Unsaturated geomaterials: geomaterials with void spaces partially filled with liquid and partially

filled with gas. There are found in earth structures and also in the upper zone of the ground above
water tables.

Surface tension:

Liquid surfaces act as if they are in tension as a result of an imbalance between intermolecular
attractions at a surface. In the liquid, the forces acting on a molecule are equal in all directions, so
there is no net force. When a molecule moves to the surface, it loses some neighbours, and so there
is a downward resultant force. To stay in the surface region, it needs some energy (surface free
energy) makes the surface tension.

When in contact with a solid surface, there is meniscus. With a concave meniscus on the air side,
water pressure is lower than air pressure.

Tube of diameter d
R: radius of curvature at the surface
T : Tension surface
Uw : water pressure, Ua : aire pressure

Uw-Ua=-4Tcos(theta)/d=-2T/R
(Calculated by considering the vertical force equilibrium of the air-water interface)

Contact angle:
There is a range of stable contact angle. For instance, for a drop of water, there is an angle when the
drop is on a horizontal surface. When the surface becomes tilted, the angle changes and the water
drop stays, until a critical angle.

Evaporation:
Let’s consider a tube filled with water, and with no meniscus at the beginning. Then, there is
evaporation. The water level will be the same, but there will be a meniscus, until the angle as
reached the receding angle. Then, the water level decreases.

Degree of saturation:
The ratio between the water volume and the volume of the tube.

Water retention curve/function:

The relationship between the degree of saturation and (negative) water pressure.

All this is essentially the same with unsaturated geomaterials.

Four states with geomaterials :

- Saturated state
- Quasi-saturated
- Partially saturated
- Residual saturation
Let’s consider a saturated soil. After the beginning of evaporation, there will be a meniscus and a
negative pressure will be generated in the pore-water, while the degree of saturation remains equal
to 1. This negative pore-water pressure will enable the expansion of air cavities in some pores. The
degree of saturation will therefore decrease. It is the quasi-saturated state. At the stage where the
menisci at the surface (air-soil) reach the limit curvature, air will enter the soil. It is the partially
saturated state. Eventually, water is not continuous anymore in the soil, and we have the residual
state.

The relationship between degree of saturation and suction ( (Ua-uW) ) is hysteretic. It is not the same
curve when a soil is dried from saturated state and when a soil is wetted from a dried state.
If a soil is wetted from a dried state, and then dried from a half wetted state, the relationship will
rejoin the drying curve, but will follow the drying scanning curve until it has reached the main drying
curve.

Unsaturated soils are characterized by negative pore-water pressures.

There are three mechanisms responsible for suction:
- Capillarity (explained before) (high degrees of saturation)
- Osmotic (clay is charged negatively at the border, so there are cations between two
particles of clay. Water molecules are then diffused between the particles in order to
equalize charges.)
- Electrostatic
The last two mechanisms become relevant at medium to low degrees of saturation.

Another mechanism, not trough the liquid phase, is suction through the vapor phase: the pressure of
vapor in equilibrium with soil water is lower than the pressure of water in equilibrium with pure
water across a flat surface.
The mechanisms of water retention through the vapor phase are associated with solute
concentration (Raoult’s law) and soil water negative pressure.

Remark:
- Suction generated by the vapor phase is referred as “total suction”, or “osmotic suction”
- Suction generated by the solid phase is called matric suction
- Suction generated by the solute concentration is called the solute suction

Matric and total suction can be quantified by measuring the pressure that needs to be applied to
water in a measurement system to establish equilibrium through liquid and vapor phase,
respectively.
If the measurement device is connected to the soil through the liquid phase, suction will be
generated only by the action of solid matrix. On the other hand, is the measurement device is
connected to the soil water through de vapor phase, suction will also be generated by the action of
the solute.

In unsaturated geomaterials, water exists at the inter-particle contacts around air-filled voids and at
the saturated sub-regions of the pore space. Saturated contacts (in bulk water) and meniscus
contacts (meniscus water) are the inter-particle contacts. In the saturated sub-regions, slippage at
the saturated contacts is controlled by the normal and tangential components of the contact forces.
External stresses and pore-water pressure in the surrounding voids influence this force.
Menisci at the inter-particle contacts add a normal force at the contact. These mechanisms control
the mechanical response of unsaturated geomaterials.

Microscopic interpretation of volumetric “collapse”

Let’s consider an unsaturated geomaterial with an open structure. If the material is wetted under
constant stress, two distinct volumetric responses could be observed, depending on the stress level.
It can swell, or first swell and then have a significant volume decrease (called a volumetric collapse).
The stress can increase both the tangential and the normal force at the particle contact. At the
contact points, if the ratio between these two forces becomes higher than the inter-particle friction
angle, and a slip will occur.
However, at some meniscus inter-particle contacts, the additional normal forces generated by the
menisci will prevent the slipping. This way, it will have a stabilizing effect, and it will limit the
decreasing effect. Ii will also increase the pore-water pressure, and the sub-regions will be able to
swell. Then, the progressive disappearance of menisci will enable the particle to slip and there will be
a significant volume decrease.