Electrical Practice: GEK - Class II'

ELECTRICAL PRACTICE
‘GEK – Class II’
19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 1
Batteries
Batteries
Learning Objectives
 Principle of operation (no chemical reactions)

 Marine Application of batteries
 Most common type of marine batteries
 Construction of lead-acid and nickel cadmium type
 Salient characteristics of each type
 Comparison of both types
 Charging characteristics
 Charging circuit
 Sealed battery

Batteries
Learning Objectives
 Maintenance
 Safety

Batteries
Past Questions on Batteries
Year Mar Jul Oct Dec

2010 NO YES NO Yes
2009 YES NO NO NO
2008 NO NO NO NO
2007 YES NO NO YES
2006 YES NO NO NO

Batteries
Introduction
 Electrochemical devices that store electrical power
 For safe, smooth and efficient operations public buildings

such as airports, hospitals, hotels, railway stations,
supermarkets etc. require uninterruptible power supply
 This need is catered through battery packs which take over

seamlessly when the main supply fails until power is restored
 Major use of batteries (combination of cells) on ships is also

along those lines

Batteries
Types of cells
 Primary cell: a cell that cannot be RECHARGED after it

has discharged, e.g. AA
 Secondary cell: a cell that can be RECHARGED, e.g. car

battery
 On board ships, rechargeable batteries are used i.e.

secondary type”

Batteries
Cell combinations
 Basic unit of a battery is a cell
 E.M.F. of a cell is quite small (typically 1 – 3V), for

example:
 Lead-Acid cell nominal voltage = 2V
 Alkaline cell nominal voltage = 1.2V
 Different configurations (e.g. series), to form a battery,

yield larger and more useful voltages to be available
 Nominal supply voltage of 24V
 Bigger loads supplied at 110 – 220V

Batteries
Battery Power Consumers
Essential Loads1 Emergency Loads2

Switchgear operation Emergency generator start up
Navigation lights Emergency lighting
Foghorns
Fire & gas detection
Internal communication
Some radio communication
Alarm system
1. Two sets working on Charge/Discharge Cycle

2. Used in Standby Mode

Batteries
Some Advantages of Batteries
 Available in wide range of sizes
 Ability to supply electrical power instantly – if maintained

properly
 Portability
 Multiple use - chargeable

Batteries
How Do they Work?

 A battery consists of positive electrodes* and negative
electrodes, separated by/ immersed in an electrolyte
which conducts ions between the two electrodes.
 Electrolyte chemically reacts with one of the electrodes
producing an E.M.F across the electrodes – i.e. current
flows out of terminals
 Charging the battery (supplying the current) reforms the
battery bringing it to its original charged state
Electrode: an electronic conductor which acts as source or sink of
electrons

Batteries
How Do they Work?
Charging
Discharging

Batteries
Essential Components
Separator
Connector Post
Positive Plates Negative Plates

Batteries
Essential Components
 Dissimilar electrodes (positive & negative)

 Electrolyte
 Separator: a thin, usually porous, insulating material to
prevent the two electrodes from touching each other.
The pores are filled with electrolyte and the ionic current
is conveyed through these pores.
 Housing (container)

Batteries
Battery Ratings
 Rated in Ampere-hours
 The amount of current [A] a fully charged battery can
supply for 10 hours without terminal voltage having to
fall below:
 1.73V (approx.) for Lead-acid type
 1.14V (approx.) for Alkaline type
 A 350 Ah battery would be expected to provide 35A for
10 hours
350Ah
 35A
10h

Batteries
Lead-acid types

Batteries
Lead-acid cells
 Active material of positive electrode is lead per oxide ‘PbO2’
 Active material of negative plates is lead ‘Pb’
 Cells are separated by insulating separators
 Arrangement is immersed in an electrolyte – dilute sulphuric
acid ‘H2SO4’

Batteries
Hydrogen Vent cap
Oxygen
– +
Electrolyte
Spongy Lead Lead
H2SO4
(Pb) Per
Oxide
(PbO2)
Solution of H2SO4
and distilled water
Mud space Lead‐acid cell

Batteries
Lead-acid cells
 Under high discharge rates, active* material may

dislodge and gravitate to bottom. This may cause short
circuit. To avoid this occurrence sufficient clearance is
therefore left at the bottom of the battery.
The material in the electrodes that take part in the

electrochemical reactions which store-deliver electrical
energy

Batteries
Source: D T Hall

Batteries
Discharge Action (LA)
 H+ of electrolyte combine with O2 of the positive plate –

forming water
 Water formation, as the cell discharges, dilutes the electrolyte

and its ‘specific gravity’ or ‘relative density’ decreases
 Therefore, for Lead-Acid batteries, state of charge can be

obtained by measuring (with hydrometer) the SG or RD of the
electrolyte
 Fully Charged: 1270 – 1285 (1.27 – 1.285)
 Fully Discharged: 1100 (1.1)
 Voltage should not fall below 1.8 V or permanent damage

may be caused

Batteries
Overview (LA)
State Plate Material Voltage SG of

Electrolyte
Charged Lead per Spongy lead 2.0V 1270-1285
oxide (+) (–)
Discharged Lead Lead 1.73 V 1100
sulphate sulphate
Note: density values quoted are based on ambient

temperature of 15°C. Corrections are made for temp.
Variations. (Correction factor +/- 0.007 for each +/- 10°C)

Batteries
Advantages/disadvantages (LA)
Advantages Disadvantages
High voltage/cell Relatively heavy
Lower cost/unit Poor low temp. characteristics
Higher efficiency Cannot be left in discharged
SG indicator of charge state condition for too long without
being damaged
When not in use, requires
charging to compensate for self
discharge
Limited performance under
high discharge rates

Batteries
Nickel-cadmium cells
 Active material of positive electrodes is nickel hydrate

‘Ni O (OH)’
 Active material of negative plates is cadmium ‘Cd’
 Cells are separated by insulating separators
 Arrangement is immersed in an electrolyte – potassium
hydroxide ‘KOH’

Batteries
Hydrogen Non‐return vent
Oxygen
– +
Electrolyte
Cadmium Nickle
Cd KOH Hydrate
Ni O (OH)
Potassium hydroxide
Nickle‐cadmium cell

Batteries
Nickle‐cadmium battery

Batteries
Electrolyte RD (Ni-Cd)
 RD (1.21) does not change during charging/ discharging

 Therefore, RD gives no indication of the state of charge
 State of charge may be checked by measuring the
terminal voltage while on load
 Nevertheless, RD should be checked regularly which
may fall as battery ages

Batteries
Overview (Ni-Cd)
State Plate Material Voltage SG of

Electrolyte
Charged Nickle Cadmium 1.2 V 1170
Hydrate(+) (–)
Discharged Nickle Cadmium 1.0 V 1170
Hydroxide Hydroxide

Batteries
Advantages/disadvantages (Ni-Cd)
Advantages Disadvantages
Robust construction – Low voltage per cell
withstands vibration Expensive than lead-acid
Does not require trickle Risk of electrolyte
charge poisoning from CO2
Longer life span Lower efficiency
Good high rate discharge
without damage
Low temp. performance

Batteries
Charging
 Type of charging and degree of charging affect:
1. Discharge performance of a battery
2. Life span of a battery
 Insufficient charging gives reduced discharge capacity

 Excessive overcharging without controls reduces battery life
 Charging current (D.C.) is adapted from mains (A.C.) through
rectifiers
 When charging, battery is disconnected from the load
 Positive and negative terminals of the battery connect with the
positive and negative terminals of the charger respectively
 Reverse flow of the current reverses the discharge action of the cells

Batteries
Emergency battery
Charging circuit

Batteries
 In normal conditions batteries on standby

 In standby load switch L is open and charging switch C
is closed
 This position of switch is held by the electromagnetic coil
against spring pressure
 In case of power failure coil de-energises so that L is
closed and C is open
 Batteries disconnected from mains charging (C open)
 Batteries are now supplying power to emergency load (L
closed)

Batteries
Safe Working Practices

 When charged, batteries ‘gas’ – hydrogen (-ve plates) and oxygen
(+ve plates)
 Hydrogen is explosive (4 – 57% concentration in air)
 Keep battery rooms well ventilated
 Verbal warnings/ safety posters must be displayed
 No source of ignition
 No smoking, electric sparks, naked flames or non-safe
electrical equipments
 Keep ambient temperature within 50°C
 Higher temperatures reduce battery life and efficiency
 Avoid shorting the connections (terminals)
 Keep cell tops clean and dry, vents clear & free from deposits

Batteries
Electrolyte hazards
 Burns
 Cause injury to the skin
 Burns of cornea (eye)
 Metal corrosion

Batteries
Effects from electrolyte
Hazard Measure
Burns of skin or eyes Wear protective apron,
gloves and goggles.
FA: wash with plenty of
water and neutralise.
Seek medical attention
Corrosion Electrolyte resistive floor,
electrolyte resistive paint
and limit spread of liquid
electrolyte

Batteries
Explosive charging gases
 On charging hydrogen and oxygen gases are formed as

a result of electrolysis of water
 A content of 4% hydrogen in air is explosive
 Sources for ignition of hydrogen gas
 Naked flame
 Flying sparks
 Electrical sparking equipment
 Mechanical sparking equipment
 Electrostatic charge

Batteries – Past Question
December 2010 – Q11
a) Sketch a circuit showing how the emergency generator

is started, connected to the emergency busbars and
how the main busbars are disconnected in the event of
a blackout. (6)
b) Explain how an emergency generator can be tested to
ensure that it is capable of satisfactorily delivering the
rated power (4)

December 2010 – Q11(a) (suggested answer)

December 2010 – Q11(b) (suggested answer)

 Plan the test well in advance (documentation, duties,
etc.)
 Communicate with the deck department
 Test must not jeopardise the safe operation of the ship
 Make preparations for the test, (fuel, charge, etc.)
 Simulate the blackout by operating the CB supplying
loads through the emergency busbar (EBB)
 Note timing of the connection to EBB and connect
emergency loads
 Let it run for some time and note the running parameters
of the EG and the loads

July 2010 – Q11
a) Sketch a circuit that allows both trickle charging and fast

charging of lead acid batteries (6)
b) State with reasons why trickle charge and fast charge
provision is necessary (2)
c) Explain why lead acid batteries may have to be taken
off charge in hot climates (2)

July 2010 – Q11(a) (suggested answer)
Emergency battery
Charging circuit
July 2010 – Q11(b) (suggested answer)
 LA batteries lose charge gradually over a period of time

– trickle charging is necessary to make up for the loss of
charge. On standby, supply current is adjusted to supply
a continuous constant current which compensates for
losses which are not the result of external load.
 Fast charging - when batteries have been discharged on
load the trickle current is insufficient to recharge the
batteries.

July 2010 – Q11(c) (suggested answer)
 Battery life is shortened

 Battery capacity is reduced

April 2009 – Q11
a) Sketch a single cell of the nickel-cadmium battery of the

sealed type. (6)
b) Explain how a nickel-cadmium battery is able to operate
sealed, under normal charge conditions (4)

April 2009 – Q11(a) (suggested answer)
Sealed +
–
+ –
Charger
Ni (OH)3 Cd
Cd (OH)2
Reserve

April 2009 – Q11(b) (suggested answer)
 Regular (Ni-Cd) batteries release oxygen (+ve) and

hydrogen (–ve) when approaching full charge
 Overcharging causes increase in release of gasses
 Gasses are released through non-return vent to prevent

pressure build up
 Hence topping up of electrolyte is required because of loss

through gassing
 Sealed batteries are designed to operate without such

problems – evaporation and gassing

April 2009 – Q11(b) (suggested answer)
 Loss of electrolyte through normal evaporation is

prevented by replacing the vent with a seal
 Gassing is inhibited by modifying the plate design
 Negative plates are made with surplus cadmium

hydroxide
 Surplus ensures that negative plate is partially charged

when positive is fully charged – any overcharge will not
cause gassing since there is always some active
material available

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ELECTRICAL PRACTICE

‘GEK – Class II’

 Principle of operation (no chemical reactions)

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 3

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 4

Past Questions on Batteries

Year Mar Jul Oct Dec

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 5

 Electrochemical devices that store electrical power

 For safe, smooth and efficient operations public buildings

 This need is catered through battery packs which take over

 Major use of batteries (combination of cells) on ships is also

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 6

 Primary cell: a cell that cannot be RECHARGED after it

 Secondary cell: a cell that can be RECHARGED, e.g. car

 On board ships, rechargeable batteries are used i.e.

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 7

 Basic unit of a battery is a cell

 E.M.F. of a cell is quite small (typically 1 – 3V), for

 Different configurations (e.g. series), to form a battery,

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 8

Battery Power Consumers

Essential Loads1 Emergency Loads2

1. Two sets working on Charge/Discharge Cycle

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 9

Some Advantages of Batteries

 Available in wide range of sizes

 Ability to supply electrical power instantly – if maintained

 Multiple use - chargeable

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 10

How Do they Work?

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 11

How Do they Work?

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 12

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 13

 Dissimilar electrodes (positive & negative)

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 14

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 15

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 16

 Active material of positive electrode is lead per oxide ‘PbO2’

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 17

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 18

 Under high discharge rates, active* material may

The material in the electrodes that take part in the

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 19

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 20

Discharge Action (LA)

 H+ of electrolyte combine with O2 of the positive plate –

 Water formation, as the cell discharges, dilutes the electrolyte

 Therefore, for Lead-Acid batteries, state of charge can be

 Voltage should not fall below 1.8 V or permanent damage

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 21

State Plate Material Voltage SG of

Note: density values quoted are based on ambient

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 22

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 23

 Active material of positive electrodes is nickel hydrate

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 24

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 25

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 26

 RD (1.21) does not change during charging/ discharging

19‐Jan‐11 School of Marine Engineering 27