Resources, Conservation and Recycling 28 (2000) 253–263

www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Plastics recycling and waste management in the

US
P.M. Subramanian *
S .P.M . Technologies, 110  Cameron Dri 6e, Hockessin, DE  19707 , USA

Abstract

The increasing awareness of the environment has contributed to concerns regarding our
life styles and our indiscriminate disposal of wastes. During the last decade, we have been
trying to address this complex problem, more aggressively. Discussed here briefly, are our
efforts in the United States in addressing the issue of solid wastes and in particular, plastic
wastes
wastes.. These
These effort
effortss have
have begun
begun to show
show promis
promising
ing result
results.
s. The munic
municipa
ipall solid
solid waste
waste
(MSW) produced annually, has begun to decrease, e.g. from 211.5 million tons in 1995 to
209.7 million tons in 1996. Recycling rates and composting rates are increasing. Disposal in
landfills is decreasing (from 60.9 to 55.5% in 1996). Waste disposal by combustion is also
increasing. This is primarily due to the increased efficiencies of the new incinerators and their
ability for the removal of particulates and harmful gases. Plastics are a small but a significant
component of the waste stream. It is encouraging to note that the amount of plastics being
recycled has grown significantly. In 1997, about 317 million kg of high density polyethylene
(HDPE
(HDPE)) bottl
bottles
es and 294 mil millio
lion
n kg of polye
polyethy
thylen
lenee tereph
terephtha
thalat
latee (PET)
(PET) bottle
bottless were
were
recycl
recycled.
ed. Recycl
Recycling
ing of durab
durable
le goods
goods,, such
such as autom
automoti
otive
ve parts
parts,, carpet
carpets,
s, electr
electron
onic
ic and
and
applianc
appliancee housing
housingss and parts
parts are being
being explored.
explored. Environm
Environmenta
entall compatib
compatibility
ility and recy-
clability
clability are being
being considere
considered
d during
during the designing
designing of new parts. Life cycle analyses
analyses and
management are also being studied as tools for decision making. © 2000 ACEEE Published
by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:  Environme
Keywords:  Environment;
nt; Plastics
Plastics recycling;
recycling; Waste management;
management; Municipal waste; Integrated
Integrated waste
management;
management; Waste-to-en
Waste-to-energy;
ergy; Incineratio
Incineration;
n; Landfill;
Landfill; Life cycle analysis
analysis

* Tel.: + 1-302-2394953
1-302-2394953;; fax: + 1-302-2390444.

0921-3449/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 ACEEE Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0921-3449(99)00049-X
254 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263 

1. Introduction

The pursuit of a higher quality of life is a continuing goal for the people of this
world. This has contributed to the increased consumption of goods and services. A
consequence of such consumption is the production of increased pollution and large
amounts of wastes. The goal of any sustainable growth should be that the efficiency
of energy utilization in every step of the system, from the production of the goods
to the disposal of the wastes, be maximized. The interdependence of each of these
steps on the others in the total chain, necessitates that we address the problems, in
totality. This is an enormous and complex task. In this talk, we will focus only on
the solid wastes produced and its management, and specially discuss plastics in the
solid
solid waste
waste stream,
stream, in the United
United States
States.. An integra
integrated
ted waste
waste manageme
management nt ap-
proa
proach
ch will
will be cons
consid
idere
ered
d invo
involvi
lving
ng effic
efficien
ientt use
use of mamate
teria
rials,
ls, recyc
recyclin
ling
g and
and
disposal.

2. Municipal solid waste (MSW)

Most of the consumer generated solid wastes, as well as a significant part of the
industrially produced wastes in this country, are disposed of by landfilling. How-
ever, during the last decade, our environmental awareness has increased, questions
have been raised regarding the viability of such indiscriminate disposal practices. As
a result
result,, substa
substanti
ntial
al progre
progress
ss has been made
made in better
better management
management of the waste
strea
streams
ms andand more
more efficefficien
ientt util
utiliza
izati
tion
on of the
the land
land resou
resourc
rces.
es. The
The tota
totall MSW
MSW
produced in the US has declined. Per capita generation of such wastes has also
decli
decline
ned
d and recyc
recyclin
ling
g and
and comp
compos
osti
ting
ng activi
activiti
ties
es have
have grow
grown n (Tab
(Table
le 1).
1). The
The
quantities of discarded packaging and durable goods have been reduced (Table 2)
[1]. Significant amounts of wastes are being recycled and /or composted (Table 3).
Disposal of solid wastes by combustion has also increased. This is the result of the
greater efficiencies
efficiencies of the newer waste-to-energ
waste-to-energy y (WTE) plants which are engineered
engineered
for complete combustion of the organic wastes and capture and removal of noxious
gases
gases and
and part
particl
icles
es.. The APC
APC [2] Dinge
Dingerr [3],
[3], Gr
Green
eenbe
berg
rg [4] and
and Port
Porter
er [5]
[5] have
have
prov
providided
ed sever
several
al over
overvie
views
ws of thethe solid
solid wast
wastee pict
pictur
ure.
e. The
The US Envir
Environ
onme
mentntal
al
Protection Agency (EPA)s most recent figures [6] show that both the total and per
capit
capitaa wast
wastee gener
generatatio
ion
n rate
ratess have
have actual
actually
ly decli
decline
ned.
d. US EPAEPA is pred
predict
ictin
ing
g a

Table 1
Municipal solid waste in the US

199 3 1994 1995 1 99 6

Total MSW (million tons) 206 209 211.5 209.7

Per capita generation (kg) 2 .0 2.0 2 .0 1.95
Per capita discards (kg) 1.59 1.54 1.49 1.45
Recovery–recycling, composting (%) 21 24 26 27
 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263  255

Table 2
Composition of materials discarded in the MSW*

Weight (%) 1995 19 96

Paper and paper products 31 .3 31.1

Glass 6.2 6.0
Metals
Ferrous 4 .7 4.8
Aluminum 1 .2 1.3
Other non-ferrous 0.3 0.3
Total metals 6.3 6.4
Plastics 11.5 12.3
Rubber and leather 3.5 3.7
Textiles 4.2 4.4
Wood 6.4 6.8
Other 1.9 1.9
Food wastes 13.6 14.0
Yard trimmings 13.3 11.3
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes 2 .0 2.1

* Discarded after recovery by recycling, composting.

relatively stable per capita waste generation rate through the year 2000 as waste
reduction efforts continue to have an effect [2].
Today,
Today, over 19 000 communiti
communities es are involve
involvedd in some form
form of recycling.
recycling. A total
total
78% of the US population have access to recycling programs [3].
Rathje [7,8] and others [2] point out that contrary to popular belief, plastics are
not the most
most prevale
prevalent
nt material
material in landfill
landfillss — paper
paper and paper
paper products
products account
account
for the largest percentage of a landfill’s contents. Food items and yard wastes are
the next
next largest
largest compon
component
ents.
s. Among
Among the otherother individ
individual
ual compon
component
entss plasti
plastics
cs
constitute the largest fraction (Table 2).
The amounts
amounts of materia
materials
ls dispos
disposed
ed in landfil
landfills,
ls, recycled
recycled or compost
composteded or dis-
dis-
posed by combustion are given in Table 3.

Table 3
Management of MSW in the US

1 9 88 1 99 0 1994 19 96

Landfill (%) 60.9 5 5 .5

Recycling/composting (%) 13 17 23 .6 27.3
Combustion (%) 15.5 17.2
256 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263 

3. Landfills

As show
shown n in Tabl
Tablee 3, most
most of the
the wast
wastee prod
produc
ucts
ts are being
being disp
dispos
osed
ed of by
landfilling. During the 1980s, there was a perceived crisis over a lack of landfill
space which led to fears that America would soon run out of room for its garbage.
Images of garbage barges floating up and down our coasts were ingrained into our
minds. While it is true that there were some localized landfill shortages in the 1980s,
a shor
shorta
tage
ge never
never occu
occurr
rred
ed,, nati
nation
onwi
wide
de.. While
While the
the tota
totall numb
numberer of landfi
landfills
lls is
decreasing, total landfill capacity is actually steadily increasing.
Between 1990 and 1996, there has been a 17% decrease in waste being landfilled.
National recovery levels reached 27% in 1996 and landfilled wastes declined from
83% of all MSW in 1986 to 55.4% in 1996. It has been calculated that at the current
rate of waste generation, all of America’s garbage for the next 1000 years will fit
into a single landfill measuring 120 feet deep and 44 miles square [2].
Modern landfills are designed to safely entomb wastes so that their uncontrolled
degradation does not endanger groundwater with pollutants. Such landfills could,
in many cases, be used after they are capped, to construct parks, golf courses and
even airports.

4. Plastics and plastic wastes

Plast
Plastics
ics have
have beco
become
me an inte
integrgral
al part
part of our
our lives
lives.. The
The amoun
amounts ts of plas
plasti
tics
cs
consumed annually have been growing steadily (Table 4). Its low density, strength,
user-f
user-frien
riendly
dly design
design and fabrica
fabricatio
tion
n capabil
capabilitie
itiess and low cost,
cost, are the drivers
drivers to
such growth. Besides its wide use in packaging, automotive and industrial applica-
tions, they are extensively used in medical delivery systems, artificial implants and
other healthcare
healthcare applications,
applications, water desalination and removal of bacteria
bacteria etc. Usage
of plastics, in preservation and distribution of food, housing and appliances are too
many to mention here. Specially designed plastics, have been an integral part of the
commun
communicatication
ion and electro
electronic
nicss indust
industry
ry — be it in the manufactu
manufacturing
ring of chips
chips or
printed circuit boards, or housings for computers. They are also integral compo-

Table 4
Growth of plastics in MSW

Year Plastics in MSW (%)

1 96 0 0.5
1 97 0 2.6
1 98 0 5.0
1 99 0 9.8
1 99 2 1 0 .6
1 99 4 1 1 .2
1995 11.5
1996 12.3
 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263  257

Table 5
Plastics in municipal solid waste (1996, 1000 tons)

Durable goods 6260

Non-durable goods 53 5 0
Bags, sacks and wraps 3220
Soft drinks, milk etc. containers 1350
Other containers 1 2 80

nents in the preparation and delivery of alternative energy systems such as fuel cells,
batteries and even solar power.
Given
Given such
such perv
pervasi
asiven
venes
ess,
s, it is little
little wond
wonderer that
that plas
plasti
tics
cs cont
contri
ribu
bute
te to an
incr
increa
easi
sing
ng volu
volume
me in thethe soli
solid
d wast
wastee stre
stream
am.. In the
the MSW,
MSW, in 1996
1996,, plas
plasti
tics
cs
amounted to about 12%, by weight [1]. Table 5 describes the amounts of plastics
(thousand tons) in the solid waste.
The waste
waste plasti
plastics
cs collect
collected
ed from
from the solid wastes
wastes stream
stream is a contam
contaminat
inated,
ed,
assorted mixture of a variety of plastics. This makes their identification, separation
and purification, very challenging.
In the plastic
plasticss waste
waste stream,
stream, polyet
polyethyle
hylene
ne forms
forms the largest
largest fracti
fraction,
on, which
which is
followed by PET. Lesser amounts of a variety of other plastics can also be found
in the plastics waste stream (Table 6).

5. Integrated plastics waste management

Any attempt to manage such large quantities of a diverse, contaminated mixture

of plastics in an energy efficient and environmentally benign manner, needs to be
consid
considere
ered
d using
using an integra
integrated
ted approa
approach.
ch. This would
would requir
requiree that
that we examine
examine
critically the various steps in the life of the plastics such as the raw materials for
their
their manufa
manufactu
cture,
re, the manufa
manufactu
cturing
ring process
processes,
es, design
design and fabrica
fabricatio
tion
n of the
finishe
finishedd produc
products,
ts, possib
possible
le reuse
reuse of those
those items,
items, and the proper
proper dispos
disposal
al of the
wastes etc., in totality.
Such an integrated waste management concept comprises of 
 Source reduction,
reduction,
 reuse,

 recycling,

Table 6
Types and quantities of plastics in municipal solid waste (1000 tons)

Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) 1 7 00
High density polyethylene (HDPE) 4 12 0
Low density polyethylene (LDPE/HDPE) 5010
Polypropylene (PP) 25 80
Polystyrene (PS) 1 9 90
Other 3130
258 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263 

 landfill,
 waste-to-energy conversion

6. Source reduction–conserving energy

It has been reported that only about 4% of the United States energy consumption
are used in the production of all plastics [2]. Franklin Associates Ltd., a leading
practitioner in life cycle studies, has conducted research to compare the life cycle
energy impact of plastics and alternative materials. One study compared the energy
requir
required
ed to manufac
manufacturture,
e, use and dispos
disposee of common
common packagin
packagingg items
items with
with the
most likely non-plastic
non-plastic alternatives.
alternatives. Franklin found that by using plastic packaging,
product manufacturers save enough energy each year to power a city of 1 million
homes for roughly 3.5 years [2]. Rathje [9] has analyzed, carrying capacity ratios of 
different packaging materials. Glass has a value of 1.9 indicating that to carry 1.9
ounce of juice, one needs 1 ounce of glass. Plastics has a value of 34 meaning that
34 ounces of juice could be carried in 1 ounce of plastic. Paper has a value of 6.9
and for aluminum the value is 21.8.

7. Source reduction–efficient use

An important aspect of the integrated waste management approach is to mini-

mize the amount of plastics used. By employing improved manufacturing technolo-
gies
gies,, wast
wastes
es prod
produc
uced
ed duri
during
ng ma
manu nufa
fact
ctur
urin
ing
g proc
procesesse
sess have
have been
been redu
reduce
ced
d
significantly, by the resin manufacturers and converters. Parts are being designed to
have adequate strength, with less weight. Efforts are made to reduce the number of 
diff
differe
erent
nt type
typess of plas
plasti
tics
cs in anyany given
given asse
assemb
mbly.
ly. Recyc
Recycledled plas
plasti
tics
cs are
are ofte
often
n
considered as raw materials for manufacture of a variety of parts, particularly in
the automotive and industrial areas.
Since 1977, the weight of the 2-l plastic soft drink bottle has been reduced from
68 to 51 g, a 25% reduction. That eliminates the need for more than 206 million
pounds of PET each year. The 1-gallon plastic milk jug has undergone an even
greater reduction, weighing 30% less than it did 20 years ago. For several applica-
tions,
tions, milk and several
several juices
juices are being
being package
packaged d in recyclab
recyclable le pouche
pouches,s, which
which
weigh substantially less than the rigid bottles. The lower weights, besides reducing
the
the amoun
amountsts of wast
wastes
es prod
produceuced,
d, redu
reduce
ce the
the cost
costss asso
associa
ciate
ted
d with
with frei
freight
ght and
and
handling, as well.
The
The dura
durabibili
lity
ty of plas
plasti
tics
cs ofte
often
n cont
contri
ribu
bute
tess to thei
theirr reus
reusee in a vari
variet
ety
y of 
secondary applications. According to Duranceau [10], a large number of automo-
tive parts are recovered from discarded vehicles or vehicles involved in an accident.
Thes
Thesee are dism
dismanantl
tled,
ed, repa
repaire
ired
d and
and reused
reused in many
many autoautomomoti
tive
ve repair
repairs.
s. These
These
recovered plastic parts contribute to a large reduction in the potential amounts of 
virgin plastic materials that would have been required otherwise.
 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263  259

8. Recycling of plastics

Plastic recycling has grown appreciably during the last few years. Recycling of 
rigid
rigid plas
plasti
ticc cont
contain
ainers
ers has
has grow
grownn to about
about 1.4 billi
billion
on poun
pounds ds — 704 mil millio
lion
n
pounds of waste HDPE bottles and 649 million pounds of waste PET bottles, in
1997
1997 (Tab
(Tablele 7).
7). At pres
present
ent,, ther
theree are
are more
more than
than 1700
1700 busin
busines esses
ses hand
handlin
lingg and
and
reclaiming post-consumer plastics. A wide variety of new products, such as single-
use cameras
cameras,, park
park benche
benches,s, sweate
sweaters,
rs, jeans,
jeans, videocas
videocasset
settes
tes,, deterge
detergent
nt bottle
bottless and
toys
toys are being
being made with or packaged
packaged in post-c
post-cons
onsume
umerr recycle
recycled d plasti
plastics.
cs. More
More
than
than 1500
1500 commcommercercial
ially
ly avail
availab
able
le prod
produc
ucts
ts are liste
listedd in thethe Recycl
Recycled
ed Plas
Plasti
ticc
Products Source Book published by the APC.
The produc
productiotion
n and consum
consumptiption
on of virgin
virgin plasti
plasticc resins
resins have been increas
increasing
ing
stead
steadily
ily.. Tolo
Tolokekenn [11]
[11] indi
indicat
cates
es that
that the
the am
amou
ount
nt of plast
plastics
ics recyc
recycled
led have
have also
also
increas
increased
ed simulta
simultaneo
neousl
uslyy (4% in 1997),
1997), however
however,, the recyclin
recycling g rate has declined.
declined.
This is due to the weaker market demand for recycled resins in an economy where
the virgin resins are priced very low — a situation compounded by the low energy
costs and the poor global economy, currently (1999).

8 .1. Durable plastics recycling 

Durable plastics, as opposed to most packaging and convenience goods which

are discarded after a single use, tend to have a life of 3 or more years. Automobiles,
computers, household appliances, carpets and fabrics fall into this category. The
use
use of plast
plastics
ics in durab
durable
le appl
applica
icati
tion
onss cont
contininue
uess to grow
grow as desi
design
gn engin
engineeeers
rs,,
manufacturers and consumers continue to rely on its performance, low cost and
design benefits. The recovery of plastics from such durable goods is complex. Often,
they
they are integr
integrated
ated with
with several
several other
other plasti
plasticc and non-pl
non-plast
astic
ic compon
componentents.
s. Their
Their
sepa
separat
ratio
ion,
n, reco
recover
very
y and
and puri
purific
ficat
atio
ionn requ
requir
iree sever
several
al step
stepss and
and gener
generall
ally,
y, the
the
volumes of such materials available for recovery are limited. Nevertheless, several
efforts are under way exploring the recycling of such products after their lifetime.
Manu
Manufa fact
ctur
urers
ers of such
such prod
product
uctss have
have commi
committ tted
ed to use
use recyc
recycled
led ma
mateteri
rials
als,,
wherever possible, as a part of their total material needs. Business equipment and
computer manufacturers, who are currently recovering precious metals from such

Table 7
Plastics bottle recycling rates

Plastic bottle (million kg) 1996 1 99 7 Change (%)

PET soft drink 240 246 2.7

PET custom 46 48 3
Total PET bottles 286 2 95 2 .8
HDPE natural 1 83 1 88 2.7
HDPE pigmented 1 15 1 32 14.9
Total HDPE bottles 29 7 31 9 7.4
All plastic bottles 59 3 617 4.1
260 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263 

products, are testing the recovery of plastic housings and other components from
them. Automotive companies have major efforts in recycling of plastic components
and try to use materials having recycled plastics content.
In the US, carpets consume over 2 billion pounds of polymers, mostly nylon 66,
nylon 6 or polyesters. Carpet constructions consist of about 50% fibers or face yarn.
The backing of the carpets is invariably polypropylene, attached to a layer of highly
filled SBR latex. Recovery of the face fiber in a pure form, freed from the backing
and the fillers etc., is a complex process. Carpet manufacturers are introducing new
techno
technology
logy to recover
recover such
such carpet
carpet fibers
fibers and underla
underlay,
y, includ
including
ing prepar
preparati
ation
on of 
pure monomers and intermediates.
Several
Several studies
studies and pilot program
programss in durabl
durables
es recyclin
recycling g are under
under way.
way. The
objec
objectiv
tivee of thes
thesee proje
project
ctss is a comp
comprerehe
hens
nsive
ive inves
investi
tigat
gation
ion of the the tech
techninical
cal,,
econom
economicic and ecologi
ecological
cal aspect
aspectss of such
such recycli
recycling.
ng. Automo
Automotiv tivee shredd
shredder
er residue
residue
(ASR),
(ASR), a major,
major, comming
commingled led mixture
mixture of waste
waste produc
products
ts from
from end-of
end-of-lif
-lifee (EOL)
(EOL)
automobiles is a subject of extensive investigation regarding its potential use for
impact modification of concrete, pyrolysis, or as a fuel in energy plants. Economic
modelin
modeling g has comple
complement
menteded much
much of this
this experime
experimenta
ntall researc
research. h. They includ
includee
assessment
assessment of system economies for today’s
today’s automobile
automobile recycling infrastruct
infrastructure
ure and
project the impact of different material and energy recovery options [2].

8 .2 . Design for recycling 

Unti
Untill recen
recentl
tly,
y, very
very littl
littlee atte
attent
ntion
ion had
had been
been paid
paid to make
make comp
compon
onen
ents
ts and
and
systems that lend themselves to facile recycling at the end of their use. Combina-
tion
tionss of plas
plasti
tic,
c, pape
paper,
r, meta
metall and
and natu
natura
rall prod
produc
ucts
ts were
were used
used in comb
combininat
atio
ion
n
without any consideration of the potential difficulties in recycling. For example, the
soft drink PET bottle had a polyethylene bottom, polypropylene or aluminum cap
and paper labels. Adhesives used in the assembly of the products often, prevent
easy
easy separ
separat
atio
ionn of attach
attacheded plas
plastic
tic part
parts.
s. With
With the
the incr
increas
easin
ing
g awar
awaren
enes
esss for
for
potential recyclability, designers are exploring new designs and material combina-
tions. New simplified soft drink bottle constructions, automotive fascias, bumpers
and instrumental panels are examples of such efforts.

8 .3 . Ad 6anced recycling technologies

Another approach to the recycling of plastics wastes involves the generation of 
monomers and building blocks in high purity, from the plastic wastes, enabling the
re-manufacture of the original or new plastics. Such novel recycling (e.g. glycolysis,
ammonol
ammonolysis
ysis,, pyroly
pyrolysis,
sis, etc.)
etc.) repres
represent
entss a signific
significant
ant techno
technologi
logical
cal advance
advancemen
mentt
that
that could
could supple
supplement
ment existin
existingg mechan
mechanical
ical recycli
recycling
ng techniq
techniques
ues.. These
These are often
often
called advanced recycling or feed-stock recycling or chemical recycling [2]. Com-
mercial
mercial size plants to make the respec
respective
tive monomers
monomers fromfrom polyest
polyesters
ers and nylon
nylon
have been built or are under construction. While several technologies in these areas
have been developed, large scale adoptions depend upon their economic viability.
 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263  261

Table 8
Energy values of common materials

Material BTU/pound

Plastics
Polyethylene 19 900
Polypropylene 19 850
Polystyrene 17 800
Rubber 1 7 80 0
Newspaper 8000
Leather 72 00
Wood 67 00
Average MSW 4500
Yard wastes 3000
Food wastes 2600
Fuel oil 20 900
Wyoming
Wyoming coal 9600

9. Energy recovery

Another important way to manage solid waste is to recover the energy value of 
products after their useful life. One such method involves combustion of municipal
solid waste (MSW) or garbage in waste-to-energy (WTE) facilities. Modern energy
recovery facilities burn solid wastes in special combustion chambers, and use the
resulting heat energy to generate steam and electricity. This process can reduce the
volume of MSW by as much as 90%. Today, there are 114 energy recovery plants,
operating in 32 states throughout the United States, generating enough electricity to
meet the power needs of 1.2 million homes and businesses.
Boet
Boettc
tche
herr [12]
[12] has
has point
pointed
ed out
out that
that as plas
plasti
tics
cs are
are gener
generall
ally
y deri
derived
ved from
from
petrol
petroleum
eum or natura
naturall gas, they have
have stored
stored energy values higher than any other
mater
material
ial commo
commonl nly
y foun
foundd in the
the wast
wastee stre
stream.
am. The
The ener
energy
gy value
valuess of sever
several
al
common materials are given in Table 8.
Polyolefins commonly used in packaging can generate twice as much energy as
Wyoming coal and almost as much energy as fuel oil. When plastics are processed
in modern WTE facilities, they can help other wastes combust more completely,
leaving less ash for disposal. Several international and US studies, including a 1995
report completed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and a
study sponsored by the US Conference of Mayors in 1989, have found that there
is no evidence to link the incineration of polyvinylchloride containing wastes with
increased dioxin emissions. Such combustion processes could be a way of disposing
the large volumes of contaminated automotive shredder residues, safely [2].
In 1997, there were 112 energy recovery facilities operating in 31 states through-
out
out the
the Unit
United
ed Stat
Stateses with
with a desig
design
n capa
capacit
city
y of near
nearly
ly 101
101 500 tons per day [2].
262 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263 

9 .1. Life cycle analysis and management

Duri
Duringng the
the last
last 20 years
years,, publ
public
ic opin
opinio
ion
n and
and envir
environ
onme
ment
ntal
al dire
directctive
ivess from
from
governments have led to the evolution of methodologies to measure an industrial
system
system’s’s enviro
environme
nmenta
ntall impact
impact.. Lowman
Lowman,, in his presen
presentat
tation
ion at an automo
automobilbilee
industry conference [13] mentions that life cycle analysis (LCA) has emerged as a
tool
tool in the
the deve
develop
lopmen
mentt of publi
publicc polic
policy
y and
and in desi
design
gn decis
decisio
ions
ns.. It analy
analyzes
zes
multip
multiple
le attrib
attribute
utess of a produc
productt or system from cradle to grave.grave. It also has the
unique ability to create a quantitative inventory listing of all process inputs and
output
outputss (includ
(including
ing environ
environment
mentalal emissio
emissions
ns and energy
energy resour
resources
ces)) from
from which
which
trade
tradeof
offf analy
analyse
sess can be mamade de befor
beforee makin
making g publ
public
ic poli
policy
cy decis
decisio
ions
ns or large
large
investments in products, or research.
In the United States, where landfill space is actually increasing, the EPA is in an
information gathering stage, and is becoming more active in the area of life cycle
management (LCM).

10. Conclusion

The past decade has seen increased awareness of the environmental issues and
general support for exploration and implementation of methods and practices to
make our products and processes more environmentally benign. Consequentially,
substantial progress has been made in the areas of environmental management. In
the case of solid wastes including plastics, significant progress has been made in
reducing waste and increasing the quantities being recycled. Chemical recycling to
make
make monome
monomers,rs, in the case of nylon
nylon and polyester
polyesters,
s, has been establ
establish
ished
ed and
disposal of very complex and contaminated mixtures of plastics by incineration has
been developed. While several new technologies have been developed, the amounts
of materials being recycled appear to have reached a plateau. In the absence of 
additional legislative mandates, further progress in recycling of plastics might be
slower, given the relatively high costs of recycling, the low cost of energy, and the
low cost
cost of landfill
landfilling.
ing. Yet,
Yet, with
with a long-t
long-term
erm perspe
perspecti
ctive,
ve, greater
greater dedicat
dedication
ion to
higher environmental quality and life cycle analysis of products, growth of plastics
and its recycling could become more important in the future.

Acknowledgements

Valuable discussions with Mr John McAuley of Montell and Dr Michael Fisher

of the American Plastics Council are hereby acknowledged.

References

[1] Franklin Associates Ltd. Characterization of Municipal

Municipal Solid Waste: 1997 Update (Prepared for the
USEPA). Prairie Village, KS, 1998.
 P.M . Subramanian /  Resources, Conser6ation and Recycling  28 (2000) 253–263  263

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