4.

Results

The section below illustrates the results of physicochemical parameters of water samples.

4.1 Physicochemical Parameters

The pH of water is a measure of acidity or basicity of water and roughly represents the
concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) in water (APHA et al 1995). It is most commonly
analyzed parameter in water testing. It is measure on a scale of 1 – 14. A pH of 7 in a
solution represents a neutral solution, less than 7 represents acidic and greater than 7 is basic.
Water with acidic nature is corrosive, soft and has bitter metallic taste. Alkaline water has
soda and slipper taste. The pH of aquatic environment is closely related to biological
productivity and variation of water pH can be caused by excessive primary production. The
average pH value is 8.39 for samples. The individual pH values were recorded as shown in
table 4.1.

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a numerical expression of the ability of an aqueous solution to

carry an electrical current EC at equilibrium. The electrical conductivity of water depends on
the concentration of ions and its nutrients status. It also depends on the temperature; higher
the temperature higher would be electrical conductivity. Electrical conductivity increased by
2-3% for an increase of 1-degree Celsius temperature. It is good indicator of salinity in
water. The commonly used unit for electrical conductivity of water is µS/cm (micro
Siemens/centimeter). Addition of pollutants to the water shows sudden increase in electrical
conductivity. The average value of EC of samples was 1025.38 µS/cm. The individual EC
values were recorded as shown in table 4.1.

The total dissolved solids (TDS) are the total of cation and anion concentration in water. A
higher content of solids elevates the density of water, reduces solubility of gases like oxygen
and mitigates the utility of water for drinking, irrigation and other purpose. TDS indicates the
general nature of salinity of water. It signifies the inorganic pollution load of water. The
tastiness of water with total dissolve solids level of less than about 600 mg/L is generally
considered to be good; drinking water becomes significantly undrinkable at TDS level
greater than 1000 mg/L. TDS measured water samples fluctuate between 200 - 1252 mg/L.
The individual TDS values were recorded as shown in table 4.1.

Hardness of water depends on the amount of calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in the
water. General procedures for category of water are: 0 – 60 mg/L is classified as soft; 61 –
120 mg/L as moderately hard; 121 – 180 mg/L as hard; and more than 180 mg/L as very
hard. But hard water can have some benefits too. Humans need minerals to stay healthy, and
the WHO states that drinking water maybe a contributor of calcium and magnesium in the
diet and could be important for those who are marginal for potassium and magnesium intake.
The water containing hardness is not desirable for portable water as it forms scales on water
heater and utensils when used for cooking and consume more soap during washing the
clothes. As shown in table 4.1, the hardness values of samples ranged 100.67 to 671.67. Most
of the water samples were hard.

Carbonates and bicarbonates are main carbonated compound in water. Most of the
carbonates and bicarbonates come in water due to dissolution of carbonated minerals, the
decomposition of organic matter and exchange of carbon cycle. The weathering of rocks
adds bicarbonates in water. The value of bicarbonates is not recommended by WHO however
it is considered to be not more than 500 mg/L. Since the water has higher pH, it is safe to
assume that the bicarbonates were playing an important role in keeping the water pH within
the permissible limit as table 4.1 shown the water samples bicarbonates ranged 309.02 to
829.81 mg/L.

High concentration of chlorides is the indicator of pollution due to organic wastes of animals
or industry origin. Chlorides are bothersome in irrigation water and also damaging to aquatic
life. The increase of chloride in water was due to decomposition of macrophytes. The
permissible limit of chlorides proposed is less than 250 mg/L. The samples chlorides values
varied 112.38 to 335.50 mg/L. The individual values of chlorides are shown in table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Results of Physicochemical Parameters of Water Samples

Sampl pH EC (µS) TDS (mg/L) Clˉ (mg/L) HCO3ˉ Hardness

e (mg/L) (mg/L)
1B 8.194 1675 1252 332.84 822.13 671.67
1D 8.200 1633 1248 335.00 826.41 668.82
1S 8.253 1651 1229 330.68 829.81 670.25
2B 8.209 899 200 224.77 732.42 230.52
2D 8.357 866 210 226.94 736.39 235.05
2S 8.421 867 208 220.45 729.96 230.94
3B 8.543 816 250 218.29 623.09 520.86
3D 8.573 822 245 222.61 650.23 522.24
3S 8.598 835 247 224.77 652.92 520.48
4B 8.498 844 453 244.22 533.29 460.55
4D 8.532 852 450 248.54 532.40 467.28
4S 8.535 863 442 242.06 520.39 462.39
5B 8.524 807 650 263.67 406.40 600.24
5D 8.551 818 663 268.00 402.12 605.52
5S 8.559 837 659 265.83 400.42 610.20
6B 8.189 1143 198 112.38 310.23 100.67
6D 8.187 1094 202 114.54 309.42 102.42
6S 8.184 1135 200 112.38 309.02 102.92

4.2 Heavy Metals Assessment

Water samples collected from different sites of study area were analyzed for presence of
heavy metals contents. The detected heavy metals and their values are presented in table 4.2,
4.3 and 4.4.

The resulting values are compared with WHO standards. The suitability of water for drinking
and public health purpose depends on parameters of the water samples based on analysis of
certain parameters like EC, salinity hazard, and permissible limits of Calcium, Magnesium,
Potassium, Sodium and Heavy metals.

Calcium and Magnesium

Calcium and magnesium are the main contributors to water hardness. When water is heated,
calcium breaks down and precipitates out of the solution, forming scale. Maximum limits
have not been established for calcium. Magnesium concentrations greater than 125 mg/L
may have a laxative effect on some people. Treatment for calcium is softening and reverse
osmosis. Magnesium level can be controlled through distillation. Sample 1 has relatively
higher values for calcium and magnesium as compared to other samples but not to a great
extent.

Sodium
Sodium is a very active metal that does not occur naturally in free state. It always is
combined with other substances in the human body. It helps to maintain the water balance.
Human intake of sodium is primarily influence by the consumption of sodium as sodium
chloride or table salt. The contribution of drinking water is usually small compared to other
sources. The Nation Academy of Sciences has suggested a standard for public water allowing
no more than 100 mg/L of sodium. This would ensure that the water supply adds no more
than 10% of the average person’s total sodium intake. Sample 1 has high sodium content
while other samples are within permissible limit.

Potassium
Potassium concentration in water is generally very little. Although excessive amount may
have a laxative effect. EPA has not established a maximum limit. Potassium (chloride) is
used as a replacement for salt in water. Sample 1 has relatively higher values for potassium
as compared to other samples.

Lead
Lead enters drinking water supplies from natural deposits in the earth, or from agricultural
and industrial practices. According to the EPA, long term exposure to land in drinking water
is linked to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skins, kidneys, liver and prostate. Lead has been
detected in samples 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 to a smaller extent.

Tin
Tin in concentration greater than 0.5 mg/L may cause brown and black stains on laundry,
plumbing fixtures and sinks. A metallic taste may also be present, and it may affect the taste
of beverages made of water. Sample 1, 5 and 6 have higher content of tin concentration.

Aluminum
Aluminum is the most plentiful metal in the earth’s crust. It is present in the environment
combined with other elements such as silicon, oxygen and fluorine. Exposure to aluminum is
usually not harmful but exposure to high level can cause serious health problems. Sample 1
has shown higher aluminum content while others are within the safe limit.

Boron
Boron is a mineral that is found in food such as nuts and the environment. Boron is used for
boron deficiency, menstrual cramps and vaginal yeast infection. However, large quantity of
boron can cause poisoning in humans. The results show boron values in water samples are
well in limits.

Barium
Barium can enter the ground water and well water when rocks that contain barium
breakdown and dissolve. Ingestion of certain forms of barium intoxic amounts can lead to
gastrointestinal signs and symptoms. WHO has set the maximum contaminant level for
barium at 2 mg/L. The results show controlled barium concentration in all samples.

Nickle
Nickle is necessary in many organism’s diets but can become carcinogenic and toxic in high
doses. When ingested through water in small amounts, it is harmless to humans. Nickle is
found in only sample 4 that too is of little value.

Silicon
Silicon is mainly present in drinking water as silicic acid and needs not be removed with
regard to human health. Silicon compounds may be applied as absorbents in water
purification. The human body contains a total amount of 1 gram of silicon which decreases at
a later age. Daily intake may vary between 20 and 1200 mg and is mostly met by eating
grains. The silicon is present in all the water samples tested and is observed in permissible
limits.

Cobalt
Generally, cobalt compounds that dissolve easily in water are more harmful than those that
are hard to dissolve. Exposure to cobalt may cause cancer and can harm eyes, skin, heart and
lungs. Cobalt is observed in sample 3 where its value is too low.

Strontium
The US EPA has developed a lifetime health advisory of 4 mg/L for strontium level in
drinking water. Water that contains strontium more than 4 mg/L should not be used for
drinking purpose or to prepare beverages or food. Strontium is toxic to aquatic life at higher
concentration. The typical diet includes 0.5 to 1.5 mg of strontium per day. Strontium is
found in all the samples but in controlled limits.

Table 4.2. Results of Heavy Metals of Water Samples from Surface

Samples
S. No. Elements
1S 2S 3S 4S 5S 6S
1) Ca 102 39 50 44 66 55
2) Na 168.75 53.5 55.5 58.75 54.5 73
3) K 10.2 3.25 3.3 3.4 3.4 2.4
4) Mg 45.5 31.75 31 32.25 33.5 41.5
5) Al 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
6) As - - - - - -
7) Ba 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.18 0.20
8) Cd - - - - - -
9) Pb 0.01 0.01
10) Se - - - - - -
11) Sr 1.07 0.78 0.83 0.78 0.86 1.01
12) Zn - - - - - -
13) B 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05
14) Cr - - - - - -
15) Fe - - - - - -
16) Mo - - - - - -
17) Ni - - - - - -
18) V - - - - - -
19) W - - - - - -
20) Co - - 0.02 - - -
21) Cu - - - - - -
22) Mn - - - - - -
23) Si 5.0 5.4 5.24 5.40 5.24 8.54
 24) Be - - - - - -
25) Ti - - - - - -
26) Bi - - - - - -
27) Sn - - - - - -
28) Hg - - - - - -
29) Ag - - - - - -

Table 4.3. Results of Heavy Metals of Water Samples from Bank

Samples
S. No. Elements
1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B
1) Ca 88 55 55 51 60 58
2) Na 67.5 59.25 58.5 45.5 54 66.5
3) K 10.2 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.4 2.7
4) Mg 43.5 36 31.3 30 32.5 40.5
5) Al 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
6) As - - - - - -
7) Ba 0.20 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.18 0.20
8) Cd - - - - - -
9) Pb 0.01 0.01
10) Se - - - - - -
11) Sr 1.08 0.8 0.84 0.86 0.85 1.06
12) Zn - - - - - -
13) B 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05
14) Cr - - - - - -
15) Fe - - - - - -
16) Mo - - - - - -
17) Ni - - - 0.01 - -
18) V - - - - - -
19) W - - - - - -
20) Co - - - - - -
21) Cu - - - - - -
22) Mn - - - - - -
23) Si 4.9 5.7 5.25 5.32 5.22 8.46
24) Be - - - - - -
25) Ti - - - - - -
26) Bi - - - - - -
27) Sn - - - - - -
 28) Hg - - - - - -
29) Ag - - - - - -

Table 4.4. Results of Heavy Metals of Water Samples from Depth

Samples
S. No. Elements
1D 2D 3D 4D 5D 6D
1) Ca 85 42.5 53 49 42 40
2) Na 164 53.25 57.5 55 55 63.75
3) K 10.25 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.6 2.3
4) Mg 42 31.75 31.3 31 30.5 38.25
5) Al 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01
6) As - - - - - -
7) Ba 0.20 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.17
8) Cd - - - - - -
9) Pb 0.01 - - 0.01 - -
10) Se - - - - 0.01 -
11) Sr 1.07 0.8 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.92
12) Zn - - - - - -
13) B - - 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05
14) Cr - - - - - -
15) Fe - - - - - -
16) Mo - - - - - -
17) Ni - - - - - -
18) V - - - - - -
19) W - - - - - -
20) Co - - - - - -
21) Cu - - - - - -
22) Mn - - - - - -
23) Si 5.0 5.5 5.27 5.35 5.5 8.8
24) Be - - - - - -
25) Ti - - - - - -
26) Bi - - - - - -
27) Sn - - - - - -
28) Hg - - - - - -
29) Ag - - - - - -