The ImperialFacade:

Daniel H. Burnham and

American Architectural
Planningin thePhilippines

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THOMAS S. HINES
The author is a memberof the historydepartmentin the
Universityof California,Los Angeles.

iN o SOONERhad the UnitedStatescome intothepossessionof

thePhilippines,"wrotetheAmericanarchitectand planner,Daniel
Burnham,"than the War Departmentset about adaptingthe city
of Manila to the changedconditionsbroughtabout by the influx
of Americans,who are used to betterconditionsoflivingthanhad
prevailedin thoseislands."1 The charmingbut functionally "prim-
itive"capitalcityof America'snew tropicalempirehad lacked,in
short,the amenitiesand the modernconveniencesneeded and de-
mandedbythepresumably morecivilizedand civilizingcolonizers.
Burnham'smissionto the Philippinesas an architectural consul-
tantin 1904 and 1905 and his subsequentplanningproposalsfor
thecitiesofManila and Baguio constitutedindeedan architectural
corollaryto theearliermoresalientprogramsof the United States
forthe islands'politicaland economicdevelopment.
When BurnhamembarkedforthePhilippinesin thelateautumn
1 Daniel H. Burnham and Edward H. Bennett,Plan of Chicago (Chicago 1909),20.
Many of my ideas about Burnham'sPhilippine endeavorswere stimulated,challenged,
or confirmedby my wife,DorothyTaylor Hines, a studentof, and formerresidentin,
the Philippines. I am also indebted to Mr. Eugene Pucay, a Filipino who has spent
all his seventyyears in Baguio. This article deals only with the origins of American
planning in the Philippines. Additional studies coveringarchitecturalplanning be-
fore and after Burnham's work for the American governmentare badly needed. A
comparison of Spanish, American,and indigenous Philippine planning would be an
interestingand useful exercise in comparative colonial and cultural history.
33
34 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

of 1904,he carriedwithhim impressivecredentialsand a formida-

ble reputationas an architect,cityplanner,culturaladministrator,
and man of affairs--qualities and talentsthatwould greatlyaffect
his ultimatePhilippineachievement.In the 1880sand 1890s,for
example, Burnhamand his giftedpartner,JohnWellborn Root,
had sharedthe limelightwiththe firmof Louis Sullivan as major
pioneeringinnovatorsof theChicagoSchoolofarchitecture. Burn-

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ham and Root's epochal,ten-story MontaukBlock of 1882 had, in
fact,been one of the firstbuildingsto be popularlylabeled a "sky-
scraper."In theearly1890s,thetwopartnershad assumedthejoint
directorship of the ChicagoWorld's Fair, the famousWorld's Co-
lumbian Exposition,and, afterRoot's prematuredeath in 1891,
Burnhamhad continuedthattaskalone. As chiefof construction,
Burnhamhad directedthe workof dozensof architectsand hun-
dredsof artisansand builders,and the resulting"White City" of
1893 had dazzled visitorswith its classicallyinspiredarchitecture
and its ambienceof imperialpomp and splendor.For his achieve-
mentsat the fair,Burnhamreceivednumerousawards,including
honorarydegreesfromYale and Harvardand electionto the pres-
idency of the AmericanInstituteof Architects.Gravitating,for
a numberof complexpersonaland professional reasons,fromthe
earlierindigenousclarityof the ChicagoSchool,Burnham's"class-
icism"at the fairhad metwithoverwhelming popular approval.2
Later criticswould rightlylamentthe fair'spervasive"classical"
architecturalinfluences,taking their cue fromLouis Sullivan's
brilliantlyacerbicretrospections, but theywould also fail,as Sulli-
van did, to appreciatethe fair'smore positivecontributions.In
creatingthefair,Burnhamhad had to build a temporary city,with
actual buildings,streetsand canals,and whateverotherfacilitiesor
conveniencesits transient"citizens"would need. The apparent
2 My assessmentof Burnham's reputation and earlier achievementas summarized
in the followingparagraphs (especially his turn toward neoclassicism)is developed
in detail in my 1970 Universityof Wisconsin doctoral dissertation,"Daniel H. Burn-
ham, A Study in Cultural Leadership." I am currentlyrevisingthat study for pub-
lication as a critical biographyof Burnham. My sources of data for the larger study
are located,forthe mostpart,in the Burnham Collection at the Chicago ArtInstitute.
Helpful published sources that treat the same problems in an abbreviated form,and
sometimeswith differentconclusions,include: Carl W. Condit, The Chicago School
of Architecture,A History of Commercialand Public Building in the Chicago Area,
1875-1925 (Chicago, 1964),John W. Reps, The Making of Urban America: A
History
of CityPlanning in the United States (Princeton,1965),and Mellier G. Scott,American
City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeleyand Los Angeles, 1969).
 The Imperial Fagade 35

successof thatgiganticundertakinghad convincedBurnhamand

numerousotherAmericansoftheneed fora new movementofreal
cityplanning,whichwould drawupon theWhite Cityexperience
and attacktheproblemsofthelarger,darkercitiesthatcoveredthe
nation. Numerous visitorsto the Chicago Fair had returnedto
theirown citiesgreatlyexcitedby the vision thatthe White City
had createdbut the long, cripplingdepressionof the 1890s had

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dampenedthe immediateprospectsof the incipientcityplanning
movement.Only with the increasedprosperity afterthe Spanish-
AmericanWar had the legacyof theWhiteCitybegun to exercise
its promisedinfluenceupon Americanurbandevelopmentand ul-
timatelyupon the extensionof such ideas and programsto the
Philippines.
In 1901, forexample,Burnhamhad servedas chairmanof an
architecturalcommissionto replanthecityof Washington,and in
concertwithhis distinguished colleagues,CharlesMcKim,Augus-
tus St. Gaudens,and FrederickLaw Olmsted,Jr.,had presented
an impressiveupdating,revival,and enlargementof L'Enfant's
originalschemeforthe capitalcity.Though developedmorethan
a centuryapart,both plans forWashingtonhad coincided with
greattransitionalperiodsin the nation'shistory,momentswhen
Americanswere especiallyconsciousthattheircountrywas enter-
ing upon excitingnew eras of internaldevelopmentand of in-
creasedpowerand prestigein the affairsof the world.The quest
fororderand efficiencyembodiedin Burnham'sWashingtonPlan
and its ideas forcorrectingthe District'sobvious functionaland
estheticchaos had complementedthe growingconcernin the na-
tion at large forreformingsocial, political,and economicabuses
in Americanlife.And Burnhamhad been consciousof his role as
a participantin that "progressive"movement.The monumental
scope, on the otherhand, of the commission'sarchitecturaland
landscapingproposalsforWashington,significantly suggestiveof
Rome and Paris,had evokedan image of imperialsplendorthat
the plannershad deemedfitting and properforthe capitalof the
emergingAmericanempire.While echoing the neoclassicismof
both L'Enfant'stimeand of therecentChicagoFair,theWashing-
ton Plan had reenforcedthe effects of the Expositionin awaken-
ing the Americanpublic to the need forand value of new urban
planning.It had conditionedAmericans,as the fairhad done be-
36 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

foreit, to accept and then to demand the typeof planningthat

Burnham and his followersadvocated.It had furtherprepared
Burnhamin an art and skill that found fulfillment in plans for
Cleveland,San Francisco,and ultimatelyforthe Philippines.
Afterthe completionof the WashingtonPlan, the firstprogres-
sive reformerto exploit Burnham'stalentsas a cityplannerhad
been Tom L. Johnson,mayorof Cleveland. Justas Burnham's
workin the Philippinesbecamethearchitectural

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expressionof the
Americanimperialistthrust,his 1903 "Group Plan" forCleveland
reflectedthe paradoxesof the relatedand contemporaneous pro-
gressivemovement at home. The Cleveland reporthad in factbeen
a classicillustrationof severaldifferent aspectsof the progressive
mentality,combiningin its rhetoricthe fuzzilydefinedelements
of both pragmaticrealismand romanticidealism.It had champ-
ioned "efficiency" and "the people's interests"in elitisttermsof
the mostluxurious,aristocratic taste.It had stressedthe need for
politicalrealism and "accommodation" in a doctrinaire,reformist
tone thatbrookedno compromise.It had also suggestedthe same
contradictions in its actual physicaldichotomies.Burnham'sener-
geticcall forchangingthefaceof Cleveland'surban landscapehad
assumedthe dimensionsof a real reformmovementor at least an
importantarm of MayorJohnson'slargermovement.His resort,
however,to classicaldetailingand to antique academic formulas
as the recommendedstyleof the New Metropoliswere self-defeat-
ing and contradictory. Most contemporaries, however,had failed
to see the paradox, and Burnham'sstatureand reputationhad
flourished.
Followingtheacclaimforhis highlypublicizedWashingtonand
Cleveland plans, Burnhamhad been commissionedfora similar
projectin San Francisco.But aftercompletingthe initial surveys,
thebroad sketches, and thegeneralproposals,he had relegatedthe
detailing of the California workto his able assistantEdward Ben-
nett.He would laterreturnto completethe plansand to writethe
San Franciscoreport,but in 1904 he directedhis full attentionto
the concurrentprojectforthe Philippines.He had won the com-
missionto replanthecolonial capitalthroughan interesting series
of social and personal circumstances.Chiefly,he owed his selection
for the exotic mission to his own growing reputation and to his
 The Imperial Facade 37

long friendshipwitha youngand ambitiousMassachusettsBrah-

min,W. CameronForbes.
Forbeswas a well-bred,well-educatedscionof one of New Eng-
land's mostdistinguishedfamilies.His maternalgrandfather had
been none other than the philosopher,Ralph Waldo Emerson.
His paternal forebearshad been successfulmerchantsand had
bequeathed to him both considerablewealth and responsibility

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in managingthe family'sholdings.A keen senseof familyloyalty,
however,did not keep youngForbes frombecomingrestlessand
seekingchallengesbeyondthe comfortable orbitsof Massachusetts
societyand commerce. His uncle, Malcolm Forbes,had long been
a friendof Burnham,and it was throughthat relationshipthat
Cameronand Burnhamhad become acquainted.3
Burnhamhad early recognizedthe young man's promiseand
had sympathized and his desireto represent
with his restlessness
thegovernment abroad.In 1902,forexample,whenForbesapplied
fora job in Panama, Burnhamhad advisedhis friend,President
Theodore Roosevelt,thattherewas "no one in the countrybetter
fittedto be United States Canal Commissioner. . . . His appoint-
mentwill be verypopularin thewestwherehis own and his family
namesare well known."Forbesfailedto getthePanamajob but he
recognizedand appreciatedBurnham'shelp and interest.4
Burnhamand otherscontinuedto extol Forbes' qualifications
to thePresident,and in early1904Rooseveltappointedhim a com-
missionerto thePhilippines."I have to do largelywiththedevelop-
ment and improvements of the Islands," Forbes wroteto Burn-
ham, "all railroads,transportation,
corporations, etc. being in my
hands,besidesthe Police whichare now entrustedto themainten-
ance of the peace of the Archipelago.I am quite as pleased with
thisas I should be with the Canal," he wrote,"and thinkit is a
fieldfortheapplicationofenergysuchas seldomcomesto a young
man. . . . I want to thank you for the interestyou have taken in

3 Robert M. Spector,"W. Cameron Forbes: A Studyin ProconsularPower," Journal

of SoutheastAsian History,VII (September,1966), 74-75; Daniel H. Burnham to W.
Cameron Forbes,Feb. 24, 1904,Forbes Papers, Houghton Library,Harvard University.
I am gratefulto Mr. David Forbes,Miss CarolynJakeman,and the Houghton Library
for permissionto use and to quote fromForbes' papers.
4 Burnham to Theodore Roosevelt,Aug. 1, 1902; Burnham to Forbes, Jan. 7, 1903,
Forbes Papers.
38 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

myaffairs and thehelp whichyou have givenme whichI feelhad

a greatdeal to do withmysecuringthisappointment." 5
Burnham'scongratulations were mingledwith regretover the
coincidentaldeath of his friend,and Cameron'suncle, Malcolm,
but he could not conceal his enthusiasmfor the immediateand
broader possibilitiesof the Philippinesexperiment."The work
there,"Burnhamarguedemphatically, "is constructivein a higher

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sensethan is thatat Panama, and you will be responsibleand in-
dependentin yourwork.Now youngCameron!We shall see what
you are made of."6
BeforeForbes leftforthe Orient,he began the searchfor an
architectwho would followhim to the Philippinesand prepare
appropriateplans.Secretary of War William Howard Taft,whose
was in
department officially chargeof colonies,had originallysug-
gestedthathe engagea "landscapearchitect," and Forbes'thought
had rathernaturallyturnedto FrederickLaw Olmsted,Jr. Olm-
sted'sreputationby 1904had come to rivalthatofhis long famous
fatheras the country'smosteminentlandscapearchitect,but the
resultingcommercialdemand forhis serviceshad made him too
busy to accept Forbes' offer.As Forbes continuedto ponder the
question,however,it seemed illogical to insistspecificallyon a
"landscapearchitect," and he broadenedhissearchto includebuild-
ing architects
as well. Inexplicably,it had not occurredto him that
Burnhammightbe interested and, on April 1,he wroteto his,and
Burnham'sfriend,Charles McKim: "It is one of the projectsof
the Philippinegovernment to build a new city5000 feetabove the
sea, which will be to the PhilippinesmuchwhatSimla is to India.
It is partof the plan forme to get some landscapearchitectto go
out and tryto lay out a new city,and in addition to make some
plans forthedevelopmentof Manila. I have been tryingveryhard
to getF. L. Olmstedto go,but he feelsthathe cannot,and doesnot
know who to recommend.Can you suggestanyone?Perhapsyou
would like a littletripto the Philippinesyourself!If so I am start-
ing about the middle of June and should be proud of yourcom-
pany."7

5 Forbes to Burnham, Feb. 17, 1904, ibid.

6 Burnham to Forbes,Feb. 24, 1904,ibid.
7 Forbes to Olmsted, March 11, 1904; Forbes to William Howard Taft, March
11,
March 25, 1904; Forbes to Charles McKim, April 1, 1904, ibid.
 The Imperial Facade 39

On the same day,he also wroteto Burnhamsolicitinghis sug-

gestionsand thankinghim again forhis help and good wishes."I
feelwithyou,"he stated,"thatthisis my chance to provemyself
if I ever am to have one and shall go at it withthe idea of doing
the best I can." He repeated the summaryof the architectural
needs he had givento McKim. "I have triedto get Olmstedto go,"
he wrote,"but he findshisworktoo exacting,and thoughI am still
urginghim he has practicallydeclined.I wish you would let me

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know who you suggestto undertakethiswork."He did not men-
tionto Burnhamthathe had madean informalofferto McKimand
he was pleasantlysurprisedwhen Burnham intimatedthat he,
himself,mightlike the job. He was also, no doubt, a bit embar-
rassedthathe had not consideredBurnhamearlier."Believe I may
be able to arrangeforjust the rightarchitect," he wiredSecretary
Taft. "Please communicatewithme beforeclosingwithanybody."
He thenarrangedforTaft to meet and interviewBurnham,and
Taft quickly became convincedthat Burnhamshould have the
job.8
In earlyMay, however,Forbes encounteredan almostcomical
dilemma."I receiveda letterfromMr. Burnhamin San Francisco,"
he wroteto Secretary Taft,"thathe could notgo to thePhilippines
until the autumnbut thatif the thingcould be postponeduntil
then he would like to knowit and would probablyarrangeto go
out. I also had a letterfromMr. McKim," he added, perplexedly,
"in whichhe said thatif it could be delayed,he too mightlike to
comeout. This lookslike an embarrassment ofriches."Yet,though
he had actuallyapproachedMcKim first, he wonderedwhyhe had
not askedBurnhamat theverybeginning,and he confidedto Taft
that "Personally I prefer Burnham . . . as he has the business
abilityto get thingsdone and providesfromhis organizationthe
artisticability of the special kind wanted. . . . Please let me know
. if you thinkit is wise to wait forBurnham."Taft's earlier
interviewhad convincedhim thattheyshould"waituntilAutumn
forBurnham;he is too good a man to lose." Forbesthenmade the
formaloffer, and Burnhamaccepted.9
Burnhamundertookthenewassignment in muchthesamespirit

8 Forbes to Burnham,April 1, 8, 1904; Forbes to Taft, April 6 and 18, 1904, ibid.
9 Forbes to Taft, May 18, 1904; Forbes to Burnham,
May 27, 1904, ibid.
40 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

thatForbeshad undertakenhis. As patricianand moderatelylib-

eral Republicans,both men identifiedwith manyof the reform
currentsin Americanlife. They believed, however,there were
limitsto changeand certainlyto the speed withwhich it should
occur. They also acceptedthe faitaccompliof the new American
empire,whateverambivalencetheymay have feltabout the way
the new territories were acquired. While believingultimatelyin
"the Philippinesfor the Filipinos," theyaccepted the view that

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beforethatcould happen,theFilipinosneededa periodof tutelage
in whichthemore"advanced"Americanscould help effect a "pro-
gressive civilization" by instructionand example. As a reader and
admirerof Rudyard Kipling, Burnhamwas no strangerto the
"White Man's Burden" frameof mind. Despite the oppositionof
the anti-imperialists, Burnhamand Forbesbelongedto the school
thatbelievedthat"the UnitedStates,havingoverthrown theSpan-
ish government ..., was under obligationto see that the govern-
mentestablishedin its place would representall and do injustice
to none." Both men had friendsand acquaintancesin the anti-
imperialistcamp,but theyneverwaveredin theirconvictionthat
a period of trusteeship was essentialforultimatePhilippinesuc-
cess. As advocatesalso of "progressive"planning for American
cities,it seemednaturaland properthatthe same kindsof urban
programsshouldbe effected in Americanterritories overseas.'0
Burnham'scommitment to such long-rangegoals "forthe Fili-
pinos"did not preventhis also viewingtheenterprisein moreim-
mediate termsof Americanculturalneeds and conveniences.In
laterdescribingtherationaleforthe Philippinework,he stressed
the need for "adaptingthe cityof Manila to the changedcondi-
tionsbroughtabout by the influxof Americans,"because,he be-
lieved, theywere "used to betterconditionsof living" than the
Philippinescurrentlyprovided.Ultimately,he studiedthe prob-
lemsand preparedhis plansin thelightofbothof thosepragmatic
and idealisticgoals."

10 Spector,"W. Cameron Forbes: A

Study in Proconsular Power," 74-75; Forbes to
Burnham, Sept. 1, 1905,May 28, 1906, Oct. 10, 1907,and Burnham to Forbes, June 9,
Sept. 23, 1905,Forbes Papers; David P. Barrows,History of the Philippines (Chicago
and Yonkers-on-Hudson,New York, 1925), 267. Burnham was aware of the develop-
ment of Simla as the Britishcolonial summercapital in India. In part, he considered
his work in the Philippines an American versionof earlier British colonial
11 Burnham, Diary, July 30, 1905, Burnham examples.
Papers, Chicago Art InstituteLibrary;
 The Imperial Facade 41

When McKim learned that Burnhamwanted and was being

consideredforthePhilippinesjob, he discardedhisown aspirations
to do the work and sent congratulations to both Burnhamand
Secretary Taft. The encouragement from his closestfriendcheered
Burnhamgreatly."I have no doubt,"he wroteMcKim, "but that
yourletterto SecretaryTaft will strengthen me in his mind as an
artistand a man ofgood taste,althoughhe has been cordialbeyond
my dessertsalready.I have not failedto noticethatwheneveryou

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come in contactwith any of my friends,theyseem afterwardto
have an accessionof faithin me. It is a finethingin thisworldto
have someonestrengthen yourhands behind yourback as you do
forme." He also appreciatedMcKim's personaladviceon the Phil-
ippinesproject."I shall be disappointed,"he wrote,"in any large
undertakingofmine,if I did not getyourwordsooneror later."12
When Forbestold Taft thatBurnhamcould provide"fromhis
organizationtheartisticabilityofthespecialkindwanted,"he was
referring to youngerarchitects suchas PierceAnderson,who went
to thePhilippinesas Burnham'sassistant.LeavingBennettbehind
to completethe detailsof the San Franciscoplan, Burnhamsailed
on October 13, 1904,accompaniedalso by his wifeand daughter,
and his close Chicago friends,the EdwardAyers.Crossingthe Pa-
cificgave him timeto ponderForbes'descriptionof the situation
in the Philippines:First,theremustbe a plan forthe physicalre-
developmentofManila,a centuriesold cityofsome220,000people.
Then, therewere"severalthousandacresof land whichSec'yTaft
comparesto the Adirondacksin generaleffect, situated5000 feet
above the level of the sea and 145 miles fromManila by railroad.
. . It is proposedto move the government up thereduringthe
.
summermonths[,]puttingup buildingsforthem,hospitalsforthe
Armyand fortheNavyand perhapsforciviluse,and to allow Gov-
ernmentemployeesthe privilegeof takinga lot ofland and build-
ing on it ... and they are very anxious to have this laid out on
beautifullines." The Burnhamsenjoyedthe Pacificcrossingfol-
lowed by a splendidmonth-long
visitin Japan.In late November,

Burnham and Bennett,Plan of Chicago, 29. I am gratefulto Miss Ruth Schoneman,

Mrs. Peggy Rast, and the staffof the Chicago InstituteLibrary for their interestand
assistance.
12 Burnham to Charles McKim, Sept. 14, 1904,
reprintedin Charles Moore, Daniel
H. Burnham, Planner of Cities (Boston and New York, 1921), I, 233.
42 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

however,the vacationended and businessbegan. Burnham'swife

and daughterdepartedto await the men in Hawaii and Burnham
and PierceAndersonstartedsouthwardto thePhilippines.Arriving
on December7th,theystayedin thecountryforapproximately six
weeks,talkingwithgovernment inspectingand surveying
officials,
the pertinentsites,workingover maps and "on the ground,"and
enjoying,besides,considerablesocializingand sight-seeing.13
Burnham'stravel diary preservednot only his itinerary,but

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glimpsesas well of Americancolonial lifein the tropics.His study
and inspectiontourswere accompaniedby much pomp and fan-
fare.As a visitingdignitary, he was receivedand entertainedwith
all available turn-of-the-century
colonial civility.Provinceofficials
arrangedlavish"fiestas."Nativeservantsattendedto his everywish.
Afterstudyingthe needs of the Manila area, it was necessaryto
venturenorthto the futuresite of Baguio, and Burnham,Ander-
son, and Forbes spent the Christmasweek in the mountainsof
Luzon. There theyfacedmoreprimitiveconditionsand accommo-
dationsas the ruggedterraindemandedoccasionaltravelby foot
and horseback.Even there,however,due chieflyto commissioner
Forbes,the amenitieswerenot lackingand Burnhamrelishedthe
experience immensely.Though the hikes and horsebackrides
fatiguedthe aging Burnham,the area's spectacularsceneryand
architectural possibilitiesimpressedand sustainedhim.On January
16, afternearlysix weeksof studyand survey,Burnhamand An-
dersondepartedthe Philippinesand sailed forhome,continuing
aboard ship to discuss their planning assignments.Aftershort
visitsto Hong Kong and Japan,theystoppedin Hawaii forthe
Burnhamladies and arrivedin San Franciscoon February19th.14
The tripaffected Burnhamdeeplyand forcedhim to reassesshis

13 Burnham to Henry C. Frick,Aug. 8, 1904; Burnham to Richard W. Gilder,

Sept.
12, 1904, Burnham Papers; Forbes to Burnham, April 8, 1904, Forbes Papers; Burn-
ham, Diary, Oct. 1904, passim. Burnham selected his junior partner,Anderson, for
the trip because he felt that the senior partner,Ernest Graham, should remain and
run the officein his absence.
14 Burnham, Diary, Oct. 13, 1904-Feb. 19, 1905, passim, as reprinted in Moore,
Daniel H. Burnham, I, 235-245. The original copy of Burnham's travel diary for the
1904-1905 trip to the Orient has apparently been lost since Moore had access to it
ca. 1920 and subsequentlypublished much of it. The original was not included in the
collection of diaries and papers that the Burnham family later presented to the
Chicago Art Institute.
 The Imperial FaCade 43

NorthAtlanticculturalbias. Afterreturningto Chicago,he wrote

his friendCharlesMoore that"the dive into the Orienthas been
like a dream.The lands,the people and theircustomsare all very
strangeand ofabsorbinginterest.It surprisesme to findhowmuch
this trip has modifiedmy views,not only regardingthe extreme
East,but regardingourselvesand our European precedents.It will
take timeto geta trueperspective of it all in mymind." Through

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the springand summerof 1905,BurnhamworkedwithAnderson
on the Philippineplansand withEdwardBennetton the plan for
San Francisco."We designto producea condition,"he wroteto a
friend,"whichshall make Manila whatthe Spaniardsused to call
it-'The PearloftheOrient.'"t1
Despite Burnham'spro-imperialist politicalsentiments, and the
generally"imperial" manner of his and all "City Beautiful" plan-
ning, the Manila plan was remarkablein its simplicityand its
cognizanceof Philippine conditionsand traditions.Concise and
straightforward,its technicalrecommendations for streets,parks,
railroads,and public buildingsechoed manyof Burnham'sideas
forWashington,Cleveland,and San Francisco.Yet, its qualifying
details took propernote of the tropicalclimateand the definite
"mafiana"ambienceoftheSpanish-Philippine tradition.New pub-
lic buildingsforculturaland governmental institutions would be
groupedappropriatelyinto a large civic centernear the bay and
southof theold walled innercity.The arrangement of suchbuild-
ings would be formal in thesense of facing on central open squares
and plazas,but theactualrecommendations called forlesspompous
and monumentaltreatment thanhad seemedappropriatein Eur-
ope and America."6

15 Burnham to Charles Moore, March 13, 1905, in Moore, Daniel H. Burnham, I,

245; Burnham, Diary, Sept. 14, 1906; Burnham to J. G. White, April 10, 1905,Burn-
ham Papers.
16 Burnham prefacedthe plan with a concise statementof
objectives: "(1) develop-
ment of waterfrontand location of parks and parkwaysso as to give proper means of
recreation to every quarter of the city; (2) a streetsystemsecuring direct and easy
communicationfromeverypart of the cityto everyotherpart; (3) location of building
sites for various activities; (4) developmentof waterwaysfor transportation;(5) sum-
mer resorts."Daniel H. Burnham, "Report on Proposed Improvementsat Manila,"
Proceedings of the Thirty-NinthAnnual Convention of the American Institute of
Architects(Washington, 1906), 135-151. Original copies of the officialtypescriptre-
port are in the Burnham Papers, Chicago Art InstituteLibrary,and in the possession
44 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

The need formoreopen and convenienttransportation routesin

the existingareas of gridironstreetarrangementpromptedBurn-
ham to recommendsuperimposeddiagonalarteries,radiatingfrom
the civiccore to all theoutlyingsections.Such an arrangement, he
suggested, "would be entirelyfittingforboth practicaland senti-
mentalreasons; practicalbecause the centerof governmental ac-
tivityshould be readilyaccessiblefrom all sides; sentimentalbe-
cause everysectionof the Capital Cityshouldlook withdeference

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toward the symbol of the Nation's power. . . ." In most such situ-
ations,he contended,"theplanningofa townshouldbe carriedout
[so] thata personmaypassfromanygivenpointto anyotherpoint
along a reasonablydirectline." New and futurestreetswould con-
formas muchas possibleto thenaturalcontoursoftheland. While
allowingprimespace along the riverand the seashoreforthe use
of privateclubs and the buildingof a luxuryhotel,Burnhamalso
expressedhis democratictendenciesbyreservingevenlargerspaces
forpublicparksand recreationalfacilities.Indeed,theManila plan
included much thatwas familiarto studentsof Burnham'sother
work and involvedsolutionsto urban problemsthathe deemed
appropriateforcitieseverywhere. And like mostotherexamplesof
City Beautiful planning, it focusedon public facilitiesalone, un-
fortunately as
bypassing outsideitspurviewthe evercrucialsocial
problemof betterhousingforthe poor.17
The uniquenessof the Manila report,as comparedto otherex-
amples of City Beautifulplanning,restedlargelyin Burnham's
awarenessof theuniquenessof Manila itself."Most of theexisting
buildings,"he noted, "were erectedin Spanish timesand are of
distinctlySpanishtype.They wereforthemostpartbuilt of wood
withprojectingsecondstories.... The roofwhichstillfurther over-
hangs the building was commonly coveredwith beautiful dull red
tile,and theeffect of thewhole is unusuallypleasing.... The old
Spanish churches and the old Spanish governmentbuildingsare
especiallyinteresting in viewof theirbeautyand practicalsuit-
and
abilityto local conditionscould be profitablytakenas examplesof

of the author. The printed version is noted for the convenienceof the reader. The
complicated problem of social prioritiesin City Beautiful planning is discussed in
detail in my dissertation,cited above (especially chapters 9, 10, and 16), and in my
forthcomingbook.
17 Burnham, "Report on Proposed Improvementsat Manila," 136.
 The Imperial Fagade 45

futurestructures." In the older sections,"the generaleffectof the

existingwell-shaded, narrowstreets," he thought,was "picturesque
and shouldbe maintained."18
He prefacedhisrecommendations forthetreatment ofthewater-
frontwithattentionto "protractedperiodsof intenseheat during
which all exertionis accomplishedat excessivecost of physical
strength." Recognizingthatthe "climateconditionsare unchange-
able," he believed neverthelessthat "means for mitigatingtheir

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effectsare fortunately withinreach.Besidesthepossibility ofabun-
dantfoliageand fountainsofwater,"he observed,"Manila possesses
the greatestresourcesforrecreationand refreshments in its river
and itsocean bay.Whateverportionofeitherhavebeen givenup to
privateuse shouldbe reclaimedwherepossible,and such portions
as are stillunder public controlshouldbe developedand forever
maintainedforthe use and enjoymentof the people." Fountains
shouldbe employedwheneverpossibleto furnish, as in Rome and
Washington, estheticand psychologicalrelieffromthelongsummer
heat."If theuse ofparksas an architectural accessoryhaslongbeen
he "it
common," suggested, has remainedforthemoderncitywith
itsimmenseand congestedpopulationto showthenecessity ofthem
as breathingplacesforthe people. These parksare oftenestof two
types-playfields ofmoderatesize in theheartofthecity,and large
sylvanstretcheslocated in the outskirtswheremore ample areas
permitthelayingout of beautifulwalksand drivesin themidstof
a romanticlandscape."19
One remnantof old Manila thatBurnhambelievedshouldnot
be preservedwas the ancientmoat surroundingthe innercity,or
"Intramuros."Now stagnantand hazardousto health,Burnham
urged thatthe moat be drainedand filled,as the Hapsburgshad
done withthemoat in Vienna,and plantedwithtreesand grassto
providea usefuland novel elongatedpark. Less drasticmodifica-
tions,however,shouldbe made to theold citywalls."Certainofthe
old walls surroundingthe Intramuros,"he wrote,"have been in
existencesincethe sixteenthcentury.Viewed as one of the fewre-
mainingexamplesofa medievalfortified town,theypossesssingular
historicaland archeologicalinterestwhile theirimposingappear-
ance givesthema monumentalvalue. The objectionsto theirpres-
18 Ibid.
19Ibid., 137, 139, 140.
46 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

ence is based on alleged obstructionsof traffic and ventilation.As

obstaclesto the freecirculationof air, theirmoderateheightcom-
pared to adjacentbuildingsseemsto makethemcomparatively un-
objectionable. With regardto their disadvantages as obstaclesto
traffic,theirmethodof construction" would allow "piercingof an
occasionalgatewaywithoutdestroying theireffect. ."20
Anotherfeatureof the Manila landscapethatBurnham ... saw as
unusuallypromisingwas theneglectedsystemof canals."The nar-

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row canals or esterosramifying throughoutManila, withtheiral-
moststagnantwaterand theirunsanitary mud banks,wouldappear
at firstsightto be undesirableadjunctsof thecity,"he wrote."Yet
for transportation purposestheyare of the utmostvalue, and in
spite of theserious problemsinvolvedin properlywidening,bridg-
ing,and maintainingthem,theyshouldbe preserved"since "their
availabilityto thepoorestboatman"would make them"peculiarly
valuable." The estero,he believed,could be "notonlyan economic-
al vehicleforthetransaction ofpublicbusiness;it can becomeas in
Venice,an elementof beauty."22
While takingaccountof the city'sunique facilitiesand making
recommendations fortheirmodification or preservation, Burnham
could notresisthispenchantforEuropeanallusionsas he closedhis
report:"On thepointofrapidgrowth,"he wrote,"yetstillsmallin
area, possessingthe bay of Naples, thewindingriverof Paris,and
thecanalsofVenice,Manila has beforeit an opportunity unique in
thehistory ofmoderntimes,theopportunity to createa unifiedcity
equal to the greatestof theWesternWorld withthe unparalleled
and pricelessadditionof a tropicalsetting."22
The proposedsummercapitalof Baguio,on theotherhand,was
less "tropical"thanManila but no lessexotic.Situatedto thenorth
in the ruggedmountainsof Luzon, the seasonalgovernment and
resorttownshould combineefficiency, Burnhambelieved,witha
deferenceto the scenicand romanticsetting."The Baguio mead-
ow," he reported,"is about one halfmilewide bythree-fourths ofa
mile long, and is roughlyeliptical in shape." Within the larger
settingof veryhigh mountains,the town was immediately"sur-
roundedon all sides by low hills attainingan elevationof 100 or
20 Ibid., 141-142.
21 Ibid., 148-149.
22 Ibid., 151.
 The Imperial 47
Facade
200 feetabove it. At two points,on the northand south,the en-
circlingridgessinknearlyto thelevelofthecentralplain; thesouth
opening admitsthe new Benguet Road" fromManila "and the
northernopeninggivesexit to a smallstreamwhichrisesin theval-
ley and makesits way towardthe north.The essentialconditions
are,therefore,an enclosedhollowdominatedby low hills and con-
nectingridges."The centralproblem,then,was "findingthe best

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location withinthisarea forthe principalelementsof the town,
namely,municipal buildings,and National Governmentbuild-
ings."23
Burnhamassumedthat"approximately level groundis themost
convenientforthe transactionof business,"and thatthe business
districtshould occupy "the level floorof the meadow and the
gentlerslopesof theridgeto the Northwest. The municipalbuild-
ings, while demanding close contact with the businessquarter,
shouldyetbe givena locationand a setofapproachesofunmistak-
able dignity."The government buildings,also,whileneedingto be
"reasonably accessiblefrom the businessquarter,shouldbe located
and so treatedin theirapproachesand surroundingsas to make
clear theirpreeminenceoverall otherbuildingsof thecity."From
neighboringelevations,therefore, since "the surroundings of the
Baguio plain respond... to theseconditions,the two principal
groups,National and Municipal,thus face one anotherfromop-
positeendsofthevalley."A line drawnbetweenthecentersofeach
composition,in fact,would nearlybisectthevalleyand form"the
naturalmain axis of the town,and should be treatedas an open
esplanade... ."24
Except forthe main axis runningnortheastand southwestbe-
tween the municipal and governmentalcenters,the roads and
streetsofBaguio wouldnecessarilybe ofan irregularnaturefollow-
ing the contours of themountainousterrain.Recreationaland resi-
dential building areas would adjoin and radiate fromthe main
areas of the townwhereverpracticaland estheticallyappropriate.
Baguio was laid out,Burnhamlaterwrote,"on a plan similarto the
plan made by L'Enfantforthe Cityof Washington,in thatit pro-

23 Daniel H. Burnham, "Report of the Proposed Plan of the cityof Baguio, Prov-
ince of Benguet, P. I," Proceedings of the Thirty-NinthAnnual Convention of the
American Institute of Architects,151-156.
24 Ibid., 152.
48 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

videsforsuchpublic buildingsas maybe needed forgovernmental

offices,forthe serviceof the cityitself,and forthe healthfulness,
convenience,and recreationof the people; and all thesefunctions
are so arrangedas to make a unifiedand orderlycity."Like the
longerand more detailed Manila plan, Burnhamconsideredthe
Baguio report"frankly preliminary in character,"and hoped mere-
ly thatit might"seem to suggestthe generallines along whichthe

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new municipality maygrowintoa compositionofconvenienceand
beauty."Indeed, Burnham'sclosingsentenceof thelongerManila
Plan embodiedhissentiments and hiswishesforBaguio as well. "In
keepingpace with the national development,"he wrote,"and in
workingpersistently and consciouslytowardan organic plan in
whichthevisibleorderlygroupingof its partsone to anotherwill
securetheirmutualsupportand enchantment, Manila mayrightly
hope to becometheadequateexpressionofthedestinyoftheFilipi-
no people as well as an enduringwitnessto theefficient servicesof
Americain thePhilippineIslands."25
In undertakingthe Philippinework,Burnhamchargedno pro-
fessionalfees,acceptingreimbursement only forexpensesdirectly
connectedwithhis work.His assistant, Anderson,receiveda salary
as Bennetthad in San Francisco,but Burnhambelieved thates-
chewingpersonalcompensationwould allow him more freedom
and lendgreaterweighttohisproposals.In acceptingthereportson
behalfofthegovernment, Secretary ofWar Taft thankedBurnham
forhis "verygreatgenerosity and self-sacrifice."
It was,Taft wrote,
"one of thoserare instancesof devotionto the public interestof
whichI wishwe could see more.I wishto give personaltestimony
to thecomfortyou have givento thoseof us who are chargedwith
theresponsibility ofmakingimprovements ... in thecertaintythat
we ... can makeno mistakein followingyourdirectionand lead
forthenextfifty years."The Inland ArchitectechoedTaft'spraise.
Burnham'sworkin the Philippines,it believed,would establisha
plan thatwould,"in theyearsto come,developcivilizinginfluences
side by side withcommercialadvancement.It is too soon to speak
biographically of Mr. Burnham'sworkin thesedirections,"it sug-
gested, "but thecountryhas in him a combinationofraregifts,the
25 Ibid., 152, 156; Burnham, "Report on Proposed Improvementsat Manila," 151.
 The Imperial Facade 49

developmentof whichwill be best appreciatedin anothergener-

ation."26
In submitting thereportto Taft,Burnhamendedhisofficial con-
nectionwiththe project.Yet he subsequentlyassumedalmostfull
responsibilityforselectinga permanentarchitecttogo totheislands
and begin the job of carryingout his plans. He also maintained,
throughhis friendCameronForbes,a lifelonginterestin theprog-

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ressof the Philippinework.He was especiallydelightedwhenhis
protegeForbeswas laterappointedgovernorgeneralof the Philip-
pines.
Burnhambeganinterviewing prospectivemanagingarchitects as
soon as he returnedhome,but he wroteto Forbesin August1905
thathe had not yetfoundthe rightman. Severalpromisingpros-
pectshad "entertainedtheidea," he said,"but it is theold question
of patrioticdutyas againstmoneyinterests."Finally,however,he
foundhismanin WilliamE. Parsons,a graduateofYale, Columbia,
and the vauntedFrenchEcole des Beaux Arts.Parsons'quiet cre-
ativity,his apparentfundof practicalwisdom,and his Beaux Arts
credentialsimpressedBurnhamgreatly.Persuadingthe youngar-
chitectto executethePhilippineworkwas one of Burnham'smost
fortunateaccomplishments.27
In concertwithCameronForbes,Parsonsworkedintenselyfor
eightyearsin the islands,designingbuildings,executingand de-
tailingBurnham'slargerplans,and usingBurnham'sManila and
Baguio reportsas instructive modelsforhis own cityplansof Cebu
and Zamboanga. Following the advice in Burnham'sreportsto
learn fromthebetterSpanishand Philippineexamples,Parsonsin
generaldesignedwooden and ferro-concrete buildingsof warmth,
efficiency,and attractivesimplicity.Utilizing the vocabularyof
earlier Spanish-Philippinearchitecture,Parsons' buildings,with
fewexceptions,had plain, broad surfacesof solid whiteor pastel

26 Burnham to War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs,

July 31, 1905; Burn-
ham to Taft, Oct. 6, 1905,Burnham Papers; Taft to Burnham, Oct. 13, 1905,Charles
Moore Collection, Library of Congress; Burnham and Bennett,Plan of Chicago, 29;
The Inland Architectand News Record, XLIV (Oct., 1904), 1.
27 Burnham to Forbes, June 27, Aug. 7, 1905; Pierce Anderson to William E. Par-
sons, n.d., Burnham Papers; William E. Parsons, "Burnham as a Pioneer in City
Planning," ArchitecturalRecord, XXXVIII (July, 1915), 17-25; Moore Daniel H.
Burnham, II, 178.
50 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

colorsand were usuallytopped by handsometile roofs.His most

dominantarchitectural elements,both functionally
and aesthetic-
ally, were the broad, deep archways and the shaded porchesand
coveredloggias that connectedthe cool interiorsof his spacious
buildingswiththelightand heatofthetropicalclimate.Suggestive
of the morefamouscontemporaneous workof IrvingGill and his
Californiafollowers,Parsons' best designscombineda successful
mixtureand abstractionof Spanish,Oriental,and modern"indus-

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trial" buildingto forgea new architecture appropriatefora trop-
ical climate. Whereas Gill abstractedand drew fromSpanish-
Americanexamples,Parsonsindependently drewinspirationfrom
similarfeaturesin theSpanish-Philippine tradition.28
Especiallyin
his designsforthe PhilippineGeneralHospital,the Manila Hotel,
the Army-Navy Club, the Normal School, and the Y.M.C.A. in
Manila, and in his plansforschoolsand public structures
through-
out the provincesand barrios,Parsonsproducedbuildingsof an
architectural qualitythatrivaledthebestmodernworkin Europe
and the United States.Drawingfromboth Spanishexamplesand
theelegantsimplicity oftheruralPhilippinevernacular,theAmer-
ican buildingswould continueto serveas models forPhilippine
buildingboth beforeand afterthe SecondWorld War.
As an architect,as a pure designer,Daniel Burnhamwould not
have done as well. BetterthanBurnhamor anyoneelse in his office,
Parsonswas able withconsummateskillto detailand executeBurn-
ham's plans. PerhapsBurnham'sand Parsons'combinedarchitec-
tural successstemmedpartiallyfromtheiroverall imagesof the
Philippineadventure.PerhapsthePhilippinessuggestedto bothof
theman exoticambiencethatcalled fora lighterand less formal
treatmentthan Burnhamdeemed fittingforAmericanmainland
cities.By generallyavoiding,at least in the earlierbuildings,the
derivativeand grandiose Beaux-Artsneo-classicismthat marred
Burnham'splansforClevelandand Chicago,Parsonshelpedassure,
somewhatironically,that the "City Beautiful"movementwould
realize its greatestarchitecturalsuccess,not on American,but on
foreign colonial soil.
28 Parsons,"Burnham as a Pioneer in
City Planning," 17; A. N. Rebori, "The Work
of William E. Parsons in the Philippine Islands," ArchitecturalRecord, XLI (April,
1917), 305-324 (May, 1917), 423-434. I am currentlypreparing an article on Parsons,
discussingin greaterdetail his special contributionsto American architecturein the
Philippines.
 ...... M....?
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UFA 1?

PLATE 1
Burnham's General Plan of Manila (1905) with importantpublic
buildings erected between 1906 and 1914 indicated in black.
Central Mall and governmentareas with radiatingthoroughfares
reminiscentof Washington,D.C. and Cleveland.
(ArchitecturalRecord)

PLATE 2
Air viewof centralManila (early1920s).Residentialsection (lowerright).
Mall, hotel, and club buildings (upper left). Governmentbuildings
(upper right).Shorelinedevelopment (lowerleft)similarto Burnham's
treatment of the Chicago lake front.
(National Archives,Washington)
 !f
Ml?:

:
?,G
WI
..::..:.
, ,. '
. , iv4
.? ,:i

'?NO'

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?, INi '
?., .
,i

....: ,( ::

::!: ,....,,
... , o
, ?:i'

:
UN,: 2?:
.Pt

PLATE 3
Birdseyeview of central Manila, as planned by Burnhamand detailed by Parsons.
Mall and Luneta (center).Club buildings (lower right).Hotel (lower left). Pro-
jectedparksurroundingold walled city(leftcenter).
(ArchitecturalRecord)

PLATE 4
1910.
Philippine General Hospital, frontfacade.Designed by Parsons.Completed
(ArchitecturalRecord)
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PLATE 5
Parson'sPhilippinesGeneralHospital (1910) showingone of thenumerous
interiorcourtyards,surroundedbyopen-aircorridorsconnectingthesick
An
*bays. abstract
reference to thearea's earlierSpanish-Philippinebuild-
ings, strikinglysimilar to Irving Gill's California progressionfrom
traditionalSpanish-American sources.
(author)

PLATE 6
Air viewof centralManila (early1920s).Parson'sManila
Hotel (1912)(lowerleft).Mall and publicgardens(lower
right)and park surroundingold, walled city (upper
center).
(NationalArchives,
Washington)
 Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/phr/article-pdf/41/1/33/222963/3638224.pdf by guest on 10 August 2020
PLATE 7
GeneralPlan ofBaguio,as conceivedbyBurnham(1905)and detailedby
Parsons.Government buildingson straighter,
mainaxes. Commercial,
and recreational
residential, facilities
on surrounding
slopes.
(Architectural
Record)

PLATES 8, 9, 10
Typicaleight-room,six-room,and two-room schoolhouses(toptobottom)
(ca. 1910) constructedof wood and of reinforced
concreteand built
throughout thebarriosand Here
provinces. Parsonsacknowledged the
elegantsimplicity of both the rural Philippinevernacularand the
developing "modern"architecture ofAmericaand Europe.
(ArchitecturalRecord)
 The Imperial Facade 51

Unhampered,underthe colonialcircumstances, by cumbersome

democraticprocesses, unharassedforthemostpartby local opposi-
tion,as had been thecase in San Francisco,thebuildingof Baguio
and theredevelopment of Manila proceededas quicklyand surely
as Burnhamcould ever have hoped for.Temporarysetbacksoc-
curred,ofcourse,and variouselementsoftheBurnhamplansnever
materialized,but on thewhole progresswas clearand continuous.
ForbeskeptBurnhampostedfortherestofhis lifeon theprogress

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of his plansbothin spiritand detail."Please remember,"he wrote
in a typicalletter,"thatthe Burnhamplan is sacredand is being
strictlyadheredto.""29
As Burnhamhad becomeincreasingly involvedwiththe Philip-
pines, he found himselfdefendingmore vigorouslyhis and his
country'scolonialefforts."I was in Springfield, he
Massachusetts,"
wroteto Forbeson June9, 1905,"at luncheonwiththemembersof

29 Writing of Manila in 1928, Forbes stated that Burnham's

plans had been "in
the main adhered to. The centralpark featurewas immediatelyundertaken,and those
improvementsare already complete and a blessing to the inhabitantsnot only of the
city,but of all the Islands.... Mr. Burnham's great conception called fora park area
of nearlythirtyacres,which was laid out upon a new area reclaimed fromthe harbor
by the constructionof breakwatersfilledin by dredgingan additional section of the
harbor. To thisnew land was moved the new Luneta or park,where the eveningband
concertswere held and the population gathered for their evening stroll. A park was
constructedin the centreof this so-called Luneta Extension to which the government
gave the appropriate name of Burnham Park, and upon which a decorated flagpole
has been erectedin Mr. Burnham's memory.There was abundant room for beautiful
playgrounds,and this new area was flankedon either side by impressivesemi-public
buildings."
Forbes was also enthusiasticover Baguio. Within ten yearsof its inception,the few
original houses had "multiplied to several hundred buildings and the population of
the cityhad increasedwith each season. The movementof the governmentto Baguio
stimulated its growthverygreatly.Each year a slightlymore ambitious programme
was undertaken. Following the constructionof the governmentcentre, which was
economicallybuilt of temporarymaterials around an open park or plaza, space was
reservedfor later constructionof a permanentgroup of governmentbuildings to be
built on a larger scale around the temporarycentral group. There were not lacking
thoughtfulFilipinos who felt,as did General Aguinaldo, that Baguio ought ultimately
to be the permanentcapital of the Islands. A line down the main axis laid out by Mr.
Burnham was cleared throughthe pines, the hills terraced,and an artificiallake con-
structedin the centralvalley.The park around the lake has been appropriatelynamed
for Mr. Burnham. Buildings and storessprang up along the line of the main street,
and in the business centre marketswere built " William Cameron Forbes, The
Philippine Islands (Boston and New York, 1928), ... I, 404-405, 583. William Parsons also
noted, as early as 1915, that Burnham's Manila and Baguio "suggestionsare being
realized eitherin the acquisition of streetareas or in actual construction.In fact,much
of the arterial frameworkhas been constructedand nailed down . . with permanent
public and semi-public buildings." Parsons, "Burnham As a Pioneer in City Plan-
ning," 24.
52 PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW

theBoard ofTrade and metyourfriendSam BowlesoftheRepub-

lican. I said some veryemphaticthingsacrossthe table and Mr.
Bowlessaid he wasverymuchsurprisedat whatI had to say.I asked
him if he was an anti and he said he was,whereuponI laid myself
out ... at leastso faras theGovernorWrightand theCommission-
er fromMassachusettsForbes are concerned.I don't thinkMr.
Bowlesgotmuchcomfort out oftheconversation." Burnham'ssup-

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portprompted Forbes to write him that he only wished"we had a
fewmorechampionslike you gatheredaround."30
Indeed,as theyearspassedand added theircountlessdemandson
his thoughts,Burnhamcontinuedto ponder the Philippinesand
the meaningof whathe deemedto be a different kind of empire.
His firm,his family,and a plan forhis homecitywould fromthen
on consumehis activeattention,but a letterof 1906 to Forbesex-
presseda recurringlifelongsentiment:"My mind turnslongingly
to theOrient,"he wrote,"and I would like to be thereagain. ...."
Burnhamneveractuallyreturned,but he did not have to. Admin-
isteredby Forbesand detailedby Parsons,his plans had becomea
monumentto his presence.31
Though an integralpart of a dubious Americanimperialad-
ventureand rationalizedalwaysin the staunchestof imperialist
rhetoric,the architecturalphase of the Americanmissionto the
Philippineswroughtbetterthaneven itsmentorsknew.While in-
evitablyinhibited,as withmuchphysicalplanning,bysubsequently
inadequateor conservative socialand economicpolicies,theBurn-
ham plans forPhilippineurbandevelopmentultimatelyhelped to
improveand reorderthe national landscape.Despite theirauto-
craticoriginsand theirinitialdeference,especiallyin thenew city
of Baguio, to elitistand special colonial Americaninterests, their
general functional and esthetic improvements would continueto
serve the Filipinoswell. Though the citieswere heavilydamaged
duringWorld War II, the generaloutlinesof Burnham'sinnova-
tionssurvivedthatconflict as a partialbasisforpost-warPhilippine
urban development.32

30 Burnham to Forbes,June 9, 1905,Burnham Papers; Forbes to Burnham,May 28,

1906; Forbes Papers.
31 Burnham to Forbes, n.d. 1906,Forbes Papers.
32 On the basis of maps, photographs, and the recollectionsof
contemporaries,
American architecturalinfluencesin the Philippines were understandablymore ob-
 The Imperial FaCade 53

Concurrentwith such development,however,the Philippine

citieshave continuedto experienceboth new and age-oldurban
problemsand have suffered and decayedlike mostof the world's
cities.Burnham'swork,like mostotherplanning,did notsolveany
problemsforall time or all problemsat any time. But his plans
werea new beginningand theymade a difference once. As a crea-
tureof timeand a consciouslytime-boundfigureof history,Burn-

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ham could hardlyhave asked formore.

vious and dominant in the late 1930s than theywere followingthe holocaust of war
and the subsequent post-war rebuilding. Though such structuresas the General
Hospital, the Manila Hotel, and the older school buildings have been poorly main-
tained in subsequent years,it is somethingof a tribute to Burnham, Parsons, and
other architectsof the period that so much of theirwork was restoredand rebuilt in
the post-waryears.