International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208

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International Journal of Impact Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

Impact and penetration of cylindrical bodies into dry and water-saturated T

sand
⁎
А.М. Bragova, V.V. Balandina, L.А. Igumnova, V.L. Коtova, , L. Kruszkab, А.K. Lomunova
a
Research Institute of Mechanics, National Research Lobachevsky State Nizhny Novgorod University, 23 Prospekt Gagarina (Gagarin Ave.), Building 6, GSP-1000,
603950 Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation
b
Military University of Technology, 2 Gen. Witold Urbanowicz Street, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: New results of the experimental-theoretical and numerical analysis of the dynamic behavior of dry and water-
Penetration saturated sand, impacted and penetrated by cylindrical strikers at the velocities from 50 to 450 m/s, are pre-
Impact sented. Forces resisting penetration dependences into soil are determined using the inverse experiment tech-
Water saturated sand nique, in which a container with sand impacts the end of a measuring bar with flat, hemispheric and conic heads.
Inverse experiment technique
Based on the experimental-computational analysis of maximal and quasi-stationary values of the force resisting
Cavity expansion method
penetration of a flat-ended striker, parameters of dynamic compressibility and resistance to shear of compacted
water-saturated sand are found. Using the obtained data the parameters of the Grigoryan's model were de-
termined (identified), with the help of which numerical calculations of the resistance to penetration of impactors
into the soil in an axisymmetric formulation of the mechanics of continuous media were carried out. It is shown
that the identified mathematical model and the results of the computational experiment are in good agreement
with the experimental data. It is found that, when compacted sand is practically fully water-saturated, its
shearing properties degrade but remain substantial in the practically important range of impact interaction
velocities.

1. Introduction
Determining contact forces and accelerations arising when a striker
interacts with a target are the most important tasks of impact dynamics.
A special role in solving such problems is played by experimental
methods, which can be subdivided into two groups: direct and inverse
ones [1]. In direct experiments, an accelerated striker interacts with a
stationary target. In inverse one, the striker is stationary (at least at the
initial moment) and is impacted with an obstacle made of the material
under study, accelerated up to a required velocity.
Studying high-velocity penetration of solids into soil media is a
complex task involving a wide variety of their physical-mechanical
properties. Sand is one of the most common and well-studied soil media
[1]. However, impact interaction of solid bodies with sand obstacles has
not been sufficiently well studied experimentally. Allen et al. [2,3] in
1957 pioneered wide-range investigations in this field. They used sand
box to study penetration of cylindrical conic-headed strikers into dry
sand at the velocities from 700 to 800 m/s and to determine parameters
of Poncelet (Resal) equation of motion. A coefficient of resistance to
penetration was determined by using x-ray filming in [4,5] where
results of direct experiments with cylindrical strikers for the velocities
of 80–460 m/s were also presented.
Processes of cavitation were studied in direct tests [6], using brass
cylinders and copper spheres striking against a sand target. The motion
velocities of sand particles were determined by using the high-speed
photography coupled with a particle image velocimetry technique. The
piezoelectric sensors located in the target body made it possible to
measure the stresses inside the sand in the container.
Stresses arising in the sand target due to the impact and penetration
of a steel cylinder with a hemispherical head were also determined in
[7]. In [8], the numerical speckle-radiography method was used to
register displacements of sand particles, taking place in the target when
being struck by a cylinder, an ogive or a semi-sphere at a velocity of
around 200 m/s. Based on the results of x-ray filming of the penetration
process, a time-history of the penetration depth was also determined.
A considerable number of works tackle the issue of determining
final penetration depth [9–12]. Results of measuring final depths of the
penetration of steel spheres into dry sand are available in the literature
[9] where it is shown that the compaction of dry sandy soil leads to a
significant change in penetration depths of strikers. Based on the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: bragov@mech.unn.ru (А.М. Bragov), vkotov@inbox.ru (V.L. Коtov), leopold.kruszka@wat.edu.pl (L. Kruszka).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2018.08.012
Received 9 January 2018; Received in revised form 12 July 2018; Accepted 21 August 2018
Available online 25 August 2018
0734-743X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
А.М. Bragov et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the setup for measuring forces resisting penetration in the inverse experiment.
results, characteristic threshold intervals of the variation of penetration
depth as a function of impact velocity were found, the presence of
which was connected with the sound velocity in sand (∼120 m/s). In
earlier experiments the existence of a threshold velocity ∼ 100 m/s was
also found, at which the resistance force shows a discontinuity con-
nected, in the opinion of the authors of [2], with the transfer from
quasi-elastic to inelastic deformation of sand particles.
In [10], penetration of a steel disk into sand in the velocity range of
150–1200 m/s was studied, and time histories of penetration depth
were obtained, as well as final penetration depths and pressure over the
container walls. In [11], a series of experiments on the penetration of
strikers of various geometries (spherical, cylindrical, ogive) into dry
sand at the impact velocities of 850–3000 m/s was conducted. In the
experiments, a critical impact velocity, after which the final penetration
depth decreases as a result of plastic deformation of the striker, was
determined. Final depths of penetration into sand of cylindrical flat-
ended and hemispheric-headed strikers were monitored [12].
In [13] ballistic limit in the penetration of a dry sand layer with
various compaction range by strikers with different heads were de-
termined experimentally. A weak dependence of the ballistic limit on
the initial density of sand, varying in the range of 1530–1673 kg/m3
was obtained.
In order to understand the fundamental problem of penetration of
strikers into partially water-saturated sand at a mesoscale level, x-ray
and neutron CAT methods have been used [14], which allow to accu-
rately visualize the penetration process, the formation of cavities and
water distribution in the head of a striker.
In direct experiments, displacements of the striker are registered
using the frame-target method [2,3] and its modifications [4,5,10],
rapid camera and x-ray filming [4–6,8,10,14]. Integral loads acting on
strikers of various geometries at the quasi-stationary penetration stage
are determined using time histories of penetration depth and Poncelet
or Resal type equations of motion [2,5,15]. However, these methods do
not make it possible to reliably determine force characteristics at the
initial non-stationary stage and, as shown in [10], do not account for
the effect of the soil container walls on integral loads and final pene-
tration depths.
To measure the velocity of the striker in the process of penetration,
interferometric methods in direct [16] and inverse experiments [17] are
used. These methods are rather complex, though highly accurate in
measuring displacement velocity. However, to determine integral
loading, differentiation of the obtained time histories of penetration
velocity is necessary, which can lead to considerably growing in-
accuracies.
To measure forces acting on a solid body at an initial stage of pe-
netration in both direct and inversed experiments, accelerometers lo-
cated on moving strikers are conventionally used [15,17]. It is note-
worthy that in direct experiments at impact velocities of more than
100 m/s it is difficult to provide reliable registration of signals from
198
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
transducers.
The technique of measuring accelerations in inverse experiments is
free from this drawback: in this setup the striker with the accelerometer
is stationary at least at the initial moment. A disadvantage of the in-
verse techniques [16,18] is the necessity to accelerate soil containers of
considerable mass and small geometric dimensions, allowing reliable
registration of the nonstationary phase of the indentation and a rela-
tively short time interval of the quasi-stationary phase.
It can be noted that in the experimental studies of impact processes
of solids with soil targets, the final penetration depth [9–12], depending
on impact velocity, the current penetration depth [2–5,8] and time
history of penetration velocity [12,16,17] are registered most often.
The direct measurement of the resistance forces (acceleration) of the
striker [15,17] in soft soil is less studied. The results of researches of
resistance forces to penetration in water saturated soils are practically
absent.
This paper presents new experimental data on the resistance forces
to penetration of strikers into dry and water-saturated sand, the results
of mathematical modeling and computer simulation of the penetration
of rigid cylindrical strikers into sandy soil with different moisture
contents.
2. Dynamic tests of soils in an inverse experiment
2.1. The inverse experiment technique using the measuring bars
The methodology of measuring the force resisting penetration of a
striker into sand using a measuring bar [18,19] is schematically shown
in Fig. 1.
A container filled with soil (sand) is accelerated up to required ve-
locities and impacted against a stationary striker fixed on a measuring
bar. The impact velocity and the material properties are to be such that
no plastic strains should occur in the bar. An elastic strain pulse ε(t) is
formed in the bar. Registering this pulse on the surface of the bar makes
it possible to determine force F, acting on the striker upon its interac-
tion with the medium, according to the known relation F(t) = Eε(t)S0,
where E is elastic modulus of the bar, S0 is its cross-section area. Thus,
in this method, the task of measuring the forces is considerably sim-
plified and reduced to registering an elastic strain pulse in the bar, using
strain gages. The setup implementing this method is schematically de-
picted in Fig. 1. In the present version of the inverse experiment, a soil
container is accelerated using a 57 mm-caliber gas-gun with a two-
diaphragm breech mechanism, which makes it possible to provide
stable and readily controlled impact velocities in the range of
50–500 m/s, using air compressed up to 15 MPa, and up to ∼1000 m/s,
when using compressed helium.
The container is a thin-walled cartridge, filled with soil medium. To
prevent the soil from spilling in the process of preparation of the ex-
periment and during acceleration of the container, the front end of the
А.М. Bragov et al.
container is sealed with 0.01 mm-thick PET film. The film is fixed and
secured against the surface of the soil with a vinyl-resin ring.
The impact velocity of the container was determined using two
electric-contact transducers located in the orifices of the barrel, made in
the vicinity of the muzzle. A 1.5 m-long 20 mm-dia steel rod with the
yield strength of over 2000 MPa was used as a measuring bar. One of
the ends of the measuring bar has a threaded orifice housing a cy-
lindrical striker with a head of appropriate geometry. The bar is located
at a certain distance from the barrel muzzle, so that the impact occurs
immediately after the container entirely leaves the barrel. The stand on
which the bar is located has adjusting supports, which are used to
provide axisymmetric interaction. The rear end of the bar rests against a
special damper, preventing it from displacement and damping the im-
pact energy. Impact takes place inside vacuum chamber, to which gun
barrel is connected, and into which measuring bar with head is in-
troduced. The cylindrical part of the heads was 19.8 mm in diameter,
with the radius of the hemisphere of 10 mm, and were made of steel
with the yield strength of over 1800 МPа.
This setup was realized in the frame of an experimental complex
[20] that provides measuring of the main parameters of the penetration
process both in inverse and in direct setups. The first one makes it
possible to measure integral loading at an initial penetration stage. The
second one, based on a direct experiment with high-speed photo-re-
gistration [20], allows to obtain a shadow picture of the interaction
process between a striker and a soil target, and then, based on this
picture, to construct time histories of penetration depth and determine
the penetration resistance coefficient on the quasi-stationary phase of
penetration. A combined use of the two techniques made it possible to
study the general picture of the interaction between strikers and soil
targets and to measure integral loading acting on strikers at both initial
non-stationary and quasi-stationary stages of penetration.
2.2. The conditions of the inverse experiments
For the tests, cylindrical containers made of aluminum alloy were
used which had the following dimensions: outer diameter 56.8 mm,
inside diameter 54 mm, bottom thickness 2 mm, filling depth 65 mm.
To prevent strew out during the moving the sand surface in the con-
tainer was fixed with a 0.01 mm thickness PET film.
Experiments were conducted with dry, wet (10%) and water satu-
rated sandy mixture of a natural composition, from which particles
larger than 1 mm and smaller than 0.1 mm had been removed. The
particle size distribution of dry sand mixture is presented in Table 1.
The dry sand filled into the container was compacted layer-by-layer
until reaching an average density of about 1750 ± 50 kg/m3.
In the tests of water-saturated sand, the containers filled with dry
sand were poured with a certain amount of water until the sand was
completely saturated. Further humidification resulted in the formation
of a water layer over the surface of the sand, so the excess water was
poured off. The containers were weighed again to determine the density
of the water-saturated sand and its moisture content relative to its in-
itial density. The average density of the water-saturated natural mixture
was 2080 ± 50 kg/m3.
To prepare the specimens with a moisture content of 10%, the same
natural sandy mixture was used. It was thoroughly mixed and piled
layer by layer into the container. Each layer was compacted, so that the
Table 1
Particle size distribution of sand used in experiments.
Mean particle The granules lie in the range between the size value in that
diameter (mm) column and the size value in the column to the left
0.63 0.4 0.315 0.2 0.16
% finer by mass. 5.0 21.5 13.2 38.8 11.6
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
average density of wet sand in the container was close to
1920 ± 50 kg/m3.
The steel measuring bar had density ρ = 8050 kg/m3, Young mod-
ulus E = 186 GPa, yield strength 2 GPa, wave propagation velocity
along the bar c0 = E / ρ = 4807 m/s.
2.3. Determining dynamic compressibility of the soil
Systematic study of physical-mechanical properties of soft soils
under dynamic loading began a long time ago. Experimental methods
[21] based on the introduced model representations [22] of dynamic
compressibility and shear resistance of soil media, which have become
classical, have gained wide popularity and continue to be developed
[23]. The developed techniques of plane-wave experiment make it
possible to determine shock adiabat of dry and humid sand [21,24–26]
in the loading range of up to several gigapascals.
To gain information about shear properties in a plane-wave ex-
periment, it is necessary to measure simultaneously the axial and radial
components of the stress tensor in the soil specimen that are practically
not determined because of considerable technical and methodological
difficulties. Shear properties of soft soils are determined experimentally
using various modifications of the Kolsky technique with substantially
lower pressures [27–33]. To study the dynamic compressibility of soft
soils and other loosely connected media over a wide range of strain
rates and load amplitudes, the following approach has proved to be
very useful. It combines two modern methods of dynamic testing: a
modified Kolsky technique with a split Hopkinson pressure bar and a
soil sample enclosed in the confined jacket, as well as the technique of
plane-wave shock experiments [34,35].
In the specimens prepared for the experiments in [24–35], the
density of loose sand was 1300–1600 kg/m3. The effect of preliminary
compaction of dry sand on impact compressibility was investigated in
[28,29], where initial density amounted to 1620 kg/m3. In densities of
1700–1900 kg/m3, the results on the study of dynamic compressibility
are practically absent. Exceptional in this respect are plane-wave ex-
periments [26], where average density of dry sand was 1730 kg/m3, but
shock adiabats were constructed using only two points in the range of
loads 1–10 GPa.
Earlier, an experimental-computational method for determining
dynamic compressibility and shear strength of soils was introduced,
based on combining physical and numerical modeling of impact and
penetration processes [19,20,36]. The inverse impact experiment
technique by using measure bar with flat end makes it possible to de-
termine dynamic compressibility of dry sand of higher densities,
1700–1850 kg/m3. It was shown [36,37] that shear characteristics of
soil media correlate with the values of resistance at the quasi-stationary
penetration stage. Thus, results of inverse experiments by using mea-
sure bar with flat end should be used for determining dynamic com-
pressibility and shear strength of soil of different density range.
Use of technique [19] for determining the shock adiabat of the soil
is based on Rankine-Hugoniot relations written along the bar-soil
contact interface, from which shock wave velocity D as a function of
mass velocity u is determined:
D (u) = F /(ρ0 uS0), u = V0 − F /(ρc0 S0), (1)
where F is force of resistance determined in inversed experiment, c0 is
propagation velocity of the longitudinal wave in the bar, ρ is density of
the material of the bar, S0 is cross-section area of the bar.
It should be noted that the proposed technique based on the tech-
nique of the measuring bar will allow us to investigate the mechanical
properties of soils in the intermediate range of loads, which is difficult
to determine by the modified Kolsky method and the methods of plane-
wave experiment.
0.1
Dynamic compressibility or shock adiabat of soil, as well as of a
9.9 number of other compressible materials, can be accurately enough
approximated in the form of linear relation
199
А.М. Bragov et al.
D = A + Bu
where A characterizes the compression wave propagation velocity in
the soil for small pressures and B is the limiting compressibility of the
soil.
It is known that propagation velocity of a plane wave in a soil in-
creases with water-saturation, and so does the unloading wave velocity.
Other conditions being equal, this results in decreasing the duration of
the compression pulse excited in the bar, when struck by a container
with water-saturated sand, as compared with dry soil. At the same time,
the condition of non-dispersion of the pulse is violated. Thus, in the case
of water-saturated soils, determining the force acting on the striker,
based on the values of the strain pulse, registered at a fairly large dis-
tance from the impact plane on the surface of the measuring bar, is
complicated by the problem of distortion of the pulse form and am-
plitude due to its dispersion in the process of its propagation along the
measuring bar, observed by H. Kolsky, R. Davies and other authors
[38–42].
A shock adiabat of a water-saturated soil mixture can also be ob-
tained using the method of determining shock adiabats of dispersing
matters or modeling the soil as a three-phase medium, the applicability
of which was earlier shown, as exemplified by the already available
results of plane-wave experiments [24,25].
To perform strength calculations in a wide range of parameters of
the ground mixture, an acceptable approximation to a shock adiabat is
the equation of state of three-phase medium model
− n1
ρ0 3
σ i ρi0 ci20
ρ
= ∑ αi ⎛ B
⎜ + 1⎞ ⎟ , Bi =
ni
, i = 1, 2, 3
i=1 ⎝ i ⎠ (3)
where α1, α2, α3 are volumetric concentrations of free porosity (clamped
air and / or other gases), liquid (water) and quartz; ρi0 and ci0, i = 1,2,3
are densities and velocities of propagation of longitudinal waves in the
corresponding components, ρ, σ are mixture density and velocity, ρ0 is
initial value, ρ0 = α1 ρ10 + α2 ρ20 + α3 ρ30 , α1 + α2 + α3 = 1
The values of constant Eq. (3) relating to the parameters of the
shock adiabat of water and quartz are given in the Table 2.
Values ρ10, B1, n1, corresponding to the compressibility of the initial
free porosity (line 1 of Table 2), are not related to the compressibility of
the gas component. For the given type of soil, the parameters are de-
termined at α1 = 0.347, α2 = 0, α3 = 0.653 based on condition of the
best correspondence of the known shock adiabat of dry sand density
ρ0 = 1730 kg/m3, determined earlier in inverted experiments [19].
We obtained constants of shock adiabats (2) of water-saturated soil
on the basis of linear approximation of values D(u) by the equations:
u σθ
D= , u=
θ ρ0
ρ
where σ and θ = 1 − ρ0 were obtained from Eq. (3). Parameters of
shock adiabat with a change in the mass velocity u from 50 to 350 m/s
for sand of different moisture content are summarized in Table 3.
Fig. 2 presents shock adiabats of a sand mixture with the particle
diameter from 0.1 to 1.0 mm and initial density of 1730 kg/m3: the
light circles, triangles and squares correspond to the data of the inverse
experiments, obtained for moisture content w = 0, 10 and 20%, re-
spectively; in a similar way, the dark circles, triangles and the squares
depict the data of plane-wave experiments [26]; the solid, dashed and
dashed-dotted lines are determined in the framework of the three-phase
Table 2
Parameters of three-phase medium model.
i ρi0, kg/m3 Bi, MPa ni
1 1.3 90.4 1.6
2 1000 304.5 7.15
3 2650 9118.7 4 3710
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
(2) Table 3
The constants of the shock adiabat D(u) for the sand of different moisture
content.
No w, % ρ0, kg/m3 A, m/s b
1 0 1730 460 2.3
2 10 1900 650 3.2
3 20 2080 1700 3.4
medium model (3).
It is evident in Fig. 2 that the shock adiabats of dry sand, determined
based on the experimental data [19,26] and in the framework of the
three-component medium model (3) are in good agreement, following
linear relation D(u) in the velocity range of 50–750 m/s. Practically
fully water-saturated sand (95% water-saturation) also demonstrates
agreement between approximation (3) and new inversed experimental
results and known experimental data [26]. Shock adiabat D(u) for the
sand with 10%-moisture content (50% water-saturation) for mass ve-
locities of up to 300 m/s practically coincides with the shock adiabat of
dry sand [19], which differs from those predicted according to ap-
proximation (3). For the velocities of up to 750 m/s, the data of the
three-phase medium model and of the reversed experiment are in good
agreement.
We also should note that in papers [31–33] it was shown experi-
mentally by using Kolsky method that partially saturated sand is more
compressible than dry sand or completely water-saturated soil. This was
also confirmed by our inversed experiments – the resistance forces to
penetration of cylindrical impactors with a flat end into dry and par-
tially saturated (10%) sand are close. On the basis of formulas (1) and
(2), the shock adiabats shown in Fig. 2 are close too.
3. Modeling the behavior of soil under impact and penetration
3.1. Mathematical formulation of the problem of impact and penetration
Grigoryan's mathematical model of the dynamics of soil media [22]
is written in a cylindrical coordinate system in the form of a system of
differential equations of mechanics of solids, expressing laws of con-
servation of mass, pulse and constant maximal density, attained in the
process of actively loading the soil, as well as equations of the theory of
plastic flow with plasticity condition of Mises.
System of differential equations [22] is closed with finite relations
determining pressure p and plasticity condition of the soil
p = f1 (ρ , ρ ) H (ρ − ρ) H (ρ0 − ρ), σF = f2 (p), (4)
* *
where ρ0, ρ and ρ* are initial, current and maximal density attained in
the process of loading, H is Heaviside function, σF is yield strength.
Grigoryan's system of equations of soil dynamics is complemented
with initial and boundary conditions. Experiments [21,37,43] demon-
strate that, in the process of penetration of obtuse (in particular,
spherical) bodies at a velocity of over 100 m/s, sand particles disin-
tegrate. The disintegrated sand particles are then compacted on the
head part of the strikers, forming an adjoint cone. No traces of inter-
action of the soil with the cylindrical head of the striker and the ad-
joining hemisphere are observed, which testifies to a cavitation nature
of the flow of dry sand over the strikers used [6,20]. This regime was
observed at penetration of cylindrical strikers to a depth of 2–3 dia-
meters at close to constant penetration velocities from 100 to 400 m/s.
In this connection, a contact algorithm of ‘impermeability’ along the
normal line with ‘sliding along the tangent with dry friction’ is used,
according to the mixed friction model
ci0,, m/s
– ⎧ qs , q s ≤ kf qξ
us′ = us″, qs′ = −qs″, q s = q′ s = ,
1475 ⎨ kf q ξ ·sign (qs ), q s > kf qξ
⎩
(5)
200
А.М. Bragov et al. International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208

Fig. 2. Shock adiabats of the sand with the initial density of 1730 kg/m3 and moisture content of 0, 10 and 20%, determined from inversed experiments (the light
markers), plane-wave experiments [26] (the dark markers) and using the three-phase model approximation Eq. (3) (lines).

where uα, qα are components of vectors of velocity and contact pressure Relation (6) holds under the conditions of uniaxial deformation,
in local coordinate basis (α = s, ξ), s and ξ are directions of the tangent which is the case in plane-wave experiments. Constant A is close to the
and normal lines; kfis sliding friction coefficient; signs ′ and ′′ denote propagation velocity of a plane compression wave in soils for small
corresponding values across the opposite sides of the contact. pressures, andBcharacterizes maximal compressibility of the soil.
Along the head-part of the striker contacting with the soil medium, Resistance to shear is described by fractional-rational relation be-
condition (5) was imposed, whereas over the free surfaces of the soil tween yield strength and pressure
and the striker normal and tangential stresses were set to be equal to
f2 (p) ≡ σ0 + kp /(1 + kp /Δσ ), Δσ = σM − σ0 (7)
zero. The external boundaries of the analyzed region of the soil were
assumed to be rigid and corresponded to the geometry of the container
Coefficients σ0, σM and k characterize adhesion, maximal value of
used in the inverse experiment. At an initial time, the stresses and ve-
yield strength and tangent of the friction angle of the soil.
locity of the soil particles are equal to zero. The striker was assumed to 2
In the region of plastic flow, stress is represented as σ = p + 3 f2 (p) ,
be rigid, moving at a constant speed, equal to the impact velocity.
thus, applying (7), pressure is described with square equation
Numerical implementation of relations of Grigoryan's model was
done in the framework of methodology [44] based on a modified
Godunov scheme and implemented in the Dinamika-2 applied package
( ) 2
kp2 + a1 p + a0 = 0, a1 = 1 + 3 k Δσ + ( 2
σ
3 0 )
− σ /k, a0

= ( σ − σ ) Δσ
2
of the Research Institute of Mechanics, Nizhniy Novgorod Lobachevski 3 0 (8)
State University [45]. As its specific feature, we can mention the ap-
plication of the Euler–Lagrange approach to the description of the Relations (8) make it possible to determine values of pressure cor-
motion of media with the help of arbitrary moving difference grids. responding to the known stresses (6) and yield condition (7), which
In Grigoryan's model of soil media, which we adopted, the record of depends on pressure. Transformation of (8) into a form analogous to
failure of particles of the medium is implied implicit by a function f2(p) (7), using formulas
in the Mises plasticity condition (4) and is determined by the level of
pressure achieved. pθ up
up = , cp = ,
The earlier computations of the processes of impact and penetration ρ0 θ (9)
of axisymmetric strikers into soft soil media [18,20,28,35–37,47]
showed good agreement between the numerical and experimental re- and a subsequent linear approximation of the values of cp(up)
sults, testifying to the adequacy of the chosen model of soil [22] and the
cp = a + bup, (10)
efficiency of the applied mathematical and numerical apparatus. The
modeling of shock-wave processes in water-saturated soils was also make it possible to use a function of the form of (6) for relation f1
earlier described in [48,49]. pressure-volumetric strain, which describes shock adiabat

ρ0 a2θ
3.2. Equation of state of sandy soil p = f1 (θ) ≡
(1 − bθ)2 (11)
Let us concretize the assignment of functions f1 and f2 in Grigoryan's
and to determine unknown parameters а and b in (10), (11) using the
model of soil media. From the shock adiabat, expressed in the form of
least squares method.
linear relation (2) and Hugoniot condition along the shock wave
We solve the problems of penetration into porous media in the
σ = ρ0 Du , θ = u/ D , it follows that stress σ (assumed positive in com-
barotropic approximation, and the energy equation and thermal cor-
pression) and volumetric strain θare related as
rections in the equation of state are neglected. This simplification is
ρ0 A2 θ ρ0 justified by the fact that under pressures up to 10 GPa the relative
σ (θ) = , θ=1− , thermal expansion for sandy soil is an order of magnitude smaller than
(1 − Bθ)2 ρ (6)
the total relative change in volume.

201
А.М. Bragov et al.
Fig. 3. The experimental dependence of the force resisting to the penetration of a cylindrical flat-ended striker into dry sand on time at near impact velocities.
3.3. Shear resistance of dry and water-saturated soil
Sensitivity of the force resisting penetration of projectile into soils to
the variation of the parameters of the soft soil model was earlier ana-
lyzed computationally and experimentally in [36,37].
Fig. 3 presents the forces resisting to the penetration of a cylindrical
flat-ended striker into dry sand on time at impact velocities close to 180
and 335 m/s. The markers connected by a smoothed curve correspond
to experimental data. There is a rapid increase in the resistance force up
to a maximum. Then a drop occurs to some value close to constant,
which we will refer to as quasi-stationary. The drop in velocity of a
container in this time interval is small, thus, penetration can be con-
sidered to be close to the motion of a striker in the medium with a
constant velocity. Similar conditions were modeled earlier in [46].
It was indicated that the use of cylindrical flat-ended strikers, for
which the difference between the resistance forces at the initial and
quasi-stationary stages is maximal, is optimal for identifying shear
characteristics of soils [36].
The main provisions of the technique for identifying the plastic
properties of soil media are as follows. The input data are the experi-
mental dependence of the quasi-stationary values of the resistance force
on penetration of a flat-ended striker on the initial impact velocities.
The required dependence of the yield stress on pressure is determined
by unconditional minimization of the functional describing the total
discrepancy between the theoretical and experimental data in a certain
N
range of velocities ∑i = 1 Fi − Fi* / Fi* –>min. Where Fi* and Fi – are
quasistationary values of the resistance force to penetration with initial
velocity Vi , obtained in experiments and in calculations with the same
velocity.
An experimental-computational method was also used for de-
termining the parameters of the yield strength-pressure relation for
water-saturated soil. Surface friction was not accounted for in numer-
ical computations, as the displacement of the particles of the water-
saturated soil along the flat end of the striker bar is practically non-
existent, whereas the flow of the soil over the cylindrical part of the
striker adjacent to its end is of a cavitational character.
Shear resistance was described by a fractional-rational relation be-
tween the yield strength of the soil and pressure (6), where the adhe-
sion value was assumed to be zero σ0 ≈ 0. The pressure-volumetric
strain (density) relation, required in the computations, was taken in the
form of p (θ) = ρ0 a2θ /(1 − bθ)2 by using Eq. (11).
Based on the results of calculations, the following values of the
parameters of the equation of state for water-saturated sand were ob-
tained: A = 1700 m/s, B = 3.4, a = 1620 m/s, b = 3.6,
k = 0.5, σM= 50 MPa. For dry sand, the following was obtained:
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International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
A = 460 m/s, B = 2.3, a = 340 m/s, b = 2.6, k = 1.2
and σM= 275 MPa.
The results of numerical computations of penetration of a flat-nosed
cylindrical striker into a water-saturated sandy soil in an elastoplastic
formulation are presented. The results are compared with those of
computations in a hydrodynamic formulation, where soil is described
using the model of a nonlinear compressible liquid with the same shock
adiabat, but with zero shear resistance (k = σM = 0, а = A).
Calculations in this formulation demonstrate the sensitivity of the
chosen objective function (resistance to penetration force) to a change
in function in the plasticity condition.
In Fig. 4 markers show the average dependences of the resistance
force obtained in the reversed experiments on penetration of a flat-
ended striker on time at the shock velocities of 180 ± 10 m/s (a) and
335 ± 15 m/s (b), were obtained with a confidence probability of 0.95.
The solid, dashed, and dash-dotted lines correspond to the results of
calculations using nonlinear (7) and linear σF = kp dependences of the
yield stress on pressure, as well as the hydrodynamic approximation
(σF = 0). To compare the results of calculations and experimental data
in Fig. 4 the maxima of the resistance forces were combined at t ≈ 0.
Differences in the results of numerical simulation with the use of ob-
tained as a result of identification nonlinear dependence of the yield
stress on pressure from the experimental data are within the range of
the experimental data. The hydrodynamic approximation in this range
of impact velocities is unsatisfactory.
Fig. 5 shows the values of the resistance force at the quasi-stationary
stage of penetration, depending on the impact velocityV0. Here, the
dark and light squares represent the results of inverted experiments, the
solid and dashed lines correspond to the results of numerical calcula-
tions on penetration of the striker into dry and water-saturated sand
(lines 1 and 3 of Table 3); the dot-dash line indicates the results of
calculations at σF = 0.
The results of calculations using the linear dependence of the yield
stress on the pressure for dry soil are in satisfactory agreement with the
experimental data only at shock velocities of less than 250 m/s. In
Fig. 5, b it is clearly seen that calculation values of penetration into
water-saturated soil in the hydrodynamic setting (σF = 0) at shock ve-
locities of more than 350 m/s are quite satisfactory in comparison with
the experimental data.
3.4. The local interaction model based on the solution of the problem of
expansion of a spherical cavity
Contemporary analytical reviews on the issue of shock and pene-
tration [50–52] testify to the fact that various modifications of the local
А.М. Bragov et al.
Fig. 4. Force resisting to penetration of a striker with a flat end into the dry sand, depending on the time.
interaction model (LIM) are widely used for determining contact forces,
accelerations and penetration depths of strikers. The local interaction
hypothesis, introduced by Newton, postulates that a local pressure
(local stress) coefficient depends only on the orientation of an element
of the body relative to the direction of the velocity of unperturbed flow
of the medium and does not depend on the geometry of the body lo-
cated in front of this element. Thus, the characteristics of the motion of
a body (resistance, penetration depth) are determined by its geometry.
In the formulation that has gained wide popularity normal pressure
is represented in the form of quadratic relation
σn/ ρ0 = αu2 + βu + γ
where u is normal component of the penetration velocity vector, α, β
and γ are constant coefficients depending on physical-mechanical
properties of the medium, striker geometry and other components. The
relation for stresses acting on the surfaces of the body-medium contact,
that has been most frequently used, is the binomial (β= 0) interaction
model comprising a dynamic component, quadratic in its velocity, with
a constant summand characterizing strength of the medium [3,12]. For
sandy soils, at penetration velocities of 50–450 m/s, the strength sum-
mand is small (γ≈ 0), whereas internal friction is quite substantial [53].
Tangent stresses along the surface of a body moving in a medium
are found using Coulomb's friction model
Fig. 5. Quasi-stationary values of resistance force to penetration of a flat-ended striker into dry (a) and water-saturated (b) soil: experiment and calculation.
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
στ = kf σn, (13)
where kf is constant coefficient of surface friction.
To determine parametersα, β of the local interaction model (LIM)
(12), in accordance with the known approach [54–57], a solution of the
problem of expansion of a spherical cavity is used.
The incompressibility condition of the medium when solving the
problem of cavity expansion was implemented earlier [58], but the
density value was assumed to be equal to the limit value for the given
soil, which does not depend on the cavity expansion rate. In contrast to
the solutions obtained earlier, we assume that the medium behind the
(12) shock wave (SW) is incompressible. The parameters on the front of a
SW depend on the cavity expansion rate. Thus, the constant density
behind the front of a SW must be determined for each value of the
cavity expansion rate. On the basis of this assumption, we have ob-
tained a closed form solution in a finite form, describing the stress at the
cavity boundary as a function of the cavity expansion rate (given in the
Appendix A).
203
А.М. Bragov et al.
4. The results of experiments and computations of impact and
penetration of bodies into sand
4.1. Penetration of a striker with a semispherical head into sand
4.1.1. Consider the problem of determining the maximal value of the force
resisting penetration of spherical strikers into dry and water-saturated sand,
using the local interaction model, based on the solution of the problem of
expansion of a spherical cavity
The force acting on a spherical striker penetrating into soil with
constant velocity V0, is determined by integrating stresses (12), (13)
over the contact surface, and for the case when the strength component
in (12) is small (γ≈ 0), the force resisting penetration is related with
the impact velocity according to the penetration law in Resal's form
F = AV0 2 + BV0 A = α (A1 + kf A2 ) ρ0 S0, B = β (B1 + kf B2) ρ0 S0 (14)
(1 − cos 4ϕ) (ϕ − 2 sin ϕ cos 3 ϕ + sin ϕ cos ϕ)
A1 = , A2 = , B1
2 4
3
2(1 − cos ϕ) 3
2 sin ϕ
= , B2 =
3 3
where S0 = πR is area of the midsection of the sphere, φ is flow se-
2
paration angle, as counted from the apex of the sphere in the direction
of the free surface.
Parameters of the quadratic relation of the LIM α = 1.4, β = 170 m/
s are determined by approximating the values obtained using Eq. (А6),
with the least squares method. The values of the adhesion and internal
friction parameters in the yield condition for dry sand are assumed to
be σ0 = 0, μ = 0.6, friction coefficient kf = 0.4.
For water-saturated soil, the adhesion and internal friction para-
meters in the yield condition are assumed to be σ0 = 0, μ = 0.3, friction
coefficient kf = 0.2. The corresponding parameters of the quadratic
relation of the LIM for water-saturated soil are: α = 1.6, β = 100 m/s.
Fig. 6 presents maximal values of the force resisting penetration of a
striker with a hemispherical head into sand as a function of impact
velocity V0. The dark and the light points represent the results of the
inverse experiments with dry and water-saturated sand, respectively;
the solid line shows the results of the LIM for dry sand, the dashed line
corresponds to the LIM with water-saturated sand with the account of
the shear properties of the soil.
Good agreement between the computed data and experimental re-
sults is obtained because the linear approximation of the yield strength-
Fig. 6. Maximal values of the force resisting penetration of a striker with a
hemispherical head into dry sand as a function of impact velocity V0 (the
markers correspond to the inverse experiment, the lines to the LIM, Eq. (A6)).
204
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
Fig. 7. Time histories of the force resisting penetration of a striker with a
hemispherical head into water-saturated sand at a velocity of 282 m/s (ex-
periment and numerical computation).
pressure relation is applicable for dry sand in the given range of pres-
sures and impact velocities. The description of the behavior of water-
saturated soil in the framework of the LIM, Eq. (A6) without accounting
for the nonlinear behavior of the yield strength-pressure relation for
penetration velocities over 200 m/s results in an inaccuracy of over
25%.
4.1.2. In this section, the results of numerically analyzing penetration of a
striker with a hemispherical head into water-saturated sandy soil with a
constant velocity in the continuum mechanics formulation are presented. The
computations used Grigoryan's model of soil media with parameters
determined from inverse experiments with flat-ended strikers (see
Section 3.3). Contact interaction in the ‘striker-humid soil’ couple was
computed using coulomb friction model with the friction coefficient of 0.2.
For dry sandy soil, the earlier determined value of the friction coefficient is
0.35–0.45 [59,60]
Fig. 7 shows time histories of the force resisting penetration of a
striker with a hemispherical head into water-saturated sandy soil at a
velocity of V0 = 282 m/s. The light markers correspond to the results of
the inverse experiment, the solid line represents the results of numerical
computations, accounting for the shear properties of the soil.
Fig. 8 compares the results of the experimentally and computa-
tionally determined maximal force resisting penetration of a striker
with a hemispherical head into water saturated sand as a function of
impact velocity V0. In Fig. 8 the dots represent the experimental data,
the solid line corresponds to the computational results accounting for
the shear properties of the soil.
It follows from the relations presented in Figs. 7 and 8 that the
computational results obtained using Grigoryan's model, accounting for
the strength properties of the soil, are in good agreement with the ex-
perimental data.
4.2. Penetration of strikers with conical heads into soil
4.2.1. The present section analyzes the applicability of the local interaction
model, based on the solution of the problem of an expanding spherical
cavity, to determine the maximal value of the force resisting penetration of
conical strikers into dry and water-saturated sand. According to the LIM, the
force resisting penetration at constant velocity V0 of a cone with the apex
angle of 2η is found as follows
F = (1 + kf ctgη) σn S, σn = ρ0 (αu 0 + β ) u 0 , u 0 = V0 sin η .
А.М. Bragov et al.
Fig. 8. Maximal values of the force resisting penetration of a hemisphere into
water-saturated sand as a function of impact velocity V0.
The parameters of the quadratic relation of the LIM were de-
termined by approximating the values obtained according to Eq. (А6),
using the least squares method. The values of adhesion and internal
friction in the yield condition for dry sand are taken to be
σ0 = 0, μ= 0.6, friction coefficient kf = 0.4.
Fig. 9 compares the results of the experimental data (dark and light
triangles) against the maximal values of the force resisting penetration
of conical strikers with the apex angle of 2η = 60° and 100° (markers 1
and 2, respectively); curves 3, 4 show the computational results using
the LIM Eq. (А6) based on the analytical solution of the problem of an
expanding spherical cavity (α = 1.4, β = 170 m/s). Good agreement
between the computational and experimental results is achieved thanks
to the applicability to dry sand of a linear approximation of the yield
strength-pressure relation in the given range of pressures and impact
velocities V0 from100 to 400 m/s.
Fig. 10 compares the maximal forces resisting penetration of a
conical striker into water-saturated sand as a function impact velocity
V0. The dark triangles represent the results of the inverse experiment,
the dashed line corresponds to the LIM computations for water-
Fig. 9. Maximal values of the force resisting penetration of conical strikers
(2η = 60 and 100°) into dry sand as a function of impact velocity V0 (the
markers correspond to the inverse experiment, the lines to the LIM).
205
International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
Fig. 10. Maximal values of the force resisting penetration of conical strikers
(2η = 60°) into water-saturated sand as a function of impact velocity V0 (the
markers show the reversed experiment, the lines correspond to the LIM).
saturated soil by Eq. (A7).
The LIM Eq. (A6) accounting for the linear shear properties of the
water-saturated soil satisfactorily describes the resistance force as a
function of velocity only for the impact velocities V0 of 120 m/s. For
higher velocities, the LIM Eq. (A7) taking into account the locked yield
strength should be used. Thus, the nonlinear nature of resistance of
water-saturated soil to shear must be accounted for in analyzing pro-
blems of impact and penetration.
4.4.2. This section considers the process of penetration of a striker with a
conical head into sandy soils of various degrees of water-saturation. It was
assumed that in the process of penetration of the striker head its velocity
remained nearly constant. The cone apex angle 2η was 40, 60 and 100°, the
base radius was R = 0.01 m. Moisture content of the sand in the inverse
experiment, where the maximal force resisting penetration was determined,
was 0, 10 and 20%, which corresponds to water-saturation degrees of 0, 50
and 99%. The presented data was obtained in inverse experiments and
numerical computations using Grigoryan's model of soil media with the
parameters determined from inverse experiments with flat-ended strikers (see
Section 3.3)
The numerical computations were done in an axisymmetric for-
mulation. The outer boundaries of the analyzed soil area corresponded
to the geometrical dimensions of the container used in the inverse ex-
periment. Deformation of the container was not accounted for; the ef-
fect of the container walls was modeled by two versions of imposing the
boundary conditions: (1) “impermeability” along the normal and free
sliding in the tangential direction (boundary condition (ВС) 1) and (2)
“free surface”, corresponding to the absence of any walls (ВС 2).
Fig. 11 summarizes in a dimensionless form the experimental and
computational time histories of the force resisting penetration of a
conical striker with the apex angle 2η = 40° into dry sand t* = R/
(tgηV0), F * = 0.5ρ0 S0 V02 , S0 = πR2. The thin solid lines correspond to the
results of inverse experiments with the penetration velocities of
V0 = 266, 241, 214 and 308 m/s, respectively; the markers represent
averaged values over the results of four experiments with a 95% con-
fidence interval; the bold solid line shows the results obtained in
computations using BC 1, modeling the effect of the rigid container; the
dashed line corresponds to the computational results without a con-
tainer (BC 2).
Good agreement between the numerical results and experimental
data is evident. It follows from the obtained results that, for the given
striker geometry, the compression shear waves reflected from the
А.М. Bragov et al.
Fig. 11. Dimensionless time histories of the force resisting penetration of a cone
(2η = 40°) into dry sand (the markers correspond to the mean values over the
results of four experiments, the lines show the computational results).
container walls practically do not affect the registered maximum of the
penetration resistance force.
Then, the process of penetration of a conical striker (2η = 60°) into
sand of moisture content W was considered. In Fig. 12, the dark tri-
angle, as well as the light rhombs and triangles represent the experi-
mental data for the sand with W = 0, 10% and 20%, respectively. The
solid and dashed lines correspond to the results of numerical compu-
tations accounting for the shear properties of the soil. It was earlier
shown that in the velocity range of 100–400 m/s, for the conical striker
used, the difference between the maximal and quasi-stationary values is
not big.
It is to be noted that, in the studied velocity range, the experimental
results for the sand with the moisture content of 0 and 10% are prac-
tically the same, whereas they considerably differ for the sand with
Fig. 12. Maximal force resisting penetration of a cone (2η = 60°) into dry and
water-saturated sand as a function of impact velocity V0: the experiment and
the numerical computations.
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International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208
20% moisture content.
5. Conclusion
The paper presents a complex experimental and theoretical ap-
proach that includes basic experiments for obtaining mechanical
properties of soft soil environments over a wide range of load ampli-
tudes (a modified Hopkinson–Kolsky technique with sample of media
enclosed in a jacket and a technique of plane-wave shock experiments),
identification of parameters of the soil environment behavior model, as
well as a test experiment in the natural and numerical implementations
for model verification by comparing the results of computational and
full-scale experiments. Experiments on the high-speed indentation into
the sand of impactors with different head shape, implemented in direct
and inverse formulations are used for verification.
• Maximal and quasi-stationary values of the penetration resisting
force as a function of impact velocity for compacted dry and water-
saturated sandy soils are given, as obtained in inverse experiments.
• Based on the computational-experimental analysis of maximal va-
lues of the penetration resisting force as a function of impact velo-
city, impact compressibility of the soil was evaluated; quasi-sta-
tionary values of the resistance force were used for determining
resistance to shear in the frame of the model of the compressible
elastoplastic medium.
• It is shown that shear properties of compacted water-saturated soils
must be taken into account in numerical computations of the pro-
cesses of penetration of conical- and hemispherical-headed strikers
into soils.
• The model of local interaction on the basis of the analytical solution
of the problem of expanding a spherical cavity under the assumption
of incompressibility of the soil behind the front of the shock wave,
taking into account the boundedness of the dependence of the yield
stress on pressure, describes satisfactorily the resistance forces to the
indentation of cylindrical strikers into compacted dry and water-
saturated sandy soil.
Thus, the shear properties of practically fully water-saturated sand
degrade, but remain substantial enough to be taken into account in
analyzing applied problems. The results obtained will be useful in
computing loads acting upon the head-parts of deformable solids pe-
netrating into water-containing soils. Joint experimental and calculated
studies make it possible to significantly increase the reliability of the
results obtained which opens up wide possibilities for a comprehensive
study of nonlinear effects and regularities of dynamic deformation of
soft soil media.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a grant from the Government of the
Russian Federation (contract No. 14.Y26.31.0031).
Appendix A
(a) Spherical cavity expansion problem in compressible medium
The formulation of a one-dimensional problem of expansion of a
spherical cavity from a point in an infinite medium corresponds to [55].
The cavity itself, the plastic and elastic zones, as well as an unperturbed
space are discerned; the boundaries of these zones displace with velo-
cities u, с and ce, respectively.
The motion of the soil medium in the plastic flow region is described
with equations of continuity and alteration of momentum, which follow
from general equations of continuum mechanics and have, in Eulerian
variables, the following form (spherical symmetry)
А.М. Bragov et al. International Journal of Impact Engineering 122 (2018) 197–208

ur , r + 2ur / r = −(dσrr / dt )/(K (1 − θ)), σrr , r + 2(σrr − σθθ )/r = −ρ0 (dur /dt )/(1 − θ) (A1)

σrr = f1 (θ) + 2f2 (θ)/3, σrr − σθθ = f2 (θ) (A2)

where σθθ and σrr are circumferential and radial components of Cauchy stress tensor (σrr is assumed positive in compression),
K ≡ K (θ) = ∂σrr / ∂θ = ∂f1 (θ)/∂θ+2(∂f2 (θ)/∂θ)/3, θ = 1 − ρ0 / ρ is volumetric strain, and functions f1 and f2 are described with formulas (6), (7).
Along the boundary of an expanding cavity of radius R0, velocity u is assigned, the external surface of the spherical layer R∞ being free of stresses:
ur r = R0 = u 0 , σrr r = R∞ = 0, R 0 t=0 =0

Consider an approximate solution of the problem in the assumption of incompressibility of the medium behind the shock wave front. This
assumption means that, for each cavity expansion velocity u0, density retains a constant value equal to ρSW, where ρSW is density along the shock
wave (SW). The incompressibility condition in solving the problem of an expanding cavity was already used in earlier works [48], but the value of
density was assumed equal to a constant, maximal for the given type of soil value, independent of the cavity expansion velocity. In contrast with the
solutions obtained in these works, the present authors introduce the assumption of incompressibility of the medium behind the SW, so that constant
ρSW must be determined for each value of cavity expansion velocity u0.
With this assumption, the following dimensionless variables are introduced:
∼ ͠ = f (θ)/(ρ c 2), ξ = r /(ct ), ɛ 0 = u 0 /c.
U = ur / c, S = σrr /(ρSW c 2), K = K /(ρSW c 2), f1,2 1,2 SW

Substituting the dimensionless variables into equation set (A1) yields a system of ordinary differential equations relative to unknown di-
mensionless velocity U and stress S:
U ′ + 2U / ξ = 0, S′ + 2f2͠ / ξ = (ξ − U ) U ′ (A3)
where f2͠ is function of dimensionless stress S, the stroke designating differentiation for ξ, ξ ∈ [ɛ0, 1].
It is also assumed that compressibility of a soil medium is characterized by shock adiabat (2), (6). Making use of (2), the boundary conditions will
be rewritten as:
U ξ = ɛ0 = ɛ 0, U ξ = 1 = (1 − A/ c )/ B, S ξ = 1 = U − U 2 (A4)
System of ordinary differential equations (A3) is divided into two independent equations. The solution of the first equation, with the account of
the first boundary condition in (A4) will be U = ɛ30/ ξ 2 .
From the last condition in (A4) for ξ = 1, a cubic equation is obtained for determining propagation velocity of plastic SW c as a function of cavity
expansion velocity u0
(u 0 / c )3 = (1 − A/ c )/ B,
Or, for c ≫ A
3
c≈ B u 0 + A/3 (A5)
A solution of the second equation in (A3) for linear function f2 ≡ μσrr can be found in a closed finite form. In this case, stress σ along the boundary
of the cavity expanding at velocity u0 will be
σ = ρ0 u02 C1/(1 − ɛ30) (A6)
3 2μ + 1 1 − 2μ μ − 1 4 − 2μ
C1 = + ·ɛ 0 − ·ɛ 0
(μ − 2)(2μ − 1) 2μ − 1 μ−2

where μ > 0, μ ≠ 0.5 and σ = ρ0 u02 (1/3 − 2 ln ɛ 0 − ɛ30/3)/(1 − ɛ30)

μ = 0.5. if

⎧ μσrr , σrr ≤ σl
A solution of the second equation in (A3) for function f2 ≡ can be found too
⎨ σ , σrr > σl
⎩ M
2 3
⎧ ρ0 u0 C1/(1 − ɛ 0) u 0 ≤ u1
⎪
σ = σL + 2σM InξL/ɛ 0 + ρ0 u02 C2/(1 − ɛ30) u1 < u 0 < u2
⎨
⎪−2σM Inɛ 0 + ρ0 u02 (3/2 − ɛ 0 − ɛ 04/2)/(1 − ɛ30) u 0 ≥ u2
⎩ (A7)
In Eq. (A7) u1 = u 0 where u0 is a solution of equation σ (ξ = ɛ 0) = σL or ρ0 u02 C1/(1 − ɛ30)= σL , u2 = u 0 where u0 is a solution of equation
σ (ξ = 1) = σL or ρ0 u02 (ɛ 0 − ɛ30)/(1 − ɛ30) = σL , ξL = ξ , where ξ is a solution of equation σ (ξ = ξL) = σL or
σL (1 − ɛ30) 4
( 2μ + 1 −2μ
2μ − 1
ξ −
2
(2μ − 1) ξ )ɛ − (
3
0
μ − 1 −2μ
μ−2
ξ −
1
(μ − 2) ξ 4 )ɛ 6
0 =
ρ0 c 2
⎝
ɛ
− 04 ⎞. (
, coefficient C2 is C2 = 2 1 −
ξL ⎠
ɛ0
ξL )− 1
2
⎛1
Parameters μ and tangent of the friction angle k in Eqs. (A6) and (A7) are related as μ = k /(1 + 2k /3) .

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