Basic Electronic Engineering

Lab Instructor: Engr. Soma Qureshi

Department of Electronics Engineering

University of Engineering &Technology, Taxila
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Safety Precautions
1. Power supplies must be turned off whenever you are assembling your circuit.
2. Since capacitors can hold high charge, these must be handled quite carefully. When
working with DC Circuit, check the polarity/connection of Capacitor.
3. Tools and equipment with non-conducting handles must only be used when working with
electrical devices.
4. When examining an operating circuit, maintain some distance so that no closed circuit
can be formed through the body.
5. Keep your work space clear. There should be no such materials as books, papers, and
bags.
6. Never change wiring with circuit being powered on.
Laboratory Experiments
1. Familiarization to the Operation of Function Generator, Digital Storage
Oscilloscope, DC Power Supply and Digital Multi-meter.
2. Analysis of Simple Resistive Network.
3. Familiarization to the Characteristics of Junction diode.
4. Half Wave rectification and Full Wave Rectification.
5. Full Wave Rectification Using Bridge Rectifier.
6. Diode Limiter/Clipper Circuits
7. Diode Clamper Circuits and Voltage Multipliers
8. Transformer Based Regulated DC Power Supply Design
9. Zener Diode Characteristics
10.Zener Regulation for Varying Input Voltage and with Variable Load
11.Optoelectronic Devices
12.Transistor Familiarization and its Collector Characteristic Curve
13.Transistor Bias Circuits (Voltage divider bias, Base Bias, Emitter Bias, and
Collector Bias).
14.Transistor as an Amplifier and a Switch
15.Familiarization to JFETs.
16.Viva’s and Project

Grading policy
Quiz: 10
Assignments: 10
Mid Semester Quiz: 15
Final Semester Quiz: 15
Semester Project: 20
Lab Manual + Lab Performance: 30
Total: 100
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Familiarization to the Operation of Function Generator, Digital
Storage Oscilloscope, DC Power Supply and Digital Multi-meter

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives
1. To get familiar to the functions of lab equipment.

2. To understand the proper working of each lab equipment.

3. To handle the lab equipment.

4. To understand the operations of DMM.

5. To get familiar to the use of DMM.

6. To measure resistance and capacitance using DMM.

Introduction
Function generator, digital storage oscilloscope and dc power supply are different laboratory
equipment used for signal generation, measurement and to supply power to loads. The detail
of these is given below.

Theory

Function Generator
A function generator is basically a piece of electronic test equipment which is used to
generate different signals. Function generator produces signal which ranges over a wide
range of frequencies. It generates different types of signals, e.g., sine, square, triangular and
saw-tooth shapes. These waveforms if repetitive, requires an internal trigger source and if
single-shot, requires an external trigger source. Function generator integrated circuits (ICs)
are the circuits used to generate waveforms.
The range of frequency over which function generator is operable covers both audio and RF
frequencies, however, they are usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion
or stable frequency signals. In those particular cases, in order to get the required features,
other signal generators would be more appropriate.

They are used extensively in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. They
are used to test amplifiers and as a signal source to introduce error into a control loop.

Fig.1. Digital function generator.

Description
The front panels of the function generator consist of:

1. Power on/off switch

2. Digital displays (for frequency and voltage)

3. Adjustable frequency knob

4. Variable voltage control knob

5. BNC connectors (for external connections)

6. Duty cycle control knob

7. DC level control knob

8. Switch Panel (for different operations)

Function or signal generator is extensively used for practical and experimental purpose that’s
why is considered as one of the most important component used in designing electronics circuits.
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of
waveforms as its output signal. The most common out of them are

1. Sine wave

2. Square wave

3. Triangular wave

4. Growing exponential wave

5. Decaying exponential wave

6. Ramp wave

Function generator being capable of producing wide variety of signals with different frequencies
and ranges is the most versatile instrument. The range of frequencies of all these waveforms can
be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to megahertz range. Each application requires different
waveform depending on its requirement. Function generator can produce two different
waveforms simultaneously from two different outputs. For instance, in an audio system a square
wave is used for linearity measurements, a simultaneous saw tooth output may be used to drive
the horizontal deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope to visually display the measured result.
Function generator can also be used for phase locking in the presence of an external trigger
source. Two function generators are used simultaneously to lock the phase, the two output
signals thus produced, differ only by an adjustable amount. In addition, one function generator
may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sine wave of another function generator. Function
generator can be used to produce any waveform by properly adjusting the phase and amplitude
of the harmonics. By taking the summation of the fundamental frequency generated by one
signal generator and the harmonic generated by the other, different waveforms can be generated.
An accurate frequency standard can also be phase locked with the help of a function generator.
The corresponding output waveforms will have the same frequency, stability, and accuracy as
the standard generated.
Basic Operation
1. Press the power switch of the generator. After a short boot-up sequence, the generator
will be in its default state — a sine wave with 1V peak-to-peak amplitude and frequency
of 1 kHz. There is no voltage being applied to the output at this point.

2. To change the parameters of the waveform, use the parameters buttons to select the
parameter that you intend to alter. Frequency and amplitude are the two things we will
change most frequently. Use the soft-key to choose which parameter you would like to
specify.

3. Parameter values can be changed by two methods. The first one is to simply punch in the
value using the numeric keypad. Use the number keys to change the frequency to 500Hz.
First, choose “Frequency” using the soft-key/numeric keypad, then enter 250 with
keypad, and then select the units — Hz — using the soft-keys. The change takes effect
when the unit key is pushed. The parameter values and waveform shown on the graph
will change accordingly. The second method for changing parameters is to use the rotary
knob. 


If we are using sinusoidal signal, we express the amplitude either in peak-to-peak volts or root
mean square (RMS). The default unit is peak-to-peak.


It is easy to convert between peak-to-peak and RMS – the relation is VPP = 1.414 VRMS . When
writing about sinusoidal voltages or currents, it is important to be clear about which units we are
using. It would be a serious misunderstanding if you are describing peak-to-peak values but have
not been clear about units and your reader mistakenly assumes RMS values.

4. To change the waveform type, use the waveform buttons. In addition to three basic
periodic waveforms, there are others geared towards specific applications in electronics
and communication systems. Change the waveform type to a square wave. Note the
parameters for the square wave. Finally change the waveform to ramp and note the
different parameters that can be set for that.
5. The output button turns on the voltage waveform to the output terminal. Until this button
is pressed, the output voltage will be zero. To connect the output circuit, we will need to
use a BNC-to-banana plug adapter. For this we are already provided by coaxial cables
that have BNC connector at one end and banana plug at the other end.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

An electronic device, capable of storing a digital copy of the measured waveform is known as
digital storage oscilloscope or DSO. DSO uses analog-to-digital (ADC) converters to digitize
and sample measured voltages, thus it can store the results in its memory, which it process
further using digital signal processing techniques.

Basic Information
A device extensively used for testing signal voltages, in fields like electronic measurements,
circuit designing, general testing, circuit debugging and researches is an oscilloscope. An
oscilloscope has the ability to displays the changes in signal voltage over a certain period of
time. It has a rectangular screen through which one can view the input voltage on a particular
axis over a particular period of time. The oscilloscope can also display a second voltage signal
by changing the intensity of the screen image. The oscilloscope can display a three dimensional
figure by using a third waveform. The oscilloscope is also known as scope. Some oscilloscopes
can even display multiple waveforms by superimposing signals simultaneously, or can display
signals separately for comparison purposes.
A DSO converts analog input voltages into digital data and it can measure the frequency of the
signal with the help of a time period. The factors that determine the frequency is the sampling
rate of the oscilloscope, which is usually measured in millions or billions of samples per second,
and the nature of the analog-to-digital converter and the signal amplifier on each input. To
represent a waveform a scope captures many signals and stores them in memory.
A DSO offers the advantage of capturing and logging electronic events and is used in testing
signal voltages in electronic devices. These devices include radio broadcasting equipment,
televisions and audio recording equipment. DSO can also displays graphical representations of
signal. The difference between an oscilloscope and a voltmeter is that a voltmeter records only
the presence of unexpected voltage it requires further troubleshooting and diagnostics. A DSO,
on the other hand, can measure the same voltage and show oscillation in the affected circuit.
DSO also offers visual display of the precise timing or shape of the pulse.
By acting as a simple signal tracer, a DSO can determine the malfunctioning components. It
enables technicians to probe electronic device’s individual connections and components, which
help them in determining the defected parts. The DSO locates where an expected signal is
incorrect or absent by measuring the functions of the individual component of the device. It can
also measure the variations in operation which could alert the technician of the need for fine
tuning or replacement. It also helps technicians to identify the parts that are still working, which
prevent erroneous replacement of parts. An oscilloscope usually has two or four channels and
one can see one to four signals simultaneously on its screen.

Fig.2. Digital storage oscilloscope.

Description
The front panel of DSO has:

1. Power on/off knob

2. X-position
3. Y-position
4. Volt/div
5. Tim/div
6. Channel selector
7. Trigger
8. Cursor manual switches
9. DC/AC/GND selector switch
10. Input and output knobs
11. Probes/ BNC connector

Power on/off knob is used to supply electrical power to the oscilloscope. Do not consider the
wall plug as an on/off switch. Each oscilloscope has a power button through which one can turn
it on and off. It helps to control electrical transients which can be harmful to sensitive circuits.

X-position basically indicates the horizontal axis. The grid normally contains 10 divisions along
X axis and each division is divided with 5 tics giving a resolution of 0.2 div. The horizontal axis
(X) is time t on the oscilloscope display.

Y-position basically indicates the vertical axis. The grid normally contains 10 divisions along Y
axis and each division is divided with 5 tics giving a resolution of 0.2 div. The vertical axis (Y)
represents amplitude on oscilloscope. Usually the signal is applied to the vertical deflection
plates that deflect the electron beam along Y axis and simultaneously the beam is moved along X
axis at a constant speed, facilitating display of signal amplitude versus time.

Volt/div controls the gain of the vertical amplifier and changes the scale along Y axis. Normally
one can set the vertical sensitivity from 1 mV/div to 5 V/div and sensitivity of the time axis from
0.5 µs/div to 0.2 s/div.

Tim/div controls the gain of horizontal amplifier and does changes along the X axis. Each
division across the screen can be varied from 0.1 microsecond to 0.5 sec with the time base
control.
Channel selector Most oscilloscopes are dual trace. This means that they can display two
signals at once, which is why there are two signal ports and two sensitivity controls.

Trigger controls the start event of the sweep. It is used to convert the incoming signal into
trigger pulses so that the input signal can be synchronized with the sweep generated in the time
base. The Level knob adjusts the instant of triggering on the input waveform.

Cursor manual switch are lines that can be moved about the screen to measure the time interval
between two points, or the difference between two voltages.

DC/AC/GND selector switch are used to get the AC, DC values of a signal. Changes are passed
by a switch which is connected in series with a capacitor. If the change observed in the signal is
quite slow or the signal has a fixed offset of interest, the input is connected directly (DC switch
position). The DC input option is mostly offered by oscilloscopes. Many oscilloscopes have a
third switch position (GND) that disconnects the input and grounds it, to see where zero volts
input currently shows on the screen. The vertical position control is used often, in this case to
center the trace.

Input and output knobs are used to connect a signal.

Probes/ BNC connector are used to connect the signal so that you can observe it on
oscilloscope. The single-input devices that route a signal from your circuit to the scope are
usually known as probes. Probes have a sharp tip which can easily be connected to a point on
your circuit. The tip of the probe is usually made with hooks, tweezers or clips to make latching
onto a circuit easier. Every probe has a ground clip to connect a circuit under test to a common
ground point.

Working of DSO

For the most basic operation illustration of DSO the basic sine wave using function generator is
applied.
1. Remember, function generator is basically a frequency generator that helps in obtaining
sine wave, square wave or saw tooth waveform.

2. Power on DSO and check it’s the knobs and calibrations.

3. Now connect the probe of function generator with the BNC connector of the DSO.

4. Now do channel selection as per required whether CH-I or CH-II.

5. Adjust the volt/div and time/div calibrations as you desire,

If the signal or trace does not appear change through xy positions or through the knob of
time/div, also check for the intensity and focus of the trace.
Select any of the desired waves through the generator that you wish to see. It will appear on the
screen of the C.R.O.

Dc Power Supply

Introduction
A device used to supply electrical energy to one or more loads is power supply. Power supply
converts one form of electrical energy to another (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical
energy.

As power supply convert one form of energy into another so they are also known as electric
power converters. Its basically an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical
load. There are different types of power supply like discrete, stand-alone devices etc. Some
power supplies are built into larger devices along with their loads. Desktop computers and
consumer electronics devices contains latter include power supplies.

To provide power to electrical loads and to get energy it consumes while performing the task,
each power supply requires an energy source. A power supply may obtain energy from various
types of energy sources e.g., electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices,
which include batteries and fuel cells. Some can get it from electromechanical systems such as
generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply.
Power supplies have two parts. Power input and power output. Power input receives energy from
the energy source, while a power output delivers energy to the load. Mostly power supplies
power input and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections.
However, some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer for the power input or output.
The type of input and output may vary in some other power supplies. They are used for functions
such as external monitoring and control.

Fig.3. Dc power supply.

Description
The front panel of the supply is described here.

1. Power On/Off switch

2. Digital Display
3. Variable voltage knobs
4. Variable current knobs
5. Mode selector switch
6. Voltage/Current Mode selector switches
7. Output connectors
Digital Multimeter

Introduction
A multimeter or a multi-tester, also known as Volt/Ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurements and functions in one unit. Its main
features are discussed below.

Theory
Multimeter is a device which can measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters are of
various types like they may use analog or digital circuits. Analog meters may be abbreviated as
AMM and digital meters are abbreviated as DMM.

Analog instruments usually made measurements on a galvanometer based analog meter. In

analog meter the pointer moves over a scale calibration for all the different measurements.
Digital instruments usually have digital displays which depicts digits whose value corresponds to
a bar of a length proportional to the quantity measured.

A multimeter is a hand-held device which is useful for basic fault detection and field service
work. It can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot
electrical/electronic problems in many devices such as electronic equipment, motor
controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

In order to specify the "digits" of resolution, the number of digits displayed on a multimeter are
required. The digits basically refer to resolution of a digital multimeter. For e.g., the term 5½
refer to the number of digits displayed on the display of a multimeter.

Different digits can display different decimal numbers. For e.g., a half digit can display either a
zero or a one. A three-quarter digit can display a numeral higher than a one but not nine.
Commonly, a three-quarter digit refers to a maximum value of 3 or 5. The fractional digit is
always the most significant digit in the displayed value. A 5½ digit multimeter would have five
full digits that display values from 0 to 9 and one half digits that could only display 0 or 1. Such
a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A 3¾ digit meter can display
a quantity from 0 to 3,999 or 5,999, depending on the manufacturer.
One has to be very careful in designing and calibrating the analog portion of the multimeter so
that the extra digits could be useful in getting more precise value. Otherwise they are of no value.
Instrument specifications, good control of the measurement conditions, and traceability of the
calibration of the instrument are required to get a meaningful high-resolution.

Fig.4. Auto range DMM.

Description
DMMs are usually provided with

1. Front Digital Display

2. Power On/Off button

3. Hold button

4. Range/Function selector Dial

5. Connector for Probe connections

6. Set of Probes (a red and black probe)

7. Special set of probes (for inductance and transistor pin-configuration measurement)

8. Thermistor (for Temperature measurement: OPTIONAL)

Features
Following are the features/functions provided by DMM.

1. Voltage Measurement (AC as well as DC voltages)

2. Current Measurement (AC as well as DC current)

3. Resistance Measurement

4. Frequency Measurement

5. Capacitance Measurement

6. Diode Check

7. Transistor Pin configuration Check

8. Continuity Check

Working of DMM
Most important thing to remember before and while using DMM is the proper connections
of DMM Probes with the circuit/components.

 Connect the black probe to the COMM terminal (Black Probe should always remain
connected to “COMM” for all measurements).

For Voltage Measurement

Connect red probe to VOM connection for both AC and DC voltage measurements.
Select the voltage range according to the circuit. Now the two probes of DMM are
connected in parallel across any device/component for voltage measurement.

For Resistance/Capacitance/Frequency Measurement

For resistance, capacitance and frequency measurements, configuration of DMM is

same as described above for voltage measurement.

For Current Measurement

 For Ampere range measurement

 Either to measure AC or DC Ampere current, connect the red probe to
Ampere range Fuse connection e.g. to 20A/10A fuse connection for DMMs
in Lab.

 For Milli-ampere and Micro-ampere range measurement

To measure whatsoever (DC or AC) small range current, always connect red
probe to mA fuse connection.

Note: For all type of measurements (except for current measurement) usually VOM
connection for red probe is used unless otherwise specified/shown over the DMM connector
terminals.

Resistors

The resistance of physical resistors is denoted by four color bands on the resistor. The color code
for bands 1-3 is 0-black, 1-brown, 2-red, 3-orange, 4-yellow, 5-green, 6-blue, 7-violet, 8-grey, 9-
white.

Capacitors

Like resistors, capacitor values are also encoded on capacitors. Use the table below to determine
capacitor values from their codes or to determine the codes from their value. Nano is 10 -9.
 LAB SESSION

Lab Task
Generate different signals using function generator and apply them to DSO. Now try to read
their parameter using Oscilloscope parameter menu.

Measure the values of resistors given to you at the end of the lab using DMM and verify.

Measure the value of Capacitors given in lab using DMM and verify your results.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply
 Function generator
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
 Resistors of different value
 Capacitors
 Digital multimeter

Experimental Procedure

For Signal Generation

1. Follow the usage of each equipment as mentioned above to generate signals of different
frequency and observe them on oscilloscope.

For Resistance Measurement

1. Connect red probe to one end of the resistance for resistance measurement and the other
probe to the other end. Select the range of the resistance according to the circuit. Now the
two probes of DMM are connected in parallel, for resistance measurement.
2. The same procedure will be used for measurement of the capacitance. However, select
the range of capacitance accordingly.
Observations

Table 1 For observing output signals

Signals to be Frequency Peak to peak Observation on

Generated amplitude DSO

Sine wave 2MHz 12V

Ramp 5KHz 10mV

Triangular 1000Hz 5V

Table 2 Measurement through DMM

Value of resistance Actual measurement Difference

through color code through DMM
Questions
1. An oscilloscope is set to 4V / cm vertically and 1 s / cm horizontally. If the vertical
height occupies by the signal is 6cm. The amplitude of the signal is _______________

2. Each division/bar represents a voltage of _______________ in oscilloscope

3. The maximum number of signals that can be generated by function generator is

_______________
4. The maximum frequency and peak voltage of the signal that can be generated with
function generator is ______________

5. With the time base switched off an alternating voltage moves the spot on the screen up
and down once in 0.20 s. Its range of movement is 6.0 cm and the y-gain is set at 20 mV /
cm. The amplitude of the signal is ______________
6. The corresponding frequency is ______________

7. What is the difference in the Min/Max and Peak modes on multimeters?

8. The value of the resistor whose colour codes are black, red, red with a tolerance of 10%
is_______________

9. The schematic symbol of a resistor is shown here. Draw the schematic symbol for a
capacitor.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What do you know about digital storage oscilloscope? Discuss its applications and their
advantages with respect to the analog one.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________

Q2: How you can measure the voltage and current with the help of DMM? Discuss.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________

Conclusion /Summary

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 02

Analysis of Simple Resistive Network

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives
1. To evaluate the familiarization to the lab equipment.
2. To build circuit drawing capability over breadboard.
3. To get use-to to the careful handling and working of DMM.

Introduction

Theory

Any circuit that is built using Resistors only as basic building block, except for connecting
wires and power supply, is generally called Resistive Network.

Whenever a resistor is connected to battery, current starts flowing through it and a voltage
develops across that resistor, depending upon the resistance it is offering. If we wish to
calculate the current passing through and voltage across each resistor in a circuit we use
laws as:

1. Ohms law
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Rule
3. Kirchhoff’s Current Rule
4. Current Divider Rule
5. Voltage Divider Rule
6. Law of Equivalent Resistance

All of the above mentioned techniques are used for numerical evaluations of circuit. For
practical evaluation of any network/circuit, Digital Multimeter is the best solution as well as
option.
Circuit Diagram

Fig.1. Circuit for resistive analysis.

Calculations
Using Equivalent/Total resistance calculation formula, we can write:

R3 × R3
R eq = ( ) (1)
R2 + R3

And

R T = R eq + R1 (2)

So we can write now, using Ohms Law:

V1
I1 = (3)
RT

This is the current passing through resistor R1. Now I2 and I3 can be calculated by using
current division rule as:

R3
I2 = ( ) × I1 (4)
R2 + R3
And

R2
I3 = ( ) × I1 (5)
R2 + R3

Voltages across each resistor can be calculated using voltage division rule as:

R1
VR1 = (R ) × V1 , (6)
1 +Req

Req
VR2 = (R ) × V1 (7)
1 +Req

And

VR2 = VR3 (8)

The above mentioned equation is true since resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel and equal
value of voltage appears across them regardless of their values.
 LAB SESSION
Lab task
Lay the circuit given below on bread borad. Calculate as well as measure all the values of
voltages and currents.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply
 Resistors
 Multi-meter

Experimental Procedure
1. Build the circuit as shown in the Fig.1.
2. Set the appropriate voltage by adjusting the Variable Power Supply (Vs) to 5 Volts.
3. Use the Digital Multi-Meter (DMM) to accurately measure all the voltages and currents
in the circuit. Record the measurements in Table 1.
Hint: Use R1=56Ω, R2=390Ω and R3=100Ω.
Observations

Table 1 Measurement of voltage and current

Voltage
Branch
across the Volts mA Resistor KΩ
Current
resistors

VR1 I1 R1

VR2 I2 R2

VR3 I3 R3
Questions
1. Write down the function and purpose of using a resistor in a circuit? Also, draw an
illustration of what a real resistor looks like.
2. Resistors are often represented by a symbol given below in electrical and electronic
schematic diagrams but there is another symbol used for resistor representation.

Draw this other symbol ______________.

3. Associate each of value with its respective color as used by measuring resistance
through color codes.

0=
1=
2=
3=
4=
5=
6=
7=
8=
9=
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: When electrical circuits conduct electric current, the temperature of the resistor present
in the circuit increases. Explain the significance of this phenomenon to the application of
resistors in electric circuits. In other words, why would we care about increase in temperature
of a resistor?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________

Conclusion /Summary

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 03

Familiarization to the Characteristics of Junction Diode

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives
1. To measure the effect of forward-biased and reversed-biased on current in a junction
diode.
2. To determine experimentally and graph the volt ampere characteristics of a junction
diode.
3. To test a junction diode with DMM.

Basic Information

Semiconductor
Semiconductors are solids whose resistivity lies between those of electrical conductors and
insulators. Transistors, junction diodes, zener diodes, tunnel diodes, integrated circuits, and
metallic rectifiers are examples of semiconductors. Semiconductors are used in computers in
radio and TV receiver, in video cassette recorders (VCRs), and in other electronic products.
Semiconductors devices perform many control functions they may be used as rectifier’s
amplifiers, detectors, oscillators and switching elements. Some characteristics which make
the semiconductors such an attractive member of the electronics family are as follows.

1. Semiconductors are solids. There is, therefore, little chance that elements will vibrate.
2. Semiconductors require little power and radiate little heat.
3. Semiconductors are rugged and may be rendered impervious to external
environmental conditions.
4. Along with their small size these characteristics allow large circuits to occupy small
space.
Semiconductor Materials and Impurities
Semiconductors devices are presently constructed from silicon and germanium. Among them
silicon is less heat sensitive, that’s why its predominates.

Germanium and silicon must be highly purified before can be processed into effective
semiconductors materials. In their pure state these semiconductors have a very low conductivity
and their receptivity is increased by adding very minute amounts of certain impurities, called
doping alters the electron bond structure within the atoms of these elements and provides them
with charge carries, increasing their conductivity.

Impurities such as arsenic and antimony increase the conductivity of silicon by increasing the
number of negative charge carriers (free electrons). Silicon which has been doped with arsenic or
existing P-type silicon, but these are in minority and hence are called minority carriers. Current
flow in N-type silicon may be considered as carried by free electrons, the majority carriers.

Impurities such as indium and gallium increase the conductivity of silicon by increasing the
number of positive charge carriers (holes). Silicon which has been doped with indium or gallium
is designated P-type. Some free electrons exist in P-type silicon, but these are minority carriers.
Current flow in P-type silicon may be considered as carried by holes, the majority carriers.

Holes have an attraction for free electrons. When a free electron and hole combines, the free
electron “fills” the hole, neutralizing its charge. While this happen, however, new charge carriers
are being formed at other points in the semiconductors.

The movement of current carriers may be controlled by applying an external battery voltage VAA
across the semiconductor (Fig.1). Holes in the P-type silicon are repelled by the positive terminal
of VAA and move towards the negative terminal. Free electrons enter the silicon from the negative
terminal of VAA and move towards the holes. Combination of free electron and holes take place.
While these combinations are being formed, additional mobile electrons and holes are liberated in
the silicon to form an electron hole pair. The liberated electrons move toward the positive battery
terminal and the hole toward the negative battery terminal. Recombination’s and liberations
continue to take place; thus a constant current flow in the external circuit is maintained.
 Fig.1. Movement of free electrons and holes in P-type material.

Operation of a Semiconductor Junction Diode

When P and N type silicon are joined as shown in (Fig.2) a junction diode is created. This
two element device has unique characteristics, the ability to pass current readily in one
direction.
Connection of the negative battery terminal to the N-type and the positive battery terminal to
the P-type silicon results in current flow and is called forward bias. Electrons and holes are
repelled towards the PN junction, where they recombine to form neutral charges and are
replaced by free electrons (negative charges) from the battery. This movement of charges
maintains a high forward current through the diode in the form of free electrons passing
from the N material through the junction and the P material, toward the positive terminal of
battery. Because current flows in the connection, the diode is said to have a low forward
resistance.

Fig.2. (a) Junction diode.

 Fig.2. (b) Forward biasing voltage.

The reverse biased connection is shown in (Fig.3). The positive terminal of the battery
attracts the free electrons in the P-type silicon away from PN junction. The negative terminal
of the battery attracts the holes in the P-type away from PN junction. Hence, there is no
combination of free electrons and holes. Thus the majority carriers in the diode do not
support current flow. In the reverse biased connection there is a minute current in the diode.
This current is due to the minority carrier. That is, the holes in the N-type and free electrons
in P-type. For the minority carrier, battery polarity is correct to support current flow. Only a
few microamperes of current flow as a result of the minority carriers. This is shown by the
dotted arrows in (Fig.3). The reverse biased connection results in high reverse resistance in
the diode.

Fig.3. Effect of reverse bias on junction diode.

 Is the current symbol for semiconductor diode. The terminal marked
“Anode” (identified by arrowhead) is connected to P-type material, while the marked
“Cathode” is connected to N-type material. To support current flow in this diode the
positive terminal of the terminal of the battery must be brought to the anode, and the
negative terminal of battery to the cathode, in a forward-bias arrangement.

Forward Volt-ampere Characteristics

The volt ampere characteristic of a diode is a graph which shows the variation of current in
the diode with the applied voltage. This could be done by measuring the current in the
diode for a successive number of higher applied voltages and plotting a graph of current
versus voltage. The primary observation in this case would be very little current in the
diode for low level of applied voltage. Thus below 0.7 V forward bias, a silicon diode
draws little current. For forward bias voltage equal to or higher than 0.7 V, the diode is
turned on and permits current to flow. Also, beyond 0.7 V, very slight increase in forward
biased voltage result in large increase of current in the diode. A typical forward volt ampere
characteristic curve for a silicon diode is shown in (Fig. 4).
The turn on forward biased voltage for silicon diode is typically 0.7 V. For germanium
diode it is 0.3 V.

Fig.4. Forward volt ampere characteristics of a silicon junction diode.

When the diode is reversed biased the small current flowing in the circuit due to minority carriers
remains relatively constant up to a certain amount of applied voltage. Beyond this safe level of
reverse biased, phenomena called “avalanche breakdown” take place when a heavy surge of
current occurs, which may also destroy the diode. The diode must therefore be operated within
safe limits. The limit of safe operation will normally be specified by the manufactures under the
heading maximum forward voltage (VFM) and maximum reverse voltage (VRM).

Peak forward current (IFM) may also be specified.

Testing a Semiconductor Diode with an Ohmmeter

A resistance check may be used as a rough test of the operation of a semiconductors diode.
Recall that the polarity of the terminals of the voltage contained within an ohmmeter appears at
the leads of the ohmmeter. In (Fig. 5) lead A is positive, lead B negative. An ohmmeter test the
diode, which operating normally will reveal that the diode has a low forward resistance and a
high back (reverse) resistance. Thus if the positive ohmmeter lead (A in Fig. 5) is connected to
the anode of a diode and the negative lead (B) to the cathode, the diode will be forward-biased.
Current will flow, and the diode will measure low resistance. On the other hand, if the ohmmeter
leads are reversed, the diode will be reversed-biased. Very little current will flow, and the diode
will measure a very high resistance. If semiconductors diodes exhibit a very low forward and a
low reverse resistance, it is probably damaged (fused). On the other hand, an open diode is
indicated if the forward resistance is usually high or infinite.

Fig.5. Polarity of ohmmeter reads.

Identifying the Anode and Cathode of a Diode

The cathode end of a diode is usually marked by a circular band. If the diode is unmarked, it is
simple to determine by a resistance check which is the anode, which is the cathode.

First polarity of the ohmmeter leads is determined by checking with a voltmeter across the
ohmmeter terminals. Then the ohmmeter –lead position which measure the forward resistance of
the diode is determined. In this position, the positive ohmmeter lead is connected to the anode,
the negative lead to the cathode.

Low-Power–Ohms Function of an Ohmmeter

The battery in an no electronic ohmmeter, like that in Fig.5 is 1.5 or higher. Hence, it can
forward-bias a silicon junction diode beyond the 0.7 V required for conduction. Similarly, it can
forward-bias a germanium junction diode beyond 0.3 V needed for conduction. That is why it is
possible to make the previously discussed ohmmeter checks of semiconductor diode. In
troubleshooting some semiconductors circuits, however, low–power (lp) electronic ohmmeter are
used whose lead voltage is lower than 0.7 V or 0.3 V. The low power ohms function of this type
of ohmmeter cannot be used to measure the forward resistance of the diode nor can it be used to
identify the anode and cathode of a diode. Fortunately, the manufacturer provides, in addition to
the low–power–ohms function, a normal function. Resistance tests of a semiconductors diode
may be made using the normal –ohms function of the meter.

First Approximation

What does a diode do? It allows electric current to flow through it in the forward biased
condition. Hence, it acts as a perfect conductor (zero voltage) when forward biased and conducts
poorly in the reverse condition. It acts like a perfect insulator (zero current) when reversed-
biased (Fig. 6).
 Fig.6. Ideal diode. (a) Graph (b) Forward-bias (c) Reverse bias.

This first approximation of a diode is called the ideal diode. It gives us a quick and easy way to
analyze diode circuits.

For instance the diode of (Fig.7a) is forward- biased. To a first approximation, it acts like a short
circuit. Therefore, and the current through the diode is

10V
I= = 5mA (1)
2KΩ

Fig.7. First approximation: (a) I=5mA (b) I=0mA.

On the other hand, the diode of (Fig. 7 b) is reverse-biased. Ideally it appears as an open circuit;
therefore, the current through the circuit is 0.

Second Approximation

We need about 0.7 V before a silicon diode really conducts well. When we have a large source
voltage, this 0.7 V is too small to matter. But when the source voltage is not large, we may want
to take the 0.7 V into account. (Fig.8a) shows the graph for the second approximation. The graph
says no current flows until 0.7 V appears across the diode. At the point the diode turns ON. No
matter what the forward current allows only a 0.7 V drop across a silicon diode (use 0.3 V for
germanium diode). Incidentally, the 0.7 V is known as the barrier or “knee” voltage.

Fig.8. Second approximation. (a) Graph (b) equivalent circuit for forward bias.

(Fig.8b) is the equivalent circuit for the second approximation. Think of diode as a switch in
series with 0.7 V battery. If the source voltage driving the diode exceeds the offset voltage, then
the switch is closed and the diode voltage equals 0.7 V. As an example, let us use the second
approximation for the diode of Fig.7a. The source is large enough to overcome the knee voltage.
Therefore, the diode is forward-biased and the current is

10V − 0.7V
I= = 4.65mA (2)
2KΩ

If the diode is reversed-biased as shown in (Fig.7b), the approximation still results in zero
current.

Bulk Resistance

Above the knee voltage, current increases rapidly and small increase in diode voltage causes
large increase in diode current. After overcoming the offset voltage, all that impedes diode
current is the resistance of the P and N region, symbolized by the rP and rN in (Fig.9). The sum of
this resistance is called the bulk resistance of the diode. In symbols,

rB = rP + rN (3)

Typically, rB is from 1 to 25 Ω.
Here is how you can calculate the bulk resistance of silicon diode. A manufacture’s data sheet
usually specifies the forward currents IF at 1 V. For a silicon diode, the first 0.7 V is required to
overcome the barrier voltage, the final 0.3 V is dropped across the bulk resistance of the diode.
Therefore, we can calculate the bulk resistance by using

0.3V
rB = , (4)
IF

where IF is the forward current at 1 V.

As an example, a 1N456 is a silicon diode with an IF of 40 mA at 1 V. It has bulk resistance of

0.3V
rB = = 7.5Ω (5)
40mA

Fig.9. (a) Bulk resistance (b) forward current at 1V.

Third Approximation

In the third approximation of a diode, we include the bulk resistance rB (Fig 10a) shows the
effect of rB. After the silicon diode turns ON, the current produces a large voltage across rB.

The equivalent circuit for the third approximation is a switch a 0.7 V battery and a resistance of
rB (Fig.10b). After the external circuit has overcome the offset potential, it forces current through
the bulk resistance.

As an example of the third approximation, suppose a 1N456 is used in (Fig.7a). Since it has a
bulk resistance of 7.5Ω (Fig. 7a) may be replace by Fig.10c. In this circuit, the current is
 10V − 0.7V 9.3V
I= = = 4.63mA (6)
2.5KΩ + 7.5Ω 2007.5Ω

We have analyzed the same circuit (Fig.7a) using the third diode approximation here is the
results.

I=5mA (ideal) (7.a)

I=4.63mA (second) (7.b)
I=4.63mA (third) (7.c)

Which approximation should you use? This depends on the particular circuit being analyzed and
the purpose of the analysis. For preliminary analysis; start with the ideal-diode approximation.
This gives you a quick idea of how the circuit works. If 0.7 V is significant compared to the
source voltage, then the second approximation and when the bulk resistance is significant
compared to the circuit resistance, uses the third approximation.

Fig.10. Third approximation. (a) Graph (b) forward-bias equivalent (c) example.

Summary

Semiconductor are preferred for usage in current control in electronics because of their small size
and minimal power consumption and because they allow microminiaturization of electronic
device and circuits.

1. Basic semiconductors materials are silicon and germanium, which are insulators in their
pure state these materials are doped with impurities to decrease their resistivity and
increase conductivity.
2. When pieces of N-type (negative current carrier electrons) and P-type (positive carrier-
holes) semiconductors (determined by the doping material) are joined together, they form
a junction diode.
3. A junction diode has unidirectional current characteristics; that is will permit current to
flow through in one direction (when forward-biased), but not the other (reversed-biased).
4. There is a limit to the maximum forward (negative terminal of a power source connected
to the N material) and, maximum reversed (negative terminal connected to the P material)
voltage that may be placed across a junction diode.
5. The turn on or threshold voltage for silicon junction diode is 0.7 V and for germanium is
0.3 V.
6. Once this potential is applied across the diode, it will conduct appreciably. Increases in
forward-biased voltage causes an increase in the current through the diode.
7. A junction diode may be tested with an ohmmeter. This meter reads the current, one can
also determine the voltage applied from the meter. Through electrical application of
ohm’s law, the current reading is translated into a resistance measurement. When the
ohmmeter leads are connected to the diode so that it is forward-biased, a high current
flows, indicating a low resistance reversing the ohmmeter leads causes reverse-biasing of
the diode. This prevents most current from flowing and thus registers a high -resistance
reading.
8. Because of the unidirectional characteristic of a diode, it can be considered ideally, to be
a short circuit when forward-biased and an open circuit when reverse–biased, this is
called ideal-diode approximation.
9. The second approximation for a diode takes the threshold voltage into consideration. That
is, the forward-biased condition of the diode is treated as if it were as short circuit in
series with 0.7 V battery.
10. In the third approximation of the characteristics of a diode, the bulk resistance, which
causes a further consumption of voltage potential, is considered in the diode circuit.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions

1. The most common semiconductors material is ……………………..
2. Germanium and silicon in their pure form are………………… (Conductors, insulators)
3. Silicon which has been doped with impurities such as arsenic, there is an increased
number of…………………… charges (Negative, positive)
4. A junction diode may be compared with a resistor because it permits current to flow
through it in either direction……………….. (True, false)
5. To forward-biased a junction diode, connect the ………………… (Positive, negative)
lead of a battery to the P-type terminal of the diode and the ………………… (positive,
negative) lead to the N-type terminal.
6. The forward-biased voltage across a silicon diode must be equal to or greater
than………………V before the diode will conduct appreciably
7. The volt-ampere characteristics of a junction diode is a graph
of………………..versus………………
8. After a diode turned on, an increase in forward voltage across the diode results
in…………………………. current. (increase, decrease)
9. The forward resistance of a diode may be checked, approximation, with a
(n)…………………..
10. The forward resistance of a silicon diode is ..................... The reverse resistance is
...................
11. The first approximation of a diode, also called the ……………………….diode, is used
for preliminary analysis. In this approximation, the diode is either a
perfect……………..or a perfect insulator.
12. An ideal diode acts like a(n)…………….switch when forward biased and like
a(n)………………..switch when reversed biased.
13. A silicon diode’s barrier voltage equals………………..
14. In the second approximation, the external circuit must apply at
least…………………before a silicon diode turn on, then, no matter how much current
there is, the diode drop is………………..
15. The ………………..resistance is the resistance of the P and N regions. This is all that
impedes current above the offset voltage.
16. In the third approximation of a silicon diode, we visualize a…………………..in series
with a 0.7 V battery and a ……………………………resistance.

LAB SESSION
Lab task
Draw the volt-ampere characteristics of a silicon diode.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable regulated low-voltage high current dc source.

 Equipment: Digital multimeter; VOM, 20KΩ/V; curve tracer.
 Resistor: 220Ω 2W.
 Silicon diode: 1N4007 (other choices: 1N914 or almost any small- signal silicon diode)
 Miscellaneous: SPST (single –pole single –throw) switch

Experimental Procedure

Diode Biasing:

1. Identify the anode and cathode of a 1N4007 silicon diode and construct the circuit show
in (Fig. 11) with the diode forward-biased. Which end of the diode did you connect closet
to the negative terminal to achieve forward-biasing?
2. Set output of the variable dc supply so that the voltage across the diode (VAK) measure
0.7 V. Measure and record, in Table 1, the diode current (ID). What the diode current be if
the diode was reversed?
3. Reversed the diode and measure ID, record the results in Table1.The results should verify
your prediction.
4. Measure VAK with the diode reversed biased. Record the reading in Table 1.Compute and
record diode resistance (VAK divided by ID) for both forward biased diode configurations.
5. Remove diode from the circuit and measure its resistance. Reversed the meter leads and
read the diode resistance again. Since the battery in the meter used for measuring
resistance has a polarity, the test leads from the meter will also have the polarity. Record
 both readings in Table 1 in their correct place.

Fig.11 Circuit diagram.

Observations

Table 1-Diode Measurements

Step VAK ID Diode Resistance

2 0.7 V

3,4
Forward
5
Reversed
12 rB

Volt ampere characteristics

6. Replace the diode into the circuit so that it is forward-biased again. Adjust the dc supply
for the VAK values given in Table 2. Measure and record ID for each value of VAK.
7. Reversed the diode so that it is reversed-biased. Again set the variable dc supply to the
indicated values in Table 2. Measure and record an ammeter or multimetre capable of
reading micro amp currents.
8. Draws a diode characteristics curve on a graph paper by plotting V AK along the X axis
and ID along the Y-axis. Note that forward-biased values and reversed-biased value of
VAK are considered positive and reversed-biased values negative. The forward-biased
current going through the diode is considered positive valued since current flow anode to
cathode. Current values due to reversed-biasing the diode are leakage current and flow in
the direction opposite to that of forward current values. Hence, they are “negative’’
numbers on the Y-axis. Make your numerical scales so that the positive X-axis shows
voltages from 0 to 3.0 V and the negative X-axis shows voltages from 0 to 50 V.
Likewise, the Y-axis is to be scaled to show the range of current for forward-biased and
reversed-biased. This will result in a graph that has two scales for each axis with the scale
occurring at 0.
9. If a curve tracer is available to you, consult the user manual accompanying it and set its
controls to view the characteristics curve on the cathode ray tube (CRT) screen. Does the
curve tracer the one you drew in step 7? Explain any significant difference.

Approximations

10. On the graph you developed in step 8, draw in different colors, the first, second and third
approximation curves for your diode.
11. Calculate the bulk resistance (rB) of your diode using two points along the linear portion
of the forward-biased portion of your curve for VAK and ID values. Use these in the
formula.
12. Calculate the bulk resistance (rB) with the help of VAK and ID from the graph in the given
formula.
VAK
rB = (8)
ID
 Table 2 volt ampere characteristics

Reverse Bias
Step 6, Forward Bias Step 7,
Current
VAK (V) current ID VAK (V)
ID

0 0

0.1 -5

0.2 -10

0.3 -15

0.4 -20

0.5 -25

0.6 -30

0.7 -35

0.8 -40

Hint: You can go till 1.5V during forward-biased.

Questions

1. In step 5, how you determine which resistance value was forward resistance and which
was reversed-resistance?
2. How did the measure resistance in step 5 compared with those compared in step 4? Under
what condition will a junction diode turn on? Explain? Refer to your measurement in
Table 2.
3. Was there much variance in the current from Table 2? Discuss the reason for the results
you obtained.
4. What is the purpose of a resistor? What function does it perform? Also, draw an
illustration of what a real resistor looks like.
5. What are the limitations, if any, on (a) forward-biased and (b) reversed-biased? Where
the limitations exceeded in this experiment? Refer to your measurement to substantiate
your answer.
6. How would you identify the anode of an unmarked diode?
7. How can you determine which lead of a non-electronic ohmmeter is positive, which is
negative?
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What do you observe from the volt-ampere characteristics of the diode? Discuss.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________

Conclusion /Summary

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 04

Half Wave Rectification and Full Wave Rectification

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To observe and measure the output waveforms of half and full wave rectifier.

Introduction

Wide variety of electronic devices available for daily use in the markets, are mostly DC or AC
powered. DC and AC voltages and currents serve their power requirements. Because it is more
efficient and economical to transmit, ac power is generally distributed by the power utility
companies. This necessitates the rectification (changing) of ac into dc voltages and currents. In
this experiment we shall be concerned with electronic means of achieving rectification. Direct
current is current which flows in only one direction. The diode with unidirectional current
characteristics is admirably suited to accomplish rectification, since it permits current to flow in
only one direction. Silicon, selenium, germanium, and copper oxide rectifiers are solid-state
devices which serve as power rectifiers. We will use a silicon rectifier the type most widely used
in electronics today.

Theory

Silicon Rectifier

An ideal rectifier, when forward biased acts as a zero-resistance closed switch, and as an infinite-
resistance open switch when it is reverse-biased. That is, it is ON when its anode is more positive
relative to the cathode, and OFF when the anode is negative relative to the cathode. Although
such an ideal is never realized, the silicon rectifier approaches it.
 Fig.1 Volt ampere characteristics.

(Fig. 1) shows the volt-ampere characteristic of a silicon rectifier. When it is forward- biased, the
rectifier exhibits extremely low forward resistance RF. The graph shows that when there is 0.6 V
across the diode, it permits 0.2 A of current for a forward resistance RF = 0.6/0.2 =3 Ω. When
there is 0.8 V across it, the current is 0.8 A for an RF = 0.8/0.8 = 1 Ω. The forward resistance
decreases as the current through the diode increases.

The reverse-bias characteristic is equally revealing. Now the current axis is in microamperes and
the reverse-bias axis is in 100 V divisions. At 300 V, there is approximately 0.41 µA of current,
for a reverse resistance.

300
R= = 750MΩ (1)
0.4 × 10−6
At 500

500
R= = 62.5MΩ (2)
8 × 10−6

Silicon Rectifier Ratings

Rectifier characteristics usually supplied by the manufacturer include:

Fig.1 Types of silicon rectifiers.

1. The peak inverse voltage (PIV), which is the maximum reverse bias that can be applied
across a rectifier without having the rectifier break down.
2. Maximum sine-wave voltage input (rms).
3. Average half wave rectified forward current with resistive load, at a specified
temperature.

The characteristics of a silicon rectifier, such as the maximum current it can safely handle, the
maximum reverse bias (PIV), and the maximum input (rms) voltage, are determined by its
construction and size. A wide range of silicon rectifiers exists which can deliver load currents
from 200 mA to 1000 A, whose PIV ratings vary from 100 to more than 1000 V.
Silicon rectifiers come in various shapes and sizes including the small flangeless type with two
axial leads (like the germanium diodes in Fig. 2a), the top-hat single-ended type (Fig. 2b) and the
stud-mounted type (Fig. 2c). Types a and b are connected in the circuit like a resistor or
capacitor. Type c is screwed onto a metal chassis, making the chassis serve as a heat sink for the
rectifier.

Half Wave Rectification

Consider the circuit of (Fig.3). A sinusoidal 6.3 V rms voltage (18 V p-p) is applied across the

Fig.3 Diode rectifier.

series-connected diode D1 and the load resistor RL. The input voltage Vin is an ac voltage which
changes its polarity every 1/120 seconds. During the positive alternation the anode is positive
with respect to the cathode, and current flows. During the negative alternation there is no current,
because the anode is negative with respect to the cathode.

It is apparent that current through the diode will result in a voltage drop across R L, the series
connected load resistor. Moreover, since the variation of current will follow the variation of input
voltage, the output voltage Vout across RL should follow the positive alternation which causes
current. (Fig.4) shows the waveforms Vout and Vin. It should be noted that Vout is no longer an ac
voltage, but rather a pulsating dc voltage.

The internal forward resistance RF of the diode rectifier is small to produce maximum output
voltage Vout, across RL. This resistance depends on the type of diode used. The higher the current
rating of the solid-state diode, the lower will be the internal resistance (RF) of the rectifier diode.
The voltage drop across the rectifier will normally be limited to about 0.7 V. The voltage Vout,
across RL will therefore be a positive alternation, like the input voltage Vin, but smaller than Vin.

The process whereby the diode conducts during one alternation of the input cycle is called half-
wave rectification.

Fig.4 Rectifier waveforms.

Full Wave Rectification

Consider the circuit shown in Fig.5. Apply 18 Vp-p (6.3 Vrms) to the circuit. The circuit shown in
Fig.5 can rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two diodes. Two series-
connected resistors are placed in parallel with the ac source. The applied voltage of 18 Vp-p
appears across the two resistors connected between A and B. Hence 9 Vp-p appears across each
resistor. At any moment during a cycle of Vin, if point A is positive relative to C, point B is
negative relative to C. When A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective
voltage in proper time phase which each diode “sees” is shown in (Fig.6). The voltage applied to
the anode of each diode is equal but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When the anode of D1 is positive with respect to its cathode that is the terminal A is positive
relative to C, the diode D1 will conduct but D2 will not. Similarly, during the second time slot the
terminal B is positive relative to C. So, the diode D2 conducts while D1 is cut off.
 Fig.5 Full wave rectifier.

During the entire input-voltage cycle, one of the diode either D1 or D2 conducts. Both the diodes
have a common-cathode and a load resistor RL, the output voltage appears across RL. As one of
the diode remain in the active state so the output waveform Vout across RL in (Fig.6) has no gaps
as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output produced by a full-wave rectifier is a pulsating direct current. The output needs to be
filtered for properly conversion into a direct current. In the diagram of (Fig.5), you can see that
two resistors R of equal value are connected across the input voltage to provide a voltage
midpoint C for circuit connection and zero reference. The load resistor RL is connected from the
cathodes to this center reference point C.

Fig.6 Waveforms of full wave rectifier.

 Fig.7 Voltage step down power transformer with center-tapped secondary.

An interesting fact about the output waveform of a full wave rectifier is this, the peak amplitude
is not 9V. It is something less than 4.5 V. The reason, behind this is that the peak positive
voltage appearing across the two points that is A and C is 4.5 V, and some part of the voltage V
is lost across R.

As already stated above, the full-wave rectifier of (Fig.5) delivers less peak output voltage that
results from half-wave rectification. Although, it fills in the conduction gaps.

Transformer-Fed Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers

(Fig.5) is not a practical full wave power-supply rectification circuit because of the use of the
two center-tapped resistors R. The voltage drop across R, when its respective diode is
conducting, subtracts from the voltage Vout and reduces the output voltage.

Power transformers are built with a primary winding and one or more insulated secondary
windings. The primary winding is line-fed; that is, it operates from the 120 V 60-Hz power line.
The secondary windings are either voltage step-up or voltage step-down windings. (Fig.7) is a
diagram of the transformer T1 which will be used in this experiment. It contains a 120 V primary
and a 26 V center-tapped secondary. The secondary winding is rated at 1 A. This is the
maximum current which can be drawn from the secondary. We will see that the center-tap
connection on the secondary eliminates the need for the two center-tapped resistors R in (Fig.5)
and therefore makes a practical power rectification circuit.

The circuit of (Fig.8) shows how T1 is connected in a full-wave rectifier circuit. The anodes of
rectifier diodes D1 and D2 are fed by the secondary voltages AC and BC, respectively. The
voltages are always opposite in polarity. Since C is the center tap, each diode anode receives 13
V rms. The load resistor RL is connected from the junction of the cathodes of D1 and D2, point D,
to the center tap on the secondary winding, point C. The output voltage appears across RL.

Fig.8. Transformer-fed full wave experimental voltage rectifier.

When power is applied to the primary of T1, and switches S2 and S3 are closed, D1 and D2 operate
as a full wave rectifier. Each diode “sees” only half the voltage appearing across the secondary
and each diode conducts alternately. When switch S2 is closed but S3 is open, D1 acts as a half-
wave rectifier. When S3 is closed but S2 is open, D2 acts as a half-wave rectifier. Of-course
switches S2 and S3 are included in this experimental circuit simply to demonstrate half wave and
full wave rectification.

They would not be found in an industrial rectifier circuit. There is one advantage which a
transformer power supply has over a transformer less circuit. The output voltage Vout, of a
transformer-fed supply is line-isolated, since there is no direct connection between the primary
(line) winding and the secondary.

Summary

1. Power companies distribute ac electric power because this method of distribution is more
efficient and economical than dc distribution.
2. Because dc voltage and current are required for electronic devices, it is necessary to
convert ac into dc by a process called rectification.
3. Silicon rectifiers are in greater use in electronics than any other solid-state rectifier.
4. Silicon power rectifiers are rated for their peak inverse voltage (PIV); the peak forward
and reverse voltages they can withstand; for their operating and storage temperatures; and
for the maximum sine-wave voltage input (rms) they can tolerate.
5. A wide range of silicon power rectifiers exist which can meet load current demands in the
range of 200 mA to 1000 A.
6. A single rectifier diode, connected as in (Fig.3), serves as a half wave rectifier, in which
only one alternation of the ac waveform is applied to the load.
7. When two rectifier diodes are used, as in (Fig.8), we have full wave rectification. Here
the two alternations of the input sine wave are processed alternately by diodes D1 and D2.
8. The rectified output of a half-wave rectifier appears as unidirectional current pulses
(Fig.4). The rectified output of a full wave rectifier also appears as unidirectional current
pulses (Fig. 6), but here we have two pulses for every input sine wave. The rectifiers have
transformed the ac waveform into pulsating dc.
9. Each rectifier, when conducting, is not a perfect switch; it exhibits some internal
resistance (RF). Because of this resistance, there is some voltage loss (drop) across each
diode.
10. Full wave power-rectifier circuits normally utilize power transformers with center-tapped
secondary windings. Whether the secondary winding of the transformer feeding the
rectifiers (Fig.8) is a voltage step-up or step-down winding depends on the requirements
of the electronic device for which the power supply is intended.
11. When transformers are used for power-rectifier circuits, the resistance of the secondary
windings is low to reduce power losses in the output.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. Because dc power is used mainly in electronics, power companies distribute dc for this
purpose ………….. (True, false).
2. ……………… is the process in which ac is converted into dc.
3. A half-wave rectifier, like that in Fig. 6, receives a 60-Vp-p input. The output waveform
across RL, point D with respect to C, is:
 (a) …………….. (Positive, negative)
(b) In phase with the ………… (Positive, negative) alternation of the input voltage.
(c) About ……………V p-p.
4. To reverse the polarity of the output waveform in a half-wave rectifier, it is necessary to
reverse the …………..in the circuit.
5. In the full-wave rectifier of (Fig.8), diodes D1 conduct when ………………is cut-off and
vice versa (assume S2 and S3 are both closed).
6. If the frequency of the source from which transformer T1 in (Fig. 8) receives its power is
60 Hz, the frequency of the output waveform is ……………………..Hz. (S2 and S3 are
closed.)
7. In (Fig.8) switch S2 is open, S3 is closed. The circuit operates like a
………….……………..rectifier.
8. For the same conditions as in question 7, there is one output pulse, for each alternation of
input sine wave. …………….(true, false)
9. In (Fig.8), when switches S2 and S3 are both open, there is no output across
RL……………. (True, false).
 LAB SESSION
Lab task

Lay the circuit given below on bread board. Experimentally verify the waveforms of a half and
full wave rectifier. Record your results in tabular form

Equipment and Materials

 Equipment: Oscilloscope; EVM, Resistors: 1KΩ, 0.5W or 220Ω

 Solid-state diodes: Two IN4007.
 Miscellaneous: Three SPST switches; power transformer 220 V primary, 26 V center-
tapped secondary at 1 A fused line cord

Experimental Procedure

1. Connect the circuit of (Fig.8) and set the oscilloscope on line sync or triggering. Have an
instructor check your circuit before proceeding.
2. Connect the vertical input lead of the oscilloscope to the anode of Dl, the ground lead to
point C. Close switch Sl, Power on. Close switch S2, but keep S3 open.
3. Adjust the vertical scale, horizontal gain, sweep, and sync/triggering controls for viewing
the reference waveform VAC. The waveform viewed should be identical with the
reference waveform in Table 1.
4. With the oscilloscope, measure the peak-to-peak voltage of VAC. Record the results in
Table 1. With an EVM, measure the dc voltage, if any, across points AC. Record the
results in Table 1.
5. Open S2; connect the vertical input lead to the oscilloscope to the anode of D2. Close S3,
Draw VBC in voltage waveform observed, in Table 3 in proper time phase with the
reference waveform. Measure and record the peak-to-peak voltage and the dc voltage, if
any, across BC.
6. Open S3, connect the vertical input lead of the oscilloscope to point D (across RL).
7. Close S2; draw the waveform Vout observed across RL in proper time phase with the
reference waveform. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage and the dc voltage, if any, across
RL. Record the results in Table 1.
8. Open S2, close S3. Draw the output waveform Vout observed across RL as above. Measure
the peak- to-peak amplitude of the waveform and the dc voltage, if any, across R L.
Record the results in Table 1.
9. Close S2, all switches are now closed. Draw the output waveform Vout. Measure the peak-
to- peak amplitude of the waveform and the dc voltage, if any, across RL. Record the
results in Table 1.
Extra Credit
10. Explain in detail an experimental procedure you would use for determining the forward
resistance of each rectifier in the circuit of (Fig.8). Now apply the procedure. Measure (or
compute) the resistance of Dl and D2. Record the results in Table 1.

Questions

1. In step 2, what type of rectification is occurring?

2. How does the result in step 8 differ from that of step 5? Why did the difference occur?
3. What type of rectification is occurring in step 9?
4. Compare with relation to the input frequency with the frequency of the output voltage of
(a) a half wave rectifier, (b) a full wave rectifier. (Refer to the waveforms in Table 1.)
5. From your data, what conclusion can you draw about the relationship between the dc
voltage across RL and the peak input voltage in (a) a half wave rectifier? (b) a full wave
rectifier? State this relationship mathematically, if possible.
6. Refer to your data and explain the operation of (a) a half wave rectifier, (b) a full wave
rectifier.
Observations

Table 3 Output waveforms

 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What is the difference in the frequency of the half and full wave circuits? Discuss with
reference to results obtained during the lab.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 05

Full Wave Rectification Using Bridge Rectifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To verify that conduction in a bridge rectifier results from the conduction of

alternately two series connected rectifiers.
2. To observe and measure the input and output waveforms.
3. To measure the effects of a filter network on the dc voltage output and ripple.

Introduction

(Fig.1) on the next page is the circuit diagram of a transformer-fed bridge rectifier. The high-
voltage secondary winding of transformer T provides four silicon rectifiers, D1 to D4. Operation
of the circuit is as follows. Assume that during the positive alternation (alternation 1) of the input
sine wave, point C is positive with respect to D (the voltages at the opposite ends of a
transformer winding are 180◦ out of phase). This makes the anode of D1 positive with respect to
its cathode, and, D1 is therefore forward-biased. Similarly the cathode of D3, connected to point
D, is negative relative to its anode. Hence, D3 is forward-biased. It is evident also that D2 and D4
are reverse-biased during alternation 1. Thus, in a circuit D1 and D3 will conduct during
alternation 1 while D2 and D4 will be cutoff.

(Fig.2a) shows that during the positive alternation there is a complete path for current for
rectifiers D1 and D3, which are connected in series with the load resistor RL. Current flows
through RL through D1, through point CD, and through D3, with the polarity shown. (Fig.2b)
shows the positive-voltage waveform developed during alternation 1 across R L. During the
negative alternation (alternation 2), D1 and D3 are reverse-biased and are cutoff. If D2 and D4
were not in the circuit, D1 and D3 would act as a half wave rectifier.
 Fig.1. (a) Bridge rectifier (b) waveforms.

(Fig.2c) shows that during the negative alternation (alternation 2), that is, when point C is
negative relative to point D, the anode of D2 is positive with respect to its cathode, and the
cathode of D4 is negative with respect to its anode. Hence, rectifiers D2 and D4 are forward-
biased, while D1 and D3 are reverse-biased. Now D2 and D4 conduct, permitting current through
RL. The polarity across RL is the same as in (Fig.2b).

Thus, D1 in series with D3 rectifies during the positive alternation of the input, while D2 in series
with D4 rectifies during the negative alternation. A bridge rectifier is therefore, a full-wave
rectifier. The center tap (CT) of the secondary is not connected in the bridge rectifier. In a
conventional circuit rectifier, the CT acts as the common return, and the voltage across each
diode is one-half the voltage across the transformer. Hence, if the same transformer is used, the
output voltage of a conventional full wave rectifier is only one-half that of a bridge circuit.

The same type of filter arrangement can be used with a bridge rectifier as with any other rectifier
circuit. For the bridge rectifier the voltage rating of the filter capacitors must be at least twice for
the full wave rectifier using the same transformer.
 Fig.2. Action of a bridge rectifier (a,b) on positive alternation; (c,d) on negative
alternation.

Summary

1. The full-wave bridge rectifier (Fig.1) employs four rectifier diodes. Of these, opposite
pairs (D1 and D3 or D2 and D4) in series with the load conduct alternately.
2. The bridge-rectifier output consists of pulsating dc (Fig.1b) just like the output of the
conventional two-diode full-wave rectifier. However, if the same transformer T is used in
both circuits, the amplitude of the voltage of the bridge rectifier is twice the amplitude of
the conventional full-wave rectifier. The bridge rectifier does not use a CT secondary.
3. A π-type filter is used to smooth the output of a bridge rectifier. The capacitors must be
rated to withstand the higher voltages developed in the bridge rectifier.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. In (Fig.1) an open rectifier D1 will result in …………. (full, half) wave rectification.
2. In the circuit of (Fig.1) an open D2 will still produce voltage across RL but only when C is
positive relative to D…………. (true, false)
3. If the rms voltage across the secondary of T is 50 V, the peak of the positive alternation
across RL is……………V (approx).
4. What is the frequency of the ripple across RL in (Fig.1)?
 LAB SESSION
Lab task

Lay the circuit given below on bread board. Experimentally verify the operation of a full wave
rectifier by using center tapped transformer. Record your results in tabular form. Also see the
effect of applying filter on input and output waveforms.

Equipment and Materials

 Equipment: Oscilloscope, EVM, 0-100 mA dc milliammeter

 Resistors: 1.2KΩ,*2700Ω, 5600 Ω 1/2W; 100Ω 1W; 250Ω *2W; 500Ω 5W
 Capacitors: Two 100µF 50V or 1000µF
 Solid-state rectifiers: Four IN4007 or equivalent
 Miscellaneous: Power transformer T1 220V primary, 26.8 V/l A secondary; five SPST
switches; fused line cord; SPDT switch

Note: Starred (*) resistors are for extra-credit procedure.

Experimental Procedure

1. Connect the circuit of (Fig.3) The silicon rectifiers are D1 to D4. T is the same
transformer as that used in the preceding rectifier experiments. Resistor RL is 5600Ω.
Note: Be certain that the silicon rectifiers are connected with the proper polarity in
the circuit. Switches S1to S5 are open. Set S6 to X.
2. Calibrate the vertical scales of your oscilloscope at 15 V/div. Set the oscilloscope on
Line-trigger/sync. Connect the oscilloscope across CD, hot lead to C, and ground lead to
D. Close S5.
3. Adjust the time/base controls until there are two cycles on the screen. Position these
vertically so that the peak positive and peak negative alternations are equally centered
with respect to the x axis on the graticule of the oscilloscope. Adjust the horizontal
centering control until one cycle is symmetrical with respect to the y axis, with positive
alternation on the left. The waveform should appear as in Table 1 on the next page.
Measure and record in Table 1, the peak positive and peak negative amplitude of the
 waveform. They should be the same. If they are not, recenter the waveform vertically
until they are equal. This is the reference waveform. Do not readjust any of the
oscilloscope controls until you are finished with steps 4 to 7. All waveforms will be time-
related to the reference waveform.

Fig.3. Bridge rectifier circuit diagram without filter.

4. Connect the vertical leads of the oscilloscope across RL the hot lead to F, and the ground
lead to G. Switches S1 through S4 are still open. Observe and measure the waveform, if
any, across RL in time phase with the reference wave. Draw the waveform in Table 1.
5. Close S1, (S2, S3 and S4 are still open.) Observe and measure the waveform, if any. Draw
the waveform in Table 1 in proper time phase with the reference.
6. Close S2, (S3 and S4 are still open). Set S6 to position y. Observe and measure the
waveform across RL. Draw the waveform in time phase with the reference in Table1.
7. Close S3 and S4, Observe and measure the waveform across RL. Draw the waveform in
time phase with the reference in Table1.

Observations
 Table 1 Bridge rectifier unfiltered output

Filtering the Output of a Bridge Rectifier:

8. Open S5, Remove RL from the circuit. Connect a π-type filter between F and ground,
terminated by a 5600Ω bleeder resistor RB, as in (Fig.4). A 100-mA dc milliammeter M
measures the total direct current in the circuit. S1 through S4 are all closed as in step 7.

Caution: Be certain the filter capacitors and Mare connected with the proper polarity.

9. Close S5. With a digital multimeter, measure the rms voltage across CD. Record the
voltage in Table 2. Measure also, and record in the "No Load “column, the dc voltage
point F to ground, V + to ground, and the dc current. With an oscilloscope, observe and
measure the ripple voltage, F to ground and V + to ground. Draw the ripple voltage wave
in Table 2.
 Fig.4. Adding a filter to a bridge rectifier.

10. Repeat the measurements in step 9 with a 500Ω 5W load resistor connected across RB.
Record the results in the "With Load" column.
11. Have an assistant place a fault in your circuit. Measure and record in Table 2, the
appropriate voltages and waveforms of the circuit.
12. Determine the problem with the circuit and correct it. Describe the process used to
determine the trouble.

Table 2 Bridge rectifier filtered output

Extra Credit (Optional)

13. Determine the no-load and load characteristics (dc voltage, dc current, and ripple) of a
conventional two-diode full-wave silicon rectifier using the same filter components as for
 the bridge rectifier. The bleeder resistor RB is 2700Ω. Use a 250Ω 2W load resistor.
Draw a circuit diagram, prepare a table, and enter the data. Give the step-by-step
procedure followed.
14. Refer to the data in Table 2.
 What other data, if any, are required to compute the dc current, assuming we had
no milliammeter?
 Compute the dc current with and without load. Show your computations.
 Compare the computed and measured values.
15. Explain any discrepancy.

Questions

1. What is the ripple frequency of the bridge rectifier? Refer to your data to substantiate
your answer.
2. Explain the differences in dc voltage and ripple at Vout for the half-wave rectifier (step 5),
full-wave rectifier (step 6), and bridge rectifier (step 7).
3. Compare the bridge rectifier results of step 7 and the filtered rectifier results of step 10.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What is the difference in the output obtained without using filters in full wave circuits?
Discuss with reference to results obtained during the lab.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 06

Diode Limiter/Clipper Circuits

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives
1. To observe and draw the input and output waveforms of parallel and series diode
limiters.
2. To observe the effect on the output waveform of forward-biased and reverse-biased
diode.

Introduction
A wave shaping circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off some of its part to get
an output waveform is called a Diode Clipper. It is also known as Diode Limiter. The output
waveform produce resembles a flattened version of the input signal. The half wave rectifier
circuit is a perfect example of a clipper circuit, since it eliminates all voltages below zero.

Diode Clipping Circuits have found a lot of applications in modifying an input by using signal
and Schottky diodes. They are also used to provide over-voltage protection using Zener Diodes.
The purpose of using them is to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds a certain level
protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes. They are also used in voltage limiting
applications.

The basic operation of the diode clipping circuit depends on the time the diode remains forward
biased. Thus as long as the diode is forward biased it allows current to pass through itself
clamping the voltage and when the diode is reverse biased, no current flows through it and the
voltage across its terminals remains unaffected.

Theory

Parallel Diode Clipper

Parallel diode clipper refers to a circuit in which the diode acting as a clipper is connected
parallel to the load.
The input waveform applied to diode clipping circuits can be of any shape. However, we are
considering the sinusoidal voltage here. Consider the circuits below.

Positive Parallel Diode Clipping Circuits

Fig.1.Positive parallel diode clipping circuit.

The diode clipping circuit shown in Fig.1 has the anode more positive than cathode during the
positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For this reason the diode will become
forward biased. In this case its input voltage magnitude should be greater than 0.7 V (0.3 V for a
germanium diode).

After this stage the diode keeps on conducting until the sinusoidal waveform falls below 0.7 V.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the output voltage taken across the diode can
never exceed 0.7 V and this is voltage required for conduction during the forward biased.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased. Thus no current flows through the
diode and the sinusoidal voltage appears across the load unaltered. As the diode limits the
positive half of the input waveform so its known as a positive clipper circuit.

Negative Parallel Diode Clipping Circuit

Fig.2.Negative parallel diode clipping circuit.

In this figure the polarity of the applied voltage and diode gets reversed. In this case the diode
conducts during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal waveform. The output waveform
appearing across the load limits the voltage to -0.7 V while allowing the positive half cycle to
pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the input
voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.

Double Parallel Clipper Circuit

Fig.3.Double parallel diode clipping circuit.

By connecting two diodes with opposite polarities, in parallel to each other as shown in Fig.3,
double parallel clipper circuit is formed. Both the positive and negative half cycles of the input
voltage would be clipped as diode D1 clips the positive half cycle and diode D2 clips the negative
half cycle.

Due to the forward bias voltage drop across the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at 0.7 V
and -0.7 V, respectively. However, it would be zero for an ideal diode. The 0.7 V threshold can
be changed to any value by connecting together more diodes in series creating multiples of
0.7 V, or by adding a voltage bias to the diodes.

Biased Diode Clipping Circuits

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias voltage,
VBIAS is added in series with the diode as shown. The voltage across the series combination must
be greater than VBIAS + 0.7 V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct.
For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 V, then the sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode
terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 V for it to become forward biased. Any anode
voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.

Positive Bias Diode Clipping Circuit

Fig.4.Positive bias diode clipping circuit.

Similarly, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, the diode conducts the negative
half cycle of the output waveform. The output waveform is held to a level -VBIAS - 0.7V as
shown.

Negative Bias Diode Clipping Circuit

Fig.5.Negative bias diode clipping circuit.

By varying the bias voltage of the diodes, we can achieve a variable diode clipping level. Two
biasing clipping diodes are used for both the positive and the negative half cycles. The bias
voltage need not be the same. The positive bias voltage could be at one level, for example 4 V,
and the negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 V as shown.
Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels

Fig.6.Diode clipping circuit.

When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the
waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all
positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.

Series Diode Limiters

Series diode clipper refers to a circuit in which the diode acting as a clipper is connected in series
with the load.

Series Positive Clipper

Consider the series positive clipper as shown in Fig.7. During the positive half of the input
voltage, the terminal A is positive with respect to B. This reverse biases the diode and it acts as
an open switch. Therefore all the applied voltage drops across the diode and no voltage appears
across the load resistor.

Fig.7. Series positive clipper.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage the terminal B is positive with respect to A.
Therefore it forward biases the diode and it acts as a closed switch. Thus there is no voltage drop
across diode during the negative half cycle of the input voltage. All the input voltage is dropped
across the resistor as shown in the output wave form.

Series Positive Clipper with Bias

Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half cycle of the input
voltage. For this purpose a biased clipper is used in Fig.8.

Fig.8. Series positive clipper with bias.

It may be observed that the clipping takes place during the positive cycle only when the input
voltage is greater than the battery voltage (i.e. Vi> V). We can change the chipping level up or
down by varying the bias voltage (V).

Series Negative Clipper

In a series negative clipper a diode is connected in a direction opposite to that of a positive

clipper. Fig.9 shows the circuit of a negative clipper.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the terminal A is positive with respect to the
terminal B. Therefore, the diode is forward biased and it acts as a closed switch. As a result, all
the input voltage appears across the resistor as shown in Fig.9(b). During the negative half cycle
of the input voltage, the terminal B is positive with respect to the terminal A. Therefore, the
diode is reverse biased and it acts as an open switch. Thus, there is no voltage drop across the
resistor during the negative half cycle as shown in the output waveform.

Fig.9. Series negative clipper.

Series Negative Clipper with Bias

Fig.10 shows the circuit of a biased series negative clipper. In this circuit clipping take place
during the negative half cycle only when the input voltage Vi > V.
 Fig.10. Biased series negative clipper.

Summary

1. A parallel-diode limiter is one in which the output is in parallel with the diode.
2. A positive limiter eliminates or limits the positive alternation of an output waveform.
3. When the negative alternation of an output waveform has been limited or eliminated, the
resultant circuit is called a negative limiter.
4. Diode limiting is possible because of the low forward resistance and high reverse
resistance of a diode.
5. The positive parallel limiter presents an infinite resistance during the negative alternation
of a waveform.
6. A biased-diode limiter is one in which an external bias source is connected to either the
anode or cathode of the diode limiter.
7. A series-diode limiter is a circuit in which the output is in series with the diode.
8. The positive series limiter presents infinite resistance during the positive alternation
of a waveform.
9. The most common application of a “diode clipping” is as a flywheel or free-wheeling
diode connected in parallel across an inductive load to protect the switching transistor
form reverse voltage transients.
 Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The sine-wave input to the circuit of (Fig.1) is +9 V peak positive and -9 V peak
negative. The output waveform Vout will be.................to...........V (approx).
2. In (Fig.2(b)) diode D acts as a (an) .............................switch during the negative
alternation.
3. In (Fig.2(b)) diode D acts as a (an)........................... switch during the positive
alternation.
4. If the input sine waveform to the circuit of (Fig. 4(a)) varies between peaks of +10
and -10 V, and if V = 7 V, Vout will vary between the limits............... and ………..V.
5. In the circuit of (Fig.4(b)) the input voltage varies between +9 and -9 Vp-p. The
output varies between +9 and -5 V. If we consider diode D as an ideal switch then
what value of V is required to attain this output? V = ……….V.
 LAB SESSION
Lab task

Lay the circuit given below on bread board. Experimentally verify the operation of a positive and
negative series clipper. Explain in detail the circuits you used, including all circuit values, signal
source, and the nature of the measurements. Record your results in tabular form.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable dc source; line-derived – line isolated 18 V p-p sine wave source.
 Equipment : Oscilloscope, EVM
 Resistors: 120k Ω or 1.2kΩ, 2500
 Semiconductors: Two IN4007
 Miscellaneous: Two SPST Switch

Experiment Procedure

1. Connect the circuit of Fig.11. Switches S1 and S2 are open. Set the output of the regulated
dc power supply VAA at 10 V, with the variable arm of the potentiometer, point B, set in
the center of its range. That is, the arm is set so that the measured dc voltage from F to B
(VFB) is equal to the measured dc voltage from B to G (VBG). Then

VFB = VBG = 5V (1).

Caution: The power supply must not be grounded.

2. The voltage VAA must be taken from the positive and negative terminals, with the
negative terminal "floating". Check Vin with the oscilloscope to see the reference
waveform is still properly centered as in Table 1. Connect the oscilloscope across the
output terminals AB.
 Fig.11 Experimental Circuit.

3. Close S1, observe and measure the output waveform Vout. Record this waveform in Table
1. Open S1 Close S2. Observe and measure the output waveform Vout. Record this
waveform in Table 1.
4. Close S1 and S2. Observe and measure the output waveform Vout. Record this waveform
in Table 1.
5. Gradually increase the voltage VAA until it measures 18 V. Observe and measure Vout.
Record this waveform in Table 1.
6. Reduce the voltage VAA to 10 V. With the oscilloscope connected across the output,
observe the effect on Vout, of varying R2 on either side of its center position.
7. Set R2 so that the measured bias on D1 is 3 V, on D2 is -7 V. Observe and measure Vout.
Record this waveform in Table 1.
8. Set R2 so that the measured bias on D1 is +7 V, on D2 is -3 V. Observe and measure Vout.
Record the waveform in Table 1.

Table 1 Observation Table

Experimental Procedure

1. Connect the circuit of (Fig.7a). D1 is an IN4007 diode. R=1.2 KΩ. The input voltage Vin
is line-isolated, 18Vp-p, 60Hz. Connect the vertical input of your oscilloscope across Vin
and use Vin for the external triggering or external synchronization of the oscilloscope, as
in (Fig.12a) or use line triggering/synchronization (sync).

Fig.12a Connecting oscilloscope for circuit operation.

2. Adjust the Time/div (sweep) and triggering (sync) controls for two or three cycles. Centre
these cycle with respect to x and y axes as in (Fig.12b). The cycle designated MN
(Fig.12b) and Table 2 will act as the reference input waveforms, Vin for phase
measurements.
3. Connect the vertical input of the oscilloscope across R. Observe and measure the
amplitude. Record in Table 2 the output waveform Vout in proper time phase with the
input voltage.
4. Reverse the diode so that it is connected as D2 in (Fig.12b). Check to see that the input
waveform is still properly centered as in step 1. Observe and measure the output
waveform. Record this waveform in Table 2.
 Fig.12b Sine wave centered with respect to x and y axes.

Note: If a dual-trace oscilloscope is available, phase measurements can be made directly.

Use Vin for external triggering as in step 2. Apply Vin, the reference signal, to the input of
vertical channel 2. Adjust the Time/div. Control for two or three waveforms as above.
Observations

Table 2 Series limiter

Step Vp-p Waveform

+9 V
0
3
-9 V

+9 V
0
4
-9 V

+9 V
0
5
-9 V

Questions

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The sine-wave input to the circuit of positive clipper is +9 V peak positive and -9 V peak
negative. The output waveform Vout will be.................to...........V (approx).
2. In double limiter circuit shown above diode D2 acts as a (an) .............................switch
during the negative alternation.
3. In biased positive clipper circuit diode D1 acts as a (an)……………….. switch during the
negative alternation.
4. If the input sine waveform to the circuit of biased positive clipper varies between peaks
of +15 and -15 V and if VAA = 7 V, Vout will vary between the limits............... and
………..V.
5. In the circuit of biased double clipper the input voltage varies between +9 and -9Vp-p.
The output varies between +6 and -5 V. If we consider D1 and D2 as ideal switches (zero
resistance when conducting) then VAD1 =..................V, and VAD2= ……….V.
6. In a biased limiter, is there any relationship between the amplitude of the output
waveform and the bias voltage VAA? Refer to Table 1 to substantiate your answer.
7. Referring to Table 1 and 2. Compare both the amplitude and waveform outputs of a
parallel and series-positive limiter.
8. In a biased, double-diode limiter, what is the relationship, if any, between the amplitude
of the output waveform and the bias voltages?
9. Compute the maximum current which can flow through the 2500 Ω potentiometer, R2 in
(Fig.11). Show your computations.
10. Which step in the experiment requires the maximum current in the potentiometer R2?
How much of this maximum current is there in R2? Show your computations.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What do you observe from the parallel clipper circuits? Discuss with reference to results
obtained in Table 1.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q2: What do you observe from the series clipper circuits? Discuss with reference to results
obtained in Table 2.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 07

Diode Clamper and Voltage Multipliers

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To understand the principle and operation of diode working as clamper.

2. To observe the effect on the output waveform of negative and positive diode clampers.
3. To evaluate the operation of voltage multipliers.
4. Understand the relationship between the load and the voltage multiplier.

Introduction

The diode limiter or clipper (as it is also known) modifies the input waveform by limiting or
"clipping" part of that waveform. Other diode circuits, called clampers (or dc restorers) do not
change the shape of the input waveform; rather, they add a DC level to it. There are positive
clampers, negative clampers, and biased clampers.

A clamping/clamper circuits are used in many applications that require the upper or lower
extremity of a wave be fixed at a specific value. They add a dc voltage to an ac voltage.

Theory

A clamping circuit is a circuit which adds a desired DC level to a signal by introducing either the
positive or negative peak. It introduces a DC level to an AC signal. Thus it is also known as DC
restorer, or DC reinserted or a baseline stabilizer. The two general types of clamping are as
follows.

1. Positive clamping pushes the signal upwards so that negative peaks fall on the zero level.
In positive clamping the negative peaks raised are clamped to ground or on the zero level.
 2. Negative clamping pushes the signal downwards so that the positive peaks fall on the
zero level.

Clamping does not change the shape of the original signal, it only give it a vertical shift. Fig.1
shows the clamping wave form.

Fig.1 Diode clampers.

Diode Clampers

Positive Clamper

Fig.2 shows the circuit of a positive clamper. It consists of a diode, a capacitor and a resistor.
The clamper output is taken across the load resistance R.

Fig.2 Positive clampers.

Consider the negative half cycle of the input voltage. During this phase the diode conducts
heavily and behaves as a closed switch. At the negative peak, the capacitor is charged to
maximum voltage V slightly beyond the negative peak, the diode is shunt off and the capacitor
charged to Vm behaves as a battery during the positive half cycle of the input signal. The diode is
reversed biased and the output voltage will be equal to Vm + V this gives positive clamped
voltage and is called positive clamper circuit. The net effect of the clamping action is that the
capacitor retains a change approximately equal to the peak value of the input less the diode drop.
A clamping can also be done at any voltage level other than zero, such a clamper is known as
biased clamper.

Negative Clamper

Fig.3 shows the circuit of a negative clamper during the positive half cycle of the input signal,
the capacitor is charged to Vm, with the polarity shown in Fig.3. The voltage appearing across the
capacitor is opposite in direction with the input voltage V. This gives negative clamped voltage
and is called negative clamper circuit.

Fig.3 Negative clamper.

For good clamping action the RC time constant should be at least 10 times the period of the input
frequency.

Note: A long-time constant RC is required to perform clamping action properly, e.g., time
constant which is equal to or greater than 10 times the period t of the input waveform is enough.
i.e.,

RC ≥ 10t (1)
And

t = 1/f (2)

where t is measured in seconds (s) and f is the frequency of the sine wave measured in hertz
(Hz). A numerical example will illustrate this statement. If frequency is 1000Hz, then

t = 1/1000 = 1 x10−3sec = 1 ms (3)

The product RC must therefore be equal to or greater than 10 ms as stated above.

Voltage Multipliers

Introduction

Voltage multipliers are AC to DC voltage converter whose DC output is the product of an integer
and the peak AC input. They cannot supply a large load current. They find application where
small load current is required with a large DC voltage at the output. The circuit of a voltage
doubler and tripler is shown below.

Fig.4. Voltage doubler.

 Fig.5. Voltage tripler.

Summary

1. A diode clamper does not alter the shape of the input signal but adds a DC level to an AC
waveform.
2. A positive clamper adds a positive voltage level to the signal, while a negative clamper
adds a negative voltage level.
3. The polarity of the diode determines whether the circuit is a positive clamper or a
negative clamper.
 LAB SESSION
Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board. Experimentally verify the operation of a positive and negative
clamper. Explain in detail the circuits you used, including all circuit values, signal source, and
the nature of the measurements. Record your results in tabular form.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable dc source; line-derived – line isolated 18 V p-p sine wave source.
 Equipment : Oscilloscope ; EVM
 Resistors: 100kΩ
 Semiconductors: Two IN4007
 Capacitors 470µF

Experiment Procedure

1. Connect the circuit of positive and negative clampers as described above by using
the appropriate circuit values.
2. Apply the signal source.
3. Connect one channel of your oscilloscope to the output signal and the other channel to
measure the input signal. Compare variation of input and output signals to measure the
DC level in the output.

Observations
Table 1 Diode clamper observation table

Signal source Peak to peak Nature of Input DC level Output DC level

value biasing
Questions

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The sine-wave input to the circuit of Fig.2 is +9 V peak positive and -9 V peak negative.
The output waveform Vout will be.................to...........V (approx).
2. The application of the bias voltage in Fig.2 will change the output waveform between
…………V to ................V with the bias voltage V= 5 V.
3. The frequency of the input waveform in (Fig. 2) is 60 Hz. For the circuit to act as
a............... clamper, the value of RC >=...............s.

Lab task

Build the voltage doubler and tripler circuit and evaluate the circuits. Change the value of load
resistance to observe the effect on DC output. Also observe the effect of open capacitor in
doubler and tripler circuits.

Equipment and Materials

 Oscilloscope
 Digital multimeter
 Circuit protoboard
 3 Diode 1N4001
 3 Capacitor 470 µF
 12.6 V center tapped transformer
 Resistors 500Ω, 100kΩ

Experiment Procedure

1. Build the doubler circuit as shown in Fig.4.

2. Apply power to the circuit. Measure and record the peak input voltage and peak-to-peak
ripple voltage output of the voltage doubler with the oscilloscope. Use your DC voltmeter
to measure the DC output.
 3. Replace the 100 KΩ load resistance with a 500 Ω and measure the values of input voltage
and peak to peak ripple voltage.
4. Record the values in the table.
5. Build the tripler circuit and measure the peak AC input, DC output and peak to peak
ripple.
6. Replace the load resistance with 500Ω. Record the values.
Observations

Table 2 Voltage multiplier observation table

Vin peak V ripple DC output Load resistance

Voltage doubler

Voltage tripler

Questions
1. A voltage doubler is also called a (an)
(a) Rf detector
(b) Audio detector
(c) Peak to peak detector
2. The major disadvantage of the voltage multiplier is that it
(a) Uses expensive diodes
(b) Lowers the available current
(c) Raises the Vout
(d) All the above
3. With reference to the circuit, the PIV seen by diode D1 is
 (a) Vin pk
(b) 3 Vin pk
(c) 2 Vin pk
(d) 4 Vin pk

LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What do you observe from the diode clampers circuits? Discuss with reference to results
obtained in Table 1.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 08

Transformer Based Regulated DC Power Supply Design

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To understand the operation of a filter in a transformer based dc power supply design and
to measure its effects on the dc output voltage and ripple.
2. To measure and compare the regulation of half and full wave transformer fed power
supplies

Basic Information

A power supply filter ideally removes the fluctuations in the output voltage of a half or full wave
rectifier to get a desired constant level dc voltage. Filtering is necessary because electronic
circuits require a constant source of dc voltage and current to provide power and biasing for
proper operation. Filters are implemented with capacitors. Voltage regulation in power supplies
is usually done with voltage regulators. A voltage regulator prevents changes in the filtered dc
voltage due to variation in input voltage or load. Rectification of alternating current to pulsating
direct current is achieved by the circuit of as shown in Fig.1. Pulses are smoothed by filter
networks. The full wave rectifier has already been studied so in this experiment the effect of
filtering on the nature of the rectified voltage will be observed, which will help us in designing
the regulated power supply of appropriate rating.

Capacitors, chokes, and resistors are filter elements. The effectiveness of a capacitor as a filter is
related to its capacitance and reactance. Larger capacitances have better filtering action. The
filtering action of a choke is related to its inductance.

Capacitor Input Filter

Consider the circuit of Fig.2a on the next page. An electrolytic capacitor C1 is added in parallel
to the load resistor R in the preceding circuit. C1 charges alternately through each diode section
as the diodes conduct during the alternations when the anodes are positive relative to the
common cathode. The polarity of voltage developed across C1, which charges to the peak of the
input voltage, makes the cathode positive relative to ground. The path through which the
capacitor discharges is the parallel load resistance, which is ordinarily very high compared to the
resistance of the diodes.

Fig.1. Unfiltered output of full wave rectifier.

Fig.2.Filtered output of full wave rectifier.

Hence, C1 maintains a high positive dc voltage which effectively biases both of the rectifiers to
cut off. The rectifier diodes conduct only during the peaks of the positive alternations of input ac
voltage, replacing the small charge that C1 has lost during the discharge interval. An oscilloscope
connected across C1 will show a relatively constant dc voltage with a trace of ripple, as shown in
Fig.2b. A voltmeter across C1 will measure a dc voltage slightly less than the peak of the ac input
voltage to each rectifier.
For low load-current applications, the capacitive filter in Fig.2a may be adequate to maintain a
relatively constant dc level. For higher load currents, a more effective filter is required if a
ripple-free output voltage is desired.

Voltage Regulation

While filters can remove the ripple to a low value, the voltage regulators are required to maintain
a constant output voltage. They are used in conjunction of a capacitor. The regulation of a supply
is an index which shows how output voltage V varies as it is loaded. Most regulators have three
terminals input, output and the reference terminal. The equation for percentage of regulation is

Percent regulation =100× (Vmax - Vmin)/Vmin (1)

Where Vmax is the no-load voltage and Vmin is the full-load voltage.

Fig.3. Voltage regulator.

A basic fixed power supply with a +5 V voltage is shown in Fig.4. The first terminal of the
voltage regulator took the input from the rectifier, the second terminal is connected to ground
while output is taken from the third terminal.

Summary

1. Filters are used to smooth the pulsating dc output of rectifiers. Filter elements are
capacitors, chokes, and resistors.
2. The larger the value of capacitance and inductance, the better the filtering action of
conventional π-type filters.
 3. For line-derived power-supply filters electrolytic capacitors are used which provide large
values of capacitance in relatively small units.
4. The regulation of a power supply is an indication of how the output voltage varies with
load. A small variation between the no-load voltage and the full-load voltage indicates
good regulation.

Fig.4 Basic regulated DC power supply

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The unfiltered output of the full-wave rectifier in (Fig.1) is ………… (Positive,

negative).
2. The average dc voltage in the output of (Fig.1) is approximately……………percent of
Vmax.
3. In (Fig.2a) the pure dc output is approximately equal to………………
4. The filter in the output of (Fig.3) is a……………….. filter.
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board as shown in the figure and observe the load current and voltage
and record the values in tables.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: 220 V rms 50-Hz source

 Equipment: Oscilloscope; EVM or VOM
 Resistors: 2700 Ω, 2W; 250 Ω, 2W
 Capacitors: Two 100 µF 50V; 25 pF 50 V
 Solid-state rectifiers: Two 1N4007 or equivalent
 Miscellaneous: Power transformer T1, 220V primary, 26.8V 1A center-tapped
secondary, SPST switch, fused line cord

Experimental Procedure

Transformer Supply with Capacitive Filter

1. Connect the circuit of (Fig.2a). S1 is OFF. T1 is the power transformer. C1 is a 100µF 50V
capacitor; R1 is a 2700 Ω, 2W resistor.
2. Close S1. With a voltmeter measure V0, the dc output voltage across R1, and record the
result in Table 1. With an oscilloscope connected across R1, observe, measure, and record
in Table 1 the ripple waveform and its peak-to-peak amplitude.
3. Open S1. Discharge capacitor C1 by clipping a short circuit across RL. Connect a 250Ω
2W load resistor (RL) in parallel with the resistor. The voltmeter and oscilloscope are still
connected across R1.
4. Close S1. Measure and the ripple waveform. Record the results in Table 1 Compute the
load current IL in the 250Ω resistor and record the result in Table 1. Show your
computations.
5. Open S1. Allow a minute for RL to discharge C1. A voltmeter will read 0 V across C1
when fully discharged.
 Note: It is always necessary to discharge the filter capacitors after power is turned off
when work is to be done in the power supply.
6. Replace C1 with a 25 µF 50 V capacitor. Close S1. Measure V0, and the ripple waveform.
Record your results in Table 1. Compute and record the load current IL.

Observations

Table 1 Capacitive filter

Questions

1. Which value capacitor is more effective as a filter element, the larger or smaller? Why?
2. At which point in the 1V filter, input or output, is the ripple voltage higher? Why?
3. In the experimental full wave rectifier (Fig.1) which open capacitor reduced the dc output
voltage more, C1 or C2? Why?
4. In the experimental full wave rectifier (Fig.1), which open capacitor increased the ripple
voltage in the output more, C1 or C2? Why?
5. Compare the full-wave and half-wave supplies with it filter under 250Ω load as to (a) dc
voltage at input and output of filter, (b) ripple voltage an input and output of filter.
6. Explain any difference in output voltage between the full wave and half wave rectifiers
under load.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Explain the difference, if any, in ripple voltage between the outputs of the full-wave and
half- wave rectifiers under load.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 09

Zener Diode Characteristics

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To measure the effect of forward biased and reverse biased on current in a zener diode.
2. To determine experimentally and draw the volt-ampere characteristics of a zener diode.

Basic Information

Zener Diode Operation

The characteristics of a solid-state devices depend on the semiconductor material from which the
diode is constructed, on the nature and extent of “doping” of this material, and on the physical
construction and dimensions of the device. The semiconductor diode previously studied is
operated within its forward-bias current characteristics. There is another class of diodes called
zener diodes whose unique reverse-bias current and voltage characteristics provide completely
different application from those of the crystal diode. The symbol for a zener diode is shown in
Fig.1. Fig.2 is the graph of typical current-voltage characteristics of a zener diode. When the
diode is forward biased, it acts like a closed switch, and forward current increase with an
increase in applied voltage. Forward current is then limited by the parameters of the circuit.
When the diode is reverse-biased, a small reverse current Is, called saturation current flows. Is
remains relatively constant despite an increase in reverse bias, until the zener breakdown region,
in the vicinity of the zener voltage Vz, is reached. In this vicinity reverse current starts rising
rapidly because of avalanche effect. Finally, zener breakdown (a sharp increase in current)
occurs.

In this region small voltage changes results in large current changes. Obviously, there are
dramatic changes in effective resistance at the PN junction in the region.
 Fig.1 Zener diode.

Zener breakdown does not lead to destruction of the diode. As long as the current is limited in
its power handling capabilities, the diode function normally. The diode can be brought out of its
breakdown level and restored to the saturation-current level by reverse biasing the diode below
the zener voltage.

This process of switching the diode between its zener and non zener current states can be
repeated again and again without damaging the diode. However, there is a certain time lag, call
recovery time, in switching the diode from one state to the other.

Fig.2. Zener diode characteristics.

Ratings

Manufactures provide a specification sheet for each type of zener diode. Rating include zener
voltage, tolerance ranging of zener voltage, zener current limits, maximum power dissipation,
maximum operating temperature, maximum zener impedance in ohms, thermal dating factor in
milli watts per degree Celsius (°C), and reverse leakage current. The nature of the material from
which the diode is constructed (e.g., silicon) and the intended application of the diode are also
indicated.

The breakdown voltage in a zener diode depends on the diode material and its construction.
Zener diodes have been designed to deliver zener voltage from one to several hundred volts. The
circuit designer has a wide variety of diodes from which to select the approximate the circuit
requirements.

Summary

1. A zener maintains a constant voltage Vz across its output if reverse-biased and operated
within its rated characteristics.
2. When the diode is operated at its zener voltage Vz, small changes in voltage across the
diode result in relatively large current changes Iz in the diode.
3. Zener diodes are rated for (a) zener voltage Vz, (b) tolerance range of Vz, (c) zener
current limits, (d) maximum power dissipation, and (e) maximum operating temperature.
4. There are zener diodes made to deliver voltages from one to several hundred volts.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions:

1. When used as a voltage regulator, a zener diode must be........................ (Forward-,

reverse-) biased.
2. If a manufacturer specifies that for a specific zener the output voltage is 10 V ±10 percent
tolerances, Vz for that diode lays between…………..V and …………...V.
3. Current in a 1W 5.1 V zener diode should be limited to a maximum of a………A.
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board as shown in Fig.3 and determine the volt-ampere characteristics of
a zener diode.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable regulated dc source

 Equipment: Digital multimeter; VOM; milliammeter
 Resistors: 470 Ω
 Semiconductor: 1N3020 (other choice: any 1W 5.1 V zener diode)
 Miscellaneous: SPST switch; resister decade box for extra-credit question

Experimental Procedure

Volt-ampere Characteristics Reverse Bias

1. Connect the circuit of Fig. 3. Switch S is open. VAA is a regulated power supply, which is
set at 0 V. M is a 20 KΩ/V VOM set on the lowest current range.
2. Close S. Measure the diode current I if any with VAA set at 0 V. Record the result in
Table 1.
3. Set the output of VAA so that the voltage VAB measured across the diode is 2 V. Measure
the diode current I, Record the result in Table 1.
4. Repeat Step 3 for each value of VAB shown in Table 1. Change the range of M as
required. Calculate the resistance of the diode (Rz = VAB/I) and record the results in Table
1.
5. Set the output of VAA so that the diode current I measures 2 mA. Measure the voltage
VAB across the diode and record in Table 1. Calculate Rz and record in Table 1.
6. Repeat step 5 for every value of current shown and record corresponding values of VAB
and Rz in Table 1.
 Fig.3. Experimental circuit for observing the reverse characteristics of a zener diode.

Observations

Table 1 Reverse bias

Volt-ampere Characteristic Forward Bias

7. Open S and disconnect power supply from the circuit. Set the circuit output of the power
supply at 0 V. Reverse the diode in the circuit.
8. Close S. Measure and record in Table 1, the forward current in the diode at each level of
voltage VAB shown in the table. Compute the forward resistance RF = VAB/I. Record the
results in Table 1.
9. From the data in Table 1 and 2, on regular graph paper draw a graph of
a) Diode current (vertical axis) versus diode voltage.
b) Draw an expanded graph of diode current versus voltage in the zener region.
c) Draw separate graphs of diode resistance versus voltage for the reverse and forward
bias arrangement.
Table 2 Forward bias

Questions

1. Compare the biasing of a junction diode with that of a zener diode in a normal
application.
2. Compare the volt-ampere characteristics of the zener diode graph of procedural step 9a in
this experiment with the characteristics in (Fig.2). Explain any differences.
3. What portion of zener-diode characteristics is most useful for voltage-regulator
application? Why?
4. What is the significance of the graph of procedural step 9b?
(a) How can the graph of procedural step 9b be used in the design of a regulator?
Employing a 5.1 V zener diode?
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: How does the behavior of a zener diode differ substantially from that of a normal
(rectifying) diode? Discuss.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 10

Zener Regulation for Varying Input Voltage and with Variable Load

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. Understanding zener diode as a voltage regulator

2. Understand zener operation under different load conditions
3. To construct a zener voltage regulator and experimentally determine the range over
which the zener diode maintains a constant current.

Introduction

Zener Regulator Circuit

A simple regulator circuit without using any transistor is with a zener diode. In the reverse
characteristic of the zener diode, the voltage in the breakdown region remains constant
irrespective of the current that is flowing through the diode. Therefore, the zener can be used as a
voltage regulator in this region. If the output voltage is taken across the zener, even if the input
voltage increases, the output voltage remains constant.

Fig.1. Zener regulator circuit.

Fig.1 illustrates a zener diode circuit. The circuit consists of an input source voltage V AA
connected between common reference line or ground GND and a silicon rectifier diode D1.
Resistor RS is a series-limiting resistor that absorbs the voltage difference between the D1 anode
and the voltage developed across the parallel combination of zener diode D2 and the load
resistance RL.

The zener diode regulates the voltage on RL to 5.1 V. Using a 10 V source voltage, the 4.9 V
difference between V and V0, is impressed across D1 and RS. Voltage points A, B, and C are
measured from the indicated points on the circuit with reference to GND.

A design for series-current-liming resistor Rs and for the zener diode can be calculated from the
requirements of the circuit. Assume that a constant 5.1V (± 0.7 V) output Vout is required for a
load whose current IL may vary from 5 to 10 mA. Power is supplied to the circuit from a constant
10 V dc source. It is required to design a regulator circuit which will achieve this.

Fig.2. Zener diode used as a shunt regulator.

Assume a regulator circuit in Fig.3 will meet the specifications of the problem. We must select a
zener regulator diode whose Vz = 5.1 V.
Assume that such a diode is available which will pass a regulating current Iz such that the total
circuit current remains constant at 10 mA, over the range of load current variation. By
Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write

VAA = IT × R S + Vout (1)

And

R S = (VAA − Vout )/IT (2)

Substituting in Eq. (2), with IT = 10mA, we obtain

R S = 490Ω (3)

To determine the wattage of Rs, use the given formula. Therefore

V 2 26.01
W= = = 0.05W (4)
RS 490

Good engineering practice requires be overrated. Hence a 1W 490Ω, 5% resistor would be used.

The wattage of a diode is determined from the maximum IZ current required by the circuit. In our
problem IZ = 5mA (when IL = 5mA). Therefore the maximum WZ is

Wz = V × Iz = 5.1 × 5 × 10−3 = 25.5mW (5)

Again, good engineering practice requires overrating the diode, and a 500mW diode will
sufficient.

Summary

1. Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators and as voltage reference standards.
2. A properly designed shunt voltages regulator Fig.2 maintains a constant output voltage
Vz across the diodes, despite specified variation in inputs voltage or specified changes in
load current.
 3. In the shunt regulator of Fig. 2 given VAA, IT and Vout, it is possible to calculate the value
of Rs from the equation.
Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. A 20 V 1W zener diode connected as a voltage regulator in the circuit of Fig.2 supplies

an output voltage of ……………..V (approx) to the load.
2. In the circuit of Fig.3, if VAA is 30 V and IT equals 0.05 A, the value of Rs which will
satisfy the regulator requirements is…………………Ω.
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board and observe the usage of zener diode as a regulator by varying the
input voltage and load.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable regulated dc source

 Equipment: Digital multimeter
 Resistors: Two decade resistor boxes
 Miscellaneous: SPST switch
 Semiconductors: 1N4007 silicon rectifier diode; Semiconductor: 1N3020 (other choice:
any 1W 5.1 V zener diode)

Experimental Procedure

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

Note: Continue with the previous step numbers.

10. Connect the circuit of Fig.3. Switch S is open. The output of the power supply VAA is set
at 0 V. M is a millimeter set on the 100 mA range.
11. Close S. Slowly increase the supply voltage VAA until current Iz in the diode measures 5
mA. Measure the supply voltage VAA and the voltage VAB across the load. Record the
results in Table 1. Measure the total current IT. Record the result in table.
12. Determine and record the range of variation of VAA over which VAB remains constant
within ±0.1 V of its value in step 1. Measure the variation of Iz and IT within this range.
Record the results in Table 1.
 Table 1 Voltage regulation

Fig.3 Voltage regulator circuit.

Extra Credit (Optional)

13. Design a regulator circuit from a constant voltage source VAA, using the zener diode
whose volt-ampere characteristics you have just experimentally determined. It is required
that the regulator maintain a constant output voltage Vout within 0.2 V of the average
value of Vout, for load currents in the range of 10 to 30 mA. Draw the circuit showing the
values of all components and voltages. Explain how you determined these values.
14. Test the circuit and record your measurements in Table 2. Use a resistance decade box as
a variable load.
15. With a curve tracer observe the volt-ampere characteristics of the zener diode. Draw the
curve on the same graph paper as in step 9.

Table 2 Voltage regulation design characteristics

Questions

1. Refer to Table 1. Explain how this regulator circuit works.

2. What eventually happens to the zener diode in the test circuit if V AA is increased too
much? What zener specification is being exceeded?
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1:.Will the regulator circuit of (Fig.3) compensate for both changes in input voltage VAA and
changes in load Current IL? Explain?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 11

Optoelectronic Devices

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To get data for red and green LEDS.

2. To display numbers with a seven-segment indicator
3. To transfer a signal through an optocoupler.

Introduction

We use the sense of sight more than any other so with the mention of devices that change light to
electricity, the imagination takes off. Optoelectronics refers to the combination of optics and
electronics. It includes light emitting diodes, LED displays, and optocouplers.

LEDs

The light-emitting diode (LED) is a solid-state light source. They have replaced incandescent
lamps in many applications because they have the following advantages.

1. Low voltage
2. Long life (more than 20 years)
3. Fast on-off switching (nanoseconds (ns))

In a forward-biased rectifier diode, free electrons and holes recombine at the junction. When a
free electron falls into a hole, it drops from a higher energy level to a lower one. As the electron
falls, it radiates energy in the form of heat and light. As silicon is opaque (not transparent), so
none of the light escapes to the environment.

An LED is different. Semi-transparent materials are used instead of silicon. In a forward-biased

LED, heat and light again are radiated when free electrons and holes recombine at the junction.
Because the material is semi-transparent, some of the light escapes to the surroundings. The
schematic symbol for an LED is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1. LED.

By using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorous, a manufacturer can produce LEDS
that radiate red, green, yellow, amber, or infrared (invisible) light. LEDS that produce visible
radiation are used in instrument displays, calculators, and digital clocks. The infrared LED finds
application in burglar-alarm systems and other areas requiring invisible radiation.

LEDS have a typical voltage drop from 1.5 to 2.5 V for currents between 10 and 50 mA. The
exact voltage drop depends on the color, tolerance, and other factors. For preliminary analysis
and design, we will use the second diode approximation with an offset of 2 V.

LEDS have low reverse voltage ratings. For instance, the TIL221 (a red LED used in this
experiment) has a maximum reverse voltage rating of 3 V. This means that accidentally applying
a reverse voltage greater than 3 V may destroy or degrade the LED characteristics. One way to
protect an LED is by paralleling a rectifier diode as shown in Fig.2. The rectifier diode barrier
voltage of 0.7 V prevents the reverse voltage on the LED from exceeding that value.

Fig.2. Protecting the LED against reverse bias.

LED Arrays

An LED array is a group of LEDS that display numbers, letters, or other symbols. The most
common LED array is the seven-segment display shown in Fig.3a. The display contains seven
rectangular LEDS (A to G). Each LED is called a segment because it forms part of the character
being displayed.

Fig.3. (a) Seven segment indicator; (b) Schematic diagram.

Fig.3b shows the schematic diagram. A positive voltage drives all anodes. By grounding through
a current-limiting resistor one or more cathodes, we can form any digit from 0 to 9, as well as
most letters of the alphabet and certain punctuation symbols. For instance, by grounding the
cathodes of A, B, and C, we display a 7 in Fig.3a. or by grounding the cathodes A, B, C, D, and
G we get a 3. Seven-segment arrays also are available in common cathode- configurations that
use anode voltages to turn on each individual segment.

Photodiodes

A reverse-biased diode has a small current because of its minority carriers. The number of these
carriers depends on temperature, but it also depends on the light striking the junction. When the
diode package is opaque, no outside light can get through to the junction; therefore, we detect no
photoelectric effect (light changing an electrical quantity). But when the diode is in a glass
package, incoming light does change the amount of reverse current.
 Fig.4. Photodiode is reverse bias.

A photodiode is optimized for its sensitivity to light. In this diode, a glass window lets light pass
through the package to the junction. The incoming light produces free electrons and holes. In
other words, the light increases the number of minority carriers. The stronger the light, the more
minority carriers produced.

Fig.4 shows the schematic symbol of a photodiode. The inward arrows represent the incoming
light. Also notice that the photodiode is reverse-biased. In this way, as the light becomes more
intense, the reverse current increases. The reverse current is small, typically in tens of
microamperes.

The photodiode is one example of a photo detector, a device that can convert incoming light into
an electrical quantity. (Other examples of photo detectors are photo resistors, phototransistors,
and photo-Darlington).

Opto-couplers

An optocoupler combines an LED and a photo detector in a single package. Fig. 5 shows an
LED-photodiode coupler. The LED is on the left, the photodiode on the right. The LED supply
forces current through the LED. The light from the LED hits the photodiode and sets up a reverse
current through resistors R2. The voltage across the photodiode is given by

Vout = VSS − IR 2 (1)

 Fig.5. An optocoupler circuit.

This output voltage depends on how large the reverse current is. If we vary the LED supply, the
amount of light changes and this causes the photodiode current to change. As a result, V out
changes. In fact, if the LED current has an ac variation, Vout will have an ac variation.

The key advantage of an optocoupler is the electrical isolation between the LED circuit and the
photodiode circuit; typically, the resistance between the input and output circuit is greater than
1010 Ω. This is why an optocoupler is also known as an “opt isolator”; the only contact between
the input and output circuit is the stream of light.

Summary

1. In an LED, free electrons and holes recombine at the junction to produce heat and light.
Because semi-transparent materials are used, some of the light escapes to the
Surroundings.
2. By using different materials, manufacturers can produce LEDS that emit red, green,
yellow, amber, and infrared light.
3. The typical voltage across an LED is from 1.5 to 2.5 V for a current of 10 to 50 mA.
4. The advantages of LEDS are low voltage, long life, and fast on-off switching.
5. The most common LED array is the seven-segment indicator. It can display 0 to 9, as
well as some letters of the alphabet.
6. A photodiode is optimized for its sensitivity to light. In this type of diode, light passes
through to the junction where it produces free electrons and holes. The stronger the light,
the greater the reverse current.
 7. An optocoupler combines an LED and a photo detector in a single package. In an LED-
photodiode coupler, the light from the LED controls the reverse current in the
photodiode. In this way, the input and output circuits are electrically isolated.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. In a forward-biased LED, light is radiated when free electrons and holes……………..at

the junction.
2. LEDS typically have a voltage drop of 1.5 to 2.5 V for a current of 10 to ……….mA.
3. The most common LED array is the…………. indicator.
4. A photodiode is optimized for its sensitivity to………………It should be…………..
biased.
5. An optocoupler combines a ……………….and a photo detector.
6. The key advantage of an optocoupler is its electrical………………..
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board to verify the operation of optoelectronic devices.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable regulated low -voltage high current dc source.

 Equipment: Digital multimeter; VOM, 20kΩ/V; cure tracer.
 Resistor: 270Ω 1W.
 Diode: 1N4007 (or equivalent small-signal diode).
 Red LED: TIL221 (other choices: Litronix RL-200 or any red LED that can handle up to
50 mA).
 Green LED: TIL222 (other choices: any green LED that can handle up to 50 mA).
 Seven-segment display: (or nearest equivalent).
 Optocoupler: 4N35 (or nearest equivalent).

Equipment Procedure

Data for a red LED

1. Examine the red LED. Notice that one side of the package has a flat edge. This indicates
the cathode side. (With many LEDS, the cathode lead is slightly shorter than the anode
lead. This shorter lead is another way to identify the cathode.)
2. Connect the circuit of Fig.6 using red LED. The VOM is connected as an ammeter that
measures the current through LED. The electronic voltmeter measures the voltage across
the LED. The 1N4007 protects the LED against accidentally applying a reverse voltage.
3. Adjust source voltage VS to get 10 mA through the LED. Record the corresponding LED
voltage in Table 1.
4. Adjust the source voltage to set up the remaining currents listed in Table 1. Record each
LED voltage.
 Table 1 LED data

Data for a Green LED

5. Replace the red LED by a green LED in the circuit of Fig. 6.

6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the green LED.

Fig.6. Circuit for LED data.

Using a Seven-Segment Display

7. Fig.7a shows the pin out for the seven segment display used in this experiment top view).
It includes a left Decimal point (LDP) and a right decimal point (RDP). Connect the
circuit of the Fig.7b.
8. Fig.7c shows the schematic diagram for a TIL312. Ground pins 1, 10, and 13. If the
circuit is working correctly, digit 7 will be displayed.
9. Disconnect the grounds on pin 1, 10, and 13.
10. Refer to Fig. 7a and c, which pin should you ground to display a 0? Ground these pins
and if the circuit is working correctly, enter the pin numbers in Table 2.
11. Repeat step 10 for the remaining digits, 1 to 9, and the decimal points.
 Fig.7. (a) Pin out (b) Circuit (c) Schematic diagram.

The Transfer Graph of an Optocopupler

12. Connect the circuit of Fig.8a. Adjust the source voltage to 2 V. Measure and record the
output voltage.
13. Repeat step 12 for source voltages shown in Table 3.
14. Draw the transfer graph, Vout versus VS, of the optocoupler from the data in Table 3

Observations
Table 2 Seven segment
display.
 Fig.8. Circuit with optocoupler; (b) Circuit with sinusoidal source.

Table 3 Optocoupler

Questions

1. What is the voltage drop across the red LED when the current is 30mA?
2. Comment on any change in brilliance of the LED as the current through it changes.
3. Suppose you reverse the source voltage in Fig. 6. If VS= -15 V, approximately how much
voltage is there across the LED? Explain how the silicon diode protects the LED.
4. What is the voltage drop across the green LED when the current is 30 mA? How does
this compare to the voltage across the red LED for the same current?
5. In Fig. 7b assume an 8 is being displayed. If the voltage drop is 1.6 V between pin 3 and
ground, how much current is there through the 270Ω resistor?
6. If each LED uses the same current in question 5, how much current does one LED use?
7. Which letters in the word “CATNAP” cannot be displayed correctly? Assume that both
uppercase and lowercase letters are acceptable.
8. How can the circuit be redesigned so that the characters 1 and 8 will have the same
brilliance?
9. Why is the 1N4007 used in Fig.8a?
10. How much does the output voltage change in Fig. 8a when the source changes from 4 to
6 V?
11. Suppose the sinusoidal source in Fig.8b has a peak-to-peak value of 4 V. Describe the
output voltage Vout.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: The seven-segment indicator displayed a 1 more brightly than an 8. Explain why?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q2: Why should an optocoupler is used?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 12

Transistor Familiarization and its Collector Characteristic Curve

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To become familiar with transistor basing.

2. To measure the effects on emitter-base current of forward (normal) and reverse-bias in
the emitter base circuit
3. To measure the effects on collector current forward and reverse bias in the emitter-base
circuit
4. To measure ICBO
5. To become familiar with the nature of data found in the transistor manuals.
6. To determine experimentally and plot the family of collector characteristic curves (VCE
versus IC) for CE configuration.
Introduction

The Transistor: A Three-Element Device

Scientific interest in semiconductors led to the development of the transistor. One advantage of
the transistor is that it is small and light, permitting miniaturization of electronic equipment. The
transistor operates with low supply voltages and uses little power. It does not require any warm
up period and operates as soon as power is applied. A transistor has fewer circuit connections. A
disadvantage of transistors is their sensitivity to heat, but an advantage is that they do not
generate much heat.

There are many types of transistors. These may be classified according to the basic material from
which they are formed. In this category we find germanium and silicon transistors. Most
transistors are now made of silicon, Transistors may be classified also according to the process
by which they are constructed. Here we find various types of junction transistors such as grown-
junction, alloy-junction, drift-field, mesa, epitaxial mesa and planar transistors, and point-contact
transistors. They may also be classified according to their ability to dissipate power. Here we
find a wide range from the low-power (less than 50 mW) to the high-power (2 W and higher)
type.

Transistors come in different shapes and sizes Fig.1. There are variations also in the basing
arrangements and in the manner of mounting the transistor in the circuit. Some are socket-
mounted. The sockets conform to the physical basing of the transistor. Some transistors have
flexible leads for soldering directly into the circuit.

Fig.1. Some transistor shapes.

Junction Transistors

Transistors are an extension of the semiconductor diode. The PNP transistor illustrated in Fig.2 is
an example. This is a junction transistor formed by sandwiching a very thin strip of N-type
silicon between two ‘wide” strips of P-type silicon. Three leads are brought out from individual
metallic plates which make contact with the respective semiconductor crystals. The P wafer on
the left is designated the “emitter,” the N wafer in the middle, the “base,” and the P wafer on the
right, the ‘collector.” The base is about 1 mil (0.001 in) thick. For purposes of biasing, this
transistor may be considered as two diodes. The emitter-base constitutes one diode, the collector-
base the other diode. When used as an amplifier, the transistor is biased as shown in Fig.3. The
emitter-base is biased in the forward or low-resistance direction by VEE, the collector-base in the
reverse or VCC.

Holes are the majority-current carriers in the emitter- base diode, and they emanate from the
P-type emitter.

Only a small percentage of the holes emitted by the emitter combine with the free electrons in
the base. The other holes (about 95 percent) pass through the very thin base material and are
attracted to the negative battery terminal on the collector. The emitter- collector circuit is
externally completed through the two batteries VEE and connected in series-aiding. Resistor Rc
limits the maximum collector current. From this description of current flow in a transistor, it is
apparent (Fig.3) that the emitter is the source of current carriers, that the emitter-base current is
very small, and that the emitter-collector current is high. It may be seen also that changes in
emitter-base bias will result in changes in emitter current. Thus an increase in forward bias will
result in an increase in emitter current and hence in collector current. Base current will increase
or decrease very little when emitter current increases or decreases. It is evident, therefore, that
collector current may be controlled readily by changes in emitter-base bias. The designations
“emitter” and ‘collector” may now be readily associated with their functions.

Fig.2. PN junction transistor.

Fig.3. Biasing a PN junction.

A junction transistor may also be made with an NPN configuration Fig.4. As in the preceding
case, biasing of the emitter-base must be in the forward direction and of the collector-base in the
reverse direction. Because of the use here of an N-type crystal as emitter and collector and of a
P-type as the base, battery polarities must be reversed, as compared with the biasing of a PNP
transistor. In the NPN transistor, electrons are the majority-current carriers. In the PNP transistor,
holes are the majority-current carriers.

Fig. 5 is a simplified diagram showing the direction of electron-current flow in the external
circuit of a NPN transistor. Notice that it is electron current flowing in the external circuit and
hole flow within the P-type crystal. The current noted as ICBO is a very small leakage current and
will not be discussed now. The current flowing through the emitter circuit is ‘total” current and
equals the sum of the base and collector currents.

Fig.4. Biasing an NPN transistor.

Fig.6 is a simplified diagram showing the direction of electron-current flow in the external
circuit of an PNP transistor. Comparing with Fig.5, we note that the direction of current flow in
the external circuit of an NPN transistor is opposite to that of a PNP type.
 Fig.5. Electron current flow in external circuit of a NPN transistor.

Fig.6. Electron current flow in external circuit of a PNP transistor.

ICBO and Thermal Runaway

ICBO is collector current flowing with the collector-base junction biased in the reverse direction
with the emitter- base open-circuited (no VEE). This leakage current (ICBO) is due to minority
carriers in the collector and base. ICBO is in the range of a few microamperes (µA) for germanium
and a few nano amperes (nA) for silicon, and it increases with an increase in temperature. An
important factor which affects the operation of a transistor is its operating temperature. Increased
temperature results in increased current. This in turn leads to added heat and more current. If this
chain reaction, which is called runaway, is uninterrupted, it may result in complete destruction of
the transistor because of excessive heat. The normal range of temperature within which a
transistor may be operated safely is specified by the manufacturer. Silicon transistors are more
tolerant of heat than are germanium transistors, and their temperature operating range is therefore
much wider than germanium.

Transistor Symbols, Basing and Mounting

The schematic symbols for a PNP and an NPN transistor are shown in Fig. 7a and b. where the
element with the arrow is the emitter and its symmetrical counterpart is the collector. The PNP
transistor is characterized by the fact that the emitter arrow points to the base, whereas the arrow
points away from the base in the NPN type. Note that electron-current flow inside the transistor
is opposite to the direction of the arrow.

Transistors are rated according to their ability to dissipate power. Thus a transistor used as a low-
level audio amplifier may have a power rating which is low, say, 50 mW. A transistor used as an
output amplifier must have a higher wattage rating. The casings of power transistors are
especially designed to permit ready cooling. For example, some power transistors use radial fins
for conducting the heat away. Other types use a metal shell which mounts onto the metal chassis
of the equipment where it is employed. In this transistor the collector is connected to the
transistor housing. The chassis then conducts the heat away. This type of transistor has a higher
power rating when physically clamped onto the metal chassis as described and a lower power
rating when mounted off the chassis. The following list gives the symbols used to denote
transistor parameters.

 VBB (Supply voltage to the base)

 ICB (Collector-to-base current)
 VKJ (Circuit voltage between elements, for example, between elements K and J)
 VCB (Voltage between collector and base)
 Fig.7. Schematic symbol for PNP (b) NPN transistor.

Collector Bias and Voltage Values

Be certain that the polarity of bias voltage on the collector is correct before applying power. The
collector must be reverse-biased. Moreover, the voltage on the collector and emitter must not
exceed the values specified. You should therefore measure these voltages and adjust them for the
proper value before applying power to the circuit.

Check of Circuit Connections

All connections should be checked against the circuit diagram before power is applied.
Transistors should not be connected to a voltage source without some limiting resistance in the
circuit.

Transistor Soldering

Soldering of transistors where necessary should be accomplished quickly. Low-wattage irons (25
W) are recommended. Transistor pigtails should be kept as long as possible consistent with
circuit design considerations to reduce heat transfer. The same type of heat sink should be used
when soldering transistor leads in a circuit as when soldering germanium diodes. An effective
heat sink is created when long-nose pliers are used for grasping the transistor pigtail between the
transistor body and the point of heat application.
Voltage Measurements

All test equipment should be isolated from the power line. If the equipment is not isolated, an
isolation transformer should be used. In making voltage measurements in transistor circuits, care
should be taken to minimize the possibility of accidental short circuits between closely spaced
terminals. Accidental short circuits may apply improper or excessive voltage to the transistor
elements and may destroy the transistor.

Resistance Measurements

Transistors may be damaged during resistance measurements. Thus, if a shunt-type ohmmeter is

used on the low-resistance ranges, it may supply excessive current to the transistor and destroy it.
You must therefore be cautious in making ohmmeter checks in transistor circuits. A good rule to
follow is to check the ohmmeter leads’ potential and polarity before checking transistor
junctions. Also, if it is necessary to check resistance of components in a transistor circuit, the
transistor should be removed first if it is a plug-in type. When resistance measurements with the
transistor in-circuit are made, allowance must be made for conduction through the transistor. A
recommended method is to make two sets of resistance measurements, reversing the ohmmeter
lead for the required reading. The higher reading is more correct because on the higher reading
the transistor was reverse-biased.

Electronic voltmeters (EVMs) frequently contain a low-power-ohms (LPΩ) function, specifically

designed for making resistance measurements in transistor circuits. On the LPΩ function there is
insufficient voltage developed to forward-bias transistor functions. Hence the LP function is used
for resistance measurements in circuits containing solid-state devices.

Use of signal generators as a signal source in transistor circuits

Excessive signal-generator output may destroy a transistor. Hence generator output should be set
at minimum at the start of signal injection. As an additional safety measure, the generator should
not be coupled directly into the circuit. Loose capacitive coupling, wherever possible, is
recommended.
Transistor Collector Characteristics
Basic Information

Transistors are designed with unique characteristics to meet certain application requirements.
The manufacturer provides data sheets in which these characteristics are given. Data are
furnished both in tubular and in graphic form. It is important to understand these data charts and
graphs.

Compilation of data sheets is found in transistor manuals supplied by transistor manufacturers or

in transistor reference handbooks published commercially. The nature of the data depends on the
source and on the intended use of the transistor.

Transistor characteristic curves

Transistor characteristic curves included in transistor manuals give information, in graphic form,
about a transistor. These curves show the effects of variation of transistor parameters and are
therefore an important source of information to the circuit designer.

Fig.8. Circuit for estimating collector characteristics curves.

Average Collector Characteristics, CE Configuration

Fig.8 is used to draw the collector characteristics curves that show how the collector current IC
varies with the collector to emitter voltage VCE for specified values of base current IB. Notice in
the circuit diagram that both VBB and VCC are variable sources of voltage.
Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and VCC is zero. For this condition both
the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction are forward-biased because the base is
at approximately 0.7 V while the emitter and the collector are at 0 V.

Fig.9. Collector characteristics curves for several values of IB.

The base current is through the base-emitter junction because of the low impedance path to
ground and therefore, IC is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in the
saturation region of its operation.

As VCC is increased, VCE increases gradually as the collector current increases. This is indicated
by the portion of the characteristic curve between points A and B in Fig.9. IC increases as VCC is
increased because VCE remains less than 0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-collector junction.

Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the
transistor goes into the active or linear legion of its operation. Once the base-collector junction is
reverse-biased, IC levels off and remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as VCE
continues to increase. Actually, IC increases very slightly as VCE increases due to widening of the
base-collector depletion region. This results in fewer holes for recombination in the base region
which effectively causes a slight increase in βdc. This is shown by the portion of the
characteristic curve between points B and C in Fig.9. For this portion of the characteristic curve,
the value of IC is determined only by the relationship expressed as IC= βdc IB.

When VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes
into breakdown; and the collector current increases rapidly as indicated by the part of the curve
to the right of point C in Fig.9. A transistor should never he operated in this breakdown region.

A family of collector characteristic curves is produced when IC versus VCE is plotted for several
values of IB, as illustrated in Fig.9. When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although
there is a very small collector leakage current as indicated. The amount of collector leakage
current for IB = 0 is exaggerated on the graph for illustration.

Test circuits to determine average collector characteristics (VCE versus Ic)

Point-by-point Method

The test circuit of Fig.8 is used for plotting the collector characteristic curves of an NPN
transistor in CE configuration, employing point-by-point method. The same test circuit with
battery and meter polarities reversed could be used for PNP type. In this circuit, base current may
be set to a specified value by adjusting RB. The procedure is as follows: RB is adjusted to a
reference value of IB, at which value it is desired to plot the curve. M1 monitors base current, and
RB is used to maintain a constant level of IB. M2 measures collector current, while M3 measures
collector voltage. Predetermined values of collector voltage are selected in turn, and collector
current is measured and recorded. The results are then plotted and graphed. To obtain a family of
curves, this procedure is repeated for specified values of base current.

Summary

1. Transistors are solid-state devices which extend the range and application of the two-
element diode.
2. Silicon is the element from which most transistors and other semiconductors are made
today.
3. Junction transistors consist of a very thin element called the base, sandwiched between
two elements called the emitter and the collector
4. Transistors are either PNP or NPN type. The first letter designates the emitter material,
the middle letter, the base, and the last letter, the collector material. Transistors therefore
contain two junctions, the emitter-base junction and the collector-base junction.
5. The characteristics of junction transistors depend on the extent of doping of the emitter,
base, and collector; on the geometry of the transistor; and on the method of fabrication.
6. For purposes of biasing, the transistor may be considered as consisting of two diodes, the
emitter-base diode and the collector-base diode.
7. In most applications the emitter-base diode is forward-biased and the collector-base diode
reverse-biased.
8. The emitter injects (emits), or is the source of the current carriers in a transistor. The
collector receives (collects) most of the current carriers. The base controls the collector
current.
9. The emitter current is the total current, and it divides into the collector current and the
base current.
10. Current flow inside a transistor is carried on by the majority-current carriers, which are
electrons in N-type material and holes in P-type material.
11. There are also minority carriers. The small minority-carrier current in the collector-base
junction with the emitter open is called leakage current or ICBO.
12. Though ICBO is very small in silicon transistors, it increases with heat and may destroy a
transistor unless checked.
13. Transistors are heat-sensitive. The temperatures within which they may be operated are
specified by the manufacturer.
14. Transistors are rated according to ability to dissipate power, varying from the very low
(50 mW) to high (2 W or more).
15. High-power transistors employ heat sinks to conduct the heat away from the transistor.
Data on transistor characteristics are furnished by the manufacturer in tabular (chart) and
graphic (curves) form.
16. Transistor data sheets identified by number include the following information: (a)
mechanical, (b) descriptive, (c) maximum ratings, (d) electrical characteristics, (e)
characteristic curves.
17. Transistor should not be operated beyond their rated wattage dissipation. For the CE
configuration the product of VCE and IC is the collector dissipation of the transistor.
Dissipation is specified for a specific operating temperature. If the operating temperature
is higher than specified, dissipation must be derated by formula.
18. From the family of average collector characteristic Fig.8 it is possible to calculate the
beta of a transistor.
19. Within the range where the relationship between IC and IB is linear, the data of the
transistor remains constant.
20. Average collector characteristics may be determined by any of these methods:
a) Point-by-point. Fig.8 is the test circuit used to show how IC varies with changes in VCE.
The data secured are plotted in the form of a graph.
b) Curve tracers.
(a) Self-contained curve tracers come complete with an oscilloscope display unit.
These generate a single curve or a whole family of curves.
(b) Curve-tracer units which are used with general-purpose oscilloscopes are also
available.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward-biased; the collector-base junction is

reverse-biased.
2. In a PNP transistor the emitter is (positive, negative) relative to the base, while the
collector is (positive, negative) relative to the base.
3. Battery polarities in an NPN transistor are (reverse, same) as compared with those in a
PNP transistor.
4. The arrow head on the emitter symbol of a transistor shows the direction of conventional
current flow, which is opposite to electron flow. (true, false)
5. Transistors are hardy devices and therefore little care need be exercised in handling them.
(true, false)
6. Transistors are sensitive to ______________ . Therefore sinks should be used in
soldering transistor terminals in a circuit.
7. Maximum ratings are limiting values of ______________ and ____________ conditions
which should not be exceeded.
8. The symbol VCEO stands for ____________ to ____________ voltage, with
____________ open.
9. The three different temperature characteristics which must be considered in operating a
transistor are:

a) TC, _______________ temperature;

b) TA, _______________ temperature; and
c) TJ, ________________ temperature.

10. Collector-cutoff current ____________ is specified for a specific VCB with the emitter
open.
11. The static forward-current-transfer ratio of a transistor in the CE configuration is
designed by the symbol __________ and represents the ____________________ of a
transistor.
12. The ____________ of a transistor is the measure of the base’s ability to control collector
current.
13. Current gain of a transistor in the CE configuration may be determined from the family
of __________________ characteristics.
14. In the test circuit of Fig.8, the purpose of RB is to maintain a ____________________ , as
VCE is varied by adjusting _______________ .
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board and observe the collector characteristics curve of transistor.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: l.5 and 6 V dc sources

 Equipment: Two multirange- milliammeters 20kΩ/V VOMs; EVM
 Semiconductors: 2N3904 and 2N3905 transistors appropriately mounted, or equivalent
 Miscellaneous: 2500Ω 2W potentiometer; two SPST switches

Experimental Procedure

NPN biasing

1. Consider Fig.10. Open S1. Substitute NPN transistor and reverse polarity of Vcc and VEE
in Fig.10.
2. Close S1. Set R2 for maximum resistance. Close S2. Observe and measure ‘E and I, VEB,
VCB, and VCE. Indicate polarity. Record the values in Table 1.
3. Set R2 for minimum resistance. Switch meter ranges as required. Observe and measure IE
and Ic , VEB, VCB, and VCE. Record the data in Table 1 Indicate polarity of voltage.
4. Open S1. Open the emitter-base circuit by opening switch S2.
5. Close S1. Observe and measure ICBO and V. Record the data in Table 1.
6. Open S1.

For measuring the collector characteristics curve

The procedure which follows requires some explanation. When changing ranges on the current
meters, readings may not seem to coincide from range to range. The meters, however, do read
the actual current in the circuit. The discrepancy arises from the changes in meter resistance
when ranges are switched. The result is a change in total circuit resistance which effects the
current in the circuit. Therefore, when changing ranges, it may be necessary to readjust the
controls in the effect circuit to offset changes in meter resistance.

Another factor to consider is the interaction between the collector and base-current. It will be
necessary to readjust the base-current control when collector voltage is varied, in order to hold IB
at a fixed value.

Fig.10. Current voltage measurement in the emitter and collector circuits of an NPN
transistor.

VCE versus IC

1. Connect the circuit of Fig.10. Set VEE at 1.5 V, VCC at 0 V. S1 and S2 are open. Set R1 for
VCE of 0 V. M1 and M2 should be set on the highest milliampere range to protect the
meters. The range is selected after power is applied. Check circuit connections before
power is applied.
2. Close S1. Adjust R1 so that M1 reads 10 µA current (IB). Readjust R1, when necessary
during step 3 and 4, to maintain IB = 10 µA. M3 should read 0 (VCE = 0). Read the value
of IC and record it in table below:
 3. Slowly adjust VCC in turn to every value of VCE shown in table. Observe, and record the
value of IC for each value of VCE in table.
4. Adjust VCC for VCE = 0 V. Set R1 for IB = 20 µA and maintain IB at this value. For step 5
and 6.
5. Read value of IC and record it in table.
6. Adjust VCC in turn to every value of VCE shown in table. Observe and record the value of
IC for each value of VCE. Monitor IB, and readjust R1, if necessary, to maintain IB = 20
µA.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 6 for all values of IB shown in table.
8. Open S1. From the data in table below, plot the collector characteristic curves for the
common-emitter connection of the NPN transistor. Use graph paper. VCE is horizontal
axis, IC the vertical axis.

Observations

Table 1 Collector characteristics of a transistor

Questions

1. What is the effect on collector current of increasing emitter bias?

2. Compute the base current (IB = IE - Ic) for each set of readings in Table 1. Enter these
values into the table.
3. Compare and explain the differences in I and ICBO .
4. Compare and explain the differences in VCE in steps 2 and 3.
5. Compute the voltage across R3 (VR3 = Ic x R3) for each set of readings in Table 1.
Comment on the relationship between VR3 and VEB.
6. An amplifier gain is computed by dividing output current (Ic in this experiment) by input
current (IE). What is the current gain of the common-base amplifier used in this
experiment under normal operation?
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Explain how the slightly increase in the doping level of base will affect the collector and
base current?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q2: The AC current gain of a transistor is 120. What is the change in the collector current in the
transistor whose base current changes by 100µA?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 13

Transistor Bias Circuits

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To become familiar with transistor biasing.

2. To become familiar with Voltage divider bias, Base bias, Emitter bias, and Collector
feedback bias.

Introduction

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) can be biased in different ways to produce a stable and accurate
output signal. Transistor biasing is basically the controlled amount of voltage and current that
must be given to a transistor for it to produce the desired amplification or switching effect.
Transistor must be properly biased to get the appropriate levels of voltage and current to their
various regions so that they can amplify the signal according to the requirement. This controlled
amount of voltage and/or currents fed to the different junctions of a transistor is transistor
biasing. This will help you in understanding other circuits that cannot be operated without proper
DC biasing.

Base Bias
The simplest way to bias a BJT transistor is Base bias. The purpose of doing a Base bias is to
ensure the proper transistor biasing, which allows the correct amount of current to flow through
the transistor. The voltage fed to the base is, VB, also known as the base supply voltage, transfers
the correct voltage, which then supplies the correct current so that the BJT has enough base
current to switch the transistor on.
The value of the resistance RB also determine the value of the base current IB. VCC is the collector
supply voltage, which is required for a transistor to have sufficient power to operate. This is the
voltage that reverse-biases the transistor, the reason behind this is to make sure that the transistor
has sufficient power to have an amplified output collector current. The resistor RC in the
collector circuitry provides the desired voltage in the collector circuit.
The collector current IC is dependent only on the values of βdc and IB. βdc is the amplification
factor by which the base current gets amplified. So the total output current, IC will be equal to
IC = βdc x IB.

Fig.1. Typical base bias circuit.

Base Bias Voltage/Current Calculations

When using any biasing technique, calculations must be made of the various voltages and
currents through a BJT transistor to make sure that the values of voltage and current are same.
The analysis of a base bias circuit is linear region is as follows. Apply the Kirchoff’s voltage law
around the base circuit.

VCC − VRB − VBE = 0 (1)

Now, substituting IBRB for VRB, you get

VCC − IB R B − VBE = 0 (2)

Then solving for the base current IB,

(VCC −VBE )
IB = (3)
RB

Since the voltage drop across a silicon junction is 0.7 V, the value of VBE = 0.7V. Assume RB to
be 56 KΩ and VCC = 5V. Therefore, IB equals
 (VCC − VBE ) 5V − 0.7V
IB = = = 76.78µA (4)
RB 56KΩ

The collector current IC is given by

Ic = βdc × IB = 100 × 76.78µA = 7.68mA (5)

With IC known, the collector-emitter voltage, VCE can be calculated.

VCE = Vcc − Ic × Rc (6)

Base bias can also be done with a single supply voltage, Vcc with VB omitted. So instead of
using VB in calculations, one would just use VCC instead. The result of the calculations will still
remain the same.
Voltage Divider Bias
The most popular way to bias a transistor is the Voltage divider bias. To divide the voltage at
correct levels few resistors are used. A dc bias voltage at the base of the transistor can be
developed by a resistive voltage divider that consists of R1 and R2, as shown in Fig.2. VCC is the
collector supply voltage. Two current paths are between point A and ground, one through R2 and
the other through the base-emitter junction of the transistor and RE. The emitter resistor, RE also
helps to provide stability against variations in β that may exist from transistor to transistor.

Fig.2. Voltage divider bias circuit.

If the base current is much smaller than the current through R2, the bias circuit can be viewed as
a voltage-divider consisting of R1, and R2, as indicated in Fig.3. If the base current is not small
enough to be neglected as compared to the current flowing through the resistor R2, then the dc
input resistance, RIN(base) that appears from the base of the transistor to ground must be
considered. RIN(base) is in parallel with R2.

Fig.3. Simplified voltage divider.

Voltage divider Bias Voltage/Current Calculations

Take β=100. Assuming the input resistance R IN(base) ≈ βdcRE >> R2 (at least ten times greater)
then the formula simplifies to

R2
VB = VCC ( ) = 12V (7)
R1 + R 2

Once you know the base voltage, you can determine the emitter voltage, which equals VB less
the value of the base-emitter drop (VBE).

VE = VB -VBE (8)
You can find the emitter current by using Ohm‘s law.

IE = VE/RE (9)

Once you know IE, you can find all the other circuit values.

IC ≈IE (10)

VC = VCC –ICRC (11)

Once you know Vc and VE, you can determine VCE.

VCE = VC –VE (12)

Emitter Bias

Emitter bias is another way to bias a transistor. If both positive and negative power supplies are
available then the Emitter bias is a very good and stable way to bias transistors. The stability of
emitter bias is because of the fact that it fluctuates very little with temperature variation and
transistor replacement.

Fig.4 Emitter bias circuit.

Emitter Bias Voltage/Current Calculations
Assuming this is a silicon transistor, the voltage drop across the base-emitter diode VBE is equal
to 0.7 V. VEE the supply voltage forward biases the base emitter junction. Apply Kirchoff’s
voltage law.

VEE + VRB + VBE + VRE = 0 (13)

Substitution using ohm law, the above equation becomes.

VEE + IB R B + VBE + IE R E = 0 (14)

Solve the above equation for VEE. Since Ic ≈ IE and Ic=βdcIB. Now, put the value of IB and
factoring out IE. The equation (14) becomes,
−VEE − VBE
IE = RB (15)
+ RE
βdc

To calculate the collector voltage, VC, the formula is

Vc = Vcc − IcRc (16)

Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor

Fig.5. Collector feedback circuit.

This self biasing collector feedback configuration requires only two resistors to provide the necessary
DC bias for the transistor. The collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is
always biased in the active region as the DC base bias voltage is derived from the collector voltage,
VC providing good stability.

In Fig.5, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector rather than to VCC. The collector
voltage provides the bias for the base-emitter junction. The negative feedback creates an
“offsetting” effect that tends to keep the Q-point stable. If IC tries to increase, it drops more
voltage across RC, thereby causing Vc to decrease. When Vc decreases, there is a decrease in
voltage across RB, which decreases IB. The decrease in IB produces less IC, which, in turn. drops
less voltage across RC and thus offsets the decrease in Vc.

By Ohm’s law the base current IB can be expressed as

VC − VBE
IB = (17)
RB

Let’s assume that IC >> IB. The collector voltage is

VC = VCC − (IC R C ) (18)

Also IB=IC/βdc. Equating terms and solving for the value of IC. It becomes

VCC − VBE
IC = (19)
R c + R B /βdc

Summary

Transistor can be biased in different ways to get the required correct output signal. The most
common types of transistor biasing are voltage divider bias, base bias, collector feedback
bias, emitter bias.
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board with different biasing techniques of transistors and record the
values of corresponding current and voltages in table.

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: l.5 and 6 V dc sources

 Equipment: Two multirange- milliammeters 20KΩ/V VOMs, EVM
 Semiconductors: 2N3904 and 2N3905 transistors appropriately mounted, or equivalent
 Miscellaneous: 2500Ω 2W potentiometer; two SPST switches, resistors of appropriate
values

Experimental Procedure

1. Build the circuits of transistor biasing by using different circuit configurations.

2. Measure the values of the base current, base voltage, collector current.
3. Record the results in tabular form.

Observations

Transistor IB Ic IE VBE VCE VRb Vcc

biasing
Base

Voltage
divider
Collector

Emitter
Questions

1. Which transistor bias circuit arrangement provides good stability using negative feedback
from collector to base?
2. Which transistor bias circuit provides good Q-point stability with a single-polarity supply
voltage?
3. The most stable biasing technique used is…………………….. ?
4. Emitter bias requires …………………………… supply voltage.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Why it is important to bias the transistor correctly? Discuss.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 14

Transistor as an amplifier and as a switch

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To understand the operation of transistor as an amplifier.

2. To understand the operation of transistor as a switch.
3. To verify the switching speed limitation of a transistor switch.

Introduction

Theory

There are many types of transistor amplifiers but the most common amplifier is common emitter
amplifier. All amplifiers operate using AC signal inputs. The AC signal input alternates between
a positive value and a negative value and thus it is used to preset the amplifier circuit to operate
between these two maximum values. This can be achieved by using a process known as
transistor biasing.

Biasing is very important in amplifier design as it establishes the correct operating point of the
transistor amplifier ready to receive signals, thereby reducing any distortion to the output signal.

A static or DC load line can be drawn onto the output characteristics curves of the transistor to
show all the possible operating points of the transistor from which the quiescent operating point
or Q-point of the amplifier can be found.

The aim of any small signal amplifier is to amplify all of the input signal with the minimum
amount of distortion possible to the output signal, in other words, the output signal must be an
exact reproduction of the amplified version of an input signal.

To get an output signal with minimum distortion the operating quiescent point needs to be
correctly biased. The DC operating point can be properly chosen by selecting an appropriate
biasing. The best possible alternative is to biased the transistor at the center of the Q-point
thereby producing a Class A type amplifier operation, i.e., VCE =1/2 Vcc. Here we will discuss
the most common type common emitter amplifier.

Common Emitter Amplifier

The single stage common emitter amplifier circuit is shown in Fig.1. The circuit uses the most
commonly used voltage divider biasing. This type of biasing arrangement uses two resistors as a
potential divider network across the supply with their center point supplying the required base
bias voltage to the transistor. Voltage divider biasing is commonly used in the design of bipolar
transistor amplifier circuits.

Fig.1. Common emitter amplifier.

This method of biasing the transistor greatly reduces the effects of varying Beta, ( β ) by holding
the base bias at a constant steady voltage level allowing for best stability. The quiescent base
voltage VB is determined by the potential divider network formed by the two resistors, R1, R2 and
the power supply voltage VCC as shown in Fig.2 with the current flowing through both resistors.
 Fig.2. Voltage divider circuit for common emitter amplifier.

Then the total resistance RT will be equal to R1 + R2 giving the current as i = VCC/RT. The
voltage level generated at the junction of resistors R1 and R2 holds the Base voltage (VB)
constant at a value below the supply voltage.

Then the potential divider network used in the common emitter amplifier circuit divides the input
signal in proportion to the resistance. This bias reference voltage can be easily calculated using
the simple voltage divider formula below:

Vcc ×R2
VB = (1)
R1 +R2

The same supply voltage, VCC also determines the maximum Collector current, IC when the
transistor is switched fully “ON” (saturation), VCE = 0. The base current IB for the transistor is
found from the collector current, IC and the DC current gain Beta, β of the transistor can be found
by using the following formula.

β = ΔIc /ΔIB (2)

Beta is sometimes referred to as hFE which is the transistors forward current gain in the common
emitter configuration. Beta has no units as it is a fixed ratio of the two currents, IC and IB so a
small change in the base current will cause a large change in the collector current.
Transistors of the same type and part number will have large variations in their Beta value for
example, the BC107 NPN Bipolar transistor has a DC current gain Beta value of between 110
and 450 (data sheet value) this is because Beta is a characteristic of their construction and not
their operation.

As the base/emitter junction is forward-biased, the emitter voltage, VE will be one junction
voltage drop different to the base voltage. If the voltage across the emitter resistor is known then
the emitter current, IE can be easily calculated using Ohm’s Law. The collector current, IC can be
approximated, since it is almost the same value as the Emitter current.

IC ≈ IE (3)

Transistor as a Switch

Transistor switches can be useful as replacement for mechanical switches. Even, though the
transistor switch is not perfect, it still has advantages over the mechanical switch. A solid state
switch eliminates the problem of moving elements and mechanical contacts thereby providing
reliability and greater operating speed.
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Consider the common emitter amplifier circuit in Fig.1. The circuit has a load
resistance, RL of 1kΩs and a supply voltage of 9 V. Calculate the maximum collector current (Ic)
flowing through the load resistor when the transistor is switched fully “ON” (saturation),
assume VCE = 0. Also find the value of the emitter resistor, RE with a voltage drop of 1V across
it. Calculate the values of all the other circuit resistors assuming an NPN silicon transistor.
(Hint: Use RE =1kΩs, R1 =2.2kΩs, R2 =2.2kΩs, C1 = C3 =22µF, C2=100µF).

Verify the operation of transistor as a switch and record the results in tabular form.

Equipment and Material

 Dual Trace oscilloscope, Digital multimeter, DC power supply

 NPN transistors, Small signal diode

 Resistors, capacitors

 Circuit protoboard

Experimental Procedure

Transistor as an amplifier

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1. Apply the supply voltage so that the transistor
will remain is in saturation state.
2. Measure the value of the collector current by using the formula and with the help of
the value of Ic find the value of the collector emitter voltage VCE. This establishes a
point A on the characteristics curve.
3. Now when the transistor is switched fully “OFF”, there is no voltage drop across
either resistor RE or RL as no current is flowing through them. Then the voltage drop
across the transistor, VCE is equal to the supply voltage, Vcc. This establishes point
“B” on the horizontal axis of the characteristics curves.
 4. This static DC load line produces a straight line equation whose slope is given as

1
− (𝟒)
RL + RE

and it crosses the vertical IC axis at a point equal to VCC/(RL + RE). The actual position of the
Q-point on the DC load line is determined by the mean value of IB. Measure and record the
value of the base current IB.

5. To get the required value of the base current as determined in the previous step. Measure
the value of the resistors R1 and R2. The value of R2 should to chosen so that at least 10
times IB can flow through the resistor R2. Record the value of R2 in the Table 1.

6. Determine the voltage across the resistor R1 with the help of a formula and calculate the
value of R1.

7. The value of the emitter resistor, RE can be easily calculated using Ohm’s
Law. Calculate the value of IE. Measure the emitter resistance. Plug all the values in the
circuit and observe the output waveform.

Transistor as a switch

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.3. Do not apply the input signal at this time.
2. Measure and record the values of base, emitter and collector voltages and record
them in Table 2.
3. Voltage measurements should indicate that the transistor is in cutoff state.
4. Now apply 5V to the input of the transistor and record the values of the voltage.
Voltage measurements should indicate that the transistor is in saturation.
5. Insert a 47pF capacitor in parallel with the resistor as shown in Fig.4. Reapply the
circuit power and measure the value of ton and toff by applying a square pulse as an
input.
 Fig.3. Circuit for verifying the operation of transistor as a switch.

Observations

Table 1 Transistor as an amplifier

IB IC IE VCE VCC R1 R2 RE

Table 2 Measurements of transistor as a switch

Supply Voltage VB VC VE
0V
5V

Questions

1. Three different Q-points are shown on a dc load line. The upper Q point
represents the ………………………..
2. A transistor has a βdc of 250 and a base current, IB, of 20µA. The collector
current, IC, equals ……………………………..
3. A current ratio of IC/IE is usually less than one and is called
………………………………….
4. Voltage-divider bias provides a …………………………..Q point.
5. The ends of a load line drawn on a family of curves determine
………………………
6. The most common transistor configuration used in switching operation is
…………………..
7. A transistor cannot be an ideal switch because ……………………………..
8. One way of switching up the speed of the transistor is …………………………
9. Recovery time can be best described as …………………………………….
10. A transistor switch without a speed up capacitor operates
……………………………….. as compared to the switch without capacitor.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Choose the nearest R2 resistor value for your circuit. What value is this, and what gain do
you expect it to provide? Discuss.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Q2: The transistor used in the circuit for switching has the maximum Ic rating of 200mA.
With this limitation, what are some applications you can suggest for a BJT switch?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 EXPERIMENT No. 15

Familiarization to JFETs

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives

1. To determine the effect of drain to source voltage VDS on drain current ID and reverse
gate-to-source biased voltage VGS.
2. To determine and plot the family of drain characteristics of a JFET.
3. To determine and plot a JFET transistor curve id versus VGS for a specified valued of
VDS.

Introduction

Theory

The transistors you have studied to this point are called bipolar transistors. They are two-junction
devices whose operation depends on the action of two types of charge carriers, holes, and
electrons. There is another class called Field-Effect Transistors (FETs). These are unipolar
devices because their action depends on only one type of charge carrier. FETs include the
junction type OFET) and the metal-oxide semiconductor type (MOSFET). This experiment will
deal with JFETs, the first to be developed in the family of FETs.

Fig. 1 illustrates an N-channel JFET. The three elements of the transistor are called the source,
the gate, and the drain. The body or channel of the transistor is an N-type semiconductor.
Terminal leads for the drain and source ohmic contacts at the top and bottom of the channel.
They are not semiconductor junctions. The P- type material, called the gate, which is embedded
on both sides of the channel forms a semiconductor junction; hence the name "JFET. Ohmic
contacts to the P-type material serve as terminal leads for the gates. When gates 1 and 2 are
internally connected in the manufacturing process, the device is a single-gate FET (Fig.1a).
When separate leads are brought out at each junction, a dual-gate FET results (Fig. 1b).
 Fig.1. N-channel JFET. (a) Single gate; (b) Dual gate.

In the FET the drain corresponds to the collector of a bipolar transistor, the source to the emitter,
and the gate to the base. However, the operation of a unipolar transistor is completely different
from a bi-polar transistor. The chief operational difference is that drain current ID in the JFET is
controlled by gate-to-source voltage VGS, whereas collector current in the bipolar transistor is
controlled by base current.

To understand the operation of a JFET, consider the N-channel semiconductor with ohmic
contacts at the top (drain) and bottom (source) of the channel in Fig.2. If a battery VDD is
connected across the channel, with the polarity shown, the negative-charge carriers (electrons) in
the N channel move toward the positive terminal of the battery, and electrons from the negative
terminal of the battery move through the source into the N channel to replace those that left at the
drain.

A way of controlling drain current is by reverse biasing the gate with respect to the source.
Observe that the first effect of adding the gate, even when unbiased, is to narrow the channel
somewhat physically. This immediately restricts the current in the channel. By reverse biasing
the gate, the electric field at the junction has the effect of widening the gate, as in Fig. 2b further
reducing the channel width. If the negative bias is increased sufficiently, the gate becomes so
wide Fig. 2c that the channel is blocked and no drain current flows.

Note: By varying the negative voltage on the gate, gate current ID can be controlled.
The FET we have been discussing is an N-channel device whose symbol is shown in Fig.3.
Observe that the gate arrow points toward the N channel (vertical line). The gate arrow may be
centered on the channel Fig. 3a, or the gate arrow may be drawn close to the source Fig. 3b.

It is also possible to make a P channel JFET whose symbol is shown in Fig.4a and b. For a P
channel device the arrow points away from the channel. For a P-channel JFET all battery
polarities VGG and VDD must be reversed in connecting the FET in a circuit.

Fig.2. (a) Reverse biasing of the gate to source has the effect of (b) Widening the gate (c) if
the reverse bias gate is made high enough, drain current is completely cut off.

Fig.3. Symbols for N channel JFET.

 Fig.4. Symbols for P channel JFET.

JFET Drain Characteristics

The effect of drain-to-source voltage VDS on ID in an N channel JFET may be determined

experimentally by the circuit of Fig.5.VGG serves as the gate bias supply and VDD as the drain-
voltage source. The voltmeter M2 measures VDS. The milliammeter M1 measures ID as VDD is
varied.

Fig.6 shows the variation of ID with VDS for VGS = 0, the condition when the gate is effectively
short-circuited to the source. As VDS is increased from 0V to Vp, called the pinch off voltage, ID
increases from 0 to the maximum drain current that can be attained without destroying the JFET,
the value IDSS. As VDS Increases from Vp to VDS max, drain current remains relatively constant
at the IDSS. The JFET is normally operated in this interval Vp to VDS max where no change in ID
occurs.

If VDS is increased beyond the point VDS max, there is an avalanche increase in ID which quickly
destroys the JFET. VDS max, therefore, is the. Maximum drain-to-source voltage at which the
FET may be operated safely, when VGS = 0.

The value Vp (pinch off voltage) is the start of the interval Vp to VDS max during which ID
remains constant. It will be observed that when VGS is equal to the value -Vp, that is, when the
gate bias is - Vp, drain current is cut off.
Another drain characteristic curve may be determined by reverse-biasing the gate at some
voltage, say - 0.5 V. For this condition, ID will vary as shown in Fig.6. Note that there is again an
interval during which ID remains constant and that ID is lower than IDSS. Other curves may be
determined by setting VGS at -1 V, then at - 1.5 V, and so on. VGS may be made increasingly
negative until ID cutoff is reached, which is VGS = - 2 V in Fig.6. This final value of VGSAT which
drain current is cut off is designated VGS(off).

Fig.5. Circuit for determining the drain characteristics of an N channel JFET.

Fig.6. Family of drain characteristics for a JFET.

Transfer Characteristic

Another curve, the transfer or Transconductance characteristic, is useful in evaluating the

operating conditions of a FET. This curve is also plotted by using the circuit in Fig.5. Now,
however, VDS is kept at some constant value while VGS is varied, and ID is measured. The results
are graphed and resemble the curve in Fig.7. Note in the transfer characteristic that the end points
of the curve are (1) VGS = 0, ID = IDSS and (2) VGS = VGS (off) = -2, ID = 0. Point 1 defines the
maximum drain current, when VGS = 0; point 2 the minimum drain current, when VGS= VGS
(off). The transfer curve in Fig.7 is called a square-law curve, because of the squared term in the
equation from which it is determined.

Because of their square-law characteristic, FETs are useful in the tuners of radio and TV
receivers. FETs also have a very high input impedance, since the input circuit, the gate, draws no
current. This characteristic is desirable in digital millimeters, many of which are designed with
FETs in the input.

Fig.7. Transfer characteristics curve for a JFET.

Summary

1. FETs are called unipolar transistors because they use only one charge carrier, that in the
channel, for their operation.
2. The two types of FETs are the junction JFET and the metal-oxide semiconductor
(MOSFET).
3. The elements of a JFET are the drain, the source, and the gate. These correspond,
respectively, to collector, emitter, and base of a bipolar transistor.
4. A FET is a voltage-controlled device, where as a bipolar transistor is a current- controlled
semiconductor.
5. In the JFET the gate is biased negatively, relative to the source.
6. The family of drain characteristic curves of a JFET reveals that:
(a) IDSS is the maximum drain current that this" transistor develops in normal
operation.
(b) As the reverse-gate-to-source bias increases, ID decreases, until at VGS(off) ,ID is cut
off.
7. JFETs can be constructed so that the channel is either N semiconductor or P
semiconductor. When the channel is N, the gate is P, and vice versa.
8. Battery polarities for normal operation of a P channel JFET are the reverse of those for an
N channel JFET.
9. The input impedance (or resistance at low frequencies) of a JFET is very high. The use of
FET amplifiers in digital multimeters results in meters with extremely high input
impedance.

Self Test

Check your understanding by answering these questions.

1. The channel of a JFET can be restricted until drain current is cutoff by increasing the
…………….(forward, reverse) bias on the gate to source.
2. In a P channel JFET the semiconductor material of the gate is……………. (P, N).
3. The maximum safe drain current IDSS is obtained when the …………….is short-circuited
to the Source.
4. The maximum drain voltage at which a JFET can be operated safely when VGS= 0 is
designated………………...
5. The pinch off voltage Vp is the voltage on the drain at which drain current is…………..
(stabilized,cut off).
6. In the interval Vp ~ VDS max, ID remains………………..
7. When VGS = - Vp, ID is ………………..
8. The drain characteristic of a unipolar transistor corresponds to the collector bipolar
transistor. (true, false)
9. The drain characteristic curve shows how………………….varies
with……………….when is held constant.
10. The input impedance of an FET amplifier is very………………….
 LAB SESSION

Lab task

Lay the circuit on bread board and observe the characteristics curve for a JFET .

Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Two independent variable low-voltage dc sources

 Equipment: Digital multimeter; 0-10mA milliammeter
 Semiconductors: 2N5484 (N-channel JFET) or equivalent
 Miscellaneous: Two SPST switches

Experimental Procedure

Gate Short-Circuited to Source

VGS = 0

1. Connect the circuit of Fig. 5. Open S1. Remove VGG and short-circuit. The gate to
ground.
2. Set the output of VDD at 0 V; close S1. Measure, and record in Table 1, the drain current
ID for VDS = 0, VGS= 0.
3. Increase the output of VDD to VDS = 0.5 V. Measure and record in Table 1 the value of ID
for VDS = 0.5 V, VGS = 0 V.
4. Reset VDS to each of the values listed in the table. For each value of VDS measure and
records in Table 1 the corresponding value of ID.
5. Open S1. Remove the short circuit between the gate and ground.

Gate is Reverse-Biased

6. Replace VGG into the circuit of Fig.5. Open S1 and S2.

7. Set the output of VDD and VGG to 0 V. Close S1 and S2. Power on.
8. Adjust VGG so that VGS measures - 0.25 V. Maintain it at this level for steps 9 and 10.
9. Measure ID and record its value in Table 1 for VDS = 0 V.
 10. Increase VDD in turn to each of the values for VDS listed in the table. For each value of
VDS measure and record ID in Table 1.
11. Reduce VDD to 0 V. Increase VGG to - 0.5 V. Maintain it at this level for step 12.
12. Repeat steps 9 and 10 for each value of VDS listed in Table 1.
13. Repeat steps 11 and 12 for each value of VGS and VDS listed in Table 1 until drain-current
cutoff is reached.
14.Power off.

Transfer Characteristics

15. S1 and S2 are open. Set VDD at 15 V, VGG = - 2.5 V.

16. Close S1 and S2. Keep VDS constant at 15 V. Measure and record in Table 2 the values of
ID for each value of VGS listed. Open S1.
17. On graph paper draw the family of drain characteristics using the data in Table 1. VDS is
the horizontal axis, ID is the vertical. Identify each characteristic curve by its VGS value.
Identify Vp.
18. On a separate graph paper draw the transfer characteristic using the data in Table 2. VGS
is the horizontal axis, ID the vertical.

Extra Credit

1. Explain the procedure you would use to verify experimentally that there is no gate
current in the range over which a JFET is normally operated.
2. Following the procedure, measure the gate current, if any, over the range of
normal operation of the JFET assigned to you.
Observations

Table 1 Drain characteristics

Table 2 Data for transfer characteristics

Questions

1. From your graphs, what is the value of Vp? What factors helped you identify Vp?
2. From your graphs, what is the value of IDSS? For what values of VGS and VDS is IDSS
defined?
3. From the data in Table 1 and the family of drain characteristics, compare the level of
drain current for each value of VGS, in the interval VDS = 5 to 15 V. What conclusions
can you draw?
4. What is the value of VGS which cuts off ID in this experiment? How does this compare
with Vp?
5. From the drain characteristic curves derived from Table 1, determine the value of ID
for each value of VGS Table 2, at VDS = 15 V. How do these values compare with
those obtained in step 16? Explain any differences.
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Does your experiment indicate which is more effective in controlling drain current, VDS or
VGS? Explain, referring to your data.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion /Summary

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________