THREE TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS
A. ISOTONIC:
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
- is the biological study about the
activities that take place in a cell to keep
it alive. In the context of human
physiology, the term cell physiology
often specifically applies to the
physiology of membrane transport,
neuron transmission, and (less
frequently) muscle contraction.
* Cells are the basic building blocks of all living
things. The human body is composed of trillions
of cells. They provide structure for the body,
take in nutrients from food, convert those
nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
functions.
OSMOSIS
- Osmosis movement of a solvent (such as
water) through a semipermeable
membrane (as of a living cell) into a
solution of higher solute concentration
that tends to equalize the
concentrations of solute on the two
sides of the membrane.
*It does not require energy to be applied
- equal. Water moves in and out of the
cell at an equal rate
B. HYPOTONIC
- water moves into the cell, making it
swell and get fat. There is a greater
concentration or number of solute
particles inside a membrane than there
are outside.
C. HYPERTONIC
- water moves outside the cell, making it
shrink. There is a greater concentration
or number of solute particles outside a
membrane than there are inside.
DIFUSSION
- Diffusion is the net movement of
particles from an area of higher
concentration to lower concentration.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF DIFFUSION:
A. PASSIVE DIFFUSION
- is the movement of molecules across a
semi-permeable membrane without the
help of protein channels.
B. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- is the flow of molecules down a
concentration gradient, across a
membrane, but requires the help of a
protein. There are two categories of
proteins that assist facilitated diffusion:
 CARRIER PROTEINS- are like taxi cabs in
a cell membrane
  CHANNEL PROTEINS- are like tunnels
that create a hole across a cell
membrane. Channels open to allow
molecules to flow through them.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSMOSIS AND
DIFFUSION:
Osmosis- is a slow process and diffusion is the
fast process. Osmosis is dependent on one
solvent to the another for the reduction of free
energy
Diffusion- the movement of molecules is from
the area of their higher free energy to the area
of the lower free energy
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- a protein pump uses energy, in the
form of ATP, to move molecules from an
area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration.
3 MAIN TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
A. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
- is a structure known as a cell-membrane
pump that uses energy to transport
Sodium and Potassium ions in and out
of the cell.
B. ENDOCYTOSIS
- is a process by which cells can take in
large particles and deposit them into
the cell
- There are 2 sub-categories:
 PINOCYTOSIS- brings liquids into the
cell
 PHAGOCYTOSIS- is responsible for
transporting large particles or other
solids into the cell
C. EXOCYTOSIS
- is very similar to endoxytosis except
that it deposits materials from inside
the cell on the outside instead of the
other way around
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- is a movement of ions and other atomic
or molecular substances across cell
membranes without need of energy
input.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT:
A. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- movement of small or lipophilic
molecules
B. OSMOSIS
- movement of water molecules
C. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- movement of large or charged
molecules via membrane proteins
CELL DIVISION
- Cell division is the process by which a
parent cell divides into two or more
 daughter cells. Cell division usually THE CELL CYCLE
occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
- It is the period between the beginning
of one cell division and the beginning of
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION: the next cell division.

A. MITOSIS - There are two types of cell division:

somatic and reproductive.
- is a fundamental process for life. During
mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its
contents, including its chromosomes,
A. SOMATIC CELL DIVISION (BODY CELL
and splits to form two identical
DIVISION)
daughter cells.
- Mitosis has five different stages: - It involves three major process:
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
1. ) INTERPHASE
3. Metaphase
- Is a very active period of cell activity
4. Anaphase
during which DNA in the nucleus
5. Telophase doubles. The phenomenon is called
"Replication", meaning that DNA makes
- The process of cell division is only
complete after cytokinesis, which takes the copy of itself.
place during anaphase and telophase. 2. ) CYTOKINESIS
Each stage of mitosis is necessary for
cell replication and division - division of the cytoplasm into two
distinct daughter cells.
B. MEIOSIS
3. ) MITOSIS
- Meiosis ensures that humans have the
same number of chromosomes in each - is the process during which two diploid
generation. It is a two-step process that
reduces the chromosome number by (2n) daughter cells result from the
half—from 46 to 23—to form sperm division of a diploid (2n) parent cell.
and egg cells. When the sperm and egg
cells unite at conception, each - in human daughter cells, n = 23
contributes 23 chromosomes so the
resulting embryo will have the usual 46. chromosomes from each parent.
Meiosis also allows genetic variation - It is divided into four sequential stages:
through a process of DNA shuffling
while the cells are dividing.
 PROPHASE
- the first stage of mitosis; it is the
longest mitotic phase.
a. Early Prophase- Chromatin
condenses and shortens into
chromosomes.
-Each prophase chromosome has a pair
of identical, double-stranded DNAs
called Chromatids
b. Late Prophase- Disappearance of the
Nucleoli
- breakdown of the nuclear membrane
- Movement of the two centrioles
toward opposite directions.
- Appearance of mitotic apparatus
 METAPHASE
- the second mitotic stage; the chromatid
pairs line up at the center of mitotic
apparatus.
 ANAPHASE
- the third stage.
- shortest mitotic phase
- movement of the two sister chromatids
of each chromosomes toward opposite
pole of the cell.
 TELOPHASE
- the fourth mitotic stage
- Chromosomes uncoil and become
chromatin
- formation of nuclear membrane around
each set of chromatin.
- appearance of nucleoli
- Mitotic apparatus disappears.
- formation of two daughter cells with 46
chromosomes each
B. REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION OR MEIOSIS
- occurs only in the gonads (testes &
ovaries) and results in the formation of
mature gametes (spermatozoa in the
male and ova in the female)
- starts at the onset of puberty and
continues during the entire lifetime in
the male; stops during menopause in
the female.
- unlike the somatic cell division, meiosis
is characterized by the formation of
haploid (n chromosome) daughter cells
resulting from the division of the diploid
(2n chromosome) parent cell. Thus,
each daughter cell contains only 23
chromosomes.
- Meiosis consists of two steps: first
meiotic division (reduction) and second
meiotic division (equatorial)
1. ) FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION
- is composed of four sequential phases:
 PROPHASE I
- appearance of double stranded
chromosomes. Pairing of homologous
chromosomes lie side by side
 METAPHASE I
- pairs of homologous chromosomes line
up at the center of mitotic apparatus
 ANAPHASE I
- one chromosome of each homologous
pair migrates to opposite poles.
 TELOPHASE I
- two haploid (n chromosome) daughter
cells result from the division of a diploid
(2n chromosome) parent cell
2. ) SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION
- is the continuation of the first meiotic
division and is also subdivided into four
phases
 PROPHASE II
- Each chromosome of the haploid
daughter cell resulting from the first
meiotic division has two chromatids
 METAPHASE II
- single chromosome lines up at the
center of the mitotic apparatus.
 ANAPHASE II
- migration of the chromatid of each
chromosome to opposite poles.
 TELOPHASE II
- production of two haploid cells from
each haploid cell of the telophase I.
REFERENCE:
Chapter 1, Introduction to Human
Anatomy/physiology (PDF)
Introduction to Physiology: The Human Body. John
P. Fisher, Adapted from Textbook of Medical
Physiology, 11th Ed. Arthur C. Guyton, John E. Hall,
Chapter 1
NOTE: Some information were gathered online and
others were from PDFs downloaded years ago.