A.

HISTORICAL (BEFORE 1521-PRESENT)

Historical Comparison of Educational Goals and Contents

Period Goals of Education Content of Education

Ancient Human satisfaction Training in
through work; religious responsibilities
security; compliance with necessary to satisfy
tradition basic family needs, food,
shelter, religion, tribal
traditions and
ceremonials
Asiatic Preservation ofVocational duties and
traditional duties;responsibilities; religious
protection andtraining; intellectual
preservation of caste and training for the ruling
class system; classes; training for
development ofreligious leadership;
nationalist ideals;military sports, skills and
development oftactics
militaristic spirit; training
of war; study of the
virtues of the citizen
Jewish Religiousness and holy Study of Jewish or
righteousness; vocational Mosaic law; reading
and professional training history music,
handwriting and
mathematics
Greek Development of aesthetic Reading, writing,
appreciation and ability, arithmetic, grammar,
understanding of basic philosophy, music,
philosophy; civic physical education, art,
understanding; creative history and law
personality; development
of the intellect or the aim
of “wisdom”; importance
of training in courage,
bravery and physical
skills
Roman Training skilled warriors; Reading, writing,
development of courage, arithmetic, history,
bravery and the intellect; military science,
importance of grammar, music and law
nationalism; civic and
vocational training
Christian Morality and religious Morals and religion;

Later Middle Ages
Contemporary Period
development; literature; grammar and
temperance; brotherhood philosophy
of men; purity of soul,
conversion to faith and
service to God; entrance
to heaven and life after
death
Training for a livelihood Arithmetic; reading;
vocational, education bookkeeping; religion;
preparation of individuals handwriting law
to develop and carry on
trade, manufacturing and
commerce
education and training for Sciences humanities;
social and personal vocational and technical
responsibility education

B. SOCIAL

Social Foundations of the Curriculum

Today many forces influence society. Each social institution, including the
educational system, affects and is affected by other facets of society. Societal
customs and aims in cultural, political and economic matters also shape the
school curriculum.

The sociology of education is the scientific analysis of the social

processes and social patterns involved in the educational system. This assumes
that education is a combination of social acts and that sociology is the analysis
of human interaction. Such analysis of the human interaction in the education
may include both the formal education occurring in social groups such as the
school and the multitude of informal communicative processes, which serve as
educational functions

Society is interested in the content of the elementary school curriculum, and

the spokesman for society is the sociologist. One such authority, Havighurst, list
the following six developmental tasks for the school curriculum:

1. Learning to care for and use the body in effective fashion;

2. Getting along with age – mates in constructive pattern of social interaction:
3. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine role;
4. Acquiring set of values and an ethical system as guides for behavior;
5. Achieving personal independence from control by others;
6. Learning appropriate social attitudes toward institutions and social groups;
C. PSYCHOLOGICAL

The works of three contemporary psychologists, Jerome Bruner, Jean Piaget, and
Robert Gagne, are contributing to the modern curriculum reform movement.

Jerome Bruner

Bruner reported his interpretation of human learning and derived curriculum

principles in his often-quoted book. The Process of Education.

The emphasis upon reducing a subject to its fundamental ideas or structure has
been a major recommendation of Bruner. To grasp the structure of a subject, he argues,
one must understand the relationships between the facts and ideas, which constitute the
subject. Structure is important in teaching a subject because it permits a “massive
general transfer” of learning. It allows one to “learn how to learn.” This approach to
curriculum organization supports beyond Bruner’s assertion that “the first object of any
act of learning and beyond the pleasure it may give, is that is it should serve us in the
future.”

Bruner insisted that mastery of the fundamental ideas of a field is an essential

component of learning. He also advocated the development of an attitude toward
learning that will instill in the learner not only confidence in his ability to solve his own
problems but the conviction of a basic orderliness in nature which permits meaningful
discoveries to be made. He urges reliance upon prolonged and direct experiences with
objects as an aid in providing a basis for intuitive thinking. Perhaps this stance more
than any other had led to the recent popularization of “discovery teaching”, though this
teaching method had not been uncritically accepted by all curriculum reform groups.

Bruner has contributed two ideas associated with the concept of readiness for
learning that have had an impact on curriculum development. His hypothesis “that any
subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any
stage development,” has been both an influential and controversial idea among
curriculum revisers. Bruner’s justification for this proposition is that young children can
be led into intuitive understandings of ideas.

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s explanation of the stages of intellectual development through which

children pass has been utilized by several curriculum projects as a framework upon
which to stretch curriculum revision plans. The general theory that Piaget has advanced
is rich with meaning for education. He has identified four broad subsequent stage of
intellectual development in children. (1) sensorimotor, (2) pre-operational, (3) concrete
operations, and (4) formal operations.
 The period of sensorimotor development extends to approximately two years. A
refined understanding of the period would require consideration of six-levels discussed
by Piaget, but in general terms it is the time when the child learns a great many things
about his environment. It culminates in the first development of language.

The pre-operational stage commences with the first venture into language and
ends in the early phase of symbolic manipulation at the approximate age of seven years.
During the period of pre-operational intelligence the child is mentally occupied in
establishing relationships between experience and action.

At the level of concrete operations, from age seven to age eleven years, the
child still needs direct experiences with reality but he is now able to carry put trial and
error experimentation in his head without needing to refer every case to
overmanipulations.

During the period of formal operations at age fourteen and older and individuals
is able to operate on hypothetical propositions rather than being constrained to what he
has actually experienced or to what is actually before him.

Robert Gagne

Gagne advices that this capability to be stated and in behavioral terms at the
outset. One can then analyzed the task into prerequisite capabilities, building a pyramid
of capabilities toward the desired objective.

In a school situation, pretest can be administered to determine which of the

prerequisites the students already possess and which must be taught. Capability, in all
prerequisites implies that the individual is now ready for the succeeding step.

Gagne’s analysis of capabilities has led him to categorize them into eight basic
types.

Type 1: Signal Learning. The learner makes involuntary responses to stimuli.

Responses are general, diffuse, and emotional. That is, height or water generates fear
in some people; the command, “Attention” signals alertness in soldiers. This is the
classical conditioned response of Pavlovian psychology.

Type 2: Stimulus-Response Learning. The learner responds to stimulus in a specific

way. For instance, a horse raises his right leg in preparation for kicking a soccer ball in
response to the command, “Kick the ball.” As acquisition of this capability develops,
both the stimulus and response involves became more precise.

Type 3: Chaining. The learner acquires a chain of two or more sequential stimulus-
response connections, once individual links have previously been established.

Type 4: Verbal Association. The individual learns sequenced chains of strictly verbal
associations.
Type 5: Multiple Discrimination. Multiple discrimination renders stimuli highly
distinctive. The learner differentiates his response to similar but different stimuli.

Type 6: Concept Learning. The learner makes a common response to a class of stimuli
that may differ widely in physical appearance.

Type 7: Principle Learning. Here the learner links previously learned concepts together
to show relationship.

Type 8: Problem Solving. In this most complex task, the learner combines principles
already known to solve problems that are new.

PHILOSOPHICAL

Humanism

The accepted philosophy of education in our schools is founded upon the ideas
expressed by the humanists Petrarch, Guarino Da Verona, Vittorino, Erasmus, Johann
Sturum, Colet, Gallileo, da Vinci, and other. We owe to the thinking of the humanists the
following ideas which are deeply embedded in the foundation of education, interest in
the learner as an individual personality; emphasis upon democratic instructional
procedures; education for all, since humanism stressed enlightenment of the masses;
the importance of emotional life; and the stress upon aesthetic appreciation. The
humanists believed in self-expression and the right of the individual to think for
himself. In addition, they opposed harsh disciplinary measures in dealing with children,
and they advocated praise and interest by the teacher as superior motivation for
learning.

Moralism

Intellectual individualism was indirectly encouraged by the substitution of the

Bible for the Church as the source of the religious authority. This necessitated interpret
the source of authority. In a way, the present socialism of education were emphasized
by the moralists in their stress on education for the home, the community, the state, and
the church. Reformation leaders were among the first to attach great importance to the
education of all children.

Realism

The realists gave science and the objective spirit of inquiry great impetus. They
believed in the importance of practical education in the study of foreign language in the
schools; in the role of teacher in guiding personality development of children: in the
importance of arithmetic and physical science to total educational development, and in
the value of games, free play, and physical activity.

Rationalism.
 Rationalism developed as philosophy along with disciplinariasm. In the first place,
education should be provided only for the few-those able to benefit from it as rulers of
social, political, and industrial life. Secondly, education should emphasize training of the
intellect. Content should be so organized that a less difficult one precedes each
concept. Drill and repetition were recommended as important ways to learn, and
education was looked upon as a fixation process fitting various faculties of the mind.
The teacher’s job was to work with learner so that they developed intellectual faculties
or abilities through repetition.

The influence of this philosophy was so great that subjects to which drill could
be applied naturally became the central part of the elementary school curriculum.
Spelling, formal grammar and arithmetic were, therefore, emphasized to the neglect of
the physical and social sciences. This philosophy has persisted. There are still many
teachers in our schools who subscribed to the idea that drill and frequent repetition are
of the first importance in learning. But rationalism also advocated training the child to
think for himself. This theory, too, is very important one in today’s elementary school.

Forerunners of Modern Educational Philosophy

JENA JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712 – 1778)

In 1762 Rousseau wrote Emile, in which he started the doctrine of naturalism:

education must aim at the development of a society in which individuals can realize
equality, fraternity, simplicity and liberty. The individual and natural rights of man were
held to be superior to the established social system which forced conformity on people.
Rousseau espoused an educational system, which would exclude the children of the
poor. Children of the ruling class were to be trained, primarily in a tutorial method, so
that inclinations would be considered and developed. Training in adjustments for later
was considered important.

JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746 – 1827)

Pestalozzi was Swiss born and educated. He was greatly influenced by Rousseau
but unlike Rousseau, he had much opportunity to try out his theories of education. For
several years he directed an elementary school at Burgdof. Later he turned his
attention to the training of elementary teachers at Yverdon, where his philosophy of
education and methods of teaching were adopted by educators from all parts of the
world. Pestalozzi believed that society should be changed and lot of mankind improved
through education. Some of his significant theories which relate to our present
elementary school philosophy are these: the child should be provided with proper
conditions for growth in the school, with attention given to individual differences among
children.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM FROEBEL (1782-1852)

Froebel was a contemporary of Herbart and Pestalozzi: in fact, he studied for

several years at Yverdon under Pestalozzi. During his mid-twenties he established his
own private school. However, this school was a financial failure, and he subsequently
taught for several years in elementary schools throughout Switzerland. His famous
book, The Education of Man, was published when he was forty-four. Froebel’s most
important contribution to the elementary school today is the kindergarten. His “School
for Little Children” was opened in 1837 in Blankenburg, Germany, marking the first time
that a formal school for the four – and five – year old was available. Froebel spent the
last fifteen years of his life giving a solid curriculum foundation the kindergarten, a
foundation which has not changed much since its establishment.
MANUEL S. ENVERGA UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
LUCENA CITY

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Presented by:

MIGNONETTE L. MALABAYABAS

PRESENTED TO:

Ms. JOSEPHINE BELEN