THE PHYSICAL BRAIN

The Aging Brain 50 51

Subarachnoid space Loss of gray and
enlarges, reflecting loss white matter enlarges
in brain volume size of ventricles

CAN WE TREAT
ALZHEIMER’S?
Medication can slow down
the progression of the disease
and manage some of the
symptoms, but a cure for
Alzheimer’s has not yet
Decay of white matter Iron accumulates in
been found.
leads to inefficient basal ganglia, possibly
transmission of signals causing abnormalities

Old brain
As we age, brain cells die and spaces within
and around the brain enlarge. The cortex
thins, and areas like the hippocampus
shrink, often causing memory problems.
Both gray matter (neuron bodies)
and white matter (densely
packed axons) are lost. SUPER-AGERS’ BRAINS
STAY LOOKING YOUNG
FOR THEIR WHOLE LIVES

A slow decline? 60
Rapid response Vocabulary keeps
As we get older, our attention to stimuli is first skill increasing until
suffers, and our brains become less to decline old age
55
plastic. This makes learning harder,
although not impossible. In fact,
learning new things throughout 50
Average test scores

life boosts brain health and may

stave off cognitive decline by
45
strengthening neural synapses.
And with age come some benefits: At middle age,
KEY skills like spatial
on average, older adults are better 40 Inductive Numerical orientation stop
at extracting the big picture from reasoning ability improving
a situation and using their life Spatial Verbal
experience to solve problems. 35 orientation ability Numerical ability
requires working
Perceptual Verbal
memory, which often
Skills and abilities speed memory
30 declines with age
The Seattle Longitudinal Study followed
adults for 50 years. It found that skills like
vocabulary and general knowledge keep 25 32 39 46 53 60 67 74 81 88
improving for most of our lives. Age
As we get older, most of us notice
a slight reduction in thinking speed
as well as a reduction in our
working memory (see p.135). Some
people experience severe decline or
even dementia (see p.200), but this
is by no means inevitable. In fact,
some cognitive capacities, such as
our overall understanding of life,
may even improve as we age.
We inherit our basic level of
cognitive function from our parents,
but this genetic blueprint is also
affected by our environment and
life experiences, including nutrition,
health, education, stress levels, and
relationships. Physically, socially,
and intellectually stimulating
activities also play a key role.
Preventing decline
We can take a variety of steps to
safeguard our brain’s health. A diet
high in vegetables, fruit, “good”
fats, and nutrients (see pp.54–55)
keeps both brain and body healthy,
as does moderate but regular
physical activity. Jogging or other
aerobic exercise can help delay
age-related declines both in
memory and thinking speed.
You can also protect your brain
health by avoiding toxins, such as
alcohol and tobacco. Smoking has
been linked with damage to the
brain’s cortex. If you do drink
alcohol, keep within healthy
drinking limits and have at least
two alcohol-free days per week.
Keep your mind stimulated. Any
mental challenge that involves
learning—from home repairs to
cooking to crossword puzzles—can
stretch cognitive skills. Consider
learning a new language, as people
who speak two or more languages
have stronger cognitive ability
than those who speak just one.
To sum up, you can slow the
cognitive aging process by:
• Keeping your brain well supplied
with oxygen and nutrients.
• Avoiding exposure to toxins
such as alcohol and nicotine.
• Exercising your body by building
activity into daily life.
• Exercising your mind by
learning new skills.

How to Slow the

Effects of Aging
As we age, our thinking and short-term memory may
become less efficient. Nevertheless, we continue to
learn until we die, and we can take active measures
to keep our brain working well at any age.
52 53
Brain Food
Like any other organ, the human brain needs
a constant supply of water and nutrients to
maintain its health and to supply energy for
efficient functioning. D
2 , a nd
H 6, B1
FIS ins B
Feeding the brain LY tam
OI ids; vi
A healthy diet benefits both the ac CABBAGE
at ty
mind and the body. Complex 3f
a-
carbohydrates provide a steady eg SARDINES
m

O
flow of fuel; these are found in SALMON
whole grain bread, brown rice,
legumes, potatoes, and sweet CAULIFLOWER
potatoes. Healthy fats are essential AND
for maintaining brain cells, and BROCCOLI
these fats come from oily fish,
vegetable oils, and plant foods such ANCHOVIES
as avocados and flaxseeds. Proteins
supply amino acids. Fruits and MACKEREL
BRUSSELS
vegetables supply water, S
SPROUTS
R RIE
vitamins, and fiber. RASPBERRIES BE

L
MU
HYDRATION SWEET
BLUEBERRIES POTATOES
RIES OLIVE OIL
Brain cells need adequate STRAWBERRIES
hydration (water supply) in order
ER
KB

to function effectively. Studies have

AC
shown that dehydration can impair BL
our ability to concentrate and to
perform mental tasks and QUINOA
S
IE

negatively affect memory. Some R

ER
of our water intake comes from the G OJI B
food we consume, but it is helpful
to drink several glasses of water
An

CRANBERRIES
each day to maintain a healthy
tio

LEGUMES
xid

level of hydration.
BE ts, fib
an
RR er,
IE glu
S co

WHOLE GRAINS
se
PULSES

Sources of nutrients
Fresh fruits and vegetables, beans WH
and lentils, whole grains, healthy OLE
GR AINS & BLES
fats such as olive oil, and oily fish
such as salmon all supply vital
Com
p le x c a STARCHY VEGETA
rbohydrate er
nutrients for the brain. s, B vitamins, fib
 THE BRAIN IS
THE PHYSICAL BRAIN
Brain Food 54 55
60 PERCENT FAT
Essential nutrients
AND NEEDS A Certain nutrients from food have been found to improve or
STEADY SUPPLY maintain particular brain functions. These substances include
vitamins and minerals, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids,
OF ENERGY antioxidants, and water. These essential nutrients help keep
brain cells healthy, enable the cells to transmit signals quickly
and effectively, reduce damage from inflammation and free
CR
U radicals (atoms that can damage cells, proteins, and DNA), and
& CIF
DA ER help the cells form new connections. They can also promote
An R
tio K O the production and function of neurotransmitters. As a result,
xid L
US AFY ber, n

a regularly eating foods that contain these nutrients can benefit

E s, fi
VE GR utrie
nt

memory, cognitive functions, concentration, and mood.

GE EEN nts
TA S
BL
ES

NUTRIENT BENEFIT SOURCE

KALE Omega-3 and Help maintain blood flow and cell
omega-6 fatty membranes in brain; support
acids memory and reduce risk of
depression, mood disorders,
stroke, and dementia
Oily fish (such as salmon, sardines,
herring, mackerel)
Flaxseed oil, rapeseed oil
Walnuts, pine nuts, Brazil nuts

SPINACH B vitamins Vitamins B6 and B12 and folic acid Eggs

support nervous-system function;
choline helps production of
neurotransmitters
CHARD
Whole grains such as oatmeal,
brown rice, whole grain bread
Cruciferous vegetables (cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower, kale)
Kidney beans, soy beans

Amino acids Support production of Organic meat

neurotransmitters and aid Free-range poultry
memory and concentration Fish
Eggs
Dairy products
Nuts and seeds
OLIVES
Monounsaturated Help keep blood vessels healthy Olive oil
fats and support functions such as Peanuts, almonds, cashews,
memory hazelnuts, pecans, pistachios
VEGETABLE OIL Avocados
ts
d fa
ns a L S

Antioxidants Protect the brain cells from Dark chocolate (at least 70
ate
ou OI

inflammation damage due to the percent cocoa)

t ur

presence of free radicals; improve Berries

on LE
, m AB

cognitive functions and memory Pomegranates and juice

IL

in older people Ground coffee

T
/O

GE

Tea (especially green tea)

ED

SE
VE
6

Cruciferous vegetables
a-

X
eg

A
&

FL E Dark leafy greens

m

LIV nd o Soy beans and products

O -3 a
Nuts and seeds
a
eg Nut and seed butters, such
Om as peanut butter and tahini

Water Keeps brain hydrated to enable Tap water (especially “hard” water)
efficient chemical reactions Fruits and vegetables
 EUS
NUCL
ELL Nonidentical
C sex chromosomes
(X and Y) indicating
a male

Chromosomes
We have around 20,000
ARE GENES
genes, which are grouped ALWAYS ACTIVE?
into chromosomes. Each
cell nucleus has 22 matched Every DNA-bearing cell has
pairs of chromosomes
(known as autosomes), plus a full set of genes, but many
a pair of sex chromosomes genes are normally active in
(identical XX chromosomes
in females, or a nonidentical only one part of the body, such
pair, XY, in males). as the brain, or at one stage of
life, such as babyhood.
Most
chromosomes
occur in
matched pairs

DNA and genes

What is a gene?
Genes are sections of a long
molecule called deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), which contains the
code that governs how our bodies
develop and function. We inherit a
mixture of genes from our parents.
These genes produce proteins that
shape physical traits, such as eye
color, or regulate processes such as
chemical reactions. Their action
turns these traits “on” or “off” or
makes them more or less intense.
The DNA molecule is a long, twisted
strand formed from pairs of chemicals
called bases—the “letters” of the genetic
code—with a sugar-phosphate backbone
at each edge. When cells divide, half of
the DNA goes into each new cell. In
addition, we inherit one chromosome in
each pair from our mother and one from
our father, so each parent contributes half
of our genes.
Bases on one side of
strand are paired with
a complementary base
on other side
DNA helix is itself
tightly coiled

Genetics
and the Brain
Outer edge of each
strand is made of sugar
and phosphate molecules

Genes govern the way our bodies, Four bases—adenine, Adenine (red)
including the brain, develop and function. thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—are arranged in a
always bonds with
thymine (yellow)
They work together with our environment particular sequence that
encodes our genetic
to shape us throughout our life, from information
conception to old age.
 THE PHYSICAL BRAIN
Genetics and the Brain 56 57
How faulty genes affect the brain
MUTATION Genes do not directly control behavior; instead, they
govern the number and characteristics of nerve cells
When cells divide, the double-stranded DNA splits into
whose actions combine to produce our mental
single strands, and each base is matched with a new
complementary base to form two new copies of the functions. For example, some genes influence the
DNA. However, sometimes copying produces changes levels of neurotransmitters (see p.24), which in turn
in the sequence. These may cause a gene to produce an regulate functions such as memory, mood, behavior,
altered protein or stop it from working at all. Mutations and cognitive skills. A faulty gene may fail to produce
may arise during life or may be inherited from parents. a protein needed for healthy brain function or may
increase the risk of a disorder such as Alzheimer’s
Backbone Mutation occurs when disease. Some faults can be inherited from parents;
Base of DNA base pairs are changed
pair molecule during copying
two inheritance patterns are shown here.

AFFECTED UNAFFECTED
Autosomal dominant PARENT PARENT
In an autosomal dominant
disorder, such as Huntington’s
New DNA strand made disease, only one parent has
during cell copying ERROR to pass on the faulty gene for
it to cause the disease.
Faulty gene Normal
present gene only
AT LEAST ONE-THIRD
OF ALL OUR GENES
ARE ACTIVE PRIMARILY
IN THE BRAIN
AFFECTED UNAFFECTED
CHILDREN CHILDREN

Autosomal recessive CARRIER CARRIER

In an autosomal recessive PARENT PARENT
Guanine (blue) always bonds
disorder, such as Tay-Sachs
with cytosine (green)
disease, the disorder occurs
only if both parents pass on Parent has
a faulty copy of the gene. one faulty
Carriers have no disease and one
themselves but can pass on healthy gene
the faulty gene.

Affected child
has two copies
of faulty gene

Unaffected
child
Carrier children
have one faulty and
one healthy gene
 ER IN MA
LARG LE
BR
AI
WHEN IS THE SEX

N
OF A FETUS FIXED? Thalamus
This area, the “relay station”
Chromosomal sex is between the cortex and deeper
brain structures, is larger in men
determined at the point of than in women. The two sides of
fertilization. Physical sexual the thalamus are more likely to
be connected in females, but
differentiation occurs seven the significance of this
to 12 weeks after feature is not known.
fertilization. GER IN FEMA
LAR LE
BR
A
Corpus

IN
callosum
The corpus callosum, which
Physical differences links the brain’s left and right
hemispheres, has been found to
Differences between males and females begin be larger in females. It has been
with the sex chromosomes at the moment of associated with greater cognitive
conception: XX for females and XY for males. skills in females, possibly because
brain functions are shared
In the uterus, the release of testosterone from between hemispheres,
the mother during gestation “masculinizes” but not in males. ALE BRAIN
a male fetus, triggering the growth of structural R IN M
GE
sex differences in both the brain and body. As AR

L
we grow and develop, these differences will Hippocampus
arise in many different brain structures (see right). Males have a larger anterior
Cognitive and skill differences between the sexes (front) hippocampus, which
governs acquiring and encoding
are present from childhood. Adult male brains are new spatio-visual information,
8 to 13 percent larger, on average, than adult while females have a larger
female brains. In addition, adult male brains also posterior hippocampus, which
governs retrieval of existing
tend to vary more, in volume and cortical spatio-visual knowledge.
thickness, than female brains.

Male and
Female Brains ALL HUMAN
EMBRYOS START
Scientists have found that male and female
brains show distinct physical differences. However,
LIFE WITH FEMALE
it is not always clear how these variations affect BRAINS—EXTRA
our attitudes, activities, and responses to our HORMONES
environment. Differences may arise from the way a ARE NEEDED TO
brain is used in life as well as from its physical form. CREATE A MALE
 58 59
ALE BRAIN
R IN M Differences in function
GE
AR Male and female brains differ in
L

Hypothalamus function as well as structure. Male

Certain areas governing brains seem to be more “lateralized”
male-typical sexual behavior (with a greater difference in function
and responses to stress in the
hypothalamus are larger in between the left and right hemispheres).
heterosexual males than in Males also vary more than females in
females or homosexual males. cognitive ability. These variations are partly
due to the structure of the “connectome”—
ALE BRAIN
the network of neural connections between
R IN M parts of the brain (see below). They also
RGE
A result from the action of hormones, and
L

Amygdala external influences, throughout our life.

The amygdala, involved in
emotional responses, making
decisions, and forming emotional
memories, is slightly larger in
males. However, differences in
functions such as responses to
negative versus positive
emotional stimuli, are
more significant.
In particular, our social environment and
experiences continually shape our neural
pathways, helping us perform male- or
female-typical tasks.
Few connections Greater connectivity
cross hemispheres within hemispheres

Brain structures
There are several areas in which
quantifiable physical differences have
been identified between male and female
adult brains. The main regions are shown
here. How these differences can affect MALE
cognition and psychology are currently
the matter of ongoing scientific research.
Many connections Less connectivity
between hemispheres within hemispheres

NONBINARY BRAINS
Homosexual and transgender people
have been found to have certain
distinctive brain structures. For example,
some parts of the hypothalamus (see
above) differ in homosexual and
heterosexual men, and the putamen
(involved in learning and regulation of
movement) has more gray matter in
trans women than in cisgendered men.
FEMALE
The connectome
One study, in which more than 900 brains were imaged,
found that male brains have greater connectivity
within hemispheres, while female brains have denser
NONBINARY connections between hemispheres. The males were
SYMBOL found to be better at spatial processing, while the
females scored higher on attention and memory for
words and faces.
 URE
NAT
MUSICAL BRAINS
Playing music involves multiple parts We inherit

ES
of the brain. Studies comparing the our chromosomes, which

CHROMOSOM
brains of professional musicians and contain our DNA, from our
parents (see pp.56–57). It’s the
amateurs revealed that professional chromosomes that, at the point of
musicians had a greater volume of fertilization, determine the
gray matter in brain areas related chromosomal sex of an embryo
to motor, auditory, and visual-spatial (XX for female and XY for male).
reasoning. The study’s findings show Chromosomal abnormalities
how the brain undergoes structural can also cause disease or
developmental
adaptations in response to the problems.
environment (dedicating hours
to repetitive rehearsals with
an instrument).

Some psychological

DNA
traits, such as the tendency to
develop depression, have been
THE HIPPOCAMPUS IN linked to particular genes—but they
usually involve dozens or even
AN ADULT BRAIN MAKES hundreds of the genes acting
together. The more of those genes
AN ESTIMATED 700 NEW a person inherits, the more
likely they are to develop
NEURONS EVERY DAY that trait.

Genes versus environment

People are born with a DNA “template” inherited from
their parents (see pp.56–57): this is the “nature”
element influencing the brain’s activities, such as WHEN DO
cognitive ability and behavior. Throughout a person’s EPIGENETIC CHANGES
life, though, their networks of neurons (see pp.26–27) HAPPEN?
can adapt and change in response to physical and
social experiences (“nurture”). Environmental Epigenetic changes can be
influences, if strong and sustained, can alter brain induced by environmental
structures and also influence the way that genes work— factors at any point in
a process known as epigenetic change (see opposite). a person’s life, from
development in

Nature
utero to old age.

and Nurture
The two fundamental influences on the brain, “nature”
and “nurture,” are sometimes seen as opposing forces.
However, there is a dynamic interplay between them
that goes on throughout a person’s life.
NURTU
RE PHY
THE PHYSICAL BRAIN
Nature and Nurture 60 61
S IC
AL
S

UR
Epigenetic changes

RO
Changes in the way genes are used (or expressed)

UN
Studies on children have
that occur during a person’s lifetime are called

D
found that growing up poor or

INGS
deprived can impair the epigenetic changes. They affect gene function,
development of areas related to
memory, language processing, rather than gene structure, and can be passed on
decision-making, and self-control. to a person’s children, although they may last for only
However, a safe, happy home, a few generations. In the brain, they can influence
with interesting things to do,
seems to reduce the harm. functions such as learning, memory, reward-seeking,
and response to stress. There are two main forms:
methylation, in which a compound joins on to the DNA;
STRE and histone modification, which alters how tightly the
SS
LE DNA is coiled.
VE
L

Chronic emotional S Methyl compound

attached to DNA base
stress in children can impair
development of the amygdala,
hippocampus, and frontal lobes,
leading to problems with memory,
emotion, and learning. It restricts the
action of genes regulating the
growth of networks of neurons.
However, moderate “positive”
stress (fun) can aid
learning. DNA methylation
In this process, a molecule of a methyl
compound attaches to one of the bases in Base pairs in most of
a gene’s DNA sequence. The effect is to stop
DIE sequence unchanged
T or restrict the activity of that gene.

A healthy diet (see pp.54–55)

rich in omega-3 fatty acids, B STUDYING TWINS
vitamins, and antioxidants keeps
blood vessels healthy, improving Studies of twins reveal how much of a specific trait, such
blood flow to the brain. These as intelligence quotient (IQ), is due to inheritance and
nutrients have also been linked to how much is due to environment. Most twins grow up
improving memory and
maintaining cognitive in the same home; however, identical twins share 100
functions in older people. percent of their genes, while nonidentical (fraternal)
twins share only 50 percent. If a trait is more evident
in identical twins than in fraternal ones, or appears in
SO identical twins who were separated at birth, it suggests
CIA
L that genetics has a stronger influence than environment.
N
ET
W

BIOLOGICAL PARENTS ADOPTIVE PARENTS

Loneliness has been
OR

found to alter the production of

KS

neurotransmitters, so people
perceive less reward from social
contact and are more likely to
misinterpret others’ attitudes as
threatening. However, maintaining
close social ties can support
memory and cognitive skills. NON-ADOPTED TWIN ADOPTED TWIN
BRAIN FUNCTIONS
AND THE SENSES
Sensing
the World Touch
Thought to be the
first sense to develop
To survive in our environment, in the womb, touch
neurons respond to pressure,
we must be able to react to, and temperature, vibration, pain, and
light touch. Touch is how
interact with, stimuli produced by humans make physical contact
physical, chemical, and biological with the environment and
with each other.
phenomena—sights, sounds, smells,
tastes, and touches. Sensors in the
body pick up these signals and send
them to the brain for deciphering.
Hearing
Sound waves in the
Senses air are collected by the
ear and transmitted into
Each sense has its own set of detectors. Most are the skull, where they are
localized in a specific area of the body, except for turned into electrical impulses
touch, which is spread all over the skin, as well as by the cochlea. Hearing is the
most developed of the senses RTEX
inside the body. Although the neurons and receptors L CO
at birth but is only UA
for each sense are largely dedicated to that sense complete by the end V IS
alone, they can sometimes overlap. Sensory information of the first year.
continuously bombards the brain, but only a fraction
of the input reaches consciousness. Even so, the
“unnoticed” information can still guide our actions,
particularly in the case of our sixth sense, Sight
Sight involves
proprioception, which relays information sensors at the back of
about the body’s position in space. the eye that turn light into
electrical signals. These are
transported to the back of the
brain, where they are converted
into colors, fine details, and
YOUR SENSE OF SMELL motion. We perceive objects
in as little as half a
IMPROVES WHEN YOU ARE HUNGRY second.

SYNESTHESIA
Synesthesia is a condition where a
stimulus may be interpreted by two
or more senses at the same time. In
its most common form, a person sees
a number or word as a color. Each
synesthete will have its own color
associations. Almost any combination
of senses can be affected. Combinations
of three or more senses are rare. Each note is associated
with a different color
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Sensing the World 64 65

Proprioception
M The brain is constantly
SO CO OT
RT processing information
M
O X

AT from the joints and muscles that

R
E

CO OSE tell it where the body is in space.

R T NS It keeps us upright and allows us
EX
to make movements without
O
RY

conscious effort, such as

walking up stairs.

PRIMARY TASTE
AREA

AUDITORY Taste
CORTEX SECONDA Taste is important
RY TA
AREA STE in determining what
OLFACTO is safe and nutritious
CORTE RY to eat. Taste receptors pick up
X
only five basic tastes: sweet, salty,
bitter, sour, and umami
(savory). We need our sense
of smell to help identify
a taste.

Sense areas of the cortex

Inputs from the sense receptors map to different
Smell areas of the brain’s cortex. Although these areas
Despite having only are separate, they can often react to inputs from
400 smell receptors, another sense. For example, visual neurons will
humans can detect up to a respond better in low-light situations if they are
trillion different odors. Smell accompanied by sound.
is important for survival as it
warns us of hazardous
substances or events, such
as something burning. It also
plays a key role in taste.

HOW MANY
SENSES ARE THERE?
Including the six senses
described here, scientists
think there may be as many
as 20 senses, based on
the number of different
receptor types in
the body.
Seeing WHY DO MY EYES
The eye provides us with probably the most CLOSE WHEN I SNEEZE?
important of our five senses. It gathers the
light reflected by an object and delivers this When a nasal irritant triggers
the brain stem control center,
information to the brain via the optic nerve.
it causes widespread muscle
contractions, including those
The structure of the eye in the eyelids. This makes
The eyeball is roughly 1 in (2.5 cm) in diameter. At the back of the you blink momentarily.
eye is the retina, which contains light-sensitive cells that connect
via neurons to the optic nerve. The space inside the eyeball is filled
with a jellylike substance. The front of the eye contains a hole (the
pupil), which has a clear lens behind it. Surrounding the pupil is a Eyeball is encased Crossed-over rays
circle of colored muscle, the iris, which controls how much light by sclera produce an inverted
enters the eye. The cornea, a clear membrane, covers them and image on retina
merges into the white outer membrane called the sclera.

Light rays start to refract

(bend) as they pass from
air and into cornea

RE
TIN
Lens is like a bag of
jelly that changes

A
shape to help
LIGHT focusing
CORNEA

PUPIL

LENS
IRIS

Iris is a ring
of muscle

Seeing things
The eye is capable of providing the
D
brain with an enormous amount
of detail about what it is looking SC R OI
at. However, the image the brain
Cornea is a LE
RA C HO
transparent layer
receives is inverted, so it has to be covering front of eye
flipped before we can understand it. Choroid is a
blood-rich layer
that surrounds
retina

Light enters the eye Lens and focusing

1 Light passes through the cornea and
into the eye through the pupil. The pupil is
surrounded by a ring of colored muscle, the
iris, which can make the pupil contract or
dilate to vary the amount of light entering.
2 Behind the iris is the lens, where the
light rays are bent so the image forms on the
retina. The lens is connected to muscles that
allow it to change shape—it flattens for
distant objects and thickens for close objects.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Seeing 66 67
KEY
The purple arrows show RET
the direction of light INA Light ray travels
rays. Black and blue to back of retina
arrows are nerve signals
going to the optic nerve.
Rods work in grayscale,
responding to intensity
Light rays
of light; they enable us to
Black and see in dim conditions
white
Color

Cones send nerve

Signal for black signals in response
and white passes to green, red, or
from retina to blue light; they
optic nerve NERVE CEL LIGHT REC need bright light to
LS EPTOR produce a signal
CELLS
Ganglion OPTIC NER
cell V E

Signal for
color passes CHOROID
from retina to
optic nerve Wall of pigment
cells forming
Bipolar cell back of retina

The retina
3 The retina is made up Nerve signals to brain
of three layers. Light rays travel 4 The nerve signals trigger
through the first two layers, ganglion impulses in the ganglion and
and bipolar cells, and reach the third bipolar cells, which connect
layer, which contains light-sensitive directly to the optic nerve. The
rod and cone cells. These convert Optic nerve nerve signals travel along the
light rays into nerve signals. carries signals optic nerve to the brain.
from light sensors
to brain

VE
OP TIC NE R

THE BLIND SPOT

To connect to the brain, the nerve fibers
of the retina must pass through the Rods and cones
back of the eye to form the optic nerve. Blind spot
YOUR EYEBALLS This creates a “blind spot” that has no where nerve
photoreceptors. We don’t notice this
REMAIN THE SAME because each eye provides data about a
fibers leave eye

SIZE THROUGHOUT scene and the brain uses information from

the other eye to complete the picture. HUMAN EYE
YOUR LIFE
The Visual
Recognizing faces
3 Features that suggest a face are
sent to the face-recognition area and
amygdala, where they are searched

Cortex
for details that prompt recognition.

Nerve signals from the eye have to

travel all the way through the brain
before they reach the area dedicated Lateral geniculate

E
to decoding this information. This

OB
nucleus forwards

LL
signals from retina
area is called the visual cortex.

TA
to visual cortex

ON
Frontal lobe
LAMUS

FR
provides conscious A
The structure of the cortex recognition of faces TH
The visual cortex occurs in both Amygdala
brain hemispheres and is further

X
processes facial

TE
divided into eight main areas, each expressions

R
CO
of which has a different function AMYGDALA AL
I SU
(see table, opposite). Signals travel V
from the retina (see pp.66–67) via
the thalamus and lateral geniculate FACE
nucleus to the primary visual cortex OPTIC NERVE RECOGNITION
(V1). The raw data then passes AREA
Rods and cones in
through various vision areas, retina convert light Optic nerve carries
contributing different details about into nerve signals nerve signals to brain
shape, color, depth, and motion
From eyeball to visual cortex
before combining to form an image. 1 Data from the eyeball travels along the KEY
Some areas provide information that optic nerve until it reaches the optic chiasm (see Information from the eye
helps with immediate recognition of below), where some of the data is sent to the
opposite side of the brain. Signals then travel to
familiar objects, others with spatial the lateral geniculate nucleus, which forwards Face recognition pathway
orientation or visual-motor skills. data to the visual cortex for processing.

Lateral Half of signals travel

Stereoscopic vision geniculate to same hemisphere; View of object
Our ability to see in 3-D—known as stereoscopic nucleus LEFT HEMISPHER other half cross over from left eye
E
vision—is produced by having both of our eyes
looking straight ahead and moving together.
As the eyes are slightly apart, different views
are received from each, although they overlap
to a small extent. The brain computes the spatial LEFT VISUAL
CORTEX US
information from each eye to create an overall L AM
THA
image, using previous experience to speed RIGHT VISUA
L
up the processing time and fill in any gaps. CORTEX

Swapping sides
At a crossover point called the optic chiasm, Nerve axons split off
nerve axons from the left side of each retina after lateral geniculate E Optic nerves View of object
join and continue to the left visual cortex, nucleus and radiate to RIGHT HEMISPHER converge at from right eye
and likewise with nerve axons from the right. areas of visual cortex optic chiasm
 RT
EX
BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
The Visual Cortex 68 69
CO
R
O
V6

RI
TE
IN
V3A
V3D THE VISUAL CORTEX
V2 IS VERY THIN—
V1
JUST 0.08 IN (2 MM)
Some visual- V2
processing areas
curve around back of
V4V
brain into groove AREAS OF THE VISUAL CORTEX
between hemispheres VP V8
AREA FUNCTION

V1 Responds to visual stimuli.

R AIN
FB V2
Passes on information and responds
O to complex shapes.
CK
BA

V3A, V3D, Registers angles and symmetry and

V7
VP combines motion and direction.
Visual cortex,
located in V3A Responds to color, orientation, form,
V4D, V4V
occipital lobe and movement.
V3
V2 V5 Responds to movement.

V4D
Detects motion in periphery of
The visual cortex V6
2 Nerve signals progress
V1
visual field.

through the various layers of V7 Involved in perception of symmetry.

the cortex, each adding more
information to the image. It
takes half a second for the V8 Probably involved in processing of color.
image to be assessed and
become a conscious perception.

T E YE
OF LEF FIELDS OF VISION
UAL FIELD
VIS
Animals such as primates have
Image formed by brain a large field of stereoscopic
after it combines images
vision and can judge distances
VISUAL FIELD
BINOCULAR

from left and right eyes’

visual fields better than herbivores or most
birds. However, they have a
blind zone behind them that
can be seen only by turning the
head. Animals with eyes on the
sides and top of the head have
a wider field of 2-D vision and
greater all-around awareness. RABBIT HUMAN
VISUAL
FIELD O
F RIGHT Visual field of left eye Visual field of right eye Binocular visual field Blind zone
EY E
How We See
Seeing is both a conscious and an unconscious
NEWBORN BABIES
action. Each type follows its own pathway in the CAN SEE ONLY
brain. The conscious route helps recognize objects, BLACK, WHITE,
while the unconscious route guides movement. AND RED

Cell area V1 Cell area V2 Cell area V3

Signals from the eyes are first
received in the primary visual
cortex (V1). Its neurons are sensitive
to basic visual signals, including the
orientation and direction of
movement of objects and
pattern recognition.
In the secondary visual cortex
(V2), some neurons improve on the
images from V1, sharpening the lines
and edges of complex shapes.
Other neurons refine the initial
interpretation of the
color of objects.
Visual area 3 (V3) is involved in
analyzing angles, position, depth,
and the orientation of shapes.
It also helps process the direction and
speed of objects. A few cells are also
sensitive to color.

VISUAL CORTEX PATHWAY

Visual pathway Parietal lobes judge

splits after cell location of object in
area V3 relation to observer
Following the path
As visual information is processed
by the layers of the visual cortex (see
pp.68–69), it splits into two pathways
known as the upper, or dorsal, route
and the lower, or ventral, route. There
is some uncertainty about where the V3
split occurs, but the dorsal route handles
our spatial awareness of where we are V2 V4
and how we move in relation to things V1 V5
around us, while the ventral route helps
us identify, categorize, and recognize
what we see. The dorsal route is
important in assessing significant Inferior temporal
situations, particularly if instant action KEY lobe involved
is required to avoid danger, such as in recognizing
Dorsal route objects
moving away from a flying object.
When this happens, the ventral route is
relegated to a secondary position since Ventral route
the information it carries is not critical.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
How We See 70 71

Cell area V5 Parietal lobe

The middle temporal area (V5)
judges the overall direction of
motion of an object rather than that
of its component parts. For example,
it processes the general direction of
a flock of birds rather than the
movement of a single bird. It
also analyzes the motion
of our own body.
The parietal lobe
gauges the depth and position
of an object in relation to the
observer. This allows the person
to take immediate action, such as
ducking from an object coming
toward them rapidly.

“WHERE” PATHWAY (DORSAL ROUTE)

Unconscious vision
The dorsal route carries visual
information to the parietal lobes,
passing through areas that calculate an
object’s location, timing, and motion
and make a plan in relation to it. All of
this happens without conscious thought.
Conscious vision
The ventral route adds more information to
the object, such as color and shape. The
information goes to the temporal lobe,
where it is matched to visual memories to
aid recognition. This is where the visual
stimulus becomes a conscious perception.

“WHAT” PATHWAY (VENTRAL ROUTE)

Cell area V4
Visual area 4 (V4) is involved in
the perception of color, texture,
orientation, form, and movement.
This region contains the majority of
color-sensing neurons and is
important in interpreting the space
between objects.
Inferior
temporal lobe
Signals are forwarded to the
fusiform gyrus of the inferior
temporal lobe, which is involved in
recognizing complex shapes, objects,
and faces. In conjunction with the
hippocampus, it helps with the
formation of new memories.
WHAT IS
PROSOPAGNOSIA?
This is the inability to
recognize faces, even of close
family, usually due to damage
to the inferior temporal lobe.
Those affected have to learn
to recognize people in
other ways.
Perception Brain is so drawn
to faces that even
pictures are studied

Given that visual processing happens in microseconds,

it is not surprising that our brain sometimes struggles
to make sense of the information sent by our eyes and
so makes us doubt what we are seeing.

Processing a scene Openings are scanned,

When we look at a scene, we perhaps for possibility
of intruders
are not really taking it all in.
Instead, the eyes repeatedly scan a Pointing draws
attention to an object
sequence of thumbnail-sized areas and makes it worthy
that the brain considers points of of a look
interest. The rest of the scene blurs
until attention falls onto a new area.
Faces tend to be the main focus of a
scene—the brain is programmed to
look for faces, hence the tendency
to see them in the unlikeliest of
places, such as the scorch marks on
a slice of toast. While details of the
target objects are being scrutinized,
the conscious brain puts together
the story of the scene, complete Eye passes straight
across floor, pausing
with the context of each object. briefly at a potential
obstacle, but not
stopping long
enough to see it
Scanning for details
Looking at a complex picture, such as Brain looks for clues about
this café scene, activates processes that relationships by looking at
distinguish target objects, such as people, individual faces and interplay
from the background and then selects between characters
which bits of the target to focus on.

WHY DO WE
SEE FACES IN
INANIMATE OBJECTS?
Pareidolia (seeing faces where
there are none) may be a
survival instinct that ensures
we are vigilant for the
unfriendly features of an
enemy or predator.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Perception 72 73
Illusions
An illusion occurs when what the eye sees is interpreted by the
brain in a way that does not match up with the physical reality
of the actual image. With so many competing signals going to the
brain, it tends to look for familiar patterns. It also tries to predict
what will happen next to compensate for the slight time delay
between stimulus and perception. Both these facts can lead to our
brain misinterpreting visual stimuli. Illusions fall into three main
classes: physiological, cognitive, and physical.

HERMANN GRID KANIZSA’S TRIANGLE

Physiological
Physiological illusions are thought to arise
from excessive or competing stimuli, such as
Direction of other brightness, color, movement, and position.
people’s eye gaze In this grid, gray spots seem to appear at the
is followed intersections as your eyes flick over them but
vanish when you stare at them.
Cognitive
Cognitive illusions happen when the brain
makes assumptions about movement or
perspective when viewing an object.
Sometimes these can lead to the brain
switching between two different images
or seeing a shape that is not there.

Light is refracted as
it leaves water
Brain directs eyes to
parts of the scene it
considers significant— Apparent
especially faces position of fish

Actual
position
of fish

REFRACTION

Physical
Physical illusions are caused by the optical
SOME MAMMALS
properties of the physical environment, AND BIRDS ARE
particularly water. The brain cannot take
account of the way that light bends as it ALSO FOOLED BY
passes between water and air, so it sees
the fish as further back than it actually is. OPTICAL ILLUSIONS
 How We Hear
The world is full of noise. It travels as sound waves
through the air until it reaches our ears. There, they
are turned into electrical impulses and sent to the
brain for decoding into meaningful sounds.

Picking up sound
Hearing involves the conversion of a sound wave into an
electrical impulse that the brain can interpret. Sound waves
are carried from the outer to the middle ear, where they cause a
series of bones and membranes to vibrate. These vibrations then
reach the cochlea, where they become electrical impulses. These
are passed to the brain stem and thalamus, where direction,
frequency, and intensity are perceived. The data is then sent for
processing by the left and right sides of the auditory cortex. The
left side identifies the sound and gives it meaning, while the
right side assesses the quality of the sound.
EXTE

Vibrations make bones MALLEUS

RNAL EAR

rattle against each other (HAMMER) BONE

Sound waves travel
Sound waves
through air
vibrate eardrum
INCUS
(ANVIL) BONE
AL
RY CAN
AUDITO
OUTE

OSSICLES
(MIDDLE EAR BONES)
E AR D R
R EAR

STAPES
UM

(STIRRUP) BONE

The outer ear The auditory canal

1 Sound waves are caught 2 The sound waves travel along the
Oval window
by the outer ear, which funnels auditory canal to the eardrum. The auditory
ID
M

them inside the head via the canal is lined with tiny hairs that filter out Round window
auditory canal. foreign objects. DL
EE
AR

Eustachian tube connects

middle ear to nose and mouth

The eardrum Ossicles

3 The eardrum, or tympanic 4 Vibrations are passed through
membrane, is a thin layer of the eardrum to a set of connected
fibrous tissue that forms a bones called ossicles—the malleus,
barrier between the outer ear incus, and stapes bones. The stapes
and the middle ear. It vibrates bone pushes and pulls on another
when the sound waves traveling membrane, called the oval window.
up the auditory canal hit it. This transmits sound to the inner ear.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
How We Hear 74 75
FILTERING OUT NOISE
On a busy street, there are lots of
conflicting sounds, yet you can still The primary
hear someone talking next to you. 9 auditory cortex
This is because the primary auditory Background After intermediate processing in
cortex can filter out unnecessary noise filtered the thalamus, the characteristics of
out each sound are interpreted by the
sounds and boost the signals it wants primary auditory cortex, which
to hear. It does this by dampening works with other cortical areas
the response to sustained sounds, to identify the type of sound.
such as traffic, while enhancing more
dynamic sounds, such as speech,
and actively listening to them.

Organ of Corti (central spiral

part of the cochlea) rests on a Primary auditory cortex
basilar membrane and contains processes sound
sensitive hair cells

LE A COCHL
CH E AR
CO NE THALAMUS
RV
E

Electrical signals
pass along
cochlear nerve

BRAI
Specialized cells at
top of brain stem

N
help determine
STEM
Vestibular canal
carries sound direction of sounds
L

vibrations
NA

AL
C AN
CA
R

A
UL The cochlear nerve
8 The thalamus
IC

I B 7
E ST The electrical signals are Signals are first received in
N

V
PA

transported from each hair cell the brain stem. From here, they travel
OR up to specialized neurons in the
M

GAN through cochlear nerve endings

OF CORTI TY that join together to form the thalamus for processing. These signals
cochlear nerve. This is responsible are then sent to the primary auditory
for transmitting signals to specialized cortex, which also feeds information
groups of neurons in the brain stem. back to the thalamus.
Vibrations return
INN E R E A R to round window

The cochlea The organ of Corti

5 The cochlea contains three fluid- 6 The movement of
filled ducts. Vibrations travel along the the basilar membrane bends
vestibular canal as wavelike movements
that are transferred to the basilar
sensitive hair cells in the organ
of Corti (see p.76), which is the
THE STAPES IS THE
membrane of the organ of Corti. main organ of hearing. The hair
cells convert this movement into
SMALLEST BONE
Residual vibrations return along the
tympanic canal to the round window. electrical signals. IN THE BODY
Perceiving Sound
Every sound is made up of a number of different This area receives
signals from low-
components. The brain has to take all the details frequency sounds

of its frequencies, intensity, and rhythm to Corresponds to

process, identify, and remember the sound. apex of cochlea

Y
AR
PRIM Y
AR
The auditory cortex O ND
SEC
The auditory cortex is the main RY
processing center for sound. It is E R TIA Corresponds to
T base of cochlea
located in the temporal lobe, just below
the temples on either side of the head.

Primary auditory cortex Receives signals from

identifies frequency and high-frequency sounds
intensity of sounds

Secondary auditory cortex

interprets complicated
sounds, such as language Hair cells are
disturbed when basilar
AUDITORY membrane vibrates
CORTEX
More flexible part
of basilar membrane
vibrates more easily
Base of cochlea
transmits low-
frequency sounds
1,00
z 0 Hz
Organ of Corti is main
H

Tertiary auditory cortex

500

organ of hearing
integrates hearing with
other sensory systems

BR A E

2,000 Hz
N
Apex of cochlea
transmits high-
frequency sounds
EM

M
Inside the auditory cortex BASIL AR
Signals from the thalamus (see p.75) are sent to
Hz

the primary auditory cortex, which is divided into 0

0

4,0
A

sections that respond to a range of frequencies. 16,00

LE

0 Hz 8,000 Hz
Some of these sections focus on intensity rather
Row of CH
hair cells CO
than frequency, while others pick up more complex
and distinctive sounds, such as whistles, bangs, or
animal noises. Signals then pass to the secondary The cochlea
auditory cortex, which is thought to focus on Areas along the curl of the cochlea respond
harmony, rhythm, and melody. The tertiary auditory to different frequencies of sound, from
high-pitched at the apex to low bass
cortex integrates all the signals to give an overall notes at the base. These are mirrored by
impression of the sounds picked up by the ears. corresponding areas in the auditory cortex.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Perceiving Sound 76 77
Music and the brain Mapping music
Music engages many areas of the brain. In Scans show that several areas of the brain
are active when listening to music, and even
addition to processing the sounds, listening more are involved when you are playing an
to music triggers the memory and emotion instrument or dancing. Processes touch sensations
centers in the brain, while recalling lyrics while dancing or playing
an instrument
involves the language centers. Performing Coordinates movement
while dancing or playing
music makes even greater demands: the an instrument
Places sounds
visual cortex is stimulated by reading music,
in context of
the frontal lobe is involved in planning memories and
actions, and the motor cortex coordinates

RT R
experience

CO OTO
EX
movement. Musicians are known to have a RY
SO E X

M
greater ability to use both hands because N RT
AL

SE
CO
music requires coordination of motor control,

RT T
CO RON
EX
somatosensory touch, and auditory PUS
COROSUM

PREF
LL
information. Unlike listeners, who process CA
music in the right hemisphere, professional
VIS
musicians use the left. They also have a ITORY COR UAL
AUD RTEX TE
thicker corpus callosum (the region linking CO X
US
the two hemispheres) and tend to have MP
HIPPOCA
larger auditory and motor cortices.
Involved in
planning and

30,000
controlling
expression CEREBELLUM
Activated by
reading music
Connects Amygdala (orange) or watching dance
THE NUMBER OF FIBERS hemispheres and nucleus accumbens
of brain (dark red) are both Involved in movement
THAT MAKE UP THE involved in emotional and emotional
reactions to music reaction to music
AUDITORY NERVE

HIGHS AND LOWS

Humans can detect a good range of
100 kHz
frequencies, but other animals can hear ELEPHANT
things far beyond our limits. Animals such 5 Hz–12 kHz
as bats and dolphins use high frequencies 10 kHz
in echolocation, while elephants and
hearing range

whales produce low rumbles that can

FREQUENCY
Human

travel long distances. Humans are most 1 kHz BAT

sensitive to frequencies between 2 kHz 2 kHz–120 kHz
and 5 kHz, which do not require great MOUSE
100 Hz 1 kHz–100 kHz
intensity to be heard. Young people have
the best hearing range, from 20 Hz to
20 kHz, but there is a gradual loss of 10 Hz HUMAN DOG DOLPHIN
higher frequencies with age, with older 20 Hz– 64 Hz–44 kHz 75 Hz–150 kHz
people having a limit of around 15 kHz. 20 kHz
0
 ELIUM Inside the brain
EPITH Olfactory bulb 3 Signals then travel along the olfactory
ORY Olfactory bulb tract to the olfactory cortex. The cortex is
T located in the limbic system, which is responsible

C
processes signals
for emotions and memory. Signals are also sent

FA
before passing to
to the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex.

OL
olfactory cortex
Dura Orbitofrontal cortex
mater involved in decision-
Nerve
making and emotions as Olfactory tract, a bundle Olfactory cortex
axon Bone
well as processing smells of nerves that carries further processes
signals from olfactory signals sent by
Mucus O bulb to olfactory cortex olfactory bulb
gland RB
IT
Receptor CO OF
Supporting cell RT RO
cell EX NT
AL
Mucus Cilia OLFACTORY
OLFACTORY BULB AMYGDALA CORTEX
Odor molecule
dissolving in mucus

TY
AVI
LC
Olfactory receptors Amygdala sends

SA
2 Each odor molecule activates Receptor cell nerve

A
warning messages if

N
a particular combination of olfactory axons detect odor and odor is associated
receptors. The activated receptor cells send send information to with danger
impulses up through nerve axons to the olfactory bulb
olfactory bulb for processing.

Smell enters the nose

1 Odor molecules are drawn up
through the nose and warmed to enhance
the scent. The molecules dissolve in mucus
produced by the olfactory epithelium and
stimulate cilia that are connected to Capturing a scent
receptor cells.
When we inhale, odor molecules drift into the nose and activate
Airborne odor receptor cells in the nasal cavity, triggering a reflex to breathe in
molecules enter nostril more deeply. In the nasal cavity, the odors dissolve in the mucus
that covers a sheet of neurons and supporting cells called olfactory
epithelium. The molecules spread through the mucus to hairlike
12 MILLION structures called cilia that are attached to receptor cells. These cells
THE NUMBER OF send signals to the olfactory bulb—a structure located in
the forebrain that forms part of the brain’s limbic
OLFACTORY CELLS system. Data is then sent to various parts of
IN THE HUMAN BODY the brain, particularly the olfactory cortex.
Smell WHY DO
SMELLS TRIGGER
Identifying a smell out of the many odors in the world MEMORIES?
around us involves the olfactory system, which isolates Unlike our other senses, smells
different chemicals and then passes signals on to the bypass the thalamus and go
brain to determine whether they are “good” or “bad.” straight to the limbic system.
Emotions and memories are
What makes a smell? processed and stored here,
How we identify smells is still a matter of debate. Research suggests especially in the amygdala.
that most odors fall into 10 groups—or primary odors—each of which
alerts us to something in the environment. Most smells are made up
of a combination of these groups. Smell is a key part of survival,
telling us whether something is safe or dangerous.

Fragrant
Light, natural scents such as
flowers, grasses, and herbs,
typically used in perfumery.
Fruity
Typically includes warm, ripe fruits
and other fresh scents that have a
sense of smoothness on the nose.
Sweet
Warm, rich, sugary smells with
a touch of creaminess, including
chocolate, malt, and vanilla.
Minty
Cool, fresh, and invigorating,
epitomized by mint, eucalyptus,
and camphor.
Toasted and nutty
SMELLY OR SWEET?
Dimethyl sulphide (DMS)
is a very smelly compound.
A whiff of the raw chemical
can make you wonder
whether something is
rotting or if a pungent
Smell
BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES

Citrus cheese is in the room.

Separate from other fruits, citrus
has fresh, clean, acidic aromas
with a touch of sweetness.
Woody and resinous
Earthy, natural smells, such
as compost, fungi, spices,
cedar, pine, and mold.
Slightly burned and caramelized
with warm and fatty overtones, such
as popcorn and peanut butter.
Pungent
Often unpleasant smells such as
manure or sour milk, also onions,
garlic, and pickles.
However, flavor chemists
find it useful in creating
all sorts of tastes. It
is used in meat,
seafood, milk, egg,
wine, beer, vegetable,
and fruit flavorings,
usually at
78 79

Chemical Decayed minuscule

Includes synthetic, medicinal, solvent, Beyond pungent are the odors of concentrations.
and gasoline odors that are easily rotting food, sewage, household gas,
identifiable. and other “sickening” substances.
Taste The five basic tastes
Taste is an evolutionary adaptation for survival.
Fueling the body requires the intake of nourishing Being able to determine whether something
is nutritious or potentially poisonous before
foods and liquids. Choosing what is safe to eat is taking it into the body is enormously important.
largely influenced by our senses of taste and smell. So far, only five basic tastes have been
discovered, although there may be others.

Picking up taste Sweet

Signals the presence of
Taste is actually a limited sense; there are only five basic tastes
carbohydrates, which are
that can be detected (see right). Like smell, taste is a chemosense. sources of vital sugars.
Chemical substances in food are picked up by the taste buds,
Salty
which are mainly found on the tongue. Receptor cells, housed
Detects chemical salts and
in structures called microvilli within the taste bud, detect minerals that are needed
these chemicals and send signals to the brain for processing. by the body.

Sour
Warns against foods that may be
unripe or going bad.

Tongue
1 The tongue is a strong, Bitter
flexible muscle. It is used to push Poisons and other toxins are often
food around the mouth and for bitter or unpalatable.
speech. Its upper surface is
covered in tiny projections called
papillae. Most of the papillae are Umami
filiform, or threadlike, structures Detects glutamate salts and amino
and contain no taste buds. They acids, which are found in meat,
help grip and wear down food cheese, and other aged or
while it is being chewed. fermented foods.

Surface of Circumvallate Taste Nerve Microvilli contain receptor proteins,

tongue papilla pore fiber which bind with chemicals in food
Food
Filiform molecule
papilla

Taste
bud Neuron

Papillae
2 In addition to filiform papillae, the
tongue has fungiform (mushroomlike),
foliate (leaflike), and circumvallate (wall-like)
papillae, which all contain taste buds. Most
taste buds are found in the foliate papillae
on the back and sides of the tongue.
Supporting
cell
Taste buds
3 A taste bud is a collection of 50–100
cells that are clustered together like
segments in an orange. They are located
in the walls of papillae. One end of each
cell protrudes out of the bud, where it gets
washed with saliva containing food molecules.
Gustatory
receptor
cell
Taste bud cells
4 When food molecules hit the cells,
they interact with either receptor proteins or
porelike proteins called ion channels. This
causes electrical changes in the cell, which
prompt neurons at the base of the cell to
send signals to the brain.
 Y
S OR
EN
TOS E X
A T
Signals travel to secondary Signals sent to Signals travel to M COR
O
taste area, located in primary taste tongue area of

S
TEX AL
orbitofrontal cortex area, located somatosensory cortex

COR RONT
in insula
Taste and smell

F
Detecting flavors depends as much on the

ITO
Signals from olfactory
nose as on the taste buds. The nose picks

ORB
cortex sent to
up external odors from food (see pp.78–79), orbitofrontal cortex
but this is increased significantly by food-
particle odors carried up into the nasal cavity
by expired air from the lungs (retronasal
THALAMUS
olfaction). Some smell receptors have also Olfactory cortex
OLFAC
been found in the taste buds. The brain TORY
BULB
combines the information from the nose A
AL
and taste buds to perceive all the NAS YGD
AL
C AM
different flavors in the food. These are AV Amygdala assigns
IT
not the only sensations that contribute Y positive or negative
to the taste experience—the values to taste and
smell
somatosensory cortex detects
the texture and temperature of
food, adding context to the flavor.

MEDULLA
Smell from food particles
that have been swallowed
are sent for processing by
olfactory bulb

The taste pathway Food particle

Information from the taste buds travels to
the brain via cranial nerves in the jaw and
throat. Impulses travel up the brain stem
to the thalamus and are forwarded to the
taste regions of the frontal cortex and Trigeminal and
insula, a fold of cortex deep in the brain. glossopharyngeal
cranial nerves carry
signals to medulla Expired air from
in brain stem lungs pushes
food particles
WHY DON’T from mouth into
BABIES LIKE nasal cavity

BITTER FOODS?
KEY
Babies have many more
Taste signals
taste buds than adults so they
Retronasal smell
taste bitter foods more
intensely. They instinctively Expired air

refuse foods that aren’t

as sweet or fatty
as breast milk.

THE AVERAGE ADULT

HAS BETWEEN 2,000
AND 8,000 TASTE BUDS
 LIGHT BREEZE TEMPERATURE CHANGE BRUSH OF A FEATHER

TOP, DEAD LAYER OF EPIDERMIS

EPIDERMIS

SPINOUS LAYER

BASA
LL
AYER

Net of nerve fiber

AFT

endings wrapped
DERMIS (DEEP LAYER OF SKIN)

HAIR SH

around base of shaft

Hair movement
triggers nerve Well-defined
impulse Free nerve endings borders make
extend into skin’s Merkel’s disks
surface layer sensitive to
shapes and
edges

Root hair plexus Free nerve endings Merkel’s disks

Nerves wrapped around the base of a hair Extending up into the spinous layer of Found slightly lower than free nerve
shaft are triggered by things that have not the epidermis, these bare, rootlike nerve endings, Merkel’s disks are particularly
touched the skin, such as air currents or endings are sensitive to cold, heat, light dense in the lips and fingertips. They
objects that brush against the hair. touch, and pain. respond to light touch.

Touch
TYPES OF RECEPTORS FUNCTION

Mechanoreceptors Sensory receptors that respond to

mechanical pressure or distortion.
This can range from a light touch
to deep pressure.
The skin is the biggest organ of the body
and also the largest sense organ. Packed Proprioceptors Receptors that receive stimuli from
within the body, particularly in
with sensors, it enables us to experience relation to position and movement.

a wide variety of sensations, as well as

Nociceptors Sensory neurons that respond
an awareness of where we are. to damaging stimuli by sending
“possible threat” signals to the
spinal cord and the brain.
Receptors in the skin
Skin sensors consist of receptors connected by axons. Thermoreceptors Specialized nerve cells that are able
Found at various levels in the skin, there are around to detect differences in temperature.
They are found all over the skin and
20 types that respond to different sorts of stimuli. The
in some internal areas.
receptors register mechanical, thermal, and, in some cases,
chemical stimuli and convert them into electrical signals. Chemoreceptors Extensions of the peripheral nervous
These travel up peripheral nerves to the spinal cord, then system that respond to changes in
blood concentrations to maintain
to the brain stem, and finally to the somatosensory cortex, homeostasis (see pp.90–91).
where they are translated into a touch.
 GENTLE TOUCH
FIRM MASSAGE VIBRATION

Enlarged,
encapsulated
receptor

Fluid-filled
receptors
extend into
upper dermis Large, covered
receptor at
base of dermis

Meissner corpuscles Ruffini endings Pacinian corpuscle

These receptors are rapidly adapting, Also known as bulbous corpuscles, these The deepest and largest type of
meaning that they respond quickly to soft, capsulelike cells—located deep in the touch receptor, these rapidly acting
stimulation but stop firing if the stimulus dermis—respond if the skin or joints are mechanoreceptors respond to sustained
continues. This gives precise information. stretched or distorted by pressure. pressure as well as vibration.

The somatosensory cortex Touch map

All information from touch receptors is processed Areas of the body rich in touch
receptors, such as the hands, require
in the somatosensory cortex. This area sits across

TRUN
more processing than others, so they

LEG
the top of the brain like a hair band. Data from the
HEA
take up a greater proportion of the
somatosensory cortex.

K
right side of the body travels to the left side of the
AR

brain, and vice versa. Each part of the body maps D

M

to its own area of the cortex.

HA
ND
FOOT
AXON
TOES

E YE GENITALS
Myelinated FACE
Signal travels through sheath RIGHT HAND
nerve bundle
LIPS

SPINAL
CORD TONGUE
LEFT SIDE
OF BRAIN
 PERIPHERAL NERVE

Proprioception
Nerve signal from
proprioceptors

The body has its own sense of where it is Stretch receptors

in skin, muscles,
and how it is moving in space. This process and joints send
information about
happens almost unconsciously, making it, position of body parts
in essence, the body’s sixth sense.

Body position sense Knowing your place

Physical self-awareness comes from a

UMN
Inside muscles, tendons, and joints are Signals travel
combination of proprioception with other along spinal
movement receptors called proprioceptors. sensations: a sense of force, a sense of

L COL
column to brain
Every time we move, these receptors measure effort or weight, sight, and information
changes in length, tension, and pressure that from the balance organs in the ears.

SPINA
relate to that movement and send impulses to
the brain. The information is processed and
a decision is made to stop moving or change
position. Messages are then relayed back to Parietal lobe

the muscles to carry out the decision. All of this

happens without us having to think about it. Inner ear sends
information about
rotation, acceleration,
and gravity
Types of proprioception
Most of the information our brain
receives about body position is Parietal lobe Eyes send visual
processed unconsciously, such as information about
position
how we are constantly adjusting
the position of our body to maintain
balance. However, proprioceptive
information can become conscious Input from
if it requires us to make a decision— pressure and tension
sensors in arms
for example, refining muscle Thalamus
movement to make a voluntary,
skilled movement.

Cerebellum
Proprioception pathways
Conscious proprioception signals travel up
the brain stem to the thalamus and end at the Unconscious Conscious
parietal lobe, which is part of the cerebral pathway pathway
cortex. The unconscious pathway loops back
to the cerebellum, which controls movement.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Proprioception 84 85

GROWTH SPURTS
Types of proprioceptors CAN CONFUSE
The body contains a variety of proprioceptors, and the combined THE BRAIN
information from these receptors helps the brain construct an overall
picture of the body’s position. There are three main types of AS IT CANNOT
proprioceptors: muscle spindle fibers, which are embedded in our KEEP UP WITH
muscles; Golgi tendon organs, which are located at the junction
between tendons and muscles; and joint receptors, which attach to our
CHANGES IN LIMB
joints. Special receptors in the skin can also detect stretch (see p.83). DIMENSIONS

Bone
Muscle
Muscle

Golgi tendon organ senses

changes in muscle tension
Muscle spindle
Touch-sensitive fibers
nerves Bone
Ligament receptors
Signal travels up
nerve axon
Ligament

Tendon

Joint receptors Tendon receptors Muscle receptors

Nerve endings within our joints detect the Golgi tendon organs are found within Muscles have position sensors called spindle
joints’ position. The receptors help prevent the tendons at the ends of muscles. They fibers within them. As they stretch, the
damage through overextension as well as monitor muscle tension to ensure we do spindles send information to the brain
detecting position in normal motion. not overstretch the muscles. about the positions of the muscles.

THE PINOCCHIO ILLUSION

Sometimes proprioception can be confused, making Brain thinks
hand has
the body feel like something is happening when it is not. Hand touching
moved away
One such effect is called the Pinocchio illusion. A vibrator nose
from face
is fixed to a person’s bicep. If the person holds her nose
Vibrator Vibrator
while the vibrator is turned on, she will feel as though switched on
her arm is moving away from her nose. It happens
because the vibrator stimulates the muscle spindle
Before stimulation During stimulation
fibers in the biceps in the same way as if the muscle
At rest, the brain is aware that the Vibrations tell the brain that the
was stretching. Because the fingers are still touching the fingers are touching the nose, but arm is moving, creating a sensation
nose, it feels as if the nose is growing out from the face. there is no movement of the arm. that the nose is growing outward.
Feeling Pain WHO FEELS
THE MOST PAIN?
Although unpleasant, pain is a useful warning Women feel pain more
sign that something isn’t right with the body and intensely than men
that we need to act quickly to avoid further injury. because they have
more nerve receptors
Pain signals in their bodies.
Pain receptors are located all over the body and respond to
heat, cold, overstretching, vibration, and chemicals released
by wounds. Electrical signals are sent from the site of injury
to the spinal cord, where they cross over and travel to the SPINAL C
ORD
SIG
opposite side of the brain to the injury. If sudden, NA
L
strong pain is experienced, a reflex
reaction occurs (see p.101) within
Slow C-fiber
the spinal cord to make the
limb pull away from Nerve bundle
whatever is causing the contains multiple
pain, even before we axons, or nerve fibers

are aware of it.

LE
UND
EB PAIN SIGNAL
ERV
N
Slow C-fibers Fast A-fiber Pain signals travel up nerve bundles
are widespread 2 Signals from the injury site travel along
in skin nerve bundles toward the spinal cord. The
A-fiber signals get there within milliseconds
and trigger a withdrawal reflex away from
the source of the pain.
Axon

Nerve cell

Pain receptors
1 activated
Injury prompts the
release of chemicals
called prostaglandins
from damaged cells.
These trigger the nerve
Fast A-fiber axons to send impulses
covered by to the brain. Prostaglandin
myelin sheath molecule
Pain fibers released by cell
There are two types of nerve fibers, or axons.
Fast A-fibers carry sharp, localized pain from Damaged cell
an injury such as a cut. Slower C-fibers carry
the more persistent dull feelings from the
area around the injury.

SKIN SE
BRUI CUT
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Feeling Pain 86 87
Frontal cortex plays Somatosensory cortex
role in anticipating identifies intensity, location,
and controlling pain and type of pain
NATURAL PAIN RELIEF
Limbic system
is responsible for
emotional and The body releases its own chemicals,
behavioral called endorphins and enkephalins,
reaction to pain to dampen the pain signals. They
bind to receptors on the nerve
endings, preventing further
transmission of pain signals.

Reticular Transmission of signal Receiving

formation neuron
modulates Sending
pain signals neuron

Thalamus relays signals

to different areas of brain Nerve fibers
descending from
Pain signals processed brain intercept and Pain
4 The signal continues modify ascending signal
to the thalamus, which pain signals
PAIN SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
distributes impulses to the
cortex and other areas Endorphin blocks
responsible for emotion, Alleviating pain pain signal reaching
attention, and assessing the 5 Descending signals receiving neuron
significance of the pain. travel back down from the
brain to intercept the pain
signals (see box, right).
Pain signals These trigger the release of
travel up natural painkillers by the
spinal cord brain stem and spinal cord
that reduce pain signals.

Spinal cord signal

bypasses brain BLOCKED PAIN SIGNAL

SPINAL CORD

DORSAL
HORN

Pain signals reach

3 the spinal column
The nerve bundle enters the spinal cord
through the dorsal horn. Pain signals pass Most nerve bundles
across to the other side of the spinal cord enter at back of spine,
for their onward journey to the brain. known as dorsal horn
How to Use Your Brain
to Manage Pain
When we are in pain, the usual courses of action involve
medical treatment or painkillers. However, we can also
help control pain ourselves by regulating our mental
response—both to the pain and to the stress it causes.
Pain is an emotional as well as effects, including stomach ulcers a big ball of energy outside your
physical response to injury or and liver disease. Your body may body, and “shrink” it in your mind.
disease. Intense fear or anxiety also build up a tolerance to a drug Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
are vital immediate reactions that so that you derive less benefit from uses a similar approach, by training
cause you to avoid sources of pain it as time goes on. you to replace negative thoughts
whenever possible. Sometimes, like “This pain is unbearable,” or “I
however, pain persists even when Mind-body therapies can’t stop this pain,” with positive
the injury or disease is no longer In addition to medication, you can ones such as, “This pain is only
present. A painful sensation can use mind-body techniques such temporary.”
become associated with constant as relaxation and visualization to Practicing mindfulness reduces
stress, recurring unpleasant reduce or help control pain—with stress, making you better able to
memories of what caused the no risk of side effects. Most use cope with pain. In this practice,
pain, or the constant fear that it relaxation and deep, controlled adapted from Buddhist teachings,
will persist or recur. breathing to reduce the tension you merely acknowledge the pain—
These feelings can be powerful that comes with pain and often instead of allowing it to dominate
and unsettling. Although you makes it worse. Try lying quietly in your thoughts or exhausting
should always seek medical advice a darkened room; breathe in deeply yourself by actively fighting it.
if pain is severe or prolonged, you while counting to 10, hold the To sum up, your brain can be a
can also use several techniques to breath for a moment, then exhale powerful tool for pain control if you:
regulate it by training your mind. slowly for a count of 10. Continue • Practice relaxation and deep
this for 10–20 minutes. breathing techniques to reduce
The painkiller problem Shifting your attention often stress levels.
Medication is often essential to reduces pain’s severity. Try turning • Employ mental exercises to shift
control pain in the short term, but your attention away from the attention away from pain.
taking painkillers for an extended painful area, focusing instead on • Use CBT techniques to focus on
period can lead to issues such as a nonpainful part of your body. positive thoughts.
addiction or serious physical side Alternatively, imagine the pain as • Practice mindfulness.
The Regulatory GENERAL ANESTHETICS

System
A vital part of modern surgery, how
general anesthetics work is not fully
understood. What is known is that they
act on the reticular activating system
The human body is a cooperative of 38 trillion (comprising the reticular formation
and its connections) to suppress
cells organized into different systems. Keeping awareness and on the hippocampus to
them functioning at their best is a system of temporarily suspend memory formation.
Anesthetics also affect the nuclei of the
feedback mechanisms controlled by the brain. thalamus, preventing the flow of sensory
information from the body to the brain.
Maintaining stability
The process of maintaining a stable internal environment is called
homeostasis. Key functions, such as breathing, heart rate, pH,
temperature, and ion balances have to be kept within strict
operating limits to prevent us from becoming ill. As the body works,
its systems are constantly being moved away from their balance or
set point (the value at which a system works best). When the change
becomes too great, the body initiates a feedback loop that
returns the system to its ideal level. Many of these
Signals travel to various
functions are controlled by a part of the
areas of cerebral cortex
brain stem called the reticular formation.

Signals forwarded
3 Signals are then sent directly
to the thalamus and hypothalamus,
as well as to the appropriate areas
of the cerebral cortex for a decision
and response to the stimulus.
Hypothalamus
THALAMUS regulates sleep,
Excitatory area of reticular hunger, and body
formation amplifies temperature
important signals

Thalamus relays
sensory signals
to cerebral cortex

Signals processed
2
LLA

In the reticular formation,

WHAT IS THE unwanted signals are suppressed in
DU

RETICULAR FORMATION? the inhibitory area, while others are

ME

amplified in the excitatory area.

The reticular formation
Inhibitory area of reticular
consists of more than 100
L CORD

formation dampens
nuclei that project to the unwanted signals
SPINA

forebrain, cerebellum, and

brain stem, controlling
many of the body’s
vital functions.
Signals travel up
1 the spinal column
Impulses travel Incoming sensory signals
up spinal cord from all over the body travel
to the reticular formation.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
The Regulatory System 90 91

SENSOR
STIMULUS
Stretch receptors
RESULT The fetus exerts
are stimulated and
Baby is born. pressure on
send signals to the
the cervix.
hypothalamus.

Positive feedback system

The less common of the two feedback systems, positive
feedback systems are more unstable because they have
the potential to have a knock-on effect on other systems,
creating a “runaway” process. An example of a positive
feedback system is the increase in strength and frequency
of labor contractions, which stop when the baby is born
and the cervix is no longer being stretched.
CONTROL
EFFECTOR The hypothalamus
Feedback loops Oxytocin stimulates the
Biological systems operate on a mechanism promotes more posterior pituitary
of inputs and outputs, each caused by, and contractions. gland, which releases
oxytocin.
causing, a certain event. Feedback loops
either amplify the output of a system
(positive feedback) or inhibit the output of
the system (negative feedback). Feedback
loops are important because they allow
living organisms to maintain homeostasis.

STIMULUS SENSOR
RESULT Thermoreceptors
Normal body The body’s
temperature in the skin sense this
temperature is temperature
achieved. changes.
change.

Negative feedback system

Most systems use negative feedback loops,
which are very stable and act to reverse the
direction of change to restore the system to
normal. They include regulation of blood
glucose and body temperature.

EFFECTOR CONTROL
The hypothalamus

95˚F (35˚C)
If too hot, the
brain induces compares to
sweating. If too cold, temperature set
the brain initiates point (98.6°F/ 37°C).
THE BODY TEMPERATURE AT shivering.

WHICH HYPOTHERMIA SETS IN

 Synthesizes oxytocin,
vasopressin, and
somatostatin Regulates blood pressure
AMUS and heart rate
Nuclei in the hypothalamus THAL

NUCL ICULAR
Most of the nuclei have distinct PO Initiates intake of
functions. They secrete hormones E HY DORSAL water and food
TH
HYPOTHALAMIC

EUS
that act on the pituitary gland,

R
E AREA

VENT
stimulating it to produce hormones D Involved

SI
that will help achieve homeostasis in memory,

IN
in the required part of the body.

PARA
arousal, sleep,

NUCL EOPTIC

NU ERIOR
DORSOMEDIAL
and energy

C
US
LATERAL NUCLEUS

ARE LAMI
balance

CLE
EUS

OTH AL
PREOPTIC

NUCL OR

T
EUS
AL PR

POS

HYP LATER
NUCLEUS

A
A
RI
Inhibits eating and

EU AL
ANTE

CL EDI
reduces food intake

MEDI

S
NU OM
Y

R
AR

NT
ILL

VE
M DY
Controls thermoregulation AM BO
M

Body’s “clock”—controls SUPRACHIASMATIC SUPRAOPTIC LATERAL

R
VE TO
circadian rhythms NUCLEUS NUCLEUS TUBERAL

ER O
NUCLEI

N OM
30

L
CU
O
GLAN Y
TAR
D

HORMONES ARE
PITUI

PRODUCED BY THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Neuroendocrine OUT OF BALANCE

System When homeostasis is disrupted,

it can lead to disease, as well as to
our cells malfunctioning. The body
tries to correct the problem but
Maintaining homeostasis (see p.90) requires the may make it worse, depending on
brain and body to communicate. This is achieved what is influencing the imbalance.
Genetics, lifestyle, and toxins can
using chemical messengers called hormones. all impact homeostasis.

The hypothalamus
At the center of the brain’s homeostasis system is the hypothalamus
(see p.34). It contains clusters of neurons, called nuclei, that perform
specific functions and has connections to the autonomic nervous system
(see p.13), through which it sends messages to control heart rate, digestion,
and breathing. When the hypothalamus receives a signal from the nervous
system, it secretes neurohormones, which in turn stimulate the pituitary
gland to secrete hormones. These affect organs all over the body and
prompt them to increase or suppress their own hormone production.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Neuroendocrine System 92 93
Hormone producers Hypothalamus links nervous
Hormones are used for two types of system to endocrine system
communications. The first is between
two endocrine glands, where a
Pineal gland releases melatonin
hormone is released to stimulate a
in response to light levels—
target gland to alter the amount of
melatonin governs body’s
hormone it is secreting. The second is
circadian rhythm and regulates
between a gland and a target organ,
some reproductive hormones
such as the release of insulin from the
pancreas prompting muscle cells to
take up glucose. Controlled by the hypothalamus,
pituitary gland acts as “master gland”;
it secretes its own hormones that
control other glands
Thyroid gland and
parathyroid glands
regulate metabolism,
PARATHYROID GLAND
blood calcium levels,
and heart rate THYROID
GLAND

Produces cortisol
(regulates metabolism, Produces white blood
immune response, and cells that defend against
energy conversion), THYMUS viruses and infections
aldosterone (controls
blood pressure and salt
balance), and adrenaline
(fight-or-flight hormone)

Releases hunger-
inducing hormone
ghrelin and hormone
gastrin, which
Secretes renin and stimulates acid
angiotensin, which STOMACH production
ADRENAL
control blood
GLAND
pressure, as well as
erythropoietin, which
stimulates production KIDNEY
of red blood cells KIDNEY
Secretes insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
to control blood sugar; gastrin, which
stimulates stomach cells to produce acid;
Producing hormones PANCREAS and a hormone that controls water secretion
The endocrine system is made up of and absorption in intestines
glands that are dedicated specifically to
secreting hormones, as well as organs—
such as the stomach—that are not glands Produces female reproductive hormones
themselves but are able to produce, store, estrogen and progesterone, which
prepare uterus for menstruation or
and release hormones. Both types react to pregnancy
signals from the brain by increasing or
decreasing the production of hormones,
which then travel, via the bloodstream, OVARY
Produce testosterone, which is essential
to a target organ, where they lock onto in sperm production, maintaining
specialized receptors on the surfaces of muscle mass and strength, libido, and
bone density
cells. This triggers a physiological change
that restores homeostasis. TESTES
Hunger 5 Feeling full
Signals that
leptin and insulin
Hypothalamus
acts as regulator

and Thirst
levels are increasing
stimulate the US

M
hypothalamus to

LA
HA
produce the hormone
melanocortin, which

OT
makes us feel full.
Food and drink are essential

H YP
to human survival. Prompts by Rising levels of
ghrelin tell
hormones to take in nutrients hypothalamus
and water are experienced by stomach is empty

the body as hunger and thirst.

Signals from
Hunger 4 adipose tissue Insulin levels tell
There are two types of hunger. Hedonic To prevent us from hypothalamus
hunger involves eating food—particularly overeating, adipose tissue whether body
cells release a hunger- has enough
foods high in fat, sugar, and salt—when we inhibiting hormone called energy
are already full, while homeostatic hunger leptin, which travels to
(see right) is a response to our energy the hypothalamus.
stores depleting. Once food has passed
through the stomach and intestines, the
now-empty stomach releases a hormone
called ghrelin. This acts on neurons in Signals from pancreas
3 After we have eaten, the
Decreased levels
the hypothalamus to tell us that we are small intestine releases the hormone
of leptin inform
hungry, prompting us to eat. A hunger- hypothalamus of
incretin. This, combined with the
low energy stores;
inhibiting hormone called leptin is stomach stretching and increased
increased leptin
glucose in the blood, causes the
then released by adipose (fat-bearing) pancreas to release insulin.
levels help inhibit
tissue to stop us from overeating. appetite

Urge to eat
Feeling hungry 2 Rising levels of ghrelin
The brain, digestive system, and fat stores form
instruct the hypothalamus to release
an interconnected system that regulates our
a chemical signal called neuropeptide
feelings of hunger. The sensation of hunger
Y, which stimulates our appetite.
can be caused by internal factors, such as our
stomach being empty or our blood sugar
levels falling, or by external triggers, such as Incretin produced by
seeing or smelling food. intestines triggers
insulin production

KEY
DEHYDRATION Ghrelin
Stretch receptors
detect expansion
AFFECTS OUR Insulin
of stomach

SHORT-TERM Leptin
STOMACH
ADIPOSE
MEMORY, PANCREAS
SMALL INTESTINE

Incretin Pancreas (FAT)

produces insulin
CONCENTRATION, Vagus
Empty stomach
TISSUE

AND ANXIETY LEVELS

nerve signal 1 Once the stomach has been empty
Movement for around two hours, levels of sugar and
of food insulin in the blood decrease. This causes the
stomach to produce the hormone ghrelin.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Hunger and Thirst 94 95
Lamina Organum vasculosum
Thirst terminalis (LT) of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)
When water levels in the body drop, salt
levels in the blood increase. Thirst areas Subfornical organ (SFO)
in the brain detect rising salt levels and
signal to the body to increase water levels Thirst areas of the brain
by reducing urine output and taking in Two structures, the organum
more fluids. After drinking, it takes around vasculosum of the lamina
terminalis (OVLT) and the
15 minutes before salt concentration levels subfornical organ (SFO)—both
in the blood return to normal. It is thought linked to the hypothalamus—help
that the gulping action of the throat when create the sensation of thirst.
Hypothalamus They lack a blood-brain barrier so
swallowing liquids sends signals to Pituitary are thought to be able to detect
stop drinking. gland salt levels in the blood.

Heart and kidney The SFO and The hypothalamus

1 receptors detect
decreases in blood
volume and increases in
salt concentration. They
alert the brain.
2 OVLT also
receive signals about
blood volume and salt
concentration. They signal
to the hypothalamus.
3 passes these
signals to the pituitary
gland, which then
produces antidiuretic
hormone (ADH).

High levels of
4 ADH tell the
kidneys to retain water
and secrete renin. This in
turn forms the hormone
angiotensin II.

Inhibitory neurons The hypothalamus The SFO detects

7 in the LT are
triggered by gulping
movements in the throat.
These neurons stop
further intake of water.
6 creates the
sensation of thirst,
prompting the urge
to drink so as to restore
water levels.
5 angiotensin II
and stimulates the
hypothalamus to
prompt the formation
of more ADH.

ARE YOU DEHYDRATED?

HOW LONG CAN VERY
The most obvious symptoms HYDRATED
YOU SURVIVE WITHOUT of dehydration are a dry mouth
FOOD OR WATER? and eyes, and perhaps a slight HYDRATED
headache. Another good way
Three to four days is the to tell is by the color of your
urine. It should be pale yellow MODERATELY
average without water, but DEHYDRATED
at full hydration. A darker
you can go up to two months amber color shows severe
VERY
without food in certain dehydration. Adults should DEHYDRATED
circumstances. take in around 31 ⁄ 2 –4 pints
(2–2.5 liters) of fluids a day. DANGEROUSLY
DEHYDRATED
 Putamen feeds stored Posterior parietal cortex receives
READINESS POTENTIAL information to posterior information from putamen and also
parietal cortex assesses body’s position in relation
to surroundings
When we prepare for a voluntary action, a buildup of
electrical activity, called the readiness potential, occurs. AL X
T ER TE PO
It begins in the SMA and is intensified by activity in the R PA STE
LA O
PMA. Activity in the SMA starts up to 2 seconds before R SO AL C CO RIE RIO
D O ON
T RT TA R
we become consciously aware of our decision to move— EX L
F R
which may suggest that we are less in control of our
actions than we might believe (see p.168).
BASAL
TH GANGLIA
Activity in PUTA ALA
MEN MU
SMA Time of actual S VISUAL
Activity in movement CORTEX
Activity

PMA

0
Sensory information is sent
–3 –2 –1 0 1 from visual cortex via thalamus
Time (seconds) to dorsolateral frontal cortex

Gathering information
1

SPINAL CORD
Sensory areas, such as the visual
THE CEREBELLUM CONTAINS cortex, send signals to the frontal cortex.
The putamen, which stores learned actions,
MORE THAN 50 PERCENT sends information to the parietal cortex,
which assesses whether these learned
OF THE BRAIN’S NEURONS actions could be used in this new situation.

Planning Movement
Conscious movements are those that we deliberately decide
to make. They involve several regions of our brain and include
processes that lie outside our conscious awareness.

The planning process WHY DON’T WE

There are several stages involved in carrying out a movement—from
FORGET HOW TO RIDE
initial perception of the environment, to planning, to adjustments
A BICYCLE?
during the movement. These stages involve different areas of the
brain working together to produce a response. The area that prompts Nerve cells in the putamen
the movement is the motor cortex. Different sections of the motor encode the sequence of muscle
cortex send signals to different parts of the body (see p.98). However,
movements into our long-term
before an action begins, an action plan is created by the dorsolateral
frontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex and is passed through
memory storage so that
two areas of the motor cortex: the supplementary motor area (SMA) they are easily accessible
and the premotor area (PMA). The cerebellum coordinates the even years later.
movement as it is happening. The steps above show the brain areas
involved and the sequence of signals in a typical movement.
 BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES
Planning Movement 96 97
Posterior parietal cortex Brain stem passes Primary motor area has
signals conscious intention to information back to command-feedback links with
move via basal ganglia primary motor cerebellum and basal ganglia
area once it is
A

A
SM fine-tuned

TOR Y
AL X

ARE
MO RIMAR
PO
ER TE
T
A OR PA STE
OL L C CO RIE RIO
PMA
S

P
R TA RT TA R
D O ON EX L
F R
BASAL
BASAL GANGLIA
THALAMUS GANGLIA
PUT
A MEN

Dorsolateral
frontal cortex
sends signals to
basal ganglia CE R
E BE

BR
Command for action LLU
M

AI
Thalamus relays signals sent via spinal

N
from basal ganglia to cord to muscles

ST
PMA and SMA

EM
Basal ganglia
Deciding how to move Getting ready for action
2 strengthen or
3
SPINAL CORD

SPINAL CORD
The dorsolateral frontal cortex weaken signals Signals travel to the primary
and parietal cortex work together to Information exchanged
motor area, which forwards instructions
plan the movement. This information between cerebellum
to the cerebellum and brain stem to be
is sent via the basal ganglia (see pp.32–33) and brain stem
fine-tuned. Signals from these areas return
to the PMA and SMA, which specify the to the primary motor area, which sends the
sequence of muscle contractions needed. signal for action to the spinal cord.

Putamen receives Dentate nucleus

N Once signals have signals from frontal makes subtle
TIO been regulated, thalamus and parietal areas N adjustments to
C IO motor plans
forwards to PMA and SMA
CT
SE

SE
SS
CRO

OSS
PU
TA

SIDE CR
THA
FRONT

ME
L

DENTATE
N

BR
AMU

Substantia
US NUCLEUS
AI

nigra controls
L OB DUS
N

G LLI
S

strength of
ST

PA
EM

actions

Cerebellar
AR

L
cortex EL X
coordinates E RE B R TE
C CO
Globus pallidus timing
Subthalamic inhibits unwanted
nucleus involved movements
in impulse control

KEY
Regulating movement Making adjustments Signals to
The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei that Signals from the primary motor area are cerebellum
are linked to the thalamus. Signals from frontal sent to the cerebellum, which plays a role
and parietal areas are processed by circuits in in measuring time. It also makes real-time Signals from
the basal ganglia that amplify or inhibit adjustments to movements in response to cerebellum
movement signals. our environment.
 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX MOVEMENTS
Making a Move A motor homunculus shows
Once our brain has planned a movement (see pp.96–97), which areas of the motor
cortex control which areas of
it sends signals to the appropriate muscles in the body, the body. Areas for adjacent PR
IM
body parts—such as the arm A
via the nervous system, to turn intention into action.
RY

and hand—are generally

M

grouped together. The body

OT

From brain to spine

OR

Signals from the motor and parietal areas of the cortex are sent along the parts are shown in proportion;
A

those areas that make complex

axons of neurons, through the brain stem, to communicate with motor
REA

movements, such as the face

neurons in the spinal cord. Most of the axons form part of a bundle called and the hand, take up more
the lateral corticospinal tract, which crosses over at the base of the brain space in the cortex than those
stem so that axons from one brain hemisphere connect to motor nerves for making simple movements,
the opposite side of the body. Other nerve tracts originate in different parts such as the foot. MOTOR HOMUNCULUS
of the midbrain and perform specific movement functions.

T S LEFT
SID

US
KEY AC EO

M
TR

A
Lateral corticospinal

L
FB
PRIMARY

AL
tract
RA

INA
Red MOTOR
IN

TH
PA

SP
Rubrospinal tract nucleus AREA CO RIE
RT TA
Vestibulospinal EX L
Reticular Lateral corticospinal Most signals
tract
formation tract begins in originate in
Reticulospinal cortex and runs primary
tract Axons cross to through thalamus motor area
opposite side
Motor-nerve axon of body in Rubrospinal
midbrain tract aids fine
PONS motor control
Axons cross MIDBRAIN
over to opposite
Nerve tracts side of body CEREBELLUM
1 The Vestibulospinal tract,
axons of just below
which originates in
the lateral corticospinal brain stem
brain stem, helps Axons collect in
tract send signals to
regulate balance midbrain and join
muscles that connect to Reticulospinal
and body spinal cord
S

the skeleton to produce tract helps

P

orientation
voluntary limb movements. coordinate Neurons from brain (upper
INA

Other groups of axons are movement motor neurons) pass

responsible for the body’s signals down spinal cord
L CO

involuntary responses, such

RD

as balance, as well as for

SPINAL CORD

fine-tuning movements.
 NEUROM Muscle contracts
and moves joint,
USC

N
AL
UL
causing arm to E

IN
RV
AR
Direction bend NE Lower motor neurons

RM O
of signal AL

JU

TE AX
DI pass signals from

N
RA

C
spinal cord to muscles

TIO
N
Receptor for
acetylcholine Acetylcholine
Upper motor
SYNAPTIC CLEFT neurons
Lower motor
SP

neurons WHITE
IN

MUSCLE FIBER MATTER

A

LE
SC
At the neuromuscular junction, the end GRAY
L CO

MU
3 of the axon releases acetylcholine, a MATTER
RD

neurotransmitter (see p.24). The acetylcholine VENTRAL

binds to receptors in the muscle cell HORN
membrane. This triggers chemical
reactions that make the muscle
fiber contract.
The upper and lower motor neurons meet
2 in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
The outer part of the ventral horn carries
nerves that run to the hands and feet;
the central part carries nerves to
the upper arms and thighs.

RM
Executing movement

T A
Nerve signals make a muscle
contract and pull on the associated

GH
RI
joint to move the part of the limb
just beyond it. Muscles used in fine
movements have more nerve endings
HOW LONG DOES IT
than those used for simple movements. TAKE FOR A SIGNAL
TO TRAVEL FROM
Making a Move
BRAIN FUNCTIONS AND THE SENSES

BRAIN TO MUSCLE?
From spine to muscle
Inside the spinal cord, the axons of the corticospinal tract, which are Signals can travel
covered with a myelin sheath, form the white matter. The gray matter at from the brain to our
the center of the spinal cord consists of the cell bodies of motor neurons.
muscles at a speed of up
The ends of the corticospinal axons (known as upper motor neurons)
synapse on to motor neurons (known as lower motor neurons) in the to 395 ft (120 m)
ventral horn of the gray matter. The axons of the lower neurons exit the per second.
98 99

spine through gaps in the vertebrae (see p.12) and extend to the muscle
fibers. The point where the nerve endings activate the muscle fibers to
complete the movement is called the neuromuscular junction.
Unconscious WHY DOES BEING

Movement
TIRED SLOW DOWN
OUR REACTION TIME?
When we are tired, neurons
We perform many voluntary actions without having in our brain slow down,
to think about them because they are so familiar. affecting our visual
Another kind of unconscious movement is the perception and memory.
reflex action—an instinctive response to danger. This means we respond to
events more slowly.
Reaction pathways
Visual information is vital in helping us
plan our movements. Information from the UPPER
visual cortex follows two routes in the brain (DORSAL)
ROUTE Visual pathways in the brain
(see pp.70–71). The upper (or dorsal) route,
The dorsal route carries information
which leads to the parietal lobe, guides LOWER on the position of the body and other
our actions in real time. Meanwhile, the (VENTRAL) objects, while the ventral route draws
lower (or ventral) route, which ends at ROUTE on perception and memory for
CORTEX
VISUAL

identifying objects. The brain uses this

the temporal lobe, triggers stored visual information to judge the strength and
experiences to help us interpret what we direction required for a movement.
see and respond accordingly.

Attention focused on Body readies

what the player can see, itself to
Coordinated actions such as opposing player respond
Any sequence of actions demands
coordination between different
parts of the brain—first to focus
attention on the task, then to
integrate sensory information and Thalamus Frontal lobe Putamen stores
focuses inhibits learned actions,
memory to create a plan, then
attention on distracting such as how to
to engage the motor area to act. opponent thoughts return a ball
Acquiring a new skill, such as
driving or playing a sport, involves
learning and practicing movement
FR LOB
ON E

sequences so that they become PARIETAL

TA

almost unconscious. When we learn CORTEX

L

a skill, our brain cells form new
connections. By the time we have
mastered a skill (see box, right),
there is far less cortical activity
associated with performing that
task than there was when we were
a novice. As a result, the actions
of a skilled person—such as a
professional tennis player—are
more rapid, precise, and subtle.
THALAMUS
Attention
1 To prepare for action, the
thalamus directs attention to the area
where the activity will occur (such as the
opposing player), while the frontal lobes
block distracting thoughts so the player
can concentrate on the visual cues.
PUTAMEN
Memory
2 Visual cues trigger the parietal
cortex to call up memories of action
sequences from the putamen. The
parietal cortex uses this information
to assess the context and create an
internal model for the action.