GENDER AND SOCIETY

-Sex refers to the anatomical and other biological differences between females and males that are
determined at the moment of conception and develop in the womb and throughout childhood and
adolescence.

-Females, of course, have two X chromosomes, while males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome.

Gender as a Social Construction

-If sex is a biological concept, then gender is a social concept. It refers to the social and cultural
differences a society assigns to people based on their (biological) sex. A related concept, gender roles,
refers to a society’s expectations of people’s behavior and attitudes based on whether they are females or
males.

-As we grow up, we learn these expectations as we develop our gender identity, or our beliefs about
ourselves as females or males.

These expectations are called femininity and masculinity.

- Femininity refers to the cultural expectations we have of girls and women, while masculinity refers to
the expectations we have of boys and men.

-When we say that a girl or woman is very feminine, we have some combination of these traits, usually
the positive ones, in mind: she is soft, dainty, and pretty, even a bit flighty.

-What we traditionally mean by masculinity is captured in the adjectives, again both positive and
negative, our society traditionally ascribes to men: strong, assertive, brave, active, independent,
intelligent, competitive, insensitive, unemotional, and aggressive.

-When we say that a boy or man is very masculine, we have some combination of these traits in mind:
he is tough, strong, and assertive.

-These traits might sound like stereotypes of females and males in today’s society, and to some extent
they are, but differences between men and women in attitudes and behavior do in fact exist (Aulette,
Wittner, & Blakeley, 2009).

 For example, women cry more often than men do. Men are more physically violent than
women. Women take care of children more than men do. Women smile more often than men.

Men curse more often than women. When women talk with each other, they are more likely to talk
about their personal lives than men are when they talk with each other (Tannen, 2001).

 The two sexes even differ when they hold a cigarette (not that anyone should smoke). When a
woman holds a cigarette, she usually has the palm of her cigarette-holding hand facing upward.
When a man holds a cigarette, he usually has his palm facing downward.
Sexual Orientation

-Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for sexual relationships with individuals of the other
sex (heterosexuality), one’s own sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality).

-The term also increasingly refers to transgendered individuals, those whose behavior, appearance,
and/or gender identity fails to conform to conventional norms.

-Transgendered individuals include transvestites (those who dress in the clothing of the opposite sex)
and transsexuals (those whose gender identity differs from the physiological sex and who sometimes
undergo a sex change).

Sexual Orientation: Challenge

-It is difficult to know precisely how many people are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. One
problem is conceptual.

-For example, what does it mean to be gay or lesbian? Does one need to actually have sexual
relations with a same-sex partner to be considered gay? What if someone is attracted to same-sex partners
but does not actually engage in sex with such persons? What if someone identifies as heterosexual but
engages in homosexual sex for money (as in certain forms of prostitution) or for power and influence (as
in much prison sex)? These conceptual problems make it difficult to determine the extent of
homosexuality.

Sexual Orientation

-Many gays say they realized they were gay during adolescence, just as straights would say they realized
they were straight during their own adolescence.

-Other scholars say that sexual orientation is at least partly influenced by cultural norms, so that
individuals are more likely to identify as gay or straight depending on the cultural views of sexual
orientation into which they are socialized as they grow up.

-At best, perhaps all we can say is that sexual orientation stems from a complex mix of biological and
cultural factors that remain to be determined.

Socialization and Gender

Family

Religion

Peers Agents of Socialization

Mass Media

Schools

THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
-Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as
functioning members of their society.

-“Socialization” is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political scientists,

and educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and
ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within his or her
own society. Socialization is thus “the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained.”

-Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a
functioning member of their society and is the most influential learning process one can experience.
Unlike other living species, whose behavior is biologically set, humans need social experiences to learn
their culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in the actions, customs, and behaviors
of whole social groups, the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level. This
expression can only occur after an individual has been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended
family, and extended social networks.

 Freud's theory (psychoanalysis):

 Piaget and Cognitive Development

 Cooley's theory of the 'looking-glass self:

 Erikson and Identity Development

 Theory of G.H. Mead (I and me):

 Durkheim's theory of collective representation:

 Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Moral Development

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

-During the first months of life, the infant possesses little or no understanding of differences between
human beings and material objects in the environment, and has no awareness of self. Children do not
begin to use concepts like I, ‘me’ and ‘you’ until the age of about two or after. Only gradually do they
then come to understand that others have distinct identities, consciousness and needs separate from their
own.

-The awareness of self arises in interaction with the social and non-social environment. The social
environment is especially important. The development of our personal identity—or self—is a
complicated process. The realization of a distinctive personality is an even more complicated process,
which continues throughout life.

-This is main focus of the problem of socialization. Here, we shall discuss views of some celebrated
authors.

FREUD’S THEORY (PSYCHOANALYSIS)

-Sigmund Freud, the Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psychoanalysis, was not directly concerned
with the problem of the individual’s socialization (he has not used the word ‘socialization’ anywhere in
his writings), he nevertheless contributed amply toward the clarification of the process of personality
development. Distinguished sociologist T. Parsons has also adopted Freud’s account of personality
development to provide the psychological underpinnings of his theory of socialization.

-Challenged Mead and Cooley’s concept of socialized self who saw no separate identity of self and
society. Freud believed that rational portion of human conduct was like the visible portion of an iceberg,
with the lager part of human motivation resting in the unseen, unconscious focus which powerfully
affects human conduct.

Process of personality development:

Freud’s theory of personality (self) development rests on the following process.

FREUD’S THEORY (PSYCHOANALYSIS)

 He divided the self (Human mind) into three parts:

 The id,

 The ego, and

 The superego

-The id represents the instinctive desires, which may be viewed as an unsocialized aspect of human
nature. It is the obscure inaccessible part of our personality. It is the source of drives (animal impulses of
man—hunger, aggression, and sexual drives) demanding immediate satisfaction in some way or the other.
These impulses are controlled and partially repressed into the unconscious, while a reality-oriented
conscious self or ego appears

-In society, however, instant gratification is rarely possible, and id must be controlled. This control is
accomplished by what Freud called the superego, the part of the mind that incorporates society’s rules.
The id and the superego are in continual conflict.

-Freud’s all theories have inspired bitter controversies and numerous interpretations. This theory
(development of self) is opposite to the views of Cooley and Mead. Cooley and Mead have demonstrated
that the very emergence of the self is a social process and not a psychological process as contended by
Freud. They have viewed self and society as two aspects of the same thing, whereas Freud finds that the
self and society are often opponents and self is basically anti-social.

-There is always a clash between the impulses of the self and the restraints of society. Mead and Cooley,
on the other hand, viewed self and society as merely different expressions of the same phenomenon.
Cooley (1902) writes: “A separate individual is an abstraction unknown to experience In other words;
‘society’ and ‘individuals’ do not denote separate phenomena but are simply collective and distributive
aspects of the same thing.” Moreover, it is very difficult to verify empirically the three layers of human
mind—id, ego and superego as suggested by Freud.
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

-Children acquire a self and a personality but they also learn how to think and reason. How they acquire
such cognitive development was the focus of research by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980).
Piaget (1954) thought that cognitive development occurs through four stages and that proper maturation
of the brain and socialization were necessary for adequate development.

-The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, in which infants cannot really think or reason and instead use
their hearing, vision, and other senses to discover the world around them. The second stage is
the preoperational stage, lasting from about age 2 to age 7, in which children begin to use symbols,
especially words, to understand objects and simple ideas. The third stage is the concrete
operational stage, lasting from about age 7 to age 11 or 12, in which children begin to think in terms of
cause and effect but still do not understand underlying principles of fairness, justice, and related concepts.
The fourth and final stage is the formal operational stage, which begins about the age of 12. Here
children begin to think abstractly and use general principles to resolve various problems.

-Recent research supports Piaget’s emphasis on the importance of the early years for children’s cognitive
development. Scientists have found that brain activity develops rapidly in the earliest years of life.
Stimulation from a child’s social environment enhances this development, while a lack of stimulation
impairs it. Children whose parents or other caregivers routinely play with them and talk, sing, and read to
them have much better neurological and cognitive development than other children (Riley, San Juan,
Klinkner, & Ramminger, 2009). By providing a biological basis for the importance of human
stimulation for children, this research underscores both the significance of interaction and the dangers of
social isolation. For both biological and social reasons, socialization is not fully possible without
extensive social interaction.

COOLEY’S THEORY OF THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

-Among the first to advance this view was Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), who said that by
interacting with other people we gain an impression of how they perceive us. In effect, we “see” ourselves
when we interact with other people, as if we are looking in a mirror when we are with them. Cooley
(1902) developed his famous concept of the looking-glass self to summarize this process. Cooley said we
first imagine how we appear to others and then imagine how they think of us and, more specifically,
whether they are evaluating us positively or negatively. We then use these perceptions to develop
judgments and feelings about ourselves, such as pride or embarrassment.

-This process of discovering the nature of the self from the reactions of others has been labeled the
looking-glass self by Cooley. Looking-glass self simply means how we see ourselves through the eyes of
other people. The idea of looking-glass seems to have been taken from Thackeray’s book Vanity Fair in
which it is said: “The world is a looking glass and gives back to every man the reflection of his own
face.”

Whether errors occur or not, the process Cooley described is especially critical during childhood and
adolescence, when our self is still in a state of flux. Imagine how much better children on a sports team
feel after being cheered for making a great play or how children in the school band feel after a standing
ovation at the end of the band’s performance. If they feel better about themselves, they may do that much
better next time. For better or worse, the reverse is also true. If children do poorly on the sports field or in
a school performance and the applause they hoped for does not occur, they may feel dejected and worse
about themselves and from frustration or anxiety perform worse the next time around.

Each to each a looking-glass,

Reflects the other that doth pass.

-Just as we see our face, figure and dress in the mirror which gives an image of the physical self, so the
perception of the reactions of others gives an image of the social self. We “know”, for instance, that we
are talented in some field but less talented in others. This knowledge or perception comes to us from the
reactions of other persons. Through play and other group activities, one is also helped to perceive the
feelings of others and their feelings toward him.

Stages of formation of self:

According to Cooley, there are three steps (stages) in the process of formation of looking-glass self:

1. The imagination of our appearance of how we look to others.

2. The imagination of their judgment of how we look or how we think others judge our behavior.

3. How we feel about their judgment, i.e., our feelings (self feeling) about their judgments.

Evaluation of Cooley’s theory:

-There is a difference of opinion among some scholars about the functioning of the ‘looking-glass self.
Several researches have been done to seek empirical evidence of the correlation between one’s perception
of responses of others and the actual judgments they have made of him. These studies find that there is
often a significant variation between individual’s perception of how other pictures him and the views they
actually hold. Clearly, it is our perception of the responses of others and not their mutual responses which
self-image, and these perceptions are often inaccurate (Horton and Hunt, 1964).

ERIKSON AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT

We noted earlier that the development of the self is not limited to childhood but instead continues
throughout the life span. More generally, although socialization is most important during childhood and
adolescence, it, too, continues throughout the life span. Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1990)
explicitly recognized this central fact in his theory of identity development (Erikson, 1980). This sort of
development, he said, encompasses eight stages of life across the life course. In the first four stages,
occurring in succession from birth to age 12, children ideally learn trust, self-control, and
independence and also learn how to do tasks whose complexity increases with their age.

-The fifth stage occurs in adolescence and is especially critical, said Erikson, because teenagers often
experience an identity crisis. This crisis occurs because adolescence is a transition between childhood
and adulthood: adolescents are leaving childhood but have not yet achieved adulthood. As they try to
work through all the complexities of adolescence, teenagers may become rebellious at times, but most
eventually enter young adulthood with their identities mostly settled. Stages 6, 7, and 8 involve young
adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood, respectively. In each of these stages, people’s
identity development is directly related to their family and work roles. In late adulthood, people reflect on
their lives while trying to remain contributing members of society. Stage 8 can be a particularly troubling
stage for many people, as they realize their lives are almost over.

THEORY OF G.H MEAD (I AND ME)

-American philosopher and social psychologist George Herbert Mead (1934) developed his ideas about
the same time that Cooley did in the early years of the twentieth century. He gave particular attention to
the emergence of a sense of self. He emphasized the two-part structure of this self and represented this by
the terms ‘I’ and ‘me’. He described in detail the whole process of child development and explained how
children learn to use the concepts off and ‘me

-The ‘I’ is the immediate response of an individual to others. It is the unpredictable and creative aspect of
the self. People do not know in advance what the action of the ‘I’ will be. “The ‘I’ is the unsocialized
infant—a bundle of spontaneous wants and desires” (Giddens, 1997). The ‘I’ reacts against ‘me’. The
‘me’ consists of the attitudes of others that the child adopts and makes his own. Thus, when a parent says
things like ‘good child’ or ‘good behavior’ and ‘bad child’ or ‘bad behavior’, such communications from
‘significant others’ (parents, siblings, playmates, teachers, relatives) become increasingly patterned or
organized into that part of the self that Mead calls the ‘me’.

-In other words, the ‘me’ is the adoption of the ‘generalized other’, which according to Mead is the
‘social self. Individuals develop self-consciousness by coming to see themselves as others see them. For
Freud this is the outcome of Oedipal phase, while for ‘me’, it is the result of a developed capacity of
self-awareness.

-In contrast to ‘I’, people are conscious of the ‘me’; the ‘me’ involves conscious responsibility. It is
through the ‘me’ that society dominates the individual in the form of social control—the domination of
the expression of the ‘me’ over the expression ‘I’.

Phases of the development of self:

Mead traces the genesis of the self through two stages in child development:

 Play stage

-At this stage infants and young children develop as social beings first of all by imitating the actions of
those around them. In their play small children often imitate what adults do. They often play ‘house’
(Mummy-Papa) or ‘school’ (Teacher- Student), enacting the role of mother, father, teacher, student or
any other person important to them—significant others. Mead calls this process as taking the role of
others (role-taking) — learning what is to be in the shoes of another person.

-By taking the role of these significant others, they can better understand their own roles as children,
students, sons or daughters. By practicing the roles of others in play, children learn to understand what
others expect of them, and they learn how to behave to meet those expectations. As a result of such play,
the child becomes cognizant of himself and obtains a picture of himself by assuming the role of others.
However, it is a limited self because the child can take only the role of distinct and separate others. They
lack a more general and organized sense of themselves.

 Game stage

-It is the next stage of child development, which according to Mead occurs at about eight or nine, the
child starts taking part in organized games. To learn organized games, one must understand the rules of
the play, notions of fairness and equal participation.

-The child at this stage learns to grasp what Mead terms the ‘generalized other’—the general values and
moral rules involved in the culture in which he or she is developing. This generalized other is an
individual’s total impression of the judgments and expectations that other persons have toward him. At
this stage, the sense of the self in the full sense of term emerges.

DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION

-Though Emile Durkheim has not directly talked anywhere in his writings about the development of the
sense of self or the process of socialization of the individual, he has definitely described the role of the
society in the formation of personality (attitudes, beliefs and behavior) of the individuals. In his theory of
‘collective representation’, Durkheim insisted that the individual becomes socialized by adopting the
behavior of his group.

-He maintained that the individual’s thought and behavior are determined by collective representation. By
collective representation, he meant the body of experiences, a system of ideas, patterns of behavior,
attitudes and values held in common by a group of people.

-Durkheim’s main interest in the relationship of the individual to the group was the group control over the
individual. For him, socialization is a one-way process because he focused his attention on how society
develops and molds the individual to fit into the group. Durkheim’s conception left little room for
individual’s initiative and freedom in the process of socialization.

-This is a great weakness of his theory of collective representation. Durkheim did not recognize any role
of the individual in the process of socialization. How do these representations become a part of the
individual or how does collective representation exert pressure over the individual is not fully explained
by Durkheim. He utilized his theory of collective representation (theory of socialization) in explaining the
causes of suicide, the social phenomena of religion and the concept of social solidarity etc.

KOHLBERG, GILIGAN, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

-An important part of children’s reasoning is their ability to distinguish right from wrong and to decide on
what is morally correct to do. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) said that children develop
their ability to think and act morally through several stages. In the pre-conventional stage, young
children equate what is morally right simply to what keeps them from getting punished. In
the conventional stage, adolescents realize that their parents and society have rules that should be
followed because they are morally right to follow, not just because disobeying those leads to punishment.
At the post-conventional stage, which occurs in late adolescence and early adulthood, individuals realize
that higher moral standards may supersede those of their own society and even decide to disobey the law
in the name of these higher standards. 

-One limitation of Kohlberg’s research was that he studied only boys. Do girls go through similar stages
of moral development? Carol Gilligan (1982) concluded that they do not. Whereas boys tend to use
formal rules to decide what is right or wrong, she wrote, girls tend to take personal relationships into
account. If people break a rule because of some important personal need or because they are trying to help
someone, then their behavior may not be wrong. Put another way, males tend to use
impersonal, universalistic criteria for moral decision making, whereas females tend to use more
individual, particularistic criteria.

When gender is Ambiguous

-Ambiguous is a doubtful or uncertain especially from obscurity or indistinctness eyes of an ambiguous

which is capable of being understood in two or more possible senses or ways.

What about Ambiguous Genitalia?

-Ambiguous genitalia is a rare condition in which an infant's external genitals don't appear to be clearly
either male or female. In a baby with ambiguous genitalia, the genitals may be incompletely developed or
the baby may have characteristics of both sexes.

-Ambiguous genitalia isn't a disease, it's a disorder of sex development. Usually, ambiguous genitalia is
obvious at or shortly after birth, and it can be very distressing for families

SYMPTOMS

-Your medical team will likely be the first to recognize ambiguous genitalia soon after your baby is born.
Occasionally, ambiguous genitalia may be suspected before birth (prenatally). Characteristics can vary in
severity, depending on when during genital development the problem occurred and the cause of the
disorder.

-Babies who are genetically female (with two X chromosomes) may have:

-An enlarged clitoris, which may resemble a penis

-Closed labia, or labia that include folds and resemble a scrotum

-Lumps that feel like testes in the fused labia

-Babies who are genetically male (with one X and one Y chromosome) may have:

-A condition in which the narrow tube that carries urine and semen (urethra) doesn't fully extend to the
tip of the penis (hypospadias)

-An abnormally small penis with the urethral opening closer to the scrotum

-The absence of one or both testicles in what appears to be the scrotum

-Undescended testicles and an empty scrotum that has the appearance of a labia with or without a
micropenis

Causes

-When Ambiguous genitalia primarily occur when hormone abnormalities during pregnancy interrupt or
disturb the fetus's developing sex organs.

How Do Genitalia Normally Form?

Sex organs develop with three basic steps:

1. The genetic sex is set when the sperm fertilizes the egg. An XX pair of chromosomes means that the
baby is female. An XY pair means that the baby is male.

2. Gonads (sex glands) form into either testis for a boy or ovaries for a girl.

3. The inner reproductive system, and outer genitals develop. Hormones from either the testis or ovaries
shape the outer genitals.

How Ambiguous Genitalia occurs?

-A disruption of the steps that determine sex can result in a mismatch between the appearance of the
external genitals and the internal sex organs or the genetic sex (XX or XY).

-Mutations in certain genes can influence fetal sex development and cause ambiguous genitalia.

-In some cases, the cause of ambiguous genitalia may not be determined.

Possible causes in Genetic Females

Causes of ambiguous genitalia in a genetic female may include:

-Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - Certain forms of this genetic condition cause the adrenal glands to
make excess male hormones (androgens).

-Prenatal exposure to male hormones - Certain drugs that contain male hormones or that stimulate
production of male hormones in a pregnant woman can cause developing female genitals to become more
masculine

-Tumors - Rarely, a tumor in the mother can produce male hormones.

-Impaired testicle development - This may be due to genetic abnormalities or unknown causes.

-Androgen insensitivity syndrome - In this condition, developing genital tissues don't respond normally
to male hormones made by the testes.

-Abnormalities with testes or testosterone - Various abnormalities can interfere with the testes' activity.
This may include structural problems with the testes, problems with production of the male hormone
testosterone or problems with cellular receptors that respond to testosterone.
-5a-Reductase deficiency - This enzyme defect impairs normal male hormone production.

-Ambiguous genitalia can also be a feature of certain rare, complex syndromes that affect many organ
systems.

Risk factors:

-Family history may play a role in the development of ambiguous genitalia, because many disorders of
sex development result from genetic abnormalities that can be inherited.

Possible risk factors for ambiguous genitalia include a family history of:

-Unexplained deaths in early infancy

-Infertility, absent menstrual periods or excess facial hair in females

-Genital abnormalities

-Abnormal physical development during puberty

-Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a group of inherited genetic disorders that affect the adrenal glands.

Complications

Complications of ambiguous genitalia may include:

-Infertility- Whether people with ambiguous genitalia can have children depends on the specific
diagnosis.

Ex.Genetic females with congenital adrenal and hyperplasia

-Increased risk of certain cancers - Some disorders of sex development are associated with an increased
risk of certain types of cancer.

The Five Sexes (Anne Fausto-Sterling)

-In 1843 an individual, levi suydam, asked Salisbury Connecticut to allow him to vote in a hotly contested
election.

-A lot of people objected to the petition because it was said that this person was more female than male,
what could this mean?

-A doctor examined him, found a penis and so said he should be allowed to vote and this vote change the
outcome of the election.

-Days later the examined him more closely and realized suydam menstruated regularly and had a vaginal
opening

-So the debate started all over again: male or female

Either/ or
-western culture is deeply committed to the idea that there are only two sexes.

-Even our language refuses to acknowledge that there are other possibilities. Must refers to the third
person as he or she.

-Legally, every adult must be male or female. If you happen to be somewhere in the between, a choice
must be made on your birth certificate

-There are actually many graduates running from female to male. In the nature, we find a spectrum of
people, arrange, not an either- or.

-Intersex- use as a catch all phrase for this spectrum

-All pseudohermaphrodites possess two gonads of the same kind (all ovaries or all testes) and they also
possess the usual chromosomes for their sex (XY male, XX female), but their external genitalia and their
secondary sex characteristic do not match the chromosomes.

 Male= Testes
 Female= Ovaries

Herms

-a name after true hermaphrodites people born with a both testes and an ovary

Merms

-male pseudohermaphrodites, who are born with testes and some aspects of female genitalia

Ferms

-Female pseudohermaphrodites, who have ovaries combined with some aspects of male genitalia

Authors argument

-These three categories deserve to be recognized as three other kinds of sexes ( Merms, Herms,Ferms).

-In fact, the author argues further that sex is a vast, constraint of even five categories.

-One researcher has some evidence that suggest up 4% of births are intersexed (other stats show 2%, 1 in
50).

-Most intersexed individuals are recognized at birth.

-The individual is then often put into a particular F or M sex category through surgery. It is often unlikely
that extended family or friends would even know. Some indivduals may not even know they had surgery
as infants

- Q: WHY DOES THE MEDICAL COMMUNITY WANT TO SURGICALLY MAKE THESE

INDIVIDUALS MALE OR FEMAL RIGHT AWAYS OR QUICKLY

The is an assumption that there are:

 1. ONLY TWO SEXES
2. That only heterosexuality is right and
3. That psychological health can only be attained if one is fully female or fully male.

- In theory both father and mother of his/her child (since they have both eggs and sperm).

-In practices it is not possible because the tubes do not align in such way that the egg and sperm can
meet.

History

-This is old news! Hermaphrodites are featured in stories about human origins

Example:

• Early biblical stories say adam was a hermaphrodites

• Plato, ancient Greek philosopher, refers there were three sexes,

More current issues

-Some states allow you to change your official. Legal sex if you have had a sex change. Other states say,
that despite your surgery, your sex cannot change (since your chromosomes have not)

-Young- studied hermaphrodites and wrote a book about the life of these individuals

-One patient, emma, had both a have penis and vaginal opening (making it possible for her to have
heterosexual sex with either gender).

The problems raise:

• What would be the psychological consequences of taking the alternative route raising children as
unabashed intersexual?

• Fraught with peril!

• What about showering in front of others?

• What bathrooms do these kids use?

• How do parents help them get through puberty

Difference or disability?

• There is more discussion today about viewing what use to be considered disabilities as
differences that should be respected, not problems to be changed.

• So, for instance, many little people are committed to refusing surgery and drug treatments that
could allow them to grow inches taller( through repeatedly or through a growth hormone).
 • Some who are blind or deaf also don’t view themselves as disabled, but rather as living life
differently( feel/sense the world in different ways than others).

• Could or should being intersexed be viewed in this same way? Is this something that does not
need to be fixed? Or is this new movement off-track?

Sexual orientation, gender identity and expression

-Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to
persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender.

-sometimes sexual orientation has been measured by how people define themselves, sometimes by their
sexual experiences, and sometimes by their attractions.

What is ASEXUAL?

 not sexually attracted to anyone and/or no desire to act on attraction to anyone.

 Does not necessarily mean sexless.

 Asexual people sometimes do experience affectional (romantic) attraction.

What is BISEXUAL?

 Attracted to people of one’s own gender and people of other gender(s).

 Two common misconceptions are that bisexual people are attracted to everyone and anyone, or
that they just haven’t “decided.” Often referred to as “bi.” See also Pansexual/Fluid and Queer.

What is GAY?

 Generally refers to a man who is attracted to men. Sometimes refers to all people who are
attracted to people of the same sex; sometimes “homosexual” is used for this also, although this
term is seen by many today as a medicalized term that should be retired from common use.

What is LESBIAN?

 a woman who is attracted to women. Sometimes also or alternately “same-gender-loving woman”

or “woman loving woman.” See also Gay.

What is PANSEXUAL / FLUID?

 Attracted to people regardless of gender. Sometimes also or alternately “omnisexual” or

“polysexual.” See also bisexual and Queer.

What is QUESTIONING?

 One who may be unsure of, reconsidering, or chooses to hold off identifying their sexual identity
or gender expression or identity.
What is QUEER?

 Traditionally a derogatory term, yet reclaimed and appropriated by some LGBTQ individuals as a
term of self-identification.

 It is an umbrella term which embraces a matrix of sexual preferences, gender expressions, and
habits that are not of the heterosexual, heteronormative, or gender-binary majority. It is not a
universally accepted term by all members of the LGBT community, and it is often considered
offensive when used by heterosexuals.

What is STRAIGHT?

 Attracted to people of the “opposite” sex (see below); also sometimes generally used to refer to
people whose sexualities are societally normative. Alternately referred to as “heterosexual.”

What is Gender Identiy?

 a personal conception of oneself as male or female

What is Gender Expression?

 Person’s behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with gender in a
particular cultural context, specifically with the categories of femininity or masculinity. This
also includes gender roles. These categories rely on stereotypes about gender.

SEX

• Assign to us

• Refers to the biological differences between females, such as genitalia and genetic differences.

GENDER

• Innate in us

• Something that we discover, or we grow older

Androgyny

 The mixing of masculine and feminine gender expression or the lack of gender identification. The
terms androgyne, agender, and neutrois are sometimes used by people who identify as genderless,
non-gendered, beyond or between genders, or some combination thereof.

Cisgender

 A gender identity that society considers to “match” the biological sex assigned at birth. The
prefix cis- means “on this side of” or “not across from.” A term used to call attention to the
privilege of people who are not transgender.
Crossdresser

 Cross-dressing refers to occasionally wearing clothing of the “opposite” gender, and someone
who considers this an integral part of their identity may identify as a crossdresser (note: the term
cross dresser is preferable to transvestite and neither may ever be used to describe a transsexual
person).

 Cross-dressing is not necessarily tied to erotic activity or sexual orientation.

Genderqueer/Third Gender/Gender Fluid

 These terms are used by people who identify as being between and/or other than male or female.
They may feel they are neither, a little bit of both, or they may simply feel restricted by gender
labels.

Intersex

 A general term used for a variety of genetic, hormonal, or anatomical conditions in which a
person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t seem to fit the typical
definitions of female or male. Some intersex individuals identify as transgender or gender variant;
others do not. (Note: hermaphrodite is an obsolete term that is not currently considered
appropriate.)

Transgender

 First coined to distinguish gender benders with no desire for surgery or hormones from
transsexuals, those who desired to legally and medically change their sex, more recently
transgender and/or trans has become an umbrella term popularly used to refer to all people who
transgress dominant conceptions of gender, or at least all who identify themselves as doing so.
The definition continues to evolve.

Transsexual

 The term transsexual has historically been used to refer to individuals who have medically and
legally changed their sex, or who wish to do so. Most transsexual people feel a conflict between
their gender identity and the sex they were assigned at birth. Other labels used within this group
are MtF (male-to-female) or Trans woman, and FtM (female-to-male) or trans man.

Two-Spirit

 A person who identified with the Native American tradition of characterizing certain members of
the community as having the spirit of both the male and female genders.

Biphobia

 A version of and/or prejudice toward the idea that people can be attracted to more than one
gender, and/or bisexuals as a group or as individuals, often based on negative stereotypes of
bisexuality and the invisibility of bisexual people.
Coming Out

 The process of acknowledging one’s sexual orientation and/or gender identity or expression to
oneself or other people.

Gender Binary

 A system of classifying sex and gender into two distinct and disconnected forms of masculine and
feminine. It can be referred to as a social construct or a social boundary that discourages people
from crossing or mixing gender roles, or from creating other third (or more) forms of gender
expression.

 It can also represent some of the prejudices which stigmatize people who identify as intersex and
transgender.

Heterosexism

 The presumption that everyone is straight and/or the belief that heterosexuality is a superior
expression of sexuality. Often includes the use of power of the majority (heterosexuals) to
reinforce this belief and forgetting the privileges of being straight in our society.

Homophobia

 Negative attitudes and feelings toward people with non-heterosexual sexualities; dislike of, or
discomfort with, expressions of sexuality that do not conform to heterosexual norms.

Internalized Oppression

 In reference to LGBTQ people, internalized oppression is the belief that straight and non-
transgender people are “normal” or better than LGBTQ people, as well as the often-unconscious
belief that negative stereotypes about LGBTQ people are true.

LGBTQ

 An acronym for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer. This is currently one of the most
popular ways in U.S. society to refer to all people who are marginalized due to sexual orientation
and/or gender identity, although other letters are often included as well to represent identities
described above.

Transphobia

 Negative attitudes and feelings toward transgender individuals or discomfort with people whose
gender identity and/or gender expression do not conform to traditional or stereotypic gender
roles.
House Bill No. 4982 or “An Act Prohibiting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation or
Gender Identity or Expression (Sogie) and Providing Penalties Therefor” is the first of its kind in
the country.

◦There is nothing wrong in being a homosexual, heterosexual, trans, bisexual, queer.

◦Do not change your orientation based on what society thinks.

◦If two people are happy, why are you bothered?

It is not a choice, you’re doing nothing wrong and it is your right to identify yourself as what you desire.

◦ God will not punish you or send you to hell for choosing your sexual orientation.

◦ Sexual fluidity is normal.

◦Why don’t you change your mind today and stop judging someone’s sexual orientation?

Gender fair language

Gender Equality

 Gender equality is when people of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities and
opportunities. Everyone is affected by gender inequality - women, men, trans and gender diverse
people, children and families. It impacts people of all ages and backgrounds. We need gender
equality urgently.

 Gender equality prevents violence against women and girls. It’s essential for economic
prosperity. Societies that value women and men as equal are safer and healthier. Gender equality
is a human right. Everyone benefits from gender equality.

Gender-fair language (GFL)

 Aims at reducing gender stereotyping and discrimination.

 Was introduced as a response to this structural asymmetry and as part of a broader attempt to
reduce stereotyping and discrimination in language (Fairlough, 2003; Maass et al., 2013, for the
political correctness debate).

 GFL aims to abolish asymmetries in referring to and addressing women and men, for example, by
replacing masculine forms (policeman) with gender-unmarked forms (police officer), or by using
both masculine and feminine forms (i.e., the applicant… he or she instead of the applicant… he).

Two principle strategies have been employed to make languages gender-fair and to treat women
and men symmetrically:

-Neutralization is achieved, for example, by replacing male-masculine forms (policeman) with gender-
unmarked forms (police officer), whereas Feminization relies on the use of feminine forms to make
female referents visible (i.e., the applicant… he or she instead of the applicant… he). By integrating
research on (1) language structures, (2) language policies, and (3) individual language behavior, we
provide a critical review of how GFL contributes to the reduction of gender stereotyping and
discrimination. 

Sexism

Examples of sexism in language and communications:

The generic use of the masculine gender by a speaker (“he/his/him” to refer to an unspecific
person). The cover of a publication depicting men only. The naming of a woman by the masculine term
for her profession. A communication campaign including gratuitous nudity. An advertisement with a man
showing a woman how to use a washing machine.

Why should it be addressed?

Language and communication matter because they make people visible or invisible and recognize or
demean their contribution to society. Our language shapes our thought, and the way we think influences
our actions. Gender-blind or discriminatory language reinforces sexist attitudes and behaviour.

How to prevent it?

Use both the feminine and the masculine when addressing a mixed audience. Review public
communication to make sure it uses gender-sensitive language and imagery. Produce manuals on gender-
sensitive communication for different audiences. Promote research in this area.

Pronoun
Indefinite Pronouns
General-neutral Language

Avoid Sexist and Offending Language

The right of woman have changed dramatically over the past few decades. Slowly, written in English has
started to reflect those changes. No longer is it considered appropriate to refer to a “female engineer” or a
“male nurse”. It is also unacceptable to refer generically to a doctor as “him”, a teacher as “her”, or a
politician as “him”. Such usage is considered to be exist language.

Avoid Sexist and Offending Language

You can use acceptable nonsexist language by using passive voice, using plural formats, eliminating
pronouns, switching to direct address, and choosing non-sexist terms whenever possible. An option of last
resort is to use “his or her,” “his/her,” “her or his,” or “her/his” or even to alternate “his” and “her”
throughout a text, though this path is stylistically awkward and usually unnecessary given the other
options available to you.

Whether language is offensive depends entirely on the audience. If the audience or part of the audience
views the wording as offensive, then the wording is offensive To avoid inadvertent offensive text, adhere
to the following general guidelines.

 Use currently accepted terminology when referencing groups of people. If you are writing about a
group of people and you are unsure of the proper terminology, research the most recent usage
patterns before you write.

 Be sensitive when referencing people with disabilities by using a “people first” approach. For
example, say “a person who uses a wheelchair” instead of “a wheelchair- bound person”.

 Do not use profanity or vulgar words of any kind. When in doubt, don’t use the term, or if you
must use it as part of a quotation, make clear that you’re quoting it.

 Avoid stereotyping (ascribing positive or negative attributes to people based on groups to which
they belong).

Gender stereotyping
  The international human rights law framework prohibits gender stereotypes and stereotyping
which undermine the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms. States have
obligation to eliminate discrimination against women and men in all areas of their lives. This
obligation requires States to take measures to address gender stereotypes both in public and
private life as well as to refrain from stereotyping.

 it refers to the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific attributes,

characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the social group of women or
men. Gender stereotyping is wrongful when it results in a violation or violations of human rights
and fundamental freedoms. Example of wrongful gender stereotyping are the failure to
criminalize marital rape based on societal perception of women as the sexual property of men,
and the failure to effectively investigate, prosecute and sentence sexual violence against women
based on, e.g., the stereotype that women should protect themselves from sexual violence by
dressing and behaving modestly.

 International human rights law framework regarding gender stereotyping International human
rights law requires States to address harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender
stereotyping. Two international human rights treaties contain express obligations concerning
harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, namely the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).

 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Article 5:

States Parties shall take all appropriate measures: (a) To modify the social and cultural
patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices
and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the
superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women;

 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 8(1)(b): States Parties undertake
to adopt immediate, effective and appropriate measures to combat stereotypes, prejudices and
harmful practices relating to persons with disabilities, including those based on sex and age, in all
areas of life. The rights to non-discrimination and equality provided under other international
human rights treaties, such as the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, have also been interpreted to include discrimination and
inequality that are rooted in stereotypes, including gender stereotypes.

Promoting Gender Fair Discourse Practices

1. Praise, encourage, and respond to contributions of females and males equally.

2. Call on females as often as males to answer both factual and complex questions.

3. Create a classroom atmosphere where females are not interrupted by others more often than
males.

4. Establish collaborative groups composed of both males and females to provide opportunities for
all voices to be heard.
 5. Value intellect; Avoid references to appearance and physical attributes.

6. Choose females for leadership positions as often as males.

7. Avoid comments or humour that demean or stereotype males or females.

WHAT IS FEMINISM?

FEMINISM, “Throughout history, women have struggled to gain equality, respect and the same rights as
men. This has been difficult because of patriarchy, an ideology in which men are superior to women and
have the rights to rule women”.

 The global idea of feminism refers to the belief that men and women deserve equality in all
opportunities, treatment, respect and social rights.

 In general, feminists are people who try to acknowledge social inequality based on gender and
stop it from continuing. Feminists point out that in most cultures throughout history men have
received more opportunities than women.

THE HISTORY OF FEMINISM

• Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies aimed at defining, establishing, and

defending equal political, economic and social rights for women. This includes seeking to
establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment.

• Feminism is a perspective that explores the connectedness of concepts that other theorists
simply do not discuss or even contemplate.

• The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three “Waves”. Each
is described as dealing with different aspects of the same feminist’s issues. The First Wave
refers to the movements of the 19th through 20th centuries, which dealt mainly with suffrage,
working conditions, and educational rights for women and girls. The Second Wave (1960s-
1980s) dealt with the inequality of laws, as well as cultural inequalities and the role of
women in the society. The third Wave of feminism (Late 1980s-early 200s (decade)), is seen
as both a continuation of the second wave and a response to the perceived failures.

THE THREE MOVEMENT

FIRST WAVE MOVEMENT

The incidents that are included in the history of feminism, the first movement starts from 1809 married
women property law in US till 1928 the right to vote was granted to all UK women equally with men in
1928. There are exactly 69 incidents defined within the first feminism wave movement.

MOST IMPORTANT INCIDENTS

• RUSSIA: In 1913 women observed their first International Women’s Day on the last Sunday in
February. Following discussion, International Women’s day was transferred to March 8 and this
day has remained the global date for International Women’s Day ever since.
 • ENGLAND: In 1918 Marie Stopes, who believed in equality in marriage and the importance of
women’s sexual desire, published Married Love, a sex manual that, according to a survey of
American Academics in 1935, was one of the 25 most influential books of the previous 50 years.

• GERMANY: In 1919 granted women the right to vote – England 1919 Nancy Astor became the
first woman to take her seat in the House of Commons.

• CHINA: The first female students were accepted in Peking University, soon followed by
universities all over China.

SECOND WAVE MOVEMENT

This incidents included in the second wave of feminism movement are started from 1963 the report of
the American Presidential Commission on the Statues of Women which caused the enacting of equal pay
act till 1980s feminist sex wars last incident the Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law of 1985,
prohibits gender discrimination with respect to recruitment, hiring, promotion, training and job
assignment. There are 104 incidents included in the second wave of feminism movements.

MOST IMPORTANT INCIDENTS

• 1966: Twenty-eight women, among them betty Friedan, founded the National Organization for
Women (NOW)

• 1969: The American radical organization Restocking organized.

• 1973: The American National Black feminist Organization was formed.

• 1977: The Canadian Human Rights Act was passed, prohibiting discrimination based on
characteristics including sex and sexual orientation and requiring equal pay for work of equal
value.

• 1980: The second wave began in the 1980s in Turkey and in Israel.

THIRD WAVE MOVEMENT

This incidents that consists in the third wave of feminism starts from 1991 published of an article by
Rebecca Walker American feminist “Becoming the third wave” following establishment of riot girl
movement in Washington and till now. The latest famous incident was the slut walk incident in Toronto,
on April 3 2011 and globally the slut walk issue is spreading. Slut walk was incident that Toronto police
stated women are victims because they are walking and wearing like sluts that had created too many
challenges and spreading on media over the world. There are exactly 31 incidents in the third wave of
feminism movements.

MOST IMPORTANT INCIDENTS

• 1994: The Gender Equity in Education Act became law in U.S. It banned sex-role stereotyping
and gender discrimination in the classroom.

• 1994: The Violence Against Women Act became law in the US

 • 1995: The Fourth World Conference on Women was held in China.

• 2007: The Gender Equality Duty of the Equality Act 2008 came into effect in the United
Kingdom.

• 2008: Norway requires all companies to have at least forty percent women on their boards.

THE TYPES OF FEMINISM

 RADICAL FEMINISM

- Is a movement that believes sexism is so deeply rooted in society that the only cure is to eliminate the
concept of gender completely?

 SOCIALIST FEMINISM

• Radical feminism is the most extreme form. The second type of feminism, called Socialist
Feminism, is slightly less extreme but still calls for major social change.

• Socialist Feminism is a movement that calls for an end to capitalism through a socialist
reformation of our economy. Basically, socialist feminism argues that capitalism strengthens and
supports the sexist’s status because men are the ones who currently have power and money.
Those men are willing to share their power and money with other men who means that women
are continually given fewer opportunities and resources. This keeps women under the control of
men.

SOCIALIST FEMINISM

• In short, Socialist feminism focuses on economic and politics. They might point out the fact that
in the United States women are typically paid only $0.70 for the exact same job that a man would
be paid a dollar for. Why are women paid less than men for the same work? Socialist feminists
point that this difference is based on a capitalist system.

• CULTURAL FEMINISM

- Is a movement that points out how modern society is hurt by encouraging masculine behavior but
society would benefit by encouraging feminine behavior instead?

 LIBERAL FEMINISM

• A movement that believes all individuals should be free to explore equal opportunities and rights.

• Liberal feminism fights for complete gender equality through social, political and legal means.

• Liberal feminists argue that society hold the false belief that women are, by nature, less
intellectually and physically capable than men.

FEMINISM IDEOLOGIES
 LIBERAL FEMINISM - seeks individualistic equality of men and women through political and
legal reform without altering the structure of society.

 RADICAL FEMINISM- considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature
of women’s oppression and the total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary.

 CONSERVATIVE FEMINISM –is conservative relative to the society in which it resides.

 LIBERTARIAN FEMINISM – conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to

freedom from coercive interference.

 SEPARATIST FEMINISM – does not support heterosexual relationships.

 LESBIAN FEMINISM- is closely related. Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist.

 ECOFEMINISTS – see men’s control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and
destruction of the natural environment; Ecofeminism has been criticized for focusing too much
on a mystical connection between women and nature.

 MATERIALIST FEMINISM- grew out of western Marxist thought and has inspired a number of
different movements, all of which are involved in a critique of capitalism and are focused on
ideology’s relationship to women.

 MARXIST FEMINISM- argues that capitalism is the root cause of women’s oppression and that
discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist
ideologies.

 SOCIALIST FEMINISM- distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women’s
liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of
women’s oppression.

 ANARCHIC – feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the state require
struggling against patriarchy which comes from involuntary hierarchy.

 BLACK AND POSTCOLONIAL FEMINISM - pose a challenge “to some of the organizing
premises of Western feminist thought”. During much of its history, feminist movements and
theoretical developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western
Europe and North America.

 WOMANISM – emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle class.

 POSTCOLONIAL FEMINISTS – argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism

marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless.

 THIRD-WORLD FEMINISM – is closely related to post colonial feminism. These ideas also
correspond with ideas in African feminism, Motherism, Stiwanism, Finalism, Transnational
feminism and Africana Womanism.
  LIPSTICK FEMINISM – is a cultural feminists movement that attempts to respond to the
backlash of second-wave radical feminism of the 1960s and 1970s by reclaiming symbols of
“feminine” identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure as valid and
empowering personal choices.

MAIN DISCOURSES OF FEMINISM

 SEX INDUTRY

- Opinions on the sex industry are diverse. Feminists are generally either critical of it seeing it as
exploitative, a result of patriarchal social structure s and reinforcing sexual and cultural attitudes that are
complicit in rape and sexual harassment or supportive of at least parts of it arguing that some forms of it
can be a medium of feminists expression and a means of women taking control of their sexuality.

 PORNOGRAPHY

- The “Feminist Sex Wars” is a term for the acrimonious debates within the feminist movement in the
late 1970s through the 1980s around the issues of feminism, sexuality, sexual representation,
pornography, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues.
The debate pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and parts of the feminist
movement were deeply divided by these debates.

 PROSTITUTION AND TRAFFICKING

- Feminists views on prostitution vary but many of these perspectives can be loosely arranged into an
overarching standpoint that is generally either critical or supportive of prostitution and sex work. Anti-
prostitution feminists are strongly opposed to prostitution as they see the practice as form of violence
against and exploitation of women and a sign of male dominance over women.

 PATRIARCHY

- Is a social system in which the role of the male as the primary authority figure is central to social
organization and where fathers hold authority over women, children and property. It implies the
institutions of male rule and privilege, and is dependent on female subordination. Most forms of
feminism characterize patriarchy as an unjust social system that is oppressive to women. As the feminist
and political theorist Carol Pateman writes: “the patriarchal construction of the difference between
masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection”.

 SEXISM

- The idea and doctrine that believe women are made just for sex.

GLOBALIZATION OF THE FEMINISM

Immediately after the war a new global dimension was added by the formation of the United Nation. In
1946, the UN established a Commission on the Status of Women. Originally as the Section on the Status
of Women, Human Rights Division, Department of Social Affairs, and now part of the Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC). In 1948, the UN issued its Universal Declaration of Human Rights which
protects “the equal rights of men and women” and addressed both the equality and equity issues. Since
1975, the UN has a series of world conferences on women’s issues, starting with the World Conference of
the International Women’s Year in Mexico City, Heralding the United Nations Decade for women (1975-
1985.

• Feminism has shown and continues to show, that poverty is very much a feminist issue. Whilst
the inequality exists in wages and on the work floor, women will find it a greater struggle to reach
out of poverty. Whilst they are kept in poverty, they remain powerless and men continue to
oppress them.

• Maintaining a high profile of gender inequality and its wider implications remains the core
principle of feminist movements. New campaign and protest groups continue to grow from
feminist principles.

REACTIONS TO FEMINISM

 PRO-FEMINISM

- Is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement?
The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism. The activities
of pro-feminist men’s groups include anti-violence work with boys and young man in schools, offering
sexual harassment workshops in workplace, running community education campaigns, and counseling
male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also are involved in men’s health, activism against
pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men’s studies and the development of gender equity
curricula in schools. This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women’s services such
as domestic violence and rape crisis centers.

 ANTI-FEMINISM

- Is opposition to feminism in some or all of its form? In the nineteenth century, anti feminism was
mainly focused on opposition to women’s suffrage. Later, opponents of women’s entry into institutions of
higher learning argued that education was too great a physical burden on women. Other anti-feminists
opposed women’s entry into the labor force, or their right to join unions, to sit on juries, or to obtain birth
control and control of their sexuality.

- Herstory is history written from a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of women or told from a
woman’s point of view. It is a neologism coined in the late 1960s as part of a feminist critique of
conventional historiography and refers to History (reinterpreted as “his story”) written from a feminist
perspective, emphasizing the role of women or told from woman’s point of view. The word History –
from the Ancient Greek or Istoria, meaning “A learning or knowing by inquiry” – is etymologically
unrelated to the possessive pronoun his. The Herstory movement has spawned women-centered presses
such as Virago Press in 1973, which publishes fiction and non-fiction by noted women authors like Janet
Frame and Sarah Dunant.

WOMEN GLOBAL STATUS

 Majority of 1.5 billion people in the world living on $1.00/day or less are women.
 In most countries, Voting Rights have only been awarded to women in the last 30 years.

 15% of the world’s lawmakers are female (2003).

 Men in US -71% of Computer Scientist; 74% of Doctors, 64% of College professors, 77% of
Architects, 90% of Engineers.

 In Ethiopia, women to rival partners to settle conflicts by establishing a blood tie still in
Afghanistan, Pakistan.

 The World health Organization reports that 40-7-% of women murdered in the US, Canada,
Australia, and Israel were killed by their husbands or male partners.

 Leading women’s right organization in Pakistan concludes that 80% of women or more
experience domestic violence.

 Israeli women are not allowed to divorce their husbands if the husband refuses but husbands may
be granted a divorce if the wife refuses.

 Honor killing: a man is obliged to kill a female relative if does something believed to tarnish the
honor of the family – unmarried women who have sex, marital infidelity or suspected infidelity,
seeking a divorce, flirting, being raped, dating without parental approval all quality.

 UN estimates about 5000 deaths from honor killing annually, Pakistan about 2 killings daily.

 Rape is a threat to women everywhere in the US, 74 women are raped every hour, 1 in 4 women
in her lifetime. In India, a woman is raped every 35 minutes and 1 in 10 reported to police.

 WWWII- Moroccan soldiers rape Italian women, Japanese soldiers raped Korean women, Nazi
soldiers raped Jewish women.

 1990s: Bosnian Serbs raped between 20,000 and 50,000 Muslim women in the former
Yugoslavia.

 An estimated 250,000 to 500,000 women and girls were raped during a civil war in less than 100
days in Rwanda in 1994.

 In 2003, reports from Liberia, Zimbabwe and Burma indicate that government soldiers used rape
to terrorize and control groups that oppose the government.

 Effect of prostitution overlooked by government in Thailand, Korea, and the Philippines who use
prostitution to boost their economies and militaries.

 Sexual Tourism: Thailand, Brazil, Hungary, tourism based on the travel of men from first world
countries to third world countries to buy cheap sex from “Exotic” women.

 In the United States, a woman is raped every three seconds, a woman is abused every 18 seconds
and four women are killed by their boyfriend or husbands every day.

 One in six American women are victims of sexual assault and one in 33 men.
  Two thirds of all illiterates are women.

 Women and children comprise eighty percent of all poverty population.

CONCLUSION

• Gender differences in socialization within the family and elsewhere traditionally operated to the
disadvantage of female who were dissuaded from opting for meaningful careers.

• The traditional allocation of roles within the family whereby females take disproportionate
responsibility for housework and childcare is determined not by biology but by limited female
employment opportunities outside the family and by the existence of patriarchal power within the
family.

• Many household tasks provide few opportunities for individual creativity.

• Even well qualified professional women will find their career prospects more limited since they
take time out from work to care for young children.

• Even when women are employed full-time outside the home this may mean also that they are
obliged to undertake the so-called “triple shift” of employment, housework/ childcare and
emotion work.

• Patriarchal power ensures that major family decisions are taken by males rather than females.

• The existence of “empty shell marriages”, high rates of divorce and considerable levels of
domestic violence show that family relationships are often far from harmonious.

• Limited educational/ opportunities and gender discrimination at work mean women’s

employment opportunities are worse than men. Women tend to be horizontally segregated in a
range of poorly paid occupation such as secretarial work, shop work, cleaning and hairdressing
and caring professions such as teaching, nursing and social work which are not especially well
paid. When they are employed in potentially well paid professions such as law or medicine, they
will tend to be vertically segregated at the lower levels of these professions. They are also
unlikely to be employed in skilled manual occupation such as plumbing or engineering.

• They may also be victim of routine sexism in their daily lives and feel obliged to concern
themselves excessively with their appearance.

• We might conclude that there is much truth in this but that gender inequalities are still substantial.

• Feminism may be described as a body of thought which suggests that women have been and are
disadvantaged in both past and contemporary societies. Feminists emphasize the extent to which
societies are in several aspects patriarchal: that is, societies are dominated by men who oppress
and exploit women.

• There are several varieties of feminism but all stress the exploitation of women. They argue that it
is vital to clarify the meanings of the concepts of sex and gender respectively; that powerful
processes of gender socialization operate to disadvantage of women; that female students have
been in education (and to some extent still are, despite their recent relative movements); and that
women are exploited at work, in the family and in society generally where they may often face
sexual harassment and male violence.