Grapefruit in Somalia

Mogadishu region: Citrus cultivars and climatic data

Grapefruit is the major citrus variety grown in the Mogadishu region. The oldest trees
are 20 to 30 years old and were planted by Italian citrus growers. These trees are all
grafted on sour orange rootstock, and the scions represent old-line cultivars.

In the 1970s, new plantations of grapefruit trees were established. The cultivars used
comprised not only old varieties but also new ones such as Marsh seedless, Ruby,
Redblush, etc. The rootstock was mainly sour orange, but rough lemon also began to
be used. The grapefruit trees cover approximately 1 000 ha. The best orchards have a
yield of 20 tonnes per hectare, but many produce less. Normally, under good
management, grapefruit orchards should give at least 50 tonnes per hectare.

Since 1980, the Genale nursery has distributed about 150 000 grapefruit trees. This
number should be sufficient to plant about 500 ha of new citrus orchards. This brings
the total area of production of grapefruit trees to about 1 500 ha.

Besides grapefruit, small-fruited acid lime is the second most important citrus variety
grown in the Mogadishu region. Lime trees cover approximately 500 ha, but receive
very little care.

The mean monthly maximum temperatures at Genale (latitude 1°50' North, altitude 69
m), fluctuated in 1965 between 33.5°C and 28.6°C, the mean monthly minimum
temperature between 23.6°C and 21°C, and the mean monthly temperature between
28.3°C (April) and 24.9°C (July). The absolute maximum temperatures per month
were between 39°C in March-April and 34°C in July, the absolute minimum
temperatures between 20°C in April and 13°C in January. These data indicate that the
Mogadishu region has a uniformly warm climate. Relative humidity is always high
and varies from 74 percent to 82 percent. Rainfall is relatively low and reached 471
mm in 1965. There are two rainy and two dry seasons. Gigal is the major dry season
and lasts from December to March inclusive, with a total of 32 mm of rain in
1965. Gigal is followed by Gu, the major rainy season, with 230 mm of rainfall from
April to June inclusive. Hagal is the second dry season (100 mm for July and August)
and Der the second rainy season with 107 mm of rain in September, October and
November.

Citrus trees flower during the first rainy season (Gu) from April to June, with fruiting
reaching maturity from December to February (20 percent of annual crop). The major
blossom period occurs during the second rainy season (Der) from September to
November with fruits ripening from May to September (80 percent of annual crop).
Field research on citrus is carried out at the Central Agricultural Research Station
(CARS) at Afgoi on approximately 6 ha of land. Several citrus varieties were
introduced at CARS in the period 1966 to 1969. The introductions were from
California and Sicily as well as from Somalia. Some of these cultivars and especially
those from Italy and Somalia were probably not free of virus and virus-like diseases
since, for instance, concave gum symptoms were observed on Avana mandarin from
Palermo.

These introductions have been used in various trials, including variety screening and
rootstock trials. In view of the very poor condition of the trees in these trials, it is
doubtful whether much information can be gained from the experiments.

New budwood introductions (Ruby and Reed grapefruits; Carter, CRC and Frost navel
sweet oranges) were made in 1978 and used for rootstock trials planted in 1979,
comprising Brazilian sour orange, rough lemon, Citrus macrophylla, Rangpur lime,
Carrizo citrange, citrumello 4475, Citrus taiwanica and Citrus
amblycarpa. Impietratura-like symptoms and severe symptoms of stubborn have been
seen on Frost navel sweet orange. All sweet orange trees on Carrizo citrange rootstock
have died.

In 1981-82 the Genale nursery introduced seven grapefruit cultivars from the
French Citrus Experiment Station in San Giuliano, Corsica. These cultivars,
certified free of known virus and virus-like diseases, included white flesh
varieties: Marsh seedless, David seedless and Little River; a pink variety:
Thompson; and red varieties: Redblush, Ruby, Shambar.

Fungal diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region

Rio Grande gummosis

The most important of all diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region is Rio Grande
gummosis. The disease has been seen in practically all grapefruit orchards. On
grapefruit and orange trees, the symptoms -profuse gum production - appear high up
on the trunk and out on the larger branches (Figs 237 to 239). The gum oozes out of
vertical cracks in the bark (see Fig. 244) and runs down along the trunk or hangs
down from the branches in stalactite manner (Figs 236, 239 and 240). At the time of
initial gumming there is no scaling of the bark at the sites where the bark is split.
However, the first stage in the healing-over process is the sloughing of thin scales of
dead outer bark. Then follows the development of scar tissue generated by the bark.
Repair is only temporary and healed-over lesions may again start gumming and
enlarging (Figs 241 and 242). In this way, lesions may pass through repeated cycles of
recovery and relapse, in the course of which they progressively enlarge and expose
more and more wood. In old, inactive lesions the wood is exposed (Fig. 240). The
gum pockets may be located deep in the wood (see Fig. 245) and the gum travels a
considerable distance in and along the wood, so that gum pockets may exist far
removed from the nearest active, gum-producing lesion.

The bark scaling associated with the healing-over process and the sloughing of scales
of dead outer bark can be pronounced (Fig. 243) but should not be confused with that
of scaly bark psorosis (see Figs 98 to 100), "popcorn" (Fig. 101) or phytophthora
gummosis.

In Somalia, Rio Grande gummosis is widespread throughout the Mogadishu region

from Giohar to Goluin. It mainly affects grapefruit trees. The first symptoms appear
on seven- to eight-year-old trees. Older trees can be very severely affected, with
dieback and leaf drop in addition to gumming. Rio Grande gummosis-affected trees
seem to be more susceptible to attack by the larvae of the borer Macrotoma
palmata (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae).

There seems to be a correlation between the appearance of the first symptoms of Rio
Grande gummosis and the year when the grapefruit trees are pruned for the first time
indeed, it has been pointed out by several citrus growers that the disease shows up
soon after the trees have been first pruned. In general, trees are pruned at the age of
six to seven years, and Rio Grande gummosis appears when the trees are seven to
eight years old. These observations tally with the results obtained in California, where
it was found that the causal fungal agent enters the tree through pruning wounds. If so,
only very few signs of the disease should be present in orchards where trees are only
slightly pruned, or not pruned at all. This is precisely the case in one of the orchards
visited. Even though this gummosis-free, unpruned, grapefruit orchard is only nine
years old, many other orchards of the same age show severe gummosis, and in all
these orchards pruning is carried out.

Once infection invades the trunk, it is practically impossible to eliminate the disease
by surgery. Control has to be by prevention. Pruning should therefore be reduced to a
minimum and only small branches with a diameter of less than 25 mm should be cut.
Pruning cuts should be disinfected and, when dry, covered with wound dressing or
asphalt. In California, carbolineum with 2 percent phenols has been recommended as
a disinfectant for pruning wounds and, for final coating on the disinfected wood, low
melting-point asphalt mixed with an equal quantity of carbolineum.

Heat- and frost-injured areas are also points of entry for the Rio Grande gummosis
agent. Obviously, only heat injuries must be considered in Somalia. Whitewashing of
trunks and branches that might become exposed to sunlight (after heavy pruning)
should be carried out with a zinc-copper-lime mix.
Phytophthora gummosis or footrot

The second most important disease in the Mogadishu region is footrot or phytophthora
gummosis. Normally, Rio Grande gummosis does not kill affected trees, but footrot
does. It is a truly destructive disease. The differences between the symptoms of
footrot and Rio Grande gummosis are as follows. Phytophthora gummosis is
essentially a disease of the hark; though a thin layer of wood under the affected bark
may be stained brown: The entire bark is affected by the fungus, not only the outer
layer as in Rio Grande gummosis or scaly bark psorosis. Contrary to Rio Grande
gummosis, there are no pockets of gum in the wood. The disease often begins at the
soil level when a susceptible citrus species (scion or rootstock) is directly in contact
with the earth. Indeed, footrot is due to soil-borne fungi of the genus Phytophthora: P.
citrophthora, P. nicotianae var. parasitica, P. syringae Kleb., or P. hibernalis Came.
When phytophthora-resistant rootstocks are used, footrot lesions usually begin near
the bud-union and expand rapidly in an upward direction (Figs 222 and 223). Trunk
lesions rarely extend higher than 35-50 cm from the ground or the bud-union line.

In the following cases footrot can also occur below ground, and soil must be removed
from around the tree to expose the lesions:

 The rootstock is phytophthora-susceptible. The order of susceptibility among

rootstocks commonly used is starting with the most susceptible sweet lime,
lemon, acid lime, sweet orange, rough lemon, Cleopatra mandarin, citranges,
sour orange and Poncirus trifoliata. In Somalia only two rootstocks are used
commercially: the phytophthora-susceptible rough lemon and the
phytophthora-resistant sour orange. At the Government orchard at Balad, only
the trees on rough lemon show footrot.
 The bud-union line is below soil-level (see Figs 228 and 230) and the rootstock
trunk as well as part of the scion trunk are in the soil. Footrot lesions can
develop not only on the rootstock but also on susceptible scions such as
grapefruit and sweet orange.
 Soil is put around the trunk, and the bud-union line is covered (see Figs 224 to
226). Removal of the soil exposes phytophthora-footrot lesions (see Fig. 228).

In these cases, development of the pathogen requires the soil in contact with the
phytophthora-susceptible trunk to be moist or wet. Soil moisture at or near saturation
is most favourable for fungal growth, spore production and movement of zoospores.
The fungus is very sensitive to moisture fluctuations; its activity ceases when soil
dries out.
P. citrophthora grows fastest when the temperature is near 25°C. P. parasitica has a
higher optimum, near 30°C. Such temperatures are characteristic of Somalia at
various times of the year.

Finally, a pH of 6.0-7.5 favours the growth and multiplication of the fungus. Such pH
levels are common in Somali soils.

Thus, Somalia has excellent conditions for the development of the soil-
borne Phytophthora spp. Footrot can only be prevented by the use of resistant
rootstocks and proper horticultural practices (Fig. 231). Unfortunately this is not often
the case. Rough lemon is often the rootstock, trees are budded too low, with the bud-
union close to or even buried in the soil, and soil is put around the trees.

Virus and virus-like diseases in the Mogadishu region

Cachexia-xyloporosis

On practically all mandarin trees encountered, cachexia-xyloporosis symptoms were

seen, namely the presence of gum impregnations in the bark' pegs on the cambial side
of the bark, and stem pitting, that is, pits in the wood matching the pegs on the bark.
Gum impregnations in the bark of susceptible species are easily seen by scratching the
trunk with a knife at the bud-union to remove the outer layer of bark, as shown in
Figures 38, 40 and 42. When only the scion and not the rootstock is susceptible, gum
impregnations will only be seen above the bud-union. This is precisely the case of
mandarin (susceptible) on sour orange (tolerant) (see Figs 38,48 and 49). With sweet
orange on sweet lime, Rangpur lime, tangelo or Citrus macrophylla, gum
impregnation and/or stem pitting would only be seen below the bud-union as the
sweet orange scion is tolerant but none of the four rootstocks are (see Fig. 57).

To diagnose cachexia-xyloporosis further, a piece of bark should be removed at the

bud-union line as shown in Figures 38, 41 and 44. The piece of bark will show gum
only in the susceptible part, the mandarin bark in the case of Figures 38 and 39, but
not the sour orange bark. Similarly, only the cambial side of the mandarin bark will
show pegs (see Figs 39, 41, 43 and 45). After removal of bark, the exposed wood
shows stem pitting (see Figs 38, 41, 44 and 54).

Cachexia-xyloporosis is a bud-propagated disease. This fact is well illustrated in the

Al Sabahyia orchards. On this farm there are three mandarin orchards. One is 30 years
old, the second, 20 years old and the third, ten years old. Buds for the youngest
orchard were taken from trees of the 20-year-old orchard which had, in turn, been
taken from the oldest orchard.
In other words, the 30-year-old orchard is the source for both the 20- and the ten-year
old orchards. The 30-year-old orchard happened to be contaminated by a mild strain
of cachexia-xyloporosis (as well as concave gum). Both the 20- and the ten-year-old
orchards also show the symptoms of cachexia-xyloporosis and concave gum.

Concave gum

The concave depressions (see Figs 102 to 105) induced on susceptible species
(mandarins, tangelos, sweet oranges, grapefruits, etc.) by the concave gum agent (not
yet identified) were seen on mandarin trees at CARS at Afgoi (Avana mandarin from
Italy) and at Al Sabahyia orchards on trees which also bore cachexia-xyloporosis
symptoms. This example shows that more than one pathogen can infect the same trees
concomitantly.

Popcorn

Figure 101 illustrates a sweet orange trunk showing symptoms of popcorn at the Al
Sabahyia orchard. Small scales or flakes of the outer bark loosen, break away and
finally drop, leaving the small pustules uncovered. Although the pustules are
reminiscent of the eruptive forms of scaly bark psorosis, they are smaller, rarely
measuring more than 10 mm in diameter, and do not enlarge. Gum exudation may be
frequently observed in this type of lesion. Symptoms of popcorn were observed by
Childs (1953) on sweet orange trees in Florida and by Rossetti on sweet orange in
Brazil and Portugal (Rossetti and Salibe, 1965).

Impietratura

Impietratura is an infectious disease affecting grapefruit, sweet orange, mandarins,

lemon and Citrus volkameriana. Affected fruit is hard, like stone - hence the name
impietratura -and there are gum pockets in the albedo (see Figs 1 16 and 1 17). Mild
impietratura-like symptoms, i.e. gum in the albedo, have been seen on several
occasions in Somalia on navel sweet orange. As boron deficiency also results in the
presence of gum in the albedo, further work is required to assess the presence of the
impietratura agent in the country.

The presence of impietratura in Somalia would not be surprising, however, since

several citrus varieties, including navel orange, have been introduced from Sicily,
where impietratura is widespread.

Cristacortis
Cristacortis affects many citrus species, and sour orange in particular. The disease is
characterized by conspicuous pegs on the cambial side of the bark with corresponding
pits in the wood (see Figs 109 to 114). In cristacortis there are no gum impregnations
in the bark. Cristacortis-like symptoms have been seen on sour orange carrying a
mandarin top. Graft-inoculation experiments are required to assess the presence of the
cristacortis agent in Somalia. Like impietratura, cristacortis is well known in Sicily.

Stubborn

Stubborn disease is due to the helical mycoplasma Spiroplasma citri. Highly typical

symptoms of stubborn, such as those seen in Figure 148, have been seen at CARS at
Afgoi on navel sweet orange trees from California. Trees are stunted, with small,
cupped leaves that also display mottle. Fruit peel is thick and coarse at the peduncular
end but thin and smooth at the stylar end (see Fig. 165). Seeds are aborted and the
fruit axis is curved, giving lopsided fruit (see Fig. 168).

Symptoms identical to those seen at CARS were also noticed on navel sweet orange
trees in the Salah Ahmed Ali orchard at Jambalul. This is not surprising as budwood
for these navel trees was obtained from CARS.

The navel sweet orange cultivar carrying stubborn disease is of Californian origin.
Stubborn is widespread throughout California, and there are several cases where
budwood imported from California was found to carry stubborn.

Miscellaneous

Grapefruit trees on sour orange rootstock with overlapping bud-unions have been
noticed. This situation is sometimes encountered with tristeza-infected trees on sour
orange rootstock. The tristeza-induced necrosis of the sour orange sieve tubes below
the bud-union line prevents the rootstock from growing as fast as the scion and results
in the scion overlapping the stock. Trees were analysed for the presence of CTV using
ELISA on shoots taken to Bordeaux. The assays were CTV-negative.

Alga spots produced by the partly parasitic alga, Cephaleuros mycoida, have been

noticed on small-fruited acid lime leaves.

Russeting due to the citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora, has been seen on fruit
of grapefruit trees.

Exocortis
Symptoms of exocortis can only be seen when a susceptible rootstock, such as
P. trifoliata, citrange, Rangpur lime or sweet lime is used (see Figs 83, 85 to 87).
None of these rootstocks is used in the Mogadishu region, as sour orange is the major
rootstock. Sour orange is tolerant of exocortis, as is grapefruit, the major scion species
grown on sour orange in the Mogadishu area. Exocortis cannot, therefore, be observed
on grapefruit trees grafted on sour orange rootstock even when such trees are infected
with the exocortis viroid, as is probably the case in several orchards in the Mogadishu
region. Only indexing, i.e. graft inoculation of bark from a candidate tree into a highly
susceptible Etrog citron (Citrus medica) line, will show if the candidate tree is
infected or not. Citron will react to graft inoculation of the exocortis agent by specific
symptoms including leaf epinasty and curling, as shown in Figure 90 (see Chapter 1,
Tables 2 and 3).

It is well known that many old-line citrus cultivars are infected with the exocortis
agent. This is very probably the case with the old grapefruit lines that were imported
into Somalia many years ago, from Italy or other countries, at a time when indexing
for exocortis was not yet developed. Old sweet orange and mandarin lines are also
known to be frequently infected with exocortis, even though, being tolerant, they do
not show symptoms of the disease. It is, therefore, more than likely that many old
lines of the major commercial citrus species carry exocortis in Somalia.

It is important to be aware of this situation. Indeed, many tristeza-tolerant rootstocks

are susceptible to exocortis. Hence, it would be dangerous to graft old-line citrus
cultivars on these rootstocks, as they will undoubtedly develop exocortis whenever the
old-line cultivar carries the exocortis pathogen.

Important diseases probably not present in the Mogadishu region

Tristeza

For three reasons, tristeza is probably not present in the Mogadishu region.

 None of the many small-fruited acid lime trees examined showed any
symptoms of CTV infection. Neither leaf vein clearing nor stem pitting could
be observed. From the absence of these symptoms, it is probable that CTV is
not spreading in the Mogadishu region.
 None of the many trees grafted on sour orange rootstock that were observed
during the survey showed any signs of a tristeza-like decline.
 Most African strains of CTV, such as the Kenya strains, for instance, cause
stem pitting on grapefruit. No stem pitting was observed on grapefruit.

It is essential that the virus be kept out of the area, for at least three reasons:
  Even though Toxoptera citricida, the black tropical citrus aphid vector of CTV,
is apparently not present in the Mogadishu area, another CTV aphid vector is
- Aphis gossypli, the cotton aphid. This aphid spreads CTV in Israel.
 Most trees are on sour orange and with this rootstock form a scion-rootstock
combination that is susceptible to CTV.
 Most trees are grapefruit trees and this species is itself susceptible to certain
CTV strains, regardless of rootstocks.

Greening

No evidence for citrus greening disease was seen in the Mogadishu region. The
psyllid vector of the disease, Trioza erytreae, has never been reported, no signs of its
presence were found and the climate of the Mogadishu region is considered too hot
for T. erytreae.

Citrus canker

No evidence for citrus canker, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv.

citri, was found in the Mogadishu region.

Diseases of citrus in the Mogadishu region: A summary

The two major diseases of citrus - which is mostly grapefruit on sour orange rootstock
in the Mogadishu region are fungal diseases: Rio Grande gummosis and phytophthora
gummosis or footrot. Cachexia-xyloporosis, a viroid disease, was seen on most
mandarin trees examined. Exocortis, also a viroid disease, could not be observed, as
all grapefruit, sweet orange and mandarin trees on sour orange rootstock are tolerant
to the exocortis agent. It is, however, very likely that many old-line grapefruit, sweet
orange, mandarin and lemon trees carry the exocortis viroid. Similarly, the grapefruit
and sweet orange (but not mandarin) trees on sour orange are tolerant to the cachexia-
xyloporosis viroid. Old-line grapefruit and sweet orange cultivars may very well carry
the cachexia-xyloporosis agent without showing symptoms of the disease.

No evidence for the presence of tristeza, greening or citrus canker was found in the
Mogadishu region. A. gossypii, a vector of tristeza virus, is present in the region.
T. erytreae, a psyllid vector of greening, is not present.

Hargeisa region: General information

TABLE 47 Agricultural production in the Hargeisa region, Somalia

  1986 1988
  (tonnes)
Fruit 4 300 7 500
Vegetables 540 2 000
Maize 580 2 000
Coffee   100

Production levels for 1986 and 1988 are given in Table 47.

Citrus covers a total of 270 ha of land irrigated by pumped water. Total production
reaches 2 700 tonnes, with an average production of 10 tonnes a year per hectare.

Citrus was introduced into Hargeisa in 1930 from Cyprus and Australia. A citrus
nursery was started at Arapsiyo in 1945 with new citrus introductions, but there is
no record of their origin. The Arapsiyo nursery was transferred to Geed Deeble (see
Map 16) in 1951, but had to be closed later because of lack of water. From 1951 to
1962 the two nurseries functioned together. The Arapsiyo nursery made trees
available to all farmers, while the Geed Deeble nursery worked only for the
government. New citrus introductions were made in 1959 from various countries
including Ethiopia, the United States of America, East Africa (Kenya) and Zanzibar
(now part of the United Republic of Tanzania). According to Bové, the trees found
to be affected by greening and tristeza (see below) were very probably imported
from Kenya, where the two diseases are known to be widely distributed; tristeza is
present everywhere, in both the highlands and the coastal lowlands, while
greening is present only in the highlands above 700 m. Greening is also present in
Ethiopia.

Greening

Greening in the Hargeisa region

Greening was observed in the Arapsiyo area on 26-year-old navel (Figs 177 and 179)
and Jaffa (Fig. 178) sweet orange trees, probably grafted on rough lemon rootstock.
The disease in this orchard also affected mandarin trees. The trees affected by
greening also carry tristeza.

The diagnosis of greening in this orchard is based on field symptoms and detection of
the greening organism by electron microscopy in Bordeaux. Symptoms include
yellow, sparse foliage with zinc-deficiency patterns (Fig. 179); off-season flowering
(Fig. 179); fruit of various sizes with aborted seeds; and leaves with severe leaf
mottling and vein corking (Fig. 180). Electron microscopy revealed the presence of
the greening organism in the sieve tubes of the affected trees (Fig. 19).

Other orchards in the Arapsiyo area also had greening-affected trees. In the Osman
Ashour Hassan orchard, many navel and non-navel sweet orange trees showed typical
symptoms of greening, with severe leaf mottle and seed abortion. Electron
microscopy confirmed the presence of greening (Fig. 20). One tree in the Aden
Mohamad Olod orchard showed greening-like symptoms, with fruit of various sizes,
aborted seeds and off-season flowers. However, the trees in this orchard also suffered
from severe drought. The Ahmed Dahir orchard has many beautiful sweet orange
trees, but one had very typical and severe symptoms of greening except for a single
branch which was still symptomless. It is well known that greening-affected trees
often show signs of the disease only on part of the canopy, especially when infection
is still recent (see Fig. 217).

MAP 17 Citrus growing areas of Ethiopia

In the Awbarkadle area (see Map 16), east of Hargeisa, trees infected with tristeza
virus, and probably also with the greening bacterium, were seen in the orchard of
Mohamad Abdullah Aboussita. A mandarin tree and a sweet orange tree in this
orchard were found to be infected by tristeza as shown by ELISA in Bordeaux. The
trees came from Kenya. It is likely that some of the trees are also affected by
greening.

The situation regarding psyllid vectors of greening in the region

Only the African psyllid vector (T. erytreae) of greening is present on the African
continent, and in particular in Kenya and Ethiopia. T. erytreae was first reported as
being present in Ethiopia by Schmutterer (1971) and, since then, has been reported
from all areas where typical greening symptoms have been observed (see Map 17 -
greening was found in all citrus areas except Gode, Lower Awash and Dilla/Yirga
Alem). It has also been found on a rutaceous bush, Clausena anisata (Willd.) Beneth.,
known from South Africa to be a host of T. erytreae (Schwarz, 1976). Vepris
undulata is another wild rutaceous host of T. erytreae.

The presence of T. erytreae in a citrus-growing area is revealed by the highly typical

concave depressions that psyllid nymphs produce on the lower side of citrus leaves
(see Figs 189 and 192). Each depression is, so to speak, a nest in which a nymph has
developed. The depressions on the lower side of the leaf correspond to an equal
number of "bumps" on the upper side of the leaf (see Figs 190 and 193). Diaphorina
citri, the Asian psyllid vector of greening, does not produce such depressions and
bumps.

No adults or nymphs of T. erytreae were seen during the survey in the Hargeisa

region. Furthermore, no bumps or depressions could be found either on young leaves
or on adult leaves of any age. This indicates that T. erytreae has probably been absent
from the Hargeisa region for the last three or four years. Whether it is absent, or
present only in very low numbers, is difficult to say on the basis of these observations.
Further surveys must be made at various times of the year and especially when new
growth flushes are produced, since the psyllid eggs are deposited on very young citrus
leaves. However, knowing that T. erytreae is present in Ethiopia at Erer Gota and
Urso in the vicinity of Dire Dawa, a town located only 100 km east of Hargeisa at a
similar altitude (1200 m) to that of Hargeisa (I 300 m), it is fairly likely that
T. erytreae is present, at certain times at least, in the Hargeisa region.