CL 409 - Quiz 1

For the images shown below of object(s) that have failed, use your best engineering
general knowledge to explain: (a) most likely reason for failure, and (b) which
engineering property of the material was responsible for the failure, assuming that the
material was responsible for the failure.

1.

a) The Pylon collapsed under the effect of stress generated by wind pressure and its
own weight. Failure could also be due to sabotage (bomb fixed to one side) or ice-
loading (although the weather does not seem like snow) or earthquake (seismic
loads).
b) Young’s Modulus, Yield strength.

2.

a) The cup deformed due to high temperature of material inside it.

b) Heat resistance of the material and ability to withstand higher temperature. Self-
load or stress was beyond the yield point at that elevated temperature. Creep is
also acceptable.
3.

a) Sudden load or impact due to the fall to the floor, probably due to mishandling.
b) lack of ductility, or brittleness, or impact strength

4.

a) Corrosion at the junction of pipes and valve.

b) Chemical corrosion due to leakage of pipe contents or due to differences in
electro-negativity of metals.

5.

a) Erosion of propeller blade due to cavitation. Pitting due to high speed of propeller
trip causing corrosion
b) Hardness/Strength of material/impact strength
Model Answer-Quiz-2-Cl-409-Material Science: (Total 8 marks)
1.

z
y
2 marks
We need the Miller Index of the Motif pointed by the red arrow.
For this, the x-coordinate: a, y-coordinate: a & z-coordinate: a
So the vector is: (a,a,a) and direction is: [1,1,1]
2 marks
Therefore, Miller Index is: [1,1,1].

2. We need to calculate the Miller Index of the set of planes

parallel to plane marked “2R”

The plane parallel on the opposite surface of the cube is considered.

2 marks
Then, the plane intersects the x-axis at ∞, y-axis at ∞ and z-axis at a.
So the intercepts are ∞,∞,a
And the reciprocal is 0, 0, 1/a
2 marks
So, multiplying by ‘a’ across, the miller index is = (0,0,1)
 Quiz 3 - Model Answers (Total Marks : 8)

1. Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal structure (1 Mark)

2. (2 Marks)

In BCC structures, atoms touch along the body diagonal,

which is in length. There are two atomic radii from the
center atom and one atomic radius from each of the corner
atoms on the body diagonal, so

. .
! + 2! + ! = √3 - (or) /
+ 0 + / = √3 -
1m
4! = √3 - (or) 20 = √3 -

4! 20
-= = 1m
√3 √3

3. (3 marks)

( number of atoms/cell) × ( volume of each atom)

Packing fraction =
Volume of unit cell
volume of atoms in a unit cell
=
Volume of unit cell
1m
For BCC,
Volume of atoms in a unit cell = ( 2 atoms/cell) × ( πr )

4! 1m
Volume of unit cell = a = $
√3
Packing fraction = 0.68
1m
Void fraction = 1 − Packing fraction = 0.32
 4. (2 marks)
Approximate model assumption – Space filling model / Ball and stick model

mass of sand particles in unit cell

Bulk density of sand , ρ56789
Volume of unit cell

mass of sand particles in unit cell true density of sand particles ρ5;<7=
1m
Voluem of sand particles in unit cell

ρ5;<7= × Volume of sand particles in unit cell

Bulk density of sand , ρ56789 =
Volume of unit cell

ρ56789 ρ5;<7= ϕ

given that,
ρ5;<7= = 2270 @A/B ,

And A/c to Assumed model, ϕ 0.68

ρ56789 2270 0.68 1543.6 @A/B 1m

Lennard-Jones Potential
The potential energy of the interaction between two atoms or molecules, based on their distance

of separation, is proposed by Sir John Edward Lennard Jones. The potential equation represents

the difference between attractive forces (dipole dipole, dipole induced dipole, and interaction

between London) and repulsive forces.

1) Introduction

Consider two rubber balls that are separated by a significantly large distance. Both objects are

sufficiently apart to avoid interaction. The two balls may be pulled closer together with little

effort, allowing for interaction. The balls can be brought closer and closer together until they

contact. At this point, it becomes difficult to reduce the spacing between the two balls much

further and increased value of energy must be added to bring the balls closer together. This is

because, as the balls begin to invade each other's space, they repel each other; thus, the force

of repulsion is significantly larger than the force of attraction ((see Figure 1a-1d)).

a) Both the balls are at infinite distance and not interacting with each other

b) Two balls are coming close (distance r), now there is attractive force between them
 ro

c) Attractive forces between brings the two balls even further close until they reach an
equilibrium distance ro, and represents a minimum bonding potential

d) To further decrease the distance between two balls, the additional energy is requires to
overcome as repulsive forces between these two balls which further implies that the
force of repulsion is significantly larger than the force of attraction

Figure 1. Two objects at a) infinite distance, b) finite distance (r), c) equilibrium distance (ro)

and d) at a distance lesser then equilibrium distance (r < ro)

This situation is analogous to what happens in neutral atoms and molecules when they are bring

closer from infinite distance to their equilibrium distance. This situation is frequently described

by the Lennard-Jones potential.

2) The Lennard-Jones Potential

The Lennard-Jones model contain a sharp repulsive term and a smoother attractive term is

commonly used in numerous force fields as an initial potential. The 12-6 Lennard-Jones model

is often used due to its computational ease. The following equation gives the Lennard-Jones

potential.

σ 12 σ 6
VLJ r 4ε -
r r

where,
VLJ (r) is the intermolecular potential between the two atoms or molecules (see Figure 2), ε is
the well depth and a measure of how strongly the two particles attract each other.

σ gives a measurement of how close two nonbonding particles can get and is thus referred to
as the van der Waals radius.

r is the distance of separation between both particles (measured from the center of one particle
to the center of the other particle).

r
F=repulsive

ro F = attractive

ro and F = 0

Figure 2. The variation in VLJ (ε) intermolecular potential with separation between the two
atoms. F stands for force acting between two particles them

3) Explanation for the bonding potential

The Lennard-Jones potential is a function of the distance between the centers of two particles.

When two non-bonding particles are an infinite distance apart, the possibility of them coming

together and interacting is minimal. At infinite distance, their bonding potential energy is

considered zero (for the sake of simplicity). However, as the distance of separation decreases,

the probability of interaction increases. The particles come closer together until they reach a

region of separation where the two particles become bound; their bonding potential energy

decreases from zero to a negative in values.

If the two bonded particles are pressed farther together after their equilibrium distance: the

particles are so close together that their electrons are compelled to occupy the orbitals of one

another. Repulsion happens as both particle tries attempts to retain the space in their respective
orbitals. Their potential binding energy rapidly increases with the decrease in spacing despite

the repulsive attraction between the particles.

a) b)

Figure 3. Lennard jones potential a) equation and b) graph with labelling of repulsive and

attractive force

4) Force of Interactions and related stability

Like the bonding potential energy, the stability of an atomic arrangement depends on the

separation distance Lennard-Jones. The energy potential gets increasingly positive as the

distance is reduced below equilibrium (indicating a repulsive force). Such a large potential

energy is energetically unfavourable, because it shows that atomic orbit is overlapping.

However, the potential energy is negative over large distances, approaching zero as the

separation distance rises to infinity (indicating an attractive force). It shows that the pair of

atoms or molecules has a small stabilizing influence on extended distances (indicating zero

force). Finally, as the distance is slightly more than σ between the two particles, the potential

energy has a minimum value (indicating zero force). The pair of particles at this location is

most stable and will continue in that direction until it is exerted by an external force.
 The Lennard jones potential can be given by equation

σ 12 σ 6
VLJ (r) = 4ε - ………………….( )
r r

where, VLJ (r) is the intermolecular potential between the two atoms, ε is the well depth, σ
referred to as the van der Waals radius, and r is the distance of separation between both particles

Step 1. First derivative of VLJ (r) with respect to r

Calculation of the force from VLJ (r), by calculating the first derivative of VLJ (r) with respect

to r,

( ) ( )
V'LJ (r) = and F = − = - V'LJ (r) ( 0 at equlibrium distance)……(2)
! !

σ 12 σ 6
d(4ε r - r )
V'LJ (r) = −
dr

Using the 1/x= x-1 and 1

(xn) = (n*xn-1) equation

V'LJ (r) = 4ε ×3( )12 × (−12 × ( r )-12-1 × ( )12 − (−6 × ( r )-6-1 × ( )6 4

= 4ε ×3( )12 × (−12 ) × ( r )-13 × ( )12 − (−6) × ( r )-7 × ( )6 4

1 13 1 7
Putting ( r )-13 = , and ( r )-7=
r r

12
2 σ 1 σ 6
V'LJ = 24ε 7− × + × 9 … … … … (:)
r r r r

As F= - V'LJ therefore,

12
2 σ 1 σ 6
F = 24ε 7 × − × 9 … … … … (;)
r r r r
As at equilibrium distance r = ro, F = 0 or -V'
V'LJ (<= ) = 0 , therefore using equation 4,

2 σ 12 1 σ 6
0 = 24ε 7 ×? @ − ×? @ 9
r> r> r> r>

2 σ 12 1 σ 6
×? @ = ×? @
r> r> r> r>

σ 1 1/6
? @= ? @
r> 2

ro = 21/6 σ (5)

Potential at equilibrium position r =ro

σ 12 σ 6 1 2 1 1
VLJ(min) (rB ) = 4ε 7? @ -? @ 9 = 4ε 7? @ - ? @ 9 = −ε ……………(6)
(6)
r> r> 2 2

Thus, ro = 21/6 σ where the potential energy has the value V = −ε at minima

Step 2, First derivative of VLJ (r) with respect to σ

Similar results can be derived by calculating first derivative of VLJ (r) with respect to σ,

d(VLJ (r)) dFVLJ (r)G

= V'LJ (r) CDE F = − … … … … . . (H)
d d

1 12 1 6
V'LJ (r) = 4ε 712 × (σ)11 × ? @ - 6 × (σ) × ? @ 9
5
r r

11 5
1 σ 1 σ
V'LJ (r) = 4ε 712 × × -6× × 9 … … … . (J)
r r r r

5
1 σ σ 6
V'LJ (r) = 24ε × × 2× - 1 … … … … . . (K)
r r r
As -V'LJ (r) = F thus,

5
1 σ σ 6
F = −24ε × × 2× - 1 … … … … … … ( L)
r r r

At equilibrium position, r = ro

V'LJ (r) = 0 and F = -V'LJ (r) = 0

Using equation 8, and putting r=ro,

1 σ 5 σ 6
24ε × × ? @ 72 × ? @ -19 = 0
r> r> r>

σ 6
2×? @ =1
r>

6
σ 1
? @ =? @
r> 2

Thus, ro = 21/6 σ where the potential energy has the value V = −ε similar to equation 6

Step 3 Calculation of second derivative of VLJ (r) with respect to r, using V'LJ (r) from

equation 3

δ
V''LJ (r) = (V' (r))
δr LJ

12
δ 2 σ 1 σ 6
= 24ε 7 - × + × 9
δr r r r r

4ε σ 12 σ 6
= 12 × 13 × − 42 ×
rN r r
 σ 1 1/6
At minimum, r = ro and =
!O 2

4ε 1 1
= N 12 × 13 × 4 − 42 × 2
PB

4ε
= 339 − 21 4
PBN

72ε
V''LJ(min) (rB ) = > 0
rBN

Step 4. Calculation of second derivative of VLJ (r) with respect to σ, using equation 8

δN
V''LJ (r) = FV (r)G
δσN LJ

11 5
δ 1 σ 1 σ
= 4ε 712 × × -6× × 9
δσ r r r r

1 12 1 6
= 4ε 7 11 × 12 × STB ? @ − 6 × 5 × SU × ? @ 9
r> r>

T 12 1 6
=4ε 132 × S TB × !O
− 30 × S U × !O

VW VY
= 24 ε × Z22 × − 5[
ro Y ro Y

σ 1 1/6
At minimum, r = ro and =
!O 2

VW T
=24 ε × Z22 × − 5[
ro Y N

VW
=24 ε × 311 − 5 4
ro Y
 εVW
> 0
ro Y
= 144

1. Consider a material whose atoms are 0.25 nm apart at equilibrium at room temperature

and ε = 12kT. Take room temperature to be 300K. Calculate σ by minimizing the

potential energy; ensure it is a minimum.

1.1) ro = 0.25 nm = 0.25 × 10-9 m and ro = 21/6 σ

0.25 × 10\]
= T_
2 ^

= 0.223 nm

1.2) As, ε = 12kT, T= 300 K and ro = 0.25 nm = 0.25 × 10-9 m

72ε 72 × 1.38064852 × 10\Na × 300 mN kg s \N K \T K

= N =
PB (0.25 × 10\] )N mN

= 4.77 kg s \N > 0 thus it is minimum

As V''LJ(min) (r) is a positive number, there it first derivative VLJ (r) at ro corresponds to minima.

2) Expression for the force between the two atoms

12
2 σ 1 σ 6
F = 24ε 7 × − × 9
r r r r

Or,

11 5
1 σ 1 σ
F = −4ε 712 × × -6× × 9
r r r r
3) Estimate the Young’s modulus of the material under tension by building a model (make a

sketch and describe the model; to keep it simple try a simple cubic arrangement), and making

assumptions that reduce the problem to a two-body interaction between two atoms.

Young’s modulus can be given by,

E = Linear Stress / Linear Strain.
Longitudinal or linear stress = Force /
dF along the mentioned direction
Area. = dF/A = dF/r2
cause in very small change in
edge length, da = dr Longitudinal or linear strain = Change in
edge length / Original edge length = da
/a= dr/r

Figure 1. Simple cubic arrangement with 8 atoms at the vertices

Thus,

\ ef \ ef \ ef j T ef
E= gh
= gh
= × =− ×
jh ej j ej
ig ig
g g

(For two body interaction a=r, putting da = dr)

T ef
=− ×e

1 12 6
= − r × dr (24ε
d 2 σ 1 σ
× − × )
r r r r

ε d
= −24 r 3 2 × ( σ )12 × ( r )-13 × − ( σ )6 × ( r )-8 4
dr

ε
=−24 3 2 × −13 × ( σ )12 × ( r )-14 × − (-7)( σ )6 × ( r )-8 4
r

26 σ 12 7 σ 6
=24ε × − ×
!k r !k r
 ε σ 12 σ 6
=24 × 26 × − 7× at r = ro
!k r r

Thus, = 0.223 nm, ro = 0.25 nm and ε = 12kT = 12 × 1.38064852 × 10\Na × 300

TN×T.alB^UlmN × TBnhk ×aBB 0.223 12 0.223 6

=24 × 26 × − 7×
(B.Nm ×TBno )k 0.25 0.25

TN×T.alB^UlmN × TBnhk ×aBB

=24 × 326 × (0.892)TN − 7 × (0.892)^ 4
(B.Nm ×TBno )k

TN×T.alB^UlmN × TBnhk ×aBB

=24 × 326 × 0.253 − 7 × 0.504 4
(B.Nm ×TBno )k

TN×T.alB^UlmN × TBnhk × TBhp ×aBB

=24 × 33.054
(B.Nm )k

a^×T.alB^UlmN × TBnhk × TBho

=24 × 33.054
(B.Nm )k

= 228.92 × 10TT Pa = 228.9 GPa

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 Quiz 6 - Model Answer

Given that ,

Area of the beam(A ) = 95 cm

Young’s Modulus of steel Y = 240 GPa

Young’s Modulus of concrete Y = 40 GPa

Area of the beam(A ) = Area of concrete(A ) + Area of steel rod(A )

Area of steel rod(A ) = 0.05A ; Area of concrete(A ) = 0.95A

When the steel rod is clamped,

∆
Strain on steel rod = 0.01 = [ is length of steel rod, is length of beam]

Since there is no slip condition when the steel rod is unclamped,

, !"# = , !"#

Hence assume,

strain)*+ = strain ,-. (or strain *0 ),1, ) =x

net force , ∑ 4 = 0 at equilibrium,

(Force exerted on the steel rod when strain goes from 0.01 to x )
= (force exerted on the concrete when strain goes from 0 to x)

Y = (> − 0.01) = @A =A (0 − >)

240 × 0.05= (> − 0.01) = 40 × 0.95= (−>)

> = 2.4 × 10CD

Stress in the beam = Y > = 9.6 × 10F GH and Stress in rod = Y > = 5.76 × 10J GH

The final stress in the concrete is compressive and steel rod is tensile
CL409-2021-A1
Friday, 10 September, 2021 11:19 AM

Typical model solution (for rubber lettering of a date stamp), each answer will be different.

1. Hand drawn labelled sketch:

2. Main structural part assigned, labeled hand-drawn sectional view

Journal Page 1
Journal Page 2
Background and Explanations for the Assignment A1

Materials Properties

Figure 1. Different type of materials properties

1 Chemical properties of the materials

1.1) Acidity and alkalinity: They are opposites in nature that are measured on a scale of

pH with a scale of 0 to 14 (see Figure 2). 7 is considered neutral. When the pH drops

below 7, the solution has entered an acidic state and alkaline above 7. An example would

be water. If it has chemicals that contains a high amount of reactive Hydrogen atoms, the

solution would be acid (H+).

Figure 2. Acids, bases, pH, and buffers

If the solution contains hydroxides it would be alkaline (OH-). Here is the interesting

part. H+ is acidic and OH- is alkaline. If you put these 2 atoms together, you have water.

A single molecule of water is theoretically neutral because the acid H+ and the alkaline

OH- neutralized one another.

1.2) Corrosion resistance: Corrosion resistance refers to the resistance a material offers

against a reaction with adverse elements that can corrode the material. Various materials

have this property intrinsically, depending upon their corrosion resistance rate.

Alternatively, some methods or treatments can be used to resist corrosion, such as painting

or hot dip galvanizing, or a combination of these methods with coating.

Corrosion is a process in which a material is oxidized by substances in the environment

that cause the material to lose electrons. Corrosion resistance is the capacity to hold the

binding energy of a metal and withstand the deterioration and chemical breakdown that

would otherwise occur when the material is exposed to such an environment.

Examples: Copper and its alloys, brass and bronze.

2) Physical properties of the materials

2.1) Density: Density of a material or substance is defined as “the mass per unit volume”.

Table 1. Density values in solid, liquid and gas.

State Distance between particles Density in g/cm3

Solid Very close together Solid iron = 7.8

Liquid Slightly further apart than a solid Liquid iron = 6.9

Gas Very much further apart than a solid or liquid Oxygen gas = 0.0014
It is represented as the ratio of mass with volume of a material. It is denoted by “ρ”. Its

unit in SI system is Kg/m3 and CGS unit is g/cm3.

2.2) Melting point: It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from

solid state to liquid state. Melting point for cobalt is 1,495 °C and for iron is 1,538 °C.

2.3) Boiling point: It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which the substance changes from

liquid state to gaseous state. The boiling point of water is 100°C.

2.4) Freezing point: It is the temperature (in oC or K) at which a liquid change from liquid

to solid state. Theoretically it is equal to the melting point. However, practically there may

be observed some difference. The freezing point at which water a liquid turns to ice (a

solid) is 0°C.

2.5) Thermal conductivity: It is the property of a material which represents that how

easily the heat can be conducted by a material.

The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted

by unit thickness of material normal to the unit area surface in unit time when the

temperature gradient across the material piece is unity in steady state condition”.

Its unit in SI system is watts per meter per K. Some materials and their thermal

conductivity values are as follows:

Diamond – 2000 – 2200 W/mK, Silver – 429 W/mK, Copper – 398 W/mK, Gold – 315

W/mK, Silicon carbide – 270 W/mK, Beryllium Oxide– 255 W/mK, Aluminum – 247

W/mK, and Tungsten – 173 W/mK

2.6) Electrical conductivity (resistivity) ; It is the property of materials which represents

that how easily the electricity can be conducted by the material. It is denoted by ‘σ’. It is

the reciprocal of resistivity of material. It unit is mho/meter.

2.7) Thermal expansion: When a material is heated, it expands, due to which its dimensions

change. Coefficient of thermal expansion, represents the expansion in material with increase

in temperature. Thermal expansion coefficients are of three types, namely-

2.7.1) Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion

The change in length of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of

linear thermal expansion”.

Table 3. Listed values of Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion for some materials

It is denoted by “αL”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘Δl’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in

the temperature. Unit of αL is per oC

2.7.2) Coefficient of Area Thermal Expansion

The change in area of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of

Area thermal expansion”. It denoted by “αA”.

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔA’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in

the temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.

2.7.3) Coefficient of Volume Thermal Expansion

The change in volume of an object due change in temperature is related by “Coefficient of

volume thermal expansion”. It denoted by “αV”

Where, ‘l’ is the initial length of object, ‘ΔV’ is the change in length, ‘Δt’ is the change in

the temperature. Unit of αA is per oC.

2.8) Optical properties: It is defined as how material it interacts with light The optical

properties of matter include:

Refractive index, dispersion, transmittance, absorption, scattering, reflectance,

fluorescence, phosphorescence etc

A basic distinction is between isotropic materials, which exhibit the same properties

regardless of the direction of the light, and anisotropic ones, which exhibit different

properties when light passes through them in different directions. The optical properties

of matter can lead to a variety of interesting optical phenomena.

2.8.1) Transparency: It is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the

material without appreciable scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale (one in which the

dimensions are much larger than the wavelengths of the photons in question), the photons

can be said to follow Snell's Law.

Examples: Lenses, glass, water, air and diamond.

2.8.2) Translucency: It allows light to pass through, but does not necessarily (again, on

the macroscopic scale) follow Snell's law; the photons can be scattered at either of the two
interfaces, or internally, where there is a change in index of refraction. In other words, a

translucent material is made up of components with different indices of refraction. A

transparent material is made up of components with a uniform index of refraction.

Transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one colour, or any

combination leading up to a brilliant spectrum of every colour. The opposite property of

translucency is opacity.

Examples: Thin fabrics, frosted glass and thon paper.

2.8.3) Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque. The related property is

called opacity.

Examples: Wood, brick, metal, and stones.

2.9) Combustibility: The term 'combustibility' refers to the tendency of a substance to

burn as a result of fire or chemical reaction. The term 'flammable' may be used to describe

substances that ignite more easily, whilst substances that are harder to ignite or that burn

less intensely may be referred to as combustible.

Oxygen consumption calorimetry is used to measure the heat of combustion of the

pyrolysis products. The maximum amount of heat released per unit mass per degree of

temperature (J g−1 K−1) is a material property that appears to be a good predictor of

`flammability'.

3) Mechanical properties of materials

3.1) Elasticity: It is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after

defamation when the external forces are removed it can also be referred as the power of
material to come back to its original position after defamation when the stress or load is

removed it is also called as the tensile property of the material.

a)

b)

Figure 3. Young's modulus is the slope of the linear part of the stress-strain curve for a

material under tension or compression, b) Young modulus, or the modulus of elasticity

values for some materials.

3.2) Proportional limit: it is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will

maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress

Though its value is difficult to measure yet it can be used as the important applications for

building precision instruments Springs etc.

3.3) Elastic limit: The greatest stress that a material can endure without taking up some

permanent set is called elastic limit.

Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the proportional limit without taking

a permanent set. Beyond this limit the metal does not regain its original form and

permanent set will occur

3.4) Yield point: It is the load at which a solid material that is being stretched begins to

flow or change shape permanently.

Divided by its original cross-sectional area or the amount of stress in a solid at the onset

of permanent deformation the yield point marks the end of elastic behaviour and the

beginning of plastic behaviour when stress is less than the yield point are removed the

material returns to its original shape.

3.5) Strength: It is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces

with breakdown or yielding. This property of material therefore determines the ability to

withstand stress without failure.

Table 4. Listed values of ultimate strength for some materials

The internal resistance offered by a material to an externally applied forces called stress.

The capacity of bearing load by metal and to withstand destruction under the action of

external loads is known as strength.

The stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. This property of material

therefore determines the ability to withstand stress without failure.

Strength varies according to the type of loading it is always possible to assess tensile,

compressive, shearing, and torsional strengths. The maximum stress that any material can

withstand before destruction is called its ultimate strength. The tenacity of the material is

its ultimate strength in tension

3.6) Stiffness: It is defined as the ability of a material to resist defamation under stress.

The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or

rigidity.

A material that suffers slight or very less defamation and the load has a high degree of

stiffness or rigidity For instance, suspended beams of steel and aluminium may both be

strong enough to carry the required load but the aluminium beam will sag or deflect further
that means the steel beam is stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam if the material

behaves elastically with linear stress-strain relationship under Hooke’s law its stiffness is

measured by the Youngs modulus of elasticity. The higher is the value of the Young's

modulus the stiffer is the material in tensile and compressive stress it is called modulus of

stiffness or modulus of elasticity in shear the modulus of rigidity and this is usually 40%

of the value of young's modulus for commonly used materials in volumetric distortion the

bulk modulus.

3.7) Plasticity: It is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the

defamation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is required in

forging in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work. It is the ability or tendency

of material to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without its failure. Plastic

deformation takes place only after the elastic range of material has been exceeded. Such

property of material is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot or

cold working processes materials such as clay lead etc are plastic at room temperature and

steel is plastic at forging temperature. This property generally increases with increase in

temperature of materials.

Manufacturing goods from raw materials involves a great deal of plastic deformation. For

example, rolling steel into a particular shape (like rebar for construction) involves plastic

deformation, since a new shape is created.

3.8) Ductility: It is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire

with the application of tensile load.

A ductile material must be strong in plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the term’s

percentage elongation and percent reduction in area which is often used as empirical

measures of ductility.
The materials those possess more than 5% elongation are called as ductile materials.

The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing

ductility a mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin, and lead.

3.9) Malleability: It is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under

applications of heavy compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means.

It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin

sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong the

malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice in order of diminishing value

ability a lead soft steel, iron, copper and aluminium, tin lead steel etc are recognized as

highly malleable metals.

3.10) Hardness: It is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal.

A harder metal can always cut output impression to the softer metals by virtue of its

hardness. it is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings.

it embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, defamation

and machine mobility etc.

3.11) Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of

breaking of material with little permanent distortion.

The materials having less than 5% elongation and the loading behaviour are said to be

brittle materials. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving

any sensible elongation. Glass cast, iron, brass, and ceramics are considered as brittle

material thus brittleness is the property of a material to snap off without giving any

sensible elongation when subjected to tensile loads.

For example, poly(methyl methacrylate) is extremely brittle at temperature 4˚C,[1] but

experiences increased ductility with increased temperature. Amorphous polymers are

polymers that can behave differently at different temperatures. Some metals exhibit brittle

characteristics due to their slip systems. Ceramics are generally brittle due to the difficulty

of dislocation motion, or slip.

3.12) Creep: When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high

temperature for a longer period of time it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation

in form of a crack which may further propagate further towards creep failure called creep

dot in other words. Creep sometimes called as cold flow, is the tendency of a solid material

to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical

stresses.

It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below

the yield strength of the material.

Several different types of creep tests are available to assess high temperature deformation

of materials. Typical examples are tensile creep, compressive creep, flexural creep,

indentation creep, etc.

3.13) Formability: It is the ability of a given metal workpiece to undergo plastic

deformation without being damaged. It is the property of metals which denotes the ease in

its forming into various shapes and sizes.

The different factors that affect the form ability are crystal structure of metal, grain size

of metal, hot and cold working alloying element present in the parent metal.
Metals with small grain size are suitable for shallow forming while metal with high size

are suitable for heavy forming. hot working increases formability, low carbon steel

possesses good formability.

3.14) Castability: It is defined as the property of metal which indicates the ease with it

can be casted into different shapes and sizes.

Cast iron, aluminium and brass are possessing good castability.

3.15) Weldability: It is defined as the property of a metal which indicates the too similar

or dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or without the application of pressure and

with or without the use of filler metal welding efficiently. Metals having weld ability

in the descending order Orien steel > cast steels > stainless steels

4) Some other properties of materials

4.1) Durability: It is defined as the ability of a material to remain serviceable in the

surrounding environment during the useful life without damage or unexpected maintenance.

4.2) Recyclability: Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials

and objects. The recovery of energy from waste materials is often included in this concept. ...

Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, tires,

textiles, batteries, and electronics.

4.3) Biodegradability: Biodegradable material generally includes wood, wool, cotton, animal

waste or any other organic material which can be broken down into carbondioxide, methane or
any other simple organic molecules with the help of micro-organisms. They are often referred

to as 'Bio-waste'. Examples of Biodegradable material are: Human and animal waste, Plant

products such as wood, paper, food material etc.