Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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Characteristics and health effects of volatile organic compound emissions T

during paper and cardboard recycling
Ramin Nabizadeha,b, Armin Sorooshianc,d, Mahdieh Delikhoone, Abbas Norouzian Baghania,*,
Somayeh Golbaza, Mina Aghaeia, Abdullah Barkhordarif
a
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
b
Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
c
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
d
Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
e
Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
f
Department of Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Urbanization generates increased amounts of solid wastes in cities and as a consequence leads to high air pol-
Paper and cardboard recycling lution levels. As a result of these trends, the subject of air quality management for sustainable concept of cities
Pollution characteristics has received increasing attention. This work characterized volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and
VOCs health effects at different processing stages in a recycling facility for waste paper and cardboard. The highest
Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic
total VOC levels were observed in the conveyor belt line one (5.23 ± 0.33 mg/m3), followed by a baling ma-
Exposure indices
Sustainable
chine (1.38 ± 0.07 mg/m3), conveyor belt line two (1.34 ± 0.08 mg/m3), tipping floor line one
(1.22 ± 0.07 mg/m3), and manual separation line one (1.20 ± 0.06 mg/m3). Hence, exposure to VOCs lead to
high health risks in this PCSWRF, especially at the manual separation stage (HQ = 2.7–3 and lifetime cancer
risks (LTCRs) = 1.11 × 10−4 - 1.03 × 10−4), and strategies such as adjustment of the factory to enclose the
conveyors, designing proper ventilation and air conditioning systems, minimization of VOC-contaminated waste
generation (pre-treatment), and using personal protective equipment should be considered to eliminate pollu-
tants and to protect workers from the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects.

1. Introduction
Improper management of municipal solid waste (MSW) in the most
cities of developing countries has become a global problem (Ahmed & Ali,
2004; Shao, Weng, Liou, Lo, & Jiang, 2019). In addition, the im-
plementation of suitable municipal solid waste management (MSWM)
plays a significant role in the sustainable development of cities (Durán &
Messina, 2019; Mesjasz-Lech, 2014). Furthermore, rapid urbanization and
industrialization generates increased amounts of various solid wastes such
as municipal and industrial solid waste (MSW and ISW) in urban areas
creating thousands of tons of solid waste a day (Des, 2013; Norouzian
Baghani et al., 2016; Norouzian Baghani, Dehghani, Farzadkia, Delikhoon,
& Emamjomeh, 2017; Putthakasem, Limphitakphong, & Chavalparit,
2018; Ramachandra, Bharath, Kulkarni, & Han, 2018). Chemical char-
acteristics of these wastes and emissions include hazardous air pollutants
that need significant resources and infrastructure for minimization of
emissions and mitigation of health effects (Durán & Messina, 2019).
Hence, one of the main factors for attaining the sustainability of cities is
rooted in environmental management in the form of waste and recycling
management and air quality conservation (Des, 2013; Heidari,
Yazdanparast, & Jabbarzadeh, 2019; Rada, 2014). Managing air quality is
central to the sustainability of all cities (Maitra, 1998; Rada, 2014; WHO,
2019). On a global perspective, not paying attention to this issue promotes
major socioeconomic, health, and climate-relevant issues in cities around
the world (Rada, 2014; WHO, 2019).
A major constituent emitted from such wastes and their processing
is volatile organic compounds (VOCs), stemming from sites such as the
landfill or processing such as recycling (An et al., 2014; Ghosh et al.,
2019; He et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017; Nie, Zheng, Shao, Yang, & Chen,
2018; Norouzian Baghani et al., 2016; Palmiotto et al., 2014; Sánchez-
Monedero, Fernández-Hernández, Higashikawa, & Cayuela, 2018;
Urase, Okumura, Panyosaranya, & Inamura, 2008). Recycled waste
includes paper and cardboard, organic wastes, and plastics, which are
the main sources of VOCs in MSW facilities (He et al., 2015; He, Tang

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
E-mail address: abbas.jj.norozi@gmail.com (A.N. Baghani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.102005
Received 2 June 2019; Received in revised form 30 November 2019; Accepted 8 December 2019
Available online 05 February 2020
2210-6707/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
et al., 2012; Jackson, 2015; Komilis, Ham, & Park, 2004). Komilis et al.
(2004) and Jackson (2015) reported that mixed paper with food waste
and fresh waste were the main sources of VOCs in landfill and recycled
centers, in addition to composting facilities (Jackson, 2015; Komilis
et al., 2004). Furthermore, Duan, Lu, Li, and Wang (2014) and Mustafa
et al. (2017) reported that the main sources of toluene in solid waste
can be papers and cardboard, plastics, and food waste (Duan et al.,
2014; Mustafa et al., 2017). Air pollution, especially VOCs, generated
from MSW, ISW and waste sorting processing can pose health risks to
factory workers and nearby dwellers (An et al., 2014; Dehghani,
Sorooshian, Nazmara, Baghani, & Delikhoon, 2018; Gladding &
Coggins, 1997; Gladding & Gwyther, 2017; He et al., 2015; Li et al.,
2013; Villavert, Nadal, Figueras, & Domingo, 2009). Health effects as-
sociated with exposure to VOCs can be categorized as carcinogenic and
non-carcinogenic (Baghani, Rostami, Arfaeinia, Hazrati, Fazlzadeh,
Delikhoon et al., 2018; Dehghani, Fazlzadeh, Fazlzadeh et al., 2018;
Delikhoon et al., 2018a; Golkhorshidi et al., 2019). In other words,
exposure to VOCs emitted from solid waste can lead to diseases such as
hypochromic anemia, headaches, loss of coordination and nausea, re-
spiratory issues, central nervous system problems, allergic skin reac-
tions, emesis, epistaxis, narcosis, fatigue, asthma, dizziness, defatting
dermatitis, bronchitis, and cancers of the brain, blood, kidney, and
lungs (Baghani, Rostami, Arfaeinia, Hazrati, Fazlzadeh, Delikhoon
et al., 2018; Domingo & Nadal, 2009; Golkhorshidi et al., 2019; Hu, Liu,
Zhang, Xue, & Wang, 2018; Marzouni et al., 2017; Phillips et al., 1999;
Romagnoli, Barboni, Santoni, & Chiaramonti, 2014; Rumchev, Spickett,
Bulsara, Phillips, & Stick, 2004; U.S.EPA, 2018). For instance, benzene
negatively impacts the blood-forming system and contributes to leu-
kemia and hematological disorders and lymphoma cancer (Moolla,
Curtis, & Knight, 2015; Smith, 2010), while toluene impacts the re-
productive and neurobehavioral health (Foo, Jeyaratnam, & Koh, 1990;
Greenberg, 1997; Tunsaringkarn et al., 2012). Generally, the con-
centration profile of VOCs is a helpful indicator of the potential for
harmful effects due to exposure to solid waste emissions (Dehghani,
Fazlzadeh et al., 2018; He, Tang et al., 2012; He et al., 2015; He, Li
et al., 2012). These issues motivate a health risk assessment (HRA) on
the workers exposed to VOCs in waste processing facilities. Character-
ization of VOCs and a HRA of VOCs on the workers in a paper and
cardboard solid waste recycling factory (PCSWRF) has yet to be per-
formed. Hence, controlling air pollution created by MSW, especially at
PCSWRFs, is as important factor for the sustainability of cities and this
activity can indirectly impact public health and socioeconomic aspects
related to the sustainability of cities (Heidari et al., 2019; Zhu, Hao, Lu,
Wu, & Ran, 2019).
The goal of this work is to 1) study the concentration of VOCs
species in different areas of a PCSWRF, 2) identify VOC species and the
percentage of VOC species in different areas of a PCSWRF, 3) determine
interrelationships between VOCs species and meteorological condi-
tions, 4) investigate occupational exposure limits (OLE) for workers in
different areas of a PCSWRF, and 5) estimate health risk assessment of
workers (carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic) exposure to VOCs in dif-
ferent areas of a PCSWRF.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Descriptions of study area
This work was carried out in a paper and cardboard solid waste
recycling factory (PCSWRF) located in Tehran, Iran (35°32′42″N,
51°23′35″E) (Fig. 1). This factory has two lines of separation processes
for paper and cardboard, including a tipping floor (line one and two),
conveyor belt (line one and two), hand picking/manual separation (line
one and two), and finally a baling machine (Fig. 2). Sampling locations
were positioned at the tipping floor (line one and two), conveyor belt
(line one and two), manual separation area (line one and two), baling
machine, storage area, office area, and a background area (Fig. 2).
2
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
2.2. Sampling and analysis
Sampling of VOCs species was carried out based on the U.S.EPA
TO-15 method (Durmusoglu, Taspinar, & Karademir, 2010; He et al.,
2015; He, Tang et al., 2012; Mcclenny & Holdren, 1999). According to
the EPA sampling guideline (EPA, 2006), sampling was carried out
every six days from 22 December 2017 to 20 February 2018 using
active sampling (SKC 222 Series Low Flow Pump) with a charcoal
glass tube at a flow rate of 0.2 L/min for two hours. For the 10 sam-
pling sites (Fig. S1), a total of 100 VOC samples were collected be-
tween December and February. During sampling, the sampler was
located at breathing zone of the workers (at a height of 1.5 m above
the ground) (Baghani, Rostami, Arfaeinia, Hazrati, Fazlzadeh,
Delikhoon, Safety et al., 2018).
Seventeen VOCs were examined using gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry (GC–MS) (GC 7890 N, AGILENT- MS 5975C, MODE
EI.MS), including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m,p xylene, o-xy-
lene, decane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl benzene, 1,2,3-trimethyl benzene, 1,3,5-
trimethyl benzene, 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene, 1,2-diethyl benzene, 1-
ethyl-2-methyl benzene, limonene, 1,4 diethyl benzene, butyl benzene,
2-methyl nonane, and nonane. An HP- 5MS column (60 m ×0.32 mm
×0.25 μm, Agilent Technologies, USA) was used. Helium was the car-
rier gas at 1.2 mL per min. The temperature of the GC–MS oven at first
was programed to be at 35 °C for five minutes, and then increased to
150 °C at a rate of 5 °C per minute. Finally, the oven temperature
reached 250 °C at a rate of 15 °C per minute and held for two minutes.
The MS line delivery line temperature, scan mode and ionizing energy
were 290 °C, 45–260 (m/e) and 70 eV, respectively. In addition, tem-
perature (°C) and relative humidity (%) were quantified with a portable
instrument (Preservation Equipment Ltd, UK and Campbell Scientific,
Inc., USA).
2.3. Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC)
In this work, two parts of tubes were analyzed individually for the
potential of breakthrough for samples. There were no signs of VOC
contamination in the second sections of tube. Six samples were gath-
ered as blank samples and concentrations of VOC species in these tubes
were limited to between 0.00 - 0.0032 (μg/m3). A mean recovery of 97
% (92–110 %) was acquired for VOC species with standard deviations
(SDs) less than 5.00 %.
2.4. Statistical analysis
Analysis was performed by the statistical program R (version 3.0.1
(2013-05-16)) (Team, 2013). The Fligner-Killeen test was applied to
assess for homogeneity of variance. If the p-value obtained from the
Fligner-Killeen test exceeded 0.05, the ANOVA test was performed for
further analysis. But, if the p-value was less than 0.05, the Kruskal-
Wallis test was applied for further analysis. Furthermore, if the Krus-
kal–Wallis test was significant, the Kruskal-Wallis post-hoc test (Kruskal
Mac) was carried out to show that levels of the independent variable
vary from other levels. For comparison, VOC concentrations between
the two lines of the tipping floor and conveyor belt in the PCSWRF were
assessed using the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test, while a paired t-test
was used for comparison of VOC concentraions between the two lines of
manual separation. The relationship between VOC concentrations and
meteorological conditions (i.e., temperature, relative humidity) were
quantified using Spearman's rho correlation coefficient. In addition,
occupational exposure indices (Ei) were determined for workers for
emitted VOCs in the PCSWRF. In the end, HRA was calculated for es-
timating the hazard quotient (HQ) and the lifetime cancer risk (LTCR)
for VOC species. Figures were drawn using GraphPad Prism 7 and R
Statistical Software version 3.0.1.
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
Fig. 1. Map of the study area and air monitoring stations.
2.5. Occupational exposure limits (OEL) and health risk assessment (HRA)
for workers
2.5.1. Occupational exposure limits (OEL)
According to American Conference of Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
and International Organization for Standardization (ISO), OELs were
determined for humans for some harmful VOC species (Acgih, 2001; He
et al., 2015; Romagnoli et al., 2014). The ACGIH determined threshold
limit values (TLV) based on the short-term exposure limit (STEL) and
time weighted average (TWA). The Threshold Limit Value-Time-
Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) indicates whether an employee's exposure
may not surpass the time-weighted average in an eight hour workday or
forty hour work week (Verma, 2000; Zhang et al., 2018). According to
the measured VOCs in this work and TLV-TWA in Table S1, the occu-
pational exposure indices (Ei) for emitted VOCs are determined as fol-
lows (He et al., 2015; He, Tang et al., 2012; Mo et al., 2009):
n mg
Ei = Concentrations of VOCs / Threshold limit value time
i m3
mg
weighted average (TLV TWA) ( 3 )
m (1)
In this study, Ei > 1 indicates that the potential health risk can be
important for the workers in the PCSWRF (He et al., 2015; He, Li et al.,
2012; Mo et al., 2009). According to Mo et al. (2009), it is necessary
3
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
that Ei not exceed the value 1 (Mo et al., 2009). Hence, Ei < 1 de-
monstrates that the potential health risk cannot be important for the
workers in the PCSWRF (Mo et al., 2009).
2.5.2. Health risk assessment (HRA)
With regard to the recycling of paper and cardboard performed by
workers, it is essential to evaluate the carcinogenic and non-carcino-
genic health effects of VOCs. In this work, the hazard quotient (HQ)
parameter was used for calculating non-carcinogenic health effects of
VOCs, which is expressed as the ratio of chronic daily intake (CDI) (mg/
kg-day) and the reference dose (RfD) (mg/kg-day) (Table S1) (Baghani,
Rostami, Arfaeinia, Hazrati, Fazlzadeh, Delikhoon, Safety et al., 2018;
Cao et al., 2018; Delikhoon et al., 2018b; Jiang, Duan, Yu, Zhang, &
Wang, 2018; Shuai et al., 2018; Zhu & Liu, 2014):
HQ = CDI/ RfD (2)
Hazard quotients exceeding one (1 ≤ HQ) indicate unsafe risk
(harmful health effects) (Durmusoglu et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2018).
In addition, McCarthy, O’Brien, Charrier, and Hafner (2009); He et al.
(2015) and Ramírez, Cuadras, Rovira, Borrull, and Marcé (2012) re-
ported that HQ values from 0.1 to 1 still exposes workers to risks (He
et al., 2015; McCarthy et al., 2009; Ramírez et al., 2012).
Furthermore, the lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) was applied to esti-
mate carcinogenic health effects of VOCs, which is specified as the
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
Fig. 2. A map of operational units (processes units) in the PCSWRF.
product of chronic daily intake (CDI (mg/kg-day) and cancer slope
factor (CSF (mg/kg-day)−1) (Table S1) using the following equation
(Baghani, Rostami, Arfaeinia, Hazrati, Fazlzadeh, Delikhoon et al.,
2018; Golkhorshidi et al., 2019; Li et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2018):
(Table S1)
LTCR = CDI (mg/kg-day) × CSF (mg/kg-day)−1) (3)
CDI = (C (pollutant concentrations (μg/m3)) × ET (exposure time
(40 h/week or 8 h/days) × EF (exposure frequency (48 weeks/year or
240 days/year)× ED (exposure duration (30 year)) × IR (human in-
halation rate (0.83 m3/h / BW body weight 70 kg × AT the average
lifetime 365 × 30 10,950 days (4)
Based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U. S.
EPA), the IR and BW values for adults are 0.83 m3/h and 70 kg, re-
spectively (EPA, 2011; Moya et al., 2011). According to Sexton, Linder,
Marko, Bethel, and Lupo (2007), Durmusoglu et al. (2010) and Li et al.
(2013), if the lifetime cancer risk (LTCRs) exceeds 1 × 10−4, ranges
from 1 × 10−5 to 1 × 10−4, is between 1 × 10−5 and 1 × 10−6, or is
less than 1 × 10−6, it indicates as definite, probable, possible, and
negligible risk, respectively (Durmusoglu et al., 2010; Li et al., 2013;
Sexton et al., 2007). For calculating health risks of VOC species, the
equations above were applied separately to compute risks of species
and finally the risks for all of them combined together. The product of
the above equations gave an indication of the total health risk.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. VOCs emissions
In this work, all of locations that included operational units (tipping
floor line one and two, baling machine, hand picking line one and two,
and inclined conveyor belt line one and two), storage, and offices emitted
VOCs to the air. The mean concentrations ± (SD) of VOCs emitted from
operational units, storage areas, office areas, and the outdoor area
(background) are described in Table 1. The mean concentrations ± (SD)
of TVOCs emitted from PCSWRF were in the following order: conveyor
belt line one (5.23 ± 0.33 mg/m3) > baling machine (1.38 ± 0.07) >
4
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
conveyor belt line two (1.34 ± 0.08) > tipping floor line one
(1.22 ± 0.07) > manual separation line one (1.20 ± 0.06) > manual
separation line two (1.06 ± 0.05) > tipping floor line two (0.54 ±
0.02) > office (0.69 ± 0.04) > background (0.43 ± 0.02) > storage
(0.09 ± 0.01). Among the steps of operational units, inclined conveyor
belt one (5.23 ± 1.20 mg/m3) had the most emissions of TVOCs. During
the PCSW recycling processes, 17 VOCs were identified and quantified in
operational units (Fig. 2). The mean ( ± SD) concentration of TVOCs
(mg/m3) in different operational units is shown in Fig. 3. Accordingly,
the maximum concentrations of m,p-xylene (1.2 ± 0.11), 1,2,4-tri-
methyl benzene (0.82 ± 0.05) and 1-ethyl-3-methyl benzene
(0.69 ± 0.05) were measured in the conveyor belt line one. In contrast,
He et al. (2015) reported that the predominant concentrations of VOCs
isolated from the air of in the poly (acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene)
(ABS) recycling process in Southern China were styrene
(6.3 ± 2.1 × 102 mg/m3), ethylbenzene (1.5 ± 0.5 × 102 mg/m−3),
xylene (54 ± 22 mg/m3), toluene (31 ± 14 mg/m3) and i-pro-
pylbenzene (28 ± 9 mg/m3) (He et al., 2015). In addition, Urase et al.
(2008) observed that the main VOCs emitted from the landfill gas into
the ambient air were benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX),
trimethyl benzenes and low levels of chlorinated compounds (Urase
et al., 2008). Wu et al. (2018) reported that the major VOCs species at
MSW landfills in Beijing, China were BTEX, styrene, propylbenzene,
naphthalene, and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene (Wu et al., 2018). Scaglia et al.
(2011) reported that the main emitted VOCs from MSW in the North Italy
were p-xylene, o-xylene, styrene, benzene, 1 ethyl 4 methyl benzene, 1
methyl 2 (1 methylethyl) benzene, 1 ethyl 4(1 methylethyl) benzene, 1
methyl 3(1 methylethyl) benzene, 2 ethyl 1,3 dimethyl benzene, 1,2,3
trimethyl benzene, and 1 methoxy 4 methyl 2(1methylethyl) benzene
(Scaglia et al., 2011). Hence, the main reasons for difference in emitted
VOCs from various studies could be explained by differences in sampling
sites (landfill/disposal, composting, during waste collection, and in-
dustrial process), composition of waste (only paper and cardboard or
mixed municipal solid waste (MMSW) and thermal degradation of dif-
ferent types of plastic wastes (He et al., 2015; Pagans, Font, & Sánchez,
2006; Scaglia et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2018; Urase et al., 2008). In ad-
dition, the findings of this work revealed that VOC concentrations in the
operational units in the PCSWR ranged between 1.10 ± 0.23 and
 R. Nabizadeh, et al.

Table 1
The mean ± standard deviation (SD) of VOCs (mg/m3) in different sampling locations in the PCSWRF.
pollutant Tipping floor line Tipping floor line Conveyor belt line Conveyor belt line Manual separation line Manual separation line Baling machine Storage Office Background
one two one two one two

Benzene 0.030 ± 0.004 0.027 ± 0.003 0.065 ± 0.009 0.047 ± 0.004 0.059 ± 0.004 0.070 ± 0.008 0.017 ± 0.001 0.007 ± 0.001 0.076 ± 0.005 0.010 ± 0.001
Toluene 0.069 ± 0.005 0.075 ± 0.008 0.095 ± 0.007 0.073 ± 0.008 0.078 ± 0.010 0.071 ± 0.006 0.106 ± 0.010 0.065 ± 0.005 0.106 ± 0.010 0.061 ± 0.005
Ethylbenzene 0.030 ± 0.003 0.008 ± 0.001 ND 0.031 ± 0.002 0.066 ± 0.006 0.037 ± 0.003 0.021 ± 0.002 0.011 ± 0.001 0.040 ± 0.005 0.003 ± 0.000
M,P-xylene 0.208 ± 0.018 0.078 ± 0.006 1.195 ± 0.118 0.276 ± 0.023 0.200 ± 0.014 0.109 ± 0.011 0.267 ± 0.030 0.012 ± 0.002 0.171 ± 0.014 0.082 ± 0.010
O-xylene 0.095 ± 0.011 0.033 ± 0.003 0.557 ± 0.047 0.116 ± 0.014 0.096 ± 0.011 0.056 ± 0.005 0.124 ± 0.016 0.011 ± 0.001 0.048 ± 0.005 0.027 ± 0.003
Decane 0.031 ± 0.003 0.014 ± 0.002 0.184 ± 0.023 0.030 ± 0.002 0.036 ± 0.004 0.025 ± 0.003 0.054 ± 0.007 0.011 ± 0.001 0.015 ± 0.001 0.016 ± 0.001
1-ethyl-3-methyl 0.152 ± 0.021 0.013 ± 0.002 0.687 ± 0.049 0.145 ± 0.020 0.151 ± 0.011 0.135 ± 0.012 0.036 ± 0.005 0.005 ± 0.001 0.079 ± 0.008 0.010 ± 0.001
benzene
1,2,3-trimethyl 0.034 ± 0.004 0.041 ± 0.005 0.187 ± 0.018 0.027 ± 0.002 0.032 ± 0.004 0.028 ± 0.003 0.153 ± 0.017 0.011 ± 0.001 0.015 ± 0.001 0.035 ± 0.005

5
benzene
1,3,5-trimethyl 0.045 ± 0.004 0.013 ± 0.001 0.286 ± 0.023 0.035 ± 0.004 0.044 ± 0.006 0.055 ± 0.004 0.025 ± 0.002 0.011 ± 0.002 0.021 ± 0.002 0.011 ± 0.002
benzene
1,2,4-trimethyl 0.168 ± 0.017 0.067 ± 0.009 0.821 ± 0.094 0.161 ± 0.018 0.139 ± 0.010 0.113 ± 0.011 0.028 ± 0.002 0.012 ± 0.001 0.071 ± 0.008 0.013 ± 0.001
benzene
1,2-diethyl benzene ND 0.011 ± 0.001 0.081 ± 0.007 0.065 ± 0.007 0.014 ± 0.001 0.013 ± 0.001 ND ND ND 0.034 ± 0.003
1-ethyl-2-methyl 0.018 ± 0.002 0.010 ± 0.001 0.201 ± 0.023 ND 0.038 ± 0.005 0.036 ± 0.003 0.136 ± 0.013 0.013 ± 0.002 0.015 ± 0.001 0.008 ± 0.001
benzene
Limonene 0.265 ± 0.019 0.081 ± 0.010 0.485 ± 0.034 0.264 ± 0.026 0.170 ± 0.012 0.215 ± 0.021 0.212 ± 0.027 0.012 ± 0.001 0.012 ± 0.001 0.064 ± 0.005
1,4-diethyl benzene 0.034 ± 0.004 0.041 ± 0.004 0.187 ± 0.021 0.027 ± 0.002 0.032 ± 0.004 0.038 ± 0.004 0.153 ± 0.017 0.014 ± 0.003 0.015 ± 0.001 0.035 ± 0.004
Butyl benzene 0.031 ± 0.003 0.014 ± 0.002 0.184 ± 0.014 0.030 ± 0.003 0.036 ± 0.005 0.051 ± 0.006 0.054 ± 0.005 ND 0.015 ± 0.001 0.016 ± 0.002
2-methyl nonane 0.011 ± 0.001 0.005 ± 0.002 0.013 ± 0.001 0.013 ± 0.001 0.005 ± 0.002 0.009 ± 0.001 ND ND ND 0.008 ± 0.003
Nonane ND 0.008 ± 0.003 0.007 ± 0.001 0.006 ± 0.002 0.005 ± 0.003 0.006 ± 0.001 ND ND ND 0.003 ± 0.002
TVOCs 1.220 ± 0.079 0.541 ± 0.027 5.234 ± 0.335 1.346 ± 0.086 1.202 ± 0.060 1.066 ± 0.054 1.386 ± 0.078 0.097 ± 0.018 0.696 ± 0.047 0.430 ± 0.024

ND - Not Detectable.
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
Fig. 3. The mean ( ± SD) concentration of TVOCs (mg/m3) in all operational
units.
5.30 ± 1.20 mg/m3, which is consistent with the results of the previous
studies by Lehtinen, Tolvanen, Nivukoski, Veijanen, and Hänninen
(2013) in the optic sorting plant in Hämeenlinna and the waste trans-
ferring plant in Hyvinkää in Finland (Lehtinen et al., 2013).
The main VOCs emitted from the processing hall in the optic sorting
plant in Hämeenlinna were ethylbenzene, p-xylene, p-cymene, propyl
benzene, C3-alkyl benzene, and limonene, each of which ranged be-
tween 0.04–1.20 mg/m3. The same study showed that the concentra-
tions of limonene (1.20 mg/m3) exceeded other components (Lehtinen
et al., 2013), which is in agreement with the findings of the present
study. Another study examining urban waste wheel containers for VOCs
in Athens, Greece showed that the most abundant VOCs included de-
cane, limonen, nonane, and benzene with median concentrations ran-
ging from 212.6 to 694.9 μg/m3 (Statheropoulos, Agapiou, & Pallis,
2005). Some VOCs such as styrene, toluene, ethylbenzenes, m,p-xylene,
and o-xylene have been emitted from plain paper, especially in the
presence of toner, in aged/old books (109 VOCs identified) and pro-
cessed paper from photocopying machines (Betha, Selvam, Blake, &
Balasubramanian, 2011; Gaspar, Santana, Lopes, & Diniz, 2010; Knight
& Horie, 2007; Henschel, Fortmann, Roache, & Liu, 2001; Horie, 2020;
Kumar et al., 2014; Pagans et al., 2006; Wolkoff, Wilkins, Clausen, &
Larsen, 1993). Furthermore, paper and cardboard production im-
pregnated with oil and grease was another source of VOCs (Banou et al.,
2016; Pagans et al., 2006; Propst, 2010). Generally, several parameters
could lead to emissions of VOCs into the air of operational units in this
PCSWRF including biodegradation of organic solid wastes, proper
moisture content and temperatures higher than 30 °C in the waste,
polystyrene plastic waste, an old ink or toner cartridge, processed paper
from photocopying machines, paper and cardboard production im-
pregnated with petroleum products, and in old books. The mean con-
centrations of TVOCs in the indoor microenvironment of the PCSWRF
was about 5–19 times higher than indoor microenvironments (re-
sidential and workplace) in EXPOLIS-Helsinki, Finland (Edwards,
Jurvelin, Saarela, & Jantunen, 2001), and the mean TVOC concentra-
tions in the indoor microenvironment in office of PCSWRF was 19 times
lower than in the largest office building in Jahra City since Jahra's large
office is located near of oil fields (Al-Khulaifi, Al-Mudhaf, Alenezi, Abu-
Shady, & Selim, 2014). In addition, the mean emitted TVOCs in the
operational units in PCSWRF were 2.5–150 times lower than the mean
TVOCs concentrations in the melting extrusion process of various
plastic solid waste recycling workshops (He et al., 2015).
6
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
3.2. Frequency of occurrence of VOCs species
The percentage of measured VOCs during operational units in
PCSWRF were in the following order: conveyor belt line one (43.64
%) > baling machine (11.55 %) > conveyor belt line two (11.22
%) > tipping floor line one (10.17 %) > hand picking line one (10.01
%) > hand picking line two (8.88 %) > tipping floor line two (4.50 %).
As mentioned above, the line one was polluted than line two. In addi-
tion, the percentage of emitted VOCs in storage, office and background
compared with operational units were 0.39, 0.77 and 0.12 %. Reasons
for conveyor belt line one being highest in concentration in this work
could be linked to proper moisture content and higher temperature as
compared to different units, and severe mechanical stirring of solid
waste by front-end loaders for easier separation of paper and cardboard
as compared to manual separation (Chiriac, Carre, Perrodin, Fine, &
Letoffe, 2007; He, Tang, Zhang, Zeng, & Shao, 2010; Laitinen et al.,
2016).
The percentage of detected VOCs based on frequency in different
sampling sites were simplified in Fig. S2. As shown in Fig. S2 b and c,
the four main species of VOC identified in the indoor air of tipping floor
(line one vs. line two) were m,p-xylene (21.76 vs. 15.05 %), limonene
(17.05 vs. 14.51 %), 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene (13.80 vs. 12.32 %), and
toluene (5.65 vs. 13.91 %). In addition, according to Figs. S2 d and e,
the five dominant species of VOCs in conveyor belt line one were m,p-
xylene (22.84 %), 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene (15.68 %), 1-ethyl-2-methyl
benzene (13.31 %), o-xylene (10.63 %), and limonene (9.26 %), while
in conveyor belt line two the prcentage of these species were 20.52 %
for m,p-xylene, 11.95 % for 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene, 10.74 % for 1-
ethyl-2-methyl benzene, 8.56 % for o-xylene, and 19.61 % for limo-
nene. Moreover, Figs. S2 f and g revealed the following differences
between line one and line two: m,p-xylene (16.64 vs. 10.20 %), limo-
nene (14.17 vs. 20.15 %), 1-ethyl-2-methyl benzene (12.55 vs. 12.69
%), and 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene (11.57 vs. 10.59 %).
In addition, the results of this work showed that the major pollu-
tants measured in the air of the baling machine were m,p-xylene (19.24
%), limonene (15.30 %), 1,2,3-trimethyl benzene (11.01 %), and 1-
ethyl-2-methyl benzene (9.83 %) (Fig. S2 h) and the chief reason why
the concentrations of VOCs were lower than other operational units
could be described by the recycled materials (paper and cardboard)
were packaged. The main measured VOCs species in storage were to-
luene (66.87 %), limonene (12.83 %), benzene (7.24 %), and 1-ethyl-2-
methyl benzene (5.53 %) (Fig. S2 i). Surprisingly, the percentage of
toluene was the first highest VOCs (66.87 %) with a mean value of
0.21 ± 0.07 mg/m3, which might be generated by devices such as a
liftruck and trucks (fresh emissions) during loading bales and waste
materials that includes VOCs (fresh waste/ mixed paper with food
wastes) (Chiriac et al., 2007; Conte et al., 2018; Dehghani, Fazlzadeh
et al., 2018; Hoque, Khillare, Agarwal, Shridhar, & Balachandran, 2008;
Jackson, 2015; Komilis et al., 2004; Nie, Zheng, Shao, Yang, & Chen,
2018; Termonia & Termonia, 1999). The major VOCs emission from the
office building included m,p-xylene (24.52 %), toluene (15.61 %),
benzene (10.88 %), and o-xylene (6.84 %), while the main VOCs
emitted in ambient background air (outdoor) were m,p-xylene (19.19
%), limonene (14.81 %), toluene (14.25 %), and 1,2,3-trimethyl ben-
zene (8.13 %) (Figs. S2 j and a). For contrast, the findings of this work
were opposite to other studies in that the main VOCs discharged into
the air of plastic solid waste recycling workshops (PSW) with pyrolysis
of plastics were BTEX and styrene (He et al., 2015; Mehta, Biederman,
& Shivkumar, 1995). In this work the main factors leading to emisions
of VOCs into the air were the materials that included VOCs (fresh waste
and mixed paper with food wastes) and some processes such as fer-
mentation of paper and cardboard (Arshadi & Gref, 2005; Gaspar et al.,
2010; He et al., 2010; Jackson, 2015; Komilis et al., 2004; Zhu, Chai, &
Dhasmana, 1998), while the main source of discharged VOCs into the
air of PSW workshops was thermal degradation of different types of
plastics at high tempreture (more than 160 °C) (He et al., 2015; Mehta
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
et al., 1995).
Generally, the main species of VOCs in the different processes of the
indoor microenvironment were m,p-xylene, limonene and 1,2,4-tri-
methyl benzene. Furthermore, the predominant VOC species in the
PCSWRF were m,p-xylene, limonene, 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene, 1-ethyl-
3-methyl benzene, and toluene. Finally, the VOC concentrations de-
creased from the tipping floor to the baling machine, and were lowest in
the storage site.
3.3. Statistical analysis of VOCs in PCSWRF
3.3.1. Interrelationships between VOCs species and meteorological
conditions
Table S2 summarizes Pearson's correlations among VOC con-
centrations based on mean concentrations and meteorological para-
meters for all sites in the PCSWRF. Accordingly, the correlation coef-
ficients (r) for VOC species in most places of the PCSWRF were higher
than 0.679. In addition, significant positive correlations were among
among VOCs species. These results showed that VOC species had si-
milar sources and the recycled materials that included VOCs (fresh
waste and mixed paper with food wastes) were the major sources of
VOCs in the PCSWRF (Jackson, 2015; Komilis et al., 2004). The max-
imum correlation coefficient (r = 0.999, p < 0.01) was obtained be-
tween 1,2,3-trimethyl benzene and 1,4-diethyl benzene.
A significant correlation was observed between VOCs species with
either relative humidity or temperature (p < 0.01) except for benzene,
toluene, ethylbenzene, and nonane. Hence, the results of this work
shows that concentrations of VOC species were not related to fresh
emissions except for storage site where liftruck and trucks (fresh
emissions) can generate VOCs species. In general, these findings are
highly indicative of the recycled materials that include VOCs species
(fresh waste and mixed paper with food wastes) as the main source of
VOCs species in the air of PCSWRF.
3.3.2. Statistical analysis of VOCs in different sampling location
Fig. S3 displays a box plot of VOC concentrations in different
sampling locations (storage, office, process and background). The
output of the Fligner-Killeen test showed that p-value for VOC con-
centrations in different sampling stations was lower than 0.05
(p < 0.05). This indicates that the difference between the variances in
different processes were significant (p < 0.05). Therefore, analysis of
variance was used to compare normally distributed variables for more
than two groups (Kruskal-Wallis test). The results of the Kruskal-Wallis
test on VOC concentrations in different sampling stations was sig-
nificant at a level of 0.05. Consequently, the results of the Kruskal-
Wallis post-hoc test (Kruskal Mac) showed that the mean concentra-
tions of VOCs between two different sampling locations of background
– storage, background - process and office – storage were significantly
different (p < 0.05).
3.3.3. Statistical analysis in different processes
The results of the Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test showed that there
was no statistically significant difference between VOC concentrations
in tipping floor line one and two (p ≤ 0.001) and conveyor belt line one
and two (p ≤ 0.001), while the results of the paired t-test showed that a
statistically significant difference was observed between concentrations
of VOCs in manual separation line one and two (p = 0.112). Hence,
VOCs concentrations of manual separation line one and two were
combined together as a defined manual separation line (Fig. 4). Box
plot of VOCs concentrations based on mg/m3 in different processes
(operational units) is shown in Fig. 4. Accordingly, the output of the
Fligner-Killeen test showed that p-value for VOCs in different processes
(tipping floor line one and two, conveyor belt line one and two, manual
separation line, and baling machine) was lower than 0.05 (p < 0.05).
This indicates that the difference between the variances in different
processes were significant (p < 0.05). Therefore, analysis of variance
7
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
was used to compare normally distributed variables for more than two
groups (Kruskal-Wallis test). Hence, the results of Kruskal-Wallis test on
VOCs concentrations in different processes described that the chi-
square test statistic was 14.45, which was significant at a level of 0.05.
Therefore, it is safe to say that there were significant difference between
the concentration of VOCs in different operational units (p < 0.05).
Consequently, the results of the Kruskal-Wallis post-hoc test (Kruskal
Mac) showed that the mean concentrations of VOCs between two dif-
ferent operating units of baling machine - tipping floor line two, con-
veyor belt line one - conveyor belt line two, conveyor belt line one -
manual separation line, conveyor belt line one -tipping floor line one,
conveyor belt line one - tipping floor line two, and manual separation
line -tipping floor line two were significantly different
(p < 0.05).However, there was not a significant difference between
the mean concentrations of VOCs in other operating units (p > 0.05).
3.4. Occupational exposure limits (OEL) assessment for workers in
PCSWRF
VOCs with high levels could lead to chronic and acute health effects
for those in the PCSWRF. Therefore, based on emitted VOCs, we can
calculate occupational exposure limits (OEL) for the workers. A threshold
limit value-time-weighted average (TLV-TWA) of 10 out of 17 measured
VOCs were valuated for health effects of the workers in this work (Table
S1). According to TWA–TLV the exposure indices (Ei) for 10 emitted
VOCs from the PCSWRF in different sites are shown in Fig. S4. As can be
seen, the Ei for TVOCs in all of sites in PCSWRF were higher than one
except for the background and storage areas. This indicates that people in
this factory might suffer from health effects of VOCs from different sites
and that workers should pay attention to the health effects of VOCs.
Moreover, the highest sum of Ei for TVOCs in this work revealed the
following order of abundance: hand picking line two (4.5) > conveyor
belt line one (4.2) > hand picking line one (3.5) > hand picking line one
(3.8) > conveyor belt line two (3.1) > tipping floor line one
(1.9) > tipping floor line two (1.7) > baling machine (1.1) > back-
ground (0.63) > storage (0.45). In this work, benzene with the highest
average Ei of 3 accounted for more than 85 % of TVOC Ei in the PCSWRF
since TLV-TWA for benzene (1.7 × 10−3 mg/m3) was lower than the
other compounds (Table S1). The the mean Ei of nonane (TLV-
TWA = 1.1 × 103 mg/m3) was lower than 0.001, and accounted for
lower than 0.002 % of TVOC Ei. In addition, the mean Ei of TVOCs for
background and storage areas were lower than one. Generally, the Ei for
TVOCs in different sites was more than one, and so using personal pro-
tective equipment (PPE) such as respirators and gloves can help workers
decrease exposure to emitted VOCs in this WPCRF.
3.5. Health risk assessment (HRA) for VOCs
All of 17 measured VOCs were evaluated based on the RfD values
for non-carcinogenic effects (Table S1). According to concentrations of
VOCs (Table 1), the HQ of VOCs are summarized in Fig. S5. The highest
sum of HQs with a value of 5.8 for the examined VOCs was acquired in
the conveyor belt line one, followed by hand picking line two (3), hand
picking line one (2.7), conveyor belt line two (2.6), office (1.6), tipping
floor line one (1.1), baling machine (0.88), tipping floor line two (0.72),
background (0.64), and storage (0.17). With the HQ more than one,
non-carcinogenic risk could be introduced to the workers by VOCs
discharged from the conveyor belt line one, where the top three com-
pounds for HQs were 1,3,5-trimethyl benzene (1.78), nonane (1.4) and
benzene (1.06), accounting for 30.79 %, 23.48 % and 17.56 % of the
cumulative HQ, respectively. Furthermore, the HQ of conveyor belt line
one was two times higher than line two so the non-carcinogenic risk of
line one is two times larger than line two. In the conveyor belt line two,
the only compound that affects non-carcinogenic risk of workers was
nonane (HQ = 1.29), which supports the 48.98 % of total hazard
quotient (2.6). In addition, the HQs for manual separation line two
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
Fig. 4. Box plot of VOC concentrations in different processes (operational units) in winter.
exceeded one, representing a non-carcinogenic risk for residents; ben-
zene (41.22–42.91%) and nonane (34.74–36.38%) had the highest HQs
for line two. Moreover, the total HQs in the office area was 1.6 and
benzene is the main pollutant that the residents were exposed to
(HQ = 1.18), contributing 75.14 % of the total non-cancer risk. As for
the other sites, the total HQ was lower than one, indicating a non-
carcinogenic risk of VOC species.
McCarthy et al. (2009), He et al. (2015) and Ramírez et al. (2012)
reported that HQ values from 0.1 to 1 could make the site workers
vulnerable to health risks (He et al., 2015; McCarthy et al., 2009;
Ramírez et al., 2012). The HQs for benzene in the indoor micro-
environments of the PCSW such as tipping floor line two, conveyor belt
line two, manual separation (line one and two), background, baling
machine, and storage ranged from 0.1 to 0.73, describing 24–65% of the
total non-carcinogenic risk. Furthermore, 1,3,5-trimethyl benzene
(HQs = 0.13 to 0.34) also accounted for 8.31–18.11% of the sum non-
carcinogenic risk in the indoor air of tipping floor line one, conveyor belt
(line two), hand picking (line one and two), and baling machine. Fur-
thermore, 1,2,4-trimethyl benzene (HQs = 0.1 to 0.73) contributed
3.36–12.7% of the total HQs of PCSW recycling factory, especially for
indoor air of tipping floor line one, conveyor belt (line one and two),
hand picking (line one and two). Moreover, the HQ for 1,2,3-trimethyl
benzene was limited between 0.19 and 0.23, which contributes 4–21.8%
of the total HQ of VOCs for the PCSW recycling factory, especially for
indoor air of conveyor belt line one and baling machine. Finally, in the
indoor microenvironment of conveyor belt line one, o-xylene was also
the main non-carcinogenic risk for residents (estimating for 3 % of total
HQs) with the HQ of 0.17. Based on the International Agency for Re-
search on Cancer (IARC), two of the measured VOCs were benzene
(group 1) and ethylbenzene (group 2B) that are categorized as a human
carcinogen and probable human carcinogen, respectively (Dehghani,
Fazlzadeh et al., 2018; International Agency for Research on Cancer,
2014; Lim et al., 2014). Fig. S6 describes the LTCRs of the carcinogenic
VOCs in PCSWRF. The highest total of LTCRs (1.21 × 10−4) occurred in
the indoor microenvironment of the office, followed by manual separa-
tion line two (1.11 × 10−4), manual separation line one (1.03 × 10−4),
conveyor belt line one (9.74 × 10−5), conveyor belt oute two
(7.64 × 10−5), tipping floor line one (5.06 × 10−5), tipping floor line
two (4.19 × 10−5), baling machine (3.02 × 10−5), background
(1.51 × 10−5), and storage (1.05 × 10−5). It should be noted that the
workers in the office and manual separation process (line one and two) of
the PCSW recycling factory have been exposed to cancer risks. In the
former three sites, the total of LTCRs was mostly provided by benzene
(participating for 92.24 %, 92.30 % and 85.12 % of the sum of LTCRs,
respectively) whose LTCRs values transcended a level of 1 × 10−4
(Durmusoglu et al., 2010; Li et al., 2013; Sexton et al., 2007b). Besides,
8
Sustainable Cities and Society 56 (2020) 102005
LTCRs for ethylbenzene in office, manual separation line one and two
were calculated, respectively 9.38 × 10−6 (7.76 % of total LTCRs),
8.56 × 10−6 (7.70 % of total LTCRs) and 1.53 × 10−5 (14.88 % of total
LTCRs). Durmusoglu et al. (2010) reported that compounds with LTCRs
from 1 × 10−5 to 1 × 10−6 can be categorized as a “possible risk”
(Durmusoglu et al., 2010), which is ethylbenzene in this work. Li et al.
(2013) reported that ethylbenzene (8.95 × 10−6), dichloropropane
(9.50 × 10−6) and trichloromethane (7.36 × 10−6) discharged from the
MSW compression transfer station during periods when the compressor
was working were identified as a “possible risk” (Li et al., 2013b). In
addition, in plastic solid waste recycling workshops (PSW) in southern
China, 1,2-dichloromethane was a probable risk for workers with LTCR
more than10−5 (contributing 51.5–55.9% of the LTCR) (He et al., 2015).
Furthermore, the study by Ramírez et al. (2012) in the ambient air of a
large Mediterranean industrial site showed that ethylbenzene
(3.5 × 10−6) and tetrachloroethylene (2.3 × 10−6) were identified as a
probable risk for workers (Ramírez et al., 2012). Finally, benzene (Group
1) and ethylbenzene (group 2B) can promote cancers such as those of the
brain, lungs, liver, and kidneys for workers at office, manual separation
line one and two in PCSWRF, which is consistent with former findings
(Durmusoglu et al., 2010; He et al., 2015; Huff, Chan, & Melnick, 2010;
Lehtinen et al., 2013). Hence, exposure to VOCs leads to high risk in the
PCSWRF, especially at hand picking line two (HQ = 3 and LTCRs =
1.11 × 10−4), hand picking line one (HQ = 2.7 and LTCRs = 1.03 ×
10−4), office (HQ = 1.6 and LTCRs = 1.21 × 10−4) and strategies
should be considered to eliminate pollutants and to keep workers im-
mune from the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects.
3.6. Control methods for VOCs
The different levels of VOCs are released from various municipal
waste management practices such as recycling, composting, incinera-
tion, and landfilling (Xin and Tsuda, 2017; Sarkhosh et al., 2017).
Controlling VOC emissions from waste paper and cardboard recycling
factories is important for the sake of improving the general health of
workers and inhabitants in locations with these operations, in addition
to improving air quality. Generally, current VOCs control strategies at
PCSWRFs can be categorised into three methods including pre-treat-
ment (reduction) of VOC-contaminated waste, and also in situ and post-
treatment methods (Shen & Sewell, 1988). With pre-treatment methods
such as steam-stripping, air-stripping, and carbon adsorption, VOCs can
be eliminated from paper and cardboard before it enters to the PCSWRF
(Babar & Shareefdeen, 2014; Li, Yuan, & Jie, 2018). In addition, se-
paration of paper and cardboard production impregnated with oil and
grease, especially at tipping floor sites, can reduce emissions of VOCs in
PCSWRF (Banou et al., 2016; Pagans et al., 2006; Propst, 2010). In situ
R. Nabizadeh, et al.
control methods commonly include collection and removal systems
(Shen & Sewell, 1988). These methods commonly contain enclosures
and covers for most of the treatment facilities. Post-treatment methods
commonly include tools of gathering VOCs from wastes, especially at
storage site sin PCSWRFs by using a cover, vent, and unit of carbon
absorption (Shen & Sewell, 1988).
Designing proper ventilation and air conditioning systems can help
workers decrease exposure to emitted VOCs in PCSWRFs (Liu et al.,
2017). The present study motivates the need for VOC emission control
strategies concentrated on either pre-treatment or post-treatment, which
can definitely decrease the concentrations of VOCs and be feasible and
cost-effective strategies, which is consistent with the results of the pre-
vious studies (Banou et al., 2016; Propst, 2010; Shen & Sewell, 1988).
4. Conclusions
This study concentrated on characterizing the health effects and
concentrations of VOCs in the atmospheric air of paper and cardboard
solid waste recycling factory (PCSWRF) of Tehran, Iran. The conveyor
belt line one generated especially significant levels of VOCs. The mean
concentrations ± (SD) of TVOCs emitted from PCSWRF were in the fol-
lowing order: conveyor belt line one (5.23 ± 0.33 mg/m3) > baling
machine (1.38 ± 0.07) > conveyor belt line two (1.34 ± 0.08) > tip-
ping floor line one (1.22 ± 0.07) > manual separation line one
(1.20 ± 0.06) > manual separation line two (1.06 ± 0.05) > tipping
floor line two (0.54 ± 0.02) > office (0.69 ± 0.04) > background
(0.43 ± 0.02) > storage (0.09 ± 0.01).The main species of VOCs in the
different processes of PCSWRF were m,p-xylene, limonene, 1,2,4-tri-
methyl benzene, 1-ethyl-3-methyl benzene, and toluene. The exposure
indices (Ei) revealed that the workers can suffer from acute and chronic
health effects in the recycling of paper and cardboard factory. These
results showed that VOC species had similar sources and the recycled
materials that contained VOCs (fresh waste and mixed paper with food
wastes) were the major sources of VOCs in the PCSWRF. Non-carcino-
genic hazard quotient (HQ) in processes of recycling were more than 1.1,
posing a chronic health effect threat for workers. The LTCRs for VOCs in
the studied PCSWRF were higher than 1 × 10−4, indicating a definite
cancer risk for workers. As Ei and HQ for VOCs in almost all of the sites
exceeded one, usage of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as
respirators and gloves, designing proper ventilation and air conditioning
systems, and minimization of VOC-contaminated waste generation (pre-
treatment), can help workers decrease exposure to emitted VOCs in these
types of facilities.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgment
The authors sincerely acknowledges Tehran University of Medical
Sciences for their superb academic support.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.102005.
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