic
 17

growth. The notable among them are Ghana, Malawi, Angola and Cameroon. The situation has
deteriorated in some countries like Somalia, Burundi, DRC, Zambia, etc due to conflicts and the AIDS
pandemic.

According to anthropometric made between 1987 and 1998, 33% of African children were stunted and
malnourished (FAO, 1999). African food security may be portrayed by using the Human Development
Index (HDI)—a composite of measures of life expectancy, literacy, education and income as promoted
by United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Except for North Africa, African regions score in the
lowest group on HDI. Africa is among the regions with lowest food security and lowest ability to adapt to
future changes.

Minerals:
Africa was once a part of the ancient landmass called Gondwana land. The region is composed of hard
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks which are usually rich in metallic minerals and precious
metals and stones. Thus, Africa is very rich in mineral resources. The region is rich in iron ore, gold,
copper, manganese, bauxite, chrome and diamonds. Africa has also coal, petroleum, and natural gas,
radio-active fuel resources like thorium, radium and uranium.

Africa produces about 66% of the world’s cobalt; half of the global supply of platinum, chromium, and
diamonds; approximately one-third of all gold, manganese, and uranium; 20% of all bauxite; and 10% of
the world’s petroleum.
Iron ore: Iron ore is mined in many countries of Africa .It is mined in Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco,
Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Mauritania, Liberia and South Africa. South Africa is the largest producer of iron ore
in the entire continent. In 2013, South Africa produced 67 million tons of iron ore followed by Egypt
(29.8 million tons).
Copper: Copper is the second major mineral of Africa. South Central Africa is the major mining area of
the region. Within this region, Katanga—Zambia copper belt extends for about 500 km in length. The ore
has fairly high content of the metal and is easily mined by the open cost method. DRC and Zambia are
the major producers of copper. South Africa, Namibia and Botswana are also important producers.
Gold: Gold is an important commercial metal of Africa. South Africa alone has about half the gold
reserves of the world. About 80% of South Africa’s gold is mined in the Transvaal state and Orange Free
State. Other gold producing countries are Ghana, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Namibia, Zaire etc.
Bauxite: About 25% of the world’s bauxite is found in Africa. Among the African nations, Guinea holds
the most important place in bauxite production. Guinea has about one-third of the world’s reserves of
bauxite. It ranks 6th in the world in bauxite production. Ghana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Sierra Leone are
other important producers.
Chromium: South Africa is the largest producer of chromium in Africa and the fourth largest in the
world. The chromite ore is found in the Transvaal and Rustenburg. Zimbabwe is the next important
country in chrome production. It is also mined in Madagascar and Sudan.
Cobalt: DRC ranks 6th in the world in cobalt production. Morocco, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia and
Zimbabwe are other important producers of cobalt in Africa.
Manganese: There are considerable reserves of manganese in Africa. Gabon, Ghana and South Africa are
the important producers of manganese in Africa.
 18

Diamonds and precious stones: Many African countries produce diamonds. The important ones are
South Africa, Botswana, DRC, Guinea, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Gabon, Malawi etc. South
Africa is the largest producer of diamonds in Africa. The important diamond mines are found in Cape
Province. Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban are important diamond processing centers.
Other minerals of economic significance are tin, phosphate, columbite, titanium,
antimony, lithium, nickel, asbestos, platinum and vanadium.
.

Oil and natural gas: West and Central Africa contain significant oil reserves. Nigeria is Africa’s top
petroleum producer, and Angola, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo are other important oil-
producing countries.

Wild life of Africa:

Africa has three major environmental regions—the desert region, the savanna grasslands, and the
tropical rainforests.

The Desert region: Sahara is the largest desert

in the world. It spreads from the Atlantic Ocean

in the west to Red Sea in the east. It is a dry land

except for a few oases. It is bordered on the south

by Sahel—a transitional zone between desert and

semi desert. As the climatic zones are repeated

south of the Equator, the counterpart of Sahara in the

Southern Africa is the Kalahari Desert.

The Savanna Grasslands: The Sahel merges into the

savanna. A savanna is a broad grassy plain which

resembles the prairies of North America. Savanna

region extends across the widest part of Africa. It extends from the Atlantic coast in the west to Ethiopia
in the east and from the Sahel in the north to the wetlands near the equator in the south. The savanna
receives most of the rainfall in summer. Winters are hot and dry. The trees of savanna are large and
more numerous than the trees of Sahel. Groves of trees are scattered through lands covered by very tall
grass. Two common trees are the baobab and the acacia. The baobab has a thick trunk that stores
water, and a gourd like fruit that is used for food. The acacia is shaped like an open umbrella. It is a
source gum Arabic. In the Southern Africa, the savanna stretch from the south of Tropical Rainforest to
 19

Kalahari Desert. Here, in the Republic of South Africa and Zimbabwe is the area of open grassland with
scattered bushes and trees known as the veldt.

The Tropical Rainforest: The tropical rainforests are located mainly in the Zaire (Congo) River Valley.
They reach westward to the Atlantic Ocean along the northern coast of Gulf of Guinea. The thick forests
near the equator receive much rainfall. Plants grow rapidly. The tops of gigantic trees form a sealing
overhead and block the sunlight on the ground.

Africa teems with animals of all shapes and sizes. The continent has thousands upon thousands
of species of mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and insects.

African tropical forests support numerous species of mammals, including many kinds of
monkeys and flying squirrels. Species of birds, reptiles, bats, and insects also abound. Some of the
largest and most fascinating species in Africa which include elephants, lowland and mountain gorillas,
and giraffe-like animals found in the Congo Basin.
The savannas offer a narrower range of habitats than the forested regions, but nevertheless
support exceedingly rich animal populations. The savannas of eastern and southern Africa are renowned
for their big game animals, huge herds of herbivores, and abundant bird species. West African savanna
regions tend to have less diverse fauna and smaller animal populations, primarily because of long-
standing pressures from hunting and loss of habitat. Many species are adapted in particular ways to
their environment. Giraffes, for example, have long necks and therefore can graze on vegetation higher
than other animals can reach. Because rainfall and food supply are highly seasonal, numerous species
are migratory.
Africa is famous for its huge herds of savanna animals. In areas such as the Serengeti Plain in
northern Tanzania, herds of herbivores, several thousand zebras are found. Besides wildebeests, the
savannas support a rich variety of other antelopes, from huge antelopes to tiny duikers; others include
hartebeests, impalas, topis, oribis, kobs, and waterbucks. These animals provide the main food source
for carnivores, including lions, leopards, cheetahs, and hyenas. Other species of large herbivores include
elephants, black and white rhinoceroses, African buffaloes, giraffes, and hippopotamuses. Many smaller
animals, including baboons, several species of monkeys, and a multitude of small carnivores and
rodents, are also found.
Africa’s savannas harbor rich bird life. With more than 1,000 bird species, Kenya has one of the
most diverse bird populations in the world. Birds of prey, including numerous hawks, eagles, and
falcons, feed on smaller birds and other fauna, while vultures seek out carrion as a source of food
Savanna regions are also rich in reptile life. Nile crocodiles, as well as other smaller crocodile
species, inhabit waterside environments. Various lizards abound, among them large Nile monitors and
smaller species of chameleons and geckos. The savannas have many types of snakes, the most feared of
which are various species of vipers, as well as cobras and mambas.
 20

Mining and industrial development of Republic of South Africa:

The Republic of South Africa has a fairly diversified economy. It has well developed agriculture
and mining sector. The country is more European than African in its economic culture and philosophy.

Mining:
South Africa is one of the most naturally resource rich nations in the world and mining remains
the country’s one of the most important economic sectors. The world’s largest diamond deposits were
discovered in 1860’s in the area of Northern Cape Province and gold in Witwatersrand or The Rand in
1986.
Since these mineral discoveries of the late 19th century, the South African economy has gradually
changed from an agricultural to an industrialized economy. The South African mining industry is one of
the most technologically advanced in the world. South Africans are the world’s foremost deep-level
miners, exporting their expertise to many countries. Historically, the mining industry was built on the
foundations of cheap black labor, but wages have improved substantially since the early 1970s.
At present the South African mining industry is the 5th largest in the world. South Africa is still
considered to be the world’s largest mineral rich country. For many years, the four mineral commodities
in terms of sale and employment have been Platinum group metals, gold, coal and iron ore. In terms of
reserves, South Africa holds number one global spot in Platinum group metals, Manganese, chromium,
gold and other less valued minerals.
South Africa has rich deposits of diamond. Diamonds were formed millions of years ago in
volcanic throats or pipes called kimberlite or blue ground. Kimberlitic deposits occur in a belt from
Orange Free State through Pretoria all the way to Lake Victoria in east Africa. South Africa is also
important in the production of uranium, chrome, copper, manganese, vanadium, potassium, nickel and
fluorite etc.

The contribution of mining to GDP declined over the course of the 20th century, but the mining
industry still employs hundreds of thousands of people and continues to dominate exports. South Africa
remains the world’s largest producer of gold, but the industry faces long-term decline because of its
high production costs. These costs are primarily the result of the great depth of the South African mines.

Manufacturing:
With rich mineral and other resources the Republic of South Africa is the most industrialized
nation in the entire continent. The fact that the country has been a British colony also explains to some
extent the high degree of industrialization in this country.

Manufacturing overtook mining as the largest South African industrial sector during World War II
(1939-1945). Metalworking represents the largest manufacturing sector, including metals, metal
products, machinery, and automobiles and other transport equipment. Other important manufactured
products include food, beverages, and tobacco; clothing and textiles; and chemicals. Much of South
Africa’s manufacturing is concentrated on the Witwatersrand, although Durban, Port Elizabeth, and
Cape Town are also major industrial cities.
 21

The area around Johannesburg is the largest industrial centre in the country. All kinds of
consumer products including automobiles, textiles, drugs and pharmaceuticals, paper, leather goods etc,
are produced in this region. This region also accounts for the bulk of the steel capacity of the country.
Iron and steel, food processing, textiles, chemicals and machinery manufactures are the leading
industries of South Africa.

Export-driven manufacturing is considered the key to sustainable growth in South Africa. Until
the 1990s, much South African manufacturing had been sheltered behind protective tariffs and was not
internationally competitive. The end of international sanctions and the decline of The Rand after 1994
helped exporters, and levels of protection have since been reduced substantially.

Cultural and Ethnic set up of Africa:

Culture has been defined as, “the complex whole which includes knowledge ,language belief, art,
moral law, customs and any capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” Thus
culture is the way of life of the people which they learn in the prevailing cultural environment. It binds
the people and helps in their socio-economic and political development.

An ethnic group or tribe is a socially defined category of people who share a common cultural
heritage, ancestry, myth, history, homeland, language, physical appearance, etc. African people identify
themselves, or have been identified by others, as members of certain ethnic groups. While this
identification can be based on a number of different criteria, a person’s mother tongue is often the most
common determinant. Language links people to a specific place of origin, which, in turn, signals a shared
cultural history. But way of life, not language, sometimes differentiates some ethnic groups from each
other. In Tanzania, the Masai and Arusha speak the same language, but those who herd cattle are
known as Masai, while those that gave up herding to become farmers are known as Arusha.
Simplifying the system it is better to divide Africa into the following ethnic/cultural regions on the
basis of languages and the natives.

Northern Africa (Afro-Asian group): This area includes the nations of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and
Libya and Egypt. Sudan is also often grouped with North Africa.

Main Groups: Hamito-Semites. The hamites are fairly tall and light brown skinned people such as
Berbers and Nubians. They are, by tradition, farmers. Hamites are Berbers who are most numerous in
Morocco and least in Tunisia. The Semites who migrated from Arabian nomads conquered these areas
and brought there Semitic language. One of the dominant Arab groups is Shuwa. There also lives
another Berber tribe called Tuareg. Most Tuaregs are nomads. Nubians live in southern Egypt and
northern Sudan.

Western Africa (savanna group): West Africa refers to the area that stretches from the Sahara on the
north to the gulf of Guinea in the south. It includes those modern nations that border the Atlantic Ocean
 22

from Senegal in the north to Cameroon in the south. The inland nations of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger
are also considered West African nations at least in part. There are more than 250 tribal groups living in
West Africa who speak more than 400 languages and dialects. The Hausa, the Yoruba, Ibo and Tuaregs
are the main tribal groups in the area. Most people live in small villages and are farmers. Land is
considered sacred and is seldom sold. Majority of tribal are Muslims by religion.

Central Africa: Central Africa begins at the

southern edge of the Sahara and extends

south to the Zambezi River. It includes

modern nations of the Central African Republic

, Congo, Gabon, Chad, South Sudan and DRC.

Much of Central Africa is covered by tropical

rainforests. Most of the people live in small

farming villages. There are more than 200

different tribes and nearly all speak at least one Bantu language. Mbuti (em boo te) also called Pygmies,
are a small people who live in Congo and Gabon. They are mainly hunters and gatherers.

Eastern Africa: East Africa is made up of the countries of Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania,
Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. East Africa is the most beautiful area of Africa; this is the area of the
Great Rift Valley, the volcanic region of deep blue lakes.

Most of the people who live in East Africa are descendents of early Africans. Most of the people
speak a Bantu or Hamitic language. The Masai, Nandi, Bantu, Kikuyu, Lohya etc. are important tribes.
Masai live mainly on a strip of elevated land that extends from Kenya to south of Tanzania. The Masai
are herders. They live in mud covered huts arranged in a circle. The cattle are penned inside the circle of
huts. The kikuyu are the largest tribe of Kenya. They are mainly farmers. Both Masai and Kikuyu are tall
and fairly dark skinned people.

Southern Africa: The region of southern Africa covers the lower one-third of the continent. It stretches
from the mouth of the Zaire or Congo River on the Atlantic Ocean across to the Indian Ocean and all the
way south to the Cape of Good Hope. The region includes the nations of Angola, Zambia, Malawi,
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, and the Republic of South Africa. It
also includes the island country of Madagascar. In this region lives largest group of people with Euro-
pean origin. 75% people in the Republic of South Africa are black Africans. Most of them belong to the
 23

Zulu and the Hottentots groups. The Hottentots are pastoralists. The Bushmen are confined in Kalahari.
They are among the most primitive people of Africa.
 24

Compiled by Dr. S M Amin;

S P College, Srinagar