Directional Drilling - Manual B - Schlumberger

Directional Drilling Training Manual
Section 10 - Bottom Hole Assemblies
Document Type UOP Template (Word 6 PC)
Software Microsoft Word 6.0 for Windows NT
Source File DDTM_10.DOC
Other Source File TM.DOT
Author Mike Smith
Author info Anadrill Technique
200 Gillingham Lane
Sugar Land TX 77478-3136
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
email: msmith@sugar-land.anadrill.slb.com
Review & approval
Revision History 04 Dec 96 2nd Revision
06-Dec-96 Final review and approval MJS
Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling

Table of Contents
10 Bottom Hole Assemblies Page

10.1 ROTARY BHA.................................................................................................................10-2
10.1.1 Rotary BHA Theory..............................................................................................10-3
10.1.1.1 Principles of the Rotary BHA .....................................................................10-3
10.1.1.2 Side Force....................................................................................................10-4
10.1.1.3 Stiffness.......................................................................................................10-4
10.1.2 Slick Assembly .....................................................................................................10-6
10.1.3 Single stabilizer BHAs .........................................................................................10-6
10.1.4 Two stabilizer BHAs ............................................................................................10-7
10.1.5 Multi-stabilizer BHAs ..........................................................................................10-10
10.1.5.1 Undergauge Near-bit Stabilizer...................................................................10-11
10.1.5.2 Undergauge Second Stabilizer ....................................................................10-12
10.1.5.3 Hole Washout..............................................................................................10-13
10.1.6 BHAs for building Inclination ..............................................................................10-14
10.1.7 BHAs for maintaining Inclination ........................................................................10-15
10.1.8 BHAs for Dropping Inclination ............................................................................10-16
10.1.9 Special BHAs........................................................................................................10-17
10.2 COMMON BHA PROBLEMS.............................................................................................10-20
10.2.1 Formation Effects .................................................................................................10-20
10.2.2 Worn Bits..............................................................................................................10-20
10.2.3 Accidental Sidetrack.............................................................................................10-20
10.2.4 Pinched Bit............................................................................................................10-21
10.2.5 Differential Sticking .............................................................................................10-21
10.2.6 Drilling Parameters...............................................................................................10-21
10.3 BHA EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS........................................................................................10-22
10.4 RECAP .............................................................................................................................10-22
Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-i

Table of Contents
List of Figures Page

Figure 10-1 Slick and packed hole BHAs.............................................................................. 10-3
Figure 10-2 BHA side forces ................................................................................................. 10-4
Figure 10-3 BHA as a hollow cylinder .................................................................................. 10-4
Figure 10-4 Pendulum force and weight on bit...................................................................... 10-6
Figure 10-5 Single stabilizer BHA......................................................................................... 10-7
Figure 10-6 Two stabilizer BHA............................................................................................ 10-8
Figure 10-7 Negative side force ............................................................................................. 10-8
Figure 10-8 Comparison of sideforces on single and two stabilizer BHAs ........................... 10-9
Figure 10-9 Buildup BHA using two stabilizers.................................................................... 10-9
Figure 10-10 Effect of WOB increase on sideforce............................................................. 10-10
Figure 10-11 Inclination v sideforce for 3 BHAs ................................................................ 10-10
Figure 10-12 Increase of side force with addition of one stabilizer..................................... 10-11
Figure 10-13 Undergauge near bit stabilizer........................................................................ 10-12
Figure 10-14 Undergauge second stabilizer......................................................................... 10-12
Figure 10-15 Effect of hole washout on side force .............................................................. 10-13
Figure 10-16 BHAs for building inclination ........................................................................ 10-14
Figure 10-17 BHAs for maintaining inclination .................................................................. 10-15
Figure 10-18 Typical locked up BHA for 12-1/4 in. hole.................................................... 10-15
Figure 10-19 BHAs for dropping inclination....................................................................... 10-16
Figure 10-20 Semidrop BHA ............................................................................................... 10-17
Figure 10-21 Typical jetting BHA ....................................................................................... 10-18
Figure 10-22 Example of a Gilligan BHA ........................................................................... 10-19
List of Tables Page

Table 10-1 Modulus of elasticity ........................................................................................... 10-5
Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-ii

Bottom Hole Assemblies
10 Bottom Hole Assemblies

About this chapter
The design of the rotary bottom hole assembly (BHA) is, together with orientation, the
most critical part of the DD job. Minimizing trips for BHA changes is the objective of
every client. They all want to "make hole" and drill a usable hole to TD as soon as
possible. A DD’s reputation depends, to a large extent, on the judgment and "feel" he has
for choosing the appropriate BHA for a given situation.
This chapter is meant to be an introduction to BHA principles, concepts and design. It is
not meant to be a theoretical approach to the subject. The objective is to give broad
guide-lines in selecting BHAs. Deciding on the changes to be made to a BHA (e.g. not
over-reacting to unexpected BHA tendencies) is often more difficult than in selecting the
basic BHA.
It is important that the DD keep an open mind about BHA design. A DD may think he’s
got his BHAs all figured out until he moves to a new area. He may be baffled to find that
few or none of his previous BHAs work as expected. This is understandable. As long as
the "learning curve" is short, the client will not complain. Finally, keeping accurate,
comprehensive records of BHA performance is vital. When a "new" DD arrives in an
area, the only aid he has in selecting the BHAs is the performance of previous wells.
There is no excuse for a DD departing the rig not to leave proper hand-over BHA
performance records to his relief. Steerable BHAs are covered in Chapter 7.
Objectives of this Chapter

On completing this chapter the directional driller should be able to do the following
exercises:
1. Describe the minimum number of BHA changes needed in
• a slant directional well.
• an "S"-type directional well.
Assume only conventional (non-steerable) PDMs are available.
2. Describe what is meant by
• bit side force.
• fulcrum effect.
• pendulum effect.
3. Explain the effect of drill collar stiffness in BHA design.
4. Explain why it is advisable to minimize the number of DCs and stabilizers in a
directional BHA.
5. Describe the effect of an undergauge near-bit stabilizer in
• drop-off BHAs.
• build-up BHAs.
6. Show why an undergauge second stabilizer is often used in a locked BHA.
Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-1

7. Describe the effect of hole washout (erosion) on BHA behavior in soft formations.
Show how it can be overcome.
8. Describe the effect drilling parameters have on inclination and direction with each
type of BHA.
9. Explain why it is advisable to take frequent surveys, particularly in the build-up and
drop-off phases) when an MWD tool is available.
10. Give examples of typical BHAs designed to build and drop inclination at various
rates.
11. Give an example of a Gilligan BHA. Describe its possible uses.
10.1 Rotary BHA

Before the advent of MWD tools and/or steerable motors, the “classic" approach to a
typical DD job (e.g. kickoff point in 17 1/2" hole) was as follows:
1. One or more rotary BHAs (typically in 36" and 26" hole sizes) were used to drill the
top hole section. A 17-1/2" rotary BHA was used to drill out the 20" casing shoe and
drill down to the kickoff point. The well would normally be planned to have
sufficient open hole from the 20" casing to the kickoff point to eliminate the
possibility of magnetic interference when kicking off.
2. A bit (17 1/2" or smaller) / mud motor / bent sub combination was RIH. Magnetic
(or, where necessary gyro) single-shot surveys were taken at short intervals. Hole
inclination was built to 8° in hard formation and typically +/- 15° in softer formation.
Having achieved the required hole azimuth (lead angle taken into account), this BHA
was then POOH.
3. A rotary build BHA was RIH. The inclination was built up close to the required
maximum angle on the well plan. By controlling the drilling parameters (particularly
WOB and RPM) every effort was made to hold the well azimuth on course. This
BHA was then POOH.
4. A rotary lockup BHA was then RIH. In a slant well, the normal objective was to hold
the inclination until the next casing point. Small variations in inclination were
permissible. Again, drilling parameters were varied as deemed necessary. Because
the BHA was “stiff”, in theory it gave the best possibility of keeping the well
azimuth within the prescribed limits.
From the above scenario, it is clear that several trips were required for BHA changes
(even assuming that the well behaved perfectly from a DD standpoint). When directional
problems occurred (unpredictable BHA behavior), several days were often lost. Even
worse, a "crooked hole" occasionally resulted.
MWD surveys meant that the DD had more control over survey intervals. It became
common to survey every single in the kickoff and buildup phases. Even better, in soft
formation it became possible to build up to the required maximum angle (even up to +/-
50° inclination) with the bit/mud motor/ bent sub/ MWD combination, provided hole
friction did not become excessive. This eliminated one round trip.
The arrival of steerable motors meant that a complete hole phase became possible using
a single BHA which included a bit steerable motor/ string stabilizer/ MWD combination.
BHAs of this type are covered in Chapter 11.

The significant extra cost incurred from using the steerable motor was counteracted by
the savings in trip time and the rig convenience and reduced wear on the drillstring.
The comparison of the steerable and “classic" BHAs, however, is more complex than the
above. In certain areas, steerable BHAs are indeed the most cost-effective for the client.
However, there are also many areas where the conventional approach is actually cheaper.
In addition, the hole condition is usually better (less friction) where more than one round
trip is made. Case studies which compare the two types of BHA (conventional rotary
versus steerable) have been made for DSE projects. They illustrate the above.
Which approach do we recommend to the client? Often the client has a preference for
one or the other. A cost/benefit analysis should be made where possible. Use of steerable
motors means more revenue for ANADRILL than use of straight motor/ bent sub.
However, ultimately the cost to the client is the determining factor. Finally, it is common
practice to have conventional mud motors and bent subs on rigs where steerable motors
are used. They are there as a backup. Their rental cost is relatively cheap.
The arrival of surface-adjustable and downhole-adjustable bent housings has made
steerable motors more versatile. The DD is no longer “caught-out" if the desired dog-leg
severity is not achieved by a particular bent housing. However, there will continue to be
applications where the straight-housing motor/ bent sub will be preferred on cost grounds
e.g. sidetracks.
10.1.1 Rotary BHA Theory

Once the initial deflection and direction of the well (i.e. the kickoff) has been achieved
by the bit/ mud motor/ bent sub, the remainder of the well (apart from correction runs) is
drilled using conventional rotary drilling techniques.
10.1.1.1Principles of the Rotary BHA

The BHA affects the wellbore trajectory. The design of BHA can vary from very simple
(bit, drill collars, drillpipe) to a complicated hookup (bit, shock sub, roller reamers,
stabilizers, non-magnetic drill collars, steel drill collars, crossover subs, extension subs,
jars, heavy weight drillpipe and drillpipe). Figure 10-1 illustrates the two extremes.
Regular Drill
Pipe
Heavy Weight
Drillpipe Drill Pipe(s)
Drilling Jars
Smaller Drill
Collars
Crossover Sub to
Smaller Drill Collars
Measurement While
Drilling (MWD) Tool
Stabilizer
Collars Nonmagnetic Drill

Collar
Roller Reamer
Bit Shock Sub
Near Bit Stabilizer

Slick B.H.A.
Packed-Hole B.H.A.
Figure 10-1 Slick and packed hole BHAs

10.1.1.2Side Force
All BHAs cause a side force at the bit (Figure 10-2) that leads to an increase in hole
inclination (positive side force - Fulcrum effect), no change in inclination (zero net side
force - Lockup BHA) or a drop in inclination (negative side force - Pendulum effect). In
addition, changes in hole direction (bitwalk) may be either minimized or increased by
specific rotary BHAs and drilling parameters.
WOB
a
WOB
Build Force or
Positive Side Force
Negative Side Force
or Pendulum Force
Figure 10-2 BHA side forces
10.1.1.3Stiffness
Most drilling components used in a BHA (e.g. drill collars) can be treated as hollow
cylinders (Figure 10-3). Their stiffness can be easily calculated.
Inside Diameter
of Drill Collar
Outside Diameter
of Drill Collar
ID
OD
Moment of Inertia
for Round Drill Collars
Figure 10-3 BHA as a hollow cylinder

Stiffness Coefficient = E • I
where
E = Young’s Modulus (lb/in2)
I = Moment of Inertia (in4)
Moment of Inertia I = π ( OD4 - ID4) /64

where
OD = outside diameter
ID = inside diameter.
Stiffness coefficient is a measure of component rigidity. A table of Young’s Modulus
values for various materials is given in Table 10-1. Note how limber aluminum is and
how rigid tungsten is compared to alloy steel, e.g., determine stiffness of a steel drill
collar having:
a. OD = 8" and ID = 2-13/16"
Solution
E• I = 30.0 x 106 x π • (8.04 -2.81254) / 64
= 5.9397 x 109
b. OD = 7” and ID = 2-13/16"
Solution
E • I =30.0 x 106 x π • (7.04-2.81254) / 64
= 3.444 x 109
In this case, a reduction in O.D. of 12.5% (for the same I.D.) results in a reduction in
stiffness of 42%!
It is important to take drill collar stiffness into account when designing BHAs. Where an
MWD tool is to be used close to the bit, it is absolutely essential to know the stiffness of
the MWD collar. Otherwise, dogleg severity achieved may differ greatly from what was
expected.
Table 10-1 Modulus of elasticity
2
Material Used In lb/in
6
Alloy steel Drill pipe 30.0 X10
6
Drill collars 30.0 x 10
6
Aluminum Drill pipe 10.5 x 10
6
Drill collars 10.5 x 10
6
Monel Non-magnetic collars 26.0 x 10
6
Stainless steel Non-magnetic collars 28.0 x 10
6
Tungsten carbide Bit inserts 87.0 x 10
6
Tungsten Collars 51.5 x 10

10.1.2 Slick Assembly

The simplest type of BHA (bit, drill collars, drillpipe) is shown in Figure 10-4.
Tangency Point
Tangency Point
L
W W- D W
L- D L
H = Negative Side Force

WOB Increased H- D H
H WOB
Figure 10-4 Pendulum force and weight on bit
With zero weight on bit, a negative side force (pendulum force) only applies.
The maximum pendulum force at the bit is given by:
H = (Wc.L.BC.SINa)/2
where:
L = Tangency length
BC = Buoyancy Factor
Wc = Weight of collars in air (lbs/ft)
a = Inclination
The greater the hole inclination, the higher the pendulum force.
If we apply an axial load (weight on bit), a positive (bending) force is introduced. The
tangency point moves closer to the bit. The pendulum force is thus reduced. A condition
of zero net side force is achieved at some point.
If we use stiffer drill collars, a larger pendulum force results. A higher weight on bit
must be used to achieve a balanced condition. It may not even be possible.
It is obvious that the uncertainty (lack of control) when using a slick assembly leads to
unpredictable results. Thus, this type of BHA is not used in deviated wells.
10.1.3 Single stabilizer BHAs

An easy way to control the tangency point is to insert a stabilizer in the BHA (Figure 10-
5). If the stabilizer is far enough back from the bit, it has no effect on BHA behavior.
However, if the stabilizer is moved closer to the bit, the tangency point changes. The
collar(s) between the bit and stabilizer bend when a certain weight on bit is applied. A
point is reached where maximum negative (pendulum) side force occurs. Moving the
stabilizer closer to the bit reduces the pendulum force.

Eventually, a point is reached where zero side force occurs. Moving the stabilizer further
down gives a positive side force. The collar directly above the stabilizer bends when
weight is applied. The stabilizer forces the bit towards the high side of the hole. This is
called the fulcrum effect. Increases in weight on bit (up to a certain point) lead to
increased buildup rate.
Tangency
L
2
M M = Moment of Inertia
L
1
H
WOB
Figure 10-5 Single stabilizer BHA
The more limber the collar directly above the near-bit stabilizer, the greater the buildup
rate. The smaller the O.D. of the collar directly above the near-bit, the closer to the bit
the contact point becomes. Thus, a higher positive side force is achieved.
Single-stabilizer buildup BHAs are not normally used. Under no circumstances should a
single stabilizer be run if, later in the hole, multi-stabilizer BHAs are to be run. More
predictable BHA behavior and better hole condition results from using two or more
stabilizers in every BHA.
10.1.4 Two stabilizer BHAs

The simplest multi-stabilizer BHA has a near-bit stabilizer (3’-6’ from the bit to the
leading edge of the stabilizer blade) and a second stabilizer at some distance above this
(Figure 10-6).

Tangency
L
3
2
M
M , M = Moments of Inertia
1 2
L
2
1
M
L
1
H
WOB
Figure 10-6 Two stabilizer BHA
For a given weight on bit, the distance from bit to first stabilizer (L1) and between the
stabilizers (L2) determines the tangency point.
If tangency occurs between the bit and the bottom stabilizer, negative side force results
(Figure 10-7).
90 ft.
70 ft.
50 ft.
30 ft.
S.F=-171 lb S.F=-249 lb S.F=-295 lb S.F=-210 lb
Figure 10-7 Negative side force

A comparison of side force values for a single-stabilizer pendulum BHA versus a

two-stabilizer pendulum BHA is seen in Figure 10-8. The second stabilizer increases the
negative side force by reducing the effect of the positive building force.
-400
60'
-500
60' 30'
-600
-700
10 20 30 40 50 60
Weight on Bit, 1000 lb
Figure 10-8 Comparison of sideforces on single and two stabilizer BHAs
Figure 10-9 shows a two-stabilizer 90’ buildup BHA in which tangency occurs between
the two stabilizers. Various bit and collar sizes are shown, together with the bit side
forces achieved for WOB = 30,000 lbs. in each case.
9-1/2" 8" 7" 6"

Collars Collars Collars Collars
14-3/4" 12-1/4" 9-7/8" 8-1/2"

Bit Bit Bit Bit
S.F.=814 lb S.F.=1521 lb S.F.=2587 lb S.F.=3343 lb
Figure 10-9 Buildup BHA using two stabilizers.
Figure 10-10 shows the effect of increasing weight on bit. In practice, weight on bit is
one of the most important ways the DD has of controlling buildup rate.

70 ft
S.F.=855 lb S.F.=962 lb S.F.=1,002 lb

20,000 lb WOB 30,000 lb WOB 40,000 lb WOB
Figure 10-10 Effect of WOB increase on sideforce.
Reaming in soft formation (and flow rate) has a significant effect.
10.1.5 Multi-stabilizer BHAs

Addition of a third stabilizer at 30’ above the original top stabilizer has a significant
effect on the response of a building BHA. Figure 10-11 is a plot of inclination versus
side force at the bit for three 2-stabilizer BHAs. Figure 10-12 shows how the use of a
third stabilizer increases the side force.
12.25" hole, 10-lb/gal mud

2.25" x 8" collars
25,000 lb collars
10,000
90' 300'
9,000
8,000
60' 300'
7,000
Bit Side F orce, lb
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
45' 300'
2,000
1,000
0
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Inclination, degrees
Figure 10-11 Inclination v sideforce for 3 BHAs

12.25" hole, 10-lb/gal mud

2.25" x 8" collars
10˚ inclination
2,800
60' 30' 300'
2,600
2,400
Bit Side F orce, lb

2,200
60' 60' 300'
2,000
1,800
45' 30' 300'
1,600
1,400
1,200
45' 60' 300'
1,000
800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Inclination, degrees
Figure 10-12 Increase of side force with addition of one stabilizer
In lock-up BHAs, use of the third stabilizer is essential. Otherwise, BHA behavior is
erratic and unpredictable.
However, in drop-off (pendulum) BHAs, two-stabilizer BHAs are normally sufficient. A
third stabilizer would have negligible effect in most cases.
Unless absolutely necessary (e.g. differential sticking problems), it is advisable to limit
the number of stabilizers in any BHA to three. It helps keep rotary torque within
acceptable limits and reduces mechanical wear on the hole. This is the approach in most
locations worldwide.
10.1.5.1Undergauge Near-bit Stabilizer

If the near-bit stabilizer is undergauge (Figure 10-13), a loss of bit side force results.
With a buildup BHA, rate of buildup is thus reduced. With a lockup BHA, a drop in
inclination results.
The more undergauge, the greater the effect. In drop-off BHAs, use of an undergauge
near-bit stabilizer is recommended (where economics permit) in "S" wells at the start of
the drop-off.

FG
30' FG
FG 30'
FG
30'
10'
UG UG
Figure 10-13 Undergauge near bit stabilizer
10.1.5.2Undergauge Second Stabilizer

If the second stabilizer is undergauge (Figure 10-14), it becomes easier to get a tangency
point below it. It becomes easier to build angle. The more undergauge, the greater the
effect.
FG
30' FG
UG 30'
UG
30'
10'
FG FG
Figure 10-14 Undergauge second stabilizer

In holding (locked) BHAs, an undergauge second stabilizer is usually deliberately

included in the BHA. The objective is to reach a condition of zero net side force at the
bit.
10.1.5.3Hole Washout
In soft formations, hole erosion occurs due to high annular velocities (Figure 10-15).
Attempts at holding or building inclination are more difficult (impossible to keep
sufficient weight on bit).
In very soft formation, it may be necessary to use a lower flow rate while drilling but
wash through each stand/single at full flow rate before making the connection. If this
does not solve the problem, a round trip for a more limber bottom collar ("gilligan"
BHA) may be necessary. If this is not acceptable, a motor run may be required. It’s
important for the DD to ensure he is not so far behind the program" due to slow buildup
rate that a plug back and sidetrack is required.
Side Force at
Hole Diameter
Stabilizer F 3
D1
Dynamic
Drilling
Assembly
Static Hole Diameter

Assembly D2
Well Bore Size

Increased by
Stabilizer Cutting
Side Force at
Hole Stabilizer F 2
Diameter
D1 Side Force While
Drilling Causes
Elliptical Hole
Side Force at
Bit F 1
Axial
Weight
Top Hole Diameter
View D1 Initial
D Gauge
1 Hole
Net Side
D
2 Force Drcreases
Figure 10-15 Effect of hole washout on side force
Sometimes it may be necessary to drill a pilot hole first and follow up with a hole
opener/under-reamer. Let us examine typical BHAs designed to build, hold or drop. It is
important to note that these are only guidelines. Experience in a particular field/area will
help the DD in “fine-tuning" the BHA.

10.1.6 BHAs for building Inclination

Figure 10-16 shows examples of commonly used BHAs for building inclination. Rates of
build of the order of 5°/100' and higher are possible with BHA No. 9, depending on the
geology, inclination, hole diameter, collar diameter and drilling parameters.
Highest
Building 90' 30'
(9)
Response
90'
(8)
(7)
50'-75' 30'
(6)
50'-75'
(5)
30'-50' 30'
(4)
30' 30'
(3)
UG
30'
(2)
30' 30'
(1)
Figure 10-16 BHAs for building inclination
BHA No. 3 is used as a slight-to-medium building assembly, depending on how much

undergauge the middle stabilizer is and how responsive to weight the BHA is. For any
buildup BHA, the near-bit stabilizer has to be close to full gauge. The smaller the hole
size, the more critical this becomes.
The rate of increase in inclination (buildup rate, in °/100') is very important. The safe
maximum is about 5°/100'). If the rate of curvature of the wellbore is high and it occurs
at a shallow depth, key seats may form in the curve as we drill ahead. If the curve is
cased, the casing may become worn through as the lower part of the hole is drilled. This
wear is caused by the pipe rotating in tension past the area of high curvature (Chapter
13). Several clients will set a dogleg severity maximum of 3°/100' (or even less).
It's important to be aware of the client's acceptable limit for buildup rate. The effective
stiffness of a drill collar increases as RPM is increased. This leads to a reduced buildup
rate.
As hole inclination increases, it becomes easier to build angle. Thus, where MWD is
available, it is advisable to survey every single during the buildup phase. This allows the
DD to avoid unnecessary and unwanted doglegs. Weight on bit may need to be reduced
and/or reaming initiated where such an acceleration in buildup rate occurs.
It is common practice to use the minimum number of drill collars in the BHA. Two
stands of collars is typical. The remaining weight on bit is got from heavyweight
drillpipe. A weight calculation (Chapter 11) must be made at the BHA design stage
(taking into account hole inclination, buoyancy factor, drilling jar position and safety
factor). On no account should the drillpipe be run in compression in a normal directional
well.

10.1.7 BHAs for maintaining Inclination

In order to keep the hole inclination within a small "window" (a so-called lockup
situation), a condition of zero net side force on the bit has to be aimed for. This type of
BHA must be stiff. The stiffness of the BHA also helps to control bit "walk".
In practice, slight changes in hole inclination often occur even with a good choice of
locked BHA. However, the objective is to get a complete bit run without needing to
POOH for a BHA change. Experience in a location should give the DD the data for
fine-tuning the BHA.
Figure 10-17 gives some typical lockup BHAs.
15'-20' 30' 30'

(7)
5'-20' 30' 30'

(6)
UG
12'-15'
30' 30' 30'
(5)
12'-15'
30' 30'
(4)
12'-15'
30'
(3)
5'-12'
30' 30'
(2)
30' 30' 30'

(1)
(2) Can Vary From Positive to Negative Tendency

(1) Special Holding BHA to Achieve Positive Tendency
Figure 10-17 BHAs for maintaining inclination
A typical lockup BHA for 12-1/4" hole at 30° inclination is shown in Figure 10-18. If a
slight build is called for (semi-build BHA), the second stabilizer should be reduced in
gauge - typically down to 12".
12 1/4"
12'-15' 30' 8" D.C. HWDP
8" SDC 8" NMDC
FG UG FG
(12 1/8")
Figure 10-18 Typical locked up BHA for 12-1/4 in. hole
The DD would be well advised to have at his disposal a range of undergauge stabilizers
from 11-1/2" up to 12-1/8" in increments of 1/8".
BHA No. 1 in Figure 10-17 can have either a building or a dropping tendency. This BHA
using 8" collars in 17-1/2" hole in soft formation may barely hold inclination. However,
using the same BHA and collars in 12-1/4" hole may lead to a significant buildup rate
(0.5°-1.0°/100').

The response of this type of BHA is determined by the following factors:

1. Hole size.
2. Distance between the near-bit and lower string stabilizers.
3. Stiffness of the collar directly above the near-bit.
4. Gauge of the stabilizers.
5. Formation effects.
6. Drilling parameters.
To summarize, reducing the gauge of the second stabilizer gives the same result as
leaving the stabilizer alone but increasing the distance between it and the near-bit by a
certain amount. However, for directional control purposes, the former approach is better.
Lockup BHAs account for the biggest percentage of hole drilled in deviated wells. Thus,
the DD’s judgment and expertise in BHA selection is vital in saving trips.
10.1.8 BHAs for Dropping Inclination

A selection of common dropping assemblies is listed in Figure 10-19.
Maximum
Dropping (7) 75'-90' 30'
BHA
75'-90'
(6)
60'-75' 30'
(5)
60'-75'
(4)
30'-60' 30'
(3)
30'-60'
(2)
Special 30'-75' 30'

(1)
Dropping UG
BHA
Figure 10-19 BHAs for dropping inclination
BHA No. 5 (60' pendulum) is the most common where a high drop-off rate (1.5°-4°/100')
is needed, i.e., in "S"-type directional wells. However, “S"-type wells are normally
planned to have a drop-off rate of 1°- 2°/100'. This is in order to avoid keyseats and
excessive wear on the drilling tubulars. Thus, a common approach is to start the drop-off
earlier than the program with a less-aggressive BHA incorporating an undergauge
near-bit stabilizer (a modification of BHA No. 1). A drop-off rate of about 1°-1.5°/100' is
often achievable with such a BHA. When the inclination has fallen to about 15° (at
which point the gravity force is much less), a round trip is made. BHA No. 5 is then
used to drill to TD. This plan should, however, be discussed with the client before the
job starts. An "extra" trip is involved.

Rate of drop-off usually slows significantly below 8°-10° inclination. When the
inclination falls to 2°, the well is considered vertical. However, the inclination should
continue to be monitored, to ensure it does not start to increase again. It's advisable to
ream each connection.
There is very little control over hole direction when using a pendulum BHA. Sometimes
the well walks excessively when using a tricone bit during the drop-off. The DD should
thus have some tolerance available in hole direction when he starts the drop-off. RPM
should be kept high (this also helps the drop-off rate).
A lock-up BHA incorporating an undergauge near-bit (Figure 10-20) is known as a
semi-drop BHA. This type of BHA is often used in slant wells where the DD is "above
the line" and wants to drop into the target with a nice slow drop-off rate (typically
0.1°-0.5°/100'). The drop-off rate achieved is determined by how much undergauge the
near-bit is. Part of the art of the DD is to choose the correct stabilizer gauge in a given
situation. Experience from offset wells is indispensable.
12 1/4"
15' 30' 8" D.C. HWDP
8" SDC 8" NMDC
UG FG FG
(12 1/16")
Figure 10-20 Semidrop BHA
10.1.9 Special BHAs

Tandem Stabilizers It's fairly common to run a string stabilizer directly above the
near-bit. This is normally for directional control purposes. An alternative is to run a
near-bit with a longer gauge area (greater wall contact).
High rotary torque may result in either case. It is dangerous to run tandem stabilizers
directly after a more limber BHA. It's advisable to ream to bottom at the first indication
of the bit "taking weight".
Because of the increased stiffness of a tandem stabilizer, it's normally necessary to
increase the spacing between it and the next stabilizer, compared to when a standard
near-bit stabilizer is used.
Roller Reamers In medium/hard formation where rotary torque is excessive, it may be
necessary to dispense with some or all of the stabilizers in the BHA. Roller reamers are a
good alternative. However, while they are relatively easy to rotate, they behave
differently to stabilizers from a directional viewpoint. As a rule, they have a tendency to
drop angle. Thus, the spacing between the near-bit roller reamer and the lower string
roller reamer/stabilizer has to be greater than in the conventional lock-up using
stabilizers only. The exact spacing should come from experience in the area.
A tandem near-bit roller reamer/string stabilizer combination is another alternative. It's
important to check the condition of the roller reamers after each run and replace the
cutters/pins/blocks as required.

Jetting BHA In very soft formation, jetting is an easy and cost-effective way to kick off a
well. Jetting is perfectly compatible with MWD. Although some "spudding" of the
drillstring is normally required, the shock loading on the MWD tool is not excessive
(formation is soft).
Jetting has the advantage that the well can be kicked off along the required direction and
the inclination built up all the way to maximum angle in one run.
Another application of jetting is "nudging" a well on a multiwell platform. Where
insufficient/imprecise survey information is available for surrounding wells, jetting is a
safer anti-collision approach than using a mud motor.
As mentioned previously, a jetting BHA is a modified buildup BHA. Aligning the key of
the mule shoe sleeve directly above the center of the large open nozzle (where two
blanks are used) or above the center of the two large nozzles (where one blank is used) is
the basic difference.
A typical jetting BHA used to kickoff in 17-1/2" hole at a shallow depth (e.g. 500’) in
soft formation is shown in Figure 10-21.
Nozzles (28,0,0)
17 1/2"
90' 30' 240' X/O HWDP
D.C. D.C.
FG FG FG
(UBHO+NMDC's+D.C.)
Figure 10-21 Typical jetting BHA
Precautions to be taken when running a jetting BHA:

1. Plan the job! Pick up enough drill collars in the BHA (kickoff point is shallow) to
allow sufficient BHA weight for spudding/slacking off as required. Ensure that the
driller does not spud with more weight than you have available. Otherwise, a bent
kelly/string will result (not a good situation!). It’s advisable to have 12x8" drill
collars and 30x5" HWDP in the string when doing a jetting job. Account for
inclination etc. in your available WOB calculation as you pick up drill collars and
HWDP.
2. Do not run drilling jars in the jetting BHA.
3. Do not jet too long an interval! Check dogleg severity on each single.
Decrease/increase jetted interval as required. Wipe out excessive doglegs by
reaming/washing and re-surveying. A good guideline is to jet 5’ and drill the
remainder of each of the first 2 singles. Check the resulting dogleg severity.
Straight-hole BHAs Several years ago, a 60’ Pendulum BHA was most often used to
control deviation in vertical wells. This approach is still used in some areas which do not
have severe formation dip. However, if high weight on bit is applied with such a BHA,
the bit may be "kicked off" and a crooked hole will result.
Now, a stiff (packed-hole) BHA is preferred. It gives a much better possibility of giving
a near-vertical hole. If, due to severe formation effects, the hole becomes crooked, it may
be necessary to run a mud motor or a Pendulum BHA (with low WOB and high RPM), to
get the well back to vertical before re-running the stiff BHA.

Gilligan BHAs A "Gilligan" BHA is a flexible buildup BHA designed for certain
specific applications where high buildup rates are required, e.g. in a conventional DD job
when we're far “below the line" on the directional plot - probably also with significantly
less inclination than needed at that point; in horizontal drilling - use of rotary buildup is
faster and easier in the buildup phase (less hole friction) for the DD than using a mud
motor - provided hole direction can be corrected later using a steerable motor.
Buildup rates of the order of 6°-11°/100' are possible, depending on the flexibility of the
tubular component (flexible collar, heavyweight or even drillpipe) directly above the
near-bit stabilizer. It's vital to take surveys at close intervals to “track" the buildup rate
achieved. Again, as hole inclination increases, buildup rate increases.
It was quite common before the advent of mud motors to use a type of gilligan BHA to
perform a “blind” sidetrack (vertical well) by “bouncing off” the cement plug.
This would include a flexible joint (e.g. heavyweight) directly above the bit. Because of
its crude nature and high dog-leg severity induced, this latter application for a gilligan
BHA is seldom, if ever, seen. However, gilligan BHAs are still used in other
applications. An example of a gilligan BHA is given in Figure 10-22.
FG
30' 8" D.C.
FG/UG
8" O.D.
30' Steel D.C.
8" O.D.
30' NMDC
6 1/2" O.D.
30' NMDC
FG
12 1/4"
Figure 10-22 Example of a Gilligan BHA

10.2 Common BHA Problems

10.2.1 Formation Effects
It often happens that when a certain TVD is reached, BHA behavior changes
significantly e.g. A BHA which held inclination down to 5,000’ may start to drop angle.
Why? Assuming that the near-bit has not gone undergauge, it’s probably due to formation
effects (change in formation, change in dip or strike of the formation etc.). It’s vital to
keep a good database and try to anticipate the problem for the following well.
Abrasive formations pose problems for the DD. Ensure the bit has good gauge
protection. Use stabilizers with good abrasion resistance, e.g. geothermal dressing or
pressed-in TCIs. Check the gauge of the stabilizers when POOH. Watch out for a groove
cut on the leading edge of stabilizers - indication of need to change out the stabilizer.
When it’s difficult to drop inclination, sometimes a larger O.D. drill collar is used as the
lower part of the pendulum. Another possibility is the use of a tungsten short collar - the
concentration of the same weight into a much shorter element should give a more
effective pendulum side force.
10.2.2 Worn Bits

In a long hole section in soft formation interbedded with hard stringers, the long-toothed
bit may get worn. ROP will fall sharply. Net side force will decrease due to stabilizers
undercutting the hole.
Thus, a BHA which had been holding inclination up to that point will start to drop angle.
However, if the survey point is significantly behind the bit, this decrease in angle will
not be seen in time. If the worn teeth are misinterpreted as a balled-up bit and continued
lengthy efforts made to drill further, serious damage may be done to the hole. It has
happened that a drop in inclination of 6 (with a severe dogleg severity) has happened in
this situation. In addition, a bit having worn teeth has a tendency to lose direction. Thus,
it is important to POOH a worn bit in such a situation.
10.2.3 Accidental Sidetrack

In soft formation, where a multi-stabilizer BHA (either Buildup or Lockup) is run
immediately after a mud motor/bent sub kickoff run, great care must be taken.
Circulation should be broken just before the kickoff point. The BHA should be
washed/worked down, using full flow rate. The DD must be on the drill floor while this
is happening. Try to work through tight spots. If string rotation is absolutely necessary,
keep RPM low and cut rotating time to the absolute minimum. The risk of sidetracking
the well (with subsequent expensive plug-back and redrill) is high. Several kickoffs have
been lost in various parts of the world by carelessness on the part of the DD.
Where the kickoff is done in a pilot hole in soft formation, an under-reamer or hole
opener is used to open the hole prior to running casing. Again, to avoid an unwanted
sidetrack, a bull-nose (not a bit) and possibly an extension sub/short collar should be run
below the under-reamer/hole opener.

10.2.4 Pinched Bit

In hard formation, it’s especially important to check each bit for gauge wear etc. when it’s
POOH. When RIH with a new bit and/or BHA, it’s imperative that the driller start
reaming at the first sign of under-gauge hole (string taking weight). If he tries to “cram"
the bit to bottom, it will become “pinched". Bit life will be very short.
10.2.5 Differential Sticking

Where differential sticking is a problem, more than three stabilizers may be run in an
effort to minimize wall contact with the drill collars. However, the distance between
these “extra" stabilizers normally has to be such that they have little effect. They only
lead to increased rotary torque.
It is vital to minimize time taken for surveys (even with MWD) in a potential differential
sticking area.
10.2.6 Drilling Parameters

High rotary/top drive RPM acts to stiffen the string. Thus, for directional control, if
possible, high RPM should be used during the rotary buildup phase, when the BHA is
most limber. However, it's vital to check with MWD engineer for acceptable range of
RPM (to avoid resonance). On a new job the rig specifications (particularly mud pumps
and drawworks) should be checked with the toolpusher.
Typical values in 17-1/2" hole during rotary build/lock phases with a milled- tooth bit
would be 160-170 RPM. The rotary transmission would normally have to be put into
high gear. In 12-1/4" hole, RPM is normally less (e.g. 100-140), due to bit life and other
factors.
Conversely, to induce right-hand walk, it's recommended to slow the RPM (if the hole
direction allows). Weight on bit may be simultaneously increased, if the hole inclination
allows.
PDC bits normally have a tendency to walk left. This should be allowed for when
planning the lead angle at the pre-kickoff stage. Again, experience in the area has to be
used in making this decision.
To increase rate of buildup, increase the weight on bit. This is normally the case.
However, when the WOB reaches a certain value, reverse bending may occur when using
a flexible buildup BHA (e.g. 90' between near-bit and bottom string stabilizers).
Suggested maximum value of WOB for 17 1/2" hole is 55,000 lbs. If inclination is not
building enough at this WOB, it's very unlikely that increasing the WOB will improve
the situation. Look to hydraulics or possibly POOH for a more limber hook-up.
It's vital that the DD observe the buildup rate carefully. Drilling parameters normally
have to be changed very often (typically after every survey). With MOOD, there's no
excuse for not keeping close control of buildup rate. The client normally will not
complain about the DD taking too many surveys. He will complain if the well goes off
course due to insufficient control by the DD!

10.3 BHA Equipment and Tools

It’s the responsibility of the DD to ensure that everything needed (within reason) for
future BHAs is available on the rig. This applies regardless of whether the tools come
from ANADRILL, the client or a third party. As stated in the DD UOP, the DD must
check all the directional equipment thoroughly on arrival at the rigsite. Additional
equipment must be ordered with plenty of lead time. Sufficient backup of motors, bent
subs, etc., should be at the wellsite.
For rotary BHAs, following are some suggestions:
1. A selection of stabilizers (normally a combination of sleeve- type and integral blade
design for 17-1/2" and smaller hole sizes) with 360 wall coverage should be
available.
2. Short drill collars are a vital component of a lockup BHA. If possible, a selection of
short collars (e.g. 5’, 10’ and 15) should be available. In addition, in a well where
magnetic interference from the drill-string (mud motor) is expected to be a problem
during the buildup phase, non-magnetic (rather than steel) short collars should be
provided
3. Check that the rig has sufficient drill collars and HWDP available.
4. Check that the client has sufficient bit nozzles of each size (including what’s needed
when running a mud motor).
5. Have at least one spare non-magnetic drill collar of each size. As NMDCs are more
prone to galling, damaged collars should be returned to the shop for
re-cutting/re-facing when replacements arrive.
6. Any crossover subs, float subs, bit subs etc. required later must be on the rig.
Think ahead! The DD should be thinking at least one BHA ahead!
10.4 Recap
1. To build inclination, always use a full-gauge nearbit stabilizer.
2. The more limber the bottom collar, the greater the buildup rate achievable.
3. Take frequent surveys (e.g. every single with MWD) during the buildup phase (all
wells) and the drop-off phase ("S"-type wells) in order to react quickly to unexpected
trends.
4. A jetting BHA is a modified buildup BHA. Don’t jet too far! Watch the WOB
available for jetting/spudding.
5. To drop inclination, either use an under-gauge near-bit (semi-drop BHA, for low
drop-off rate) or no near-bit (pendulum BHA, for sharp drop-off rate).
6. A locked BHA which is holding inclination with an under-gauge stabilizer above the
short collar will start to drop inclination if this stabilizer is made full -gauge.
7. In an “S”-type well, try to start the drop-off early using a semi-drop BHA. Change to
a pendulum BHA at, say, 15 inclination.
8. Try not to have to build inclination into the target - better to drop slowly into the
target.

9. Three stabilizers are normally sufficient in a BHA. In pendulum BHAs, two

stabilizers should suffice.
10. Use as few drill collars as possible. Use heavyweight drillpipe as remaining available
weight on bit.
11. Try to use a fairly standard (reasonably predictable) BHA. Do not try any “fancy"
BHAs in a new area. Get some experience in the field first!
12. “Gilligan” BHAs are not standard. Only use one when absolutely necessary.
13. DD should be on the drill floor when washing/working rotary BHA through kickoff
section in soft formation. Avoid sidetracking the well!
14. After a kickoff or correction run in medium and hard formations, ream carefully
through the motor run with the following rotary BHA until hole drag is normal.
15. In hard and/or abrasive formations, gauge stabilizers carefully when POOH. Replace
stabilizers as required. Check the bit. If bit is undergauge, reaming will be required!
Do not let the driller "pinch" the bit in hard formation.
16. Check all DD equipment before and after the job. It's good practice to caliper all the
DD tools and leave list on drill floor for drillers. Watch out for galled shoulders!
17. In potential differential sticking areas, minimize survey time. If using single-shot
surveys, reciprocate pipe. Leave pipe still only for minimum interval required.
18. A BHA which behaves perfectly in one area may act very differently in another area.
Local experience is essential in “fine-tuning" the BHAs!
19. Deciding when to POOH for a BHA change is one of DD's main responsibilities.
Ideally, this should coincide with a trip for bit change.
20. In the tangent section of a well, a BHA change may simply entail changing the sleeve
on the stabilizer directly above the short collar. The trick is - by how much does the
DD change the gauge? Sometimes a change in gauge of 1/16" may lead to a
significant change in BHA behavior!
21. High RPM "stiffens” the BHA- helps to stop walk due to formation tendencies.
22. It's usually easier to build inclination with lower RPM. However, DD may want to
use high RPM during buildup phase (for directional control). WOB is the major
drilling parameter influencing buildup rate.
23. To help initiate right-hand walk, it's advisable to use higher WOB and lower RPM.
24. In soft formation, it may be necessary to reduce mud flow rate to get sufficient WOB
and reduce hole washout. Be careful! Wash each joint/stand at normal (full) flow
rate before making the connection.
25. Reaming is effective in controlling buildup rate in soft formation. It becomes less
effective as formation gets harder. However, even in hard formation, reaming before
each connection helps keep hole drag low.
26. Lower dogleg severity = smoother wellbore = lower friction = lower rotary torque =
less keyseat problems = less wear on tubulars = less problems on trips. All these
things mean a happier client! however, we must hit the target also!

Section 11 - Drilling Operations
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
11 Drilling Operations Page

11.1 BHA WEIGHT .................................................................................................................11-2
11.2 TOOL HANDLING ............................................................................................................11-6
11.3 NUDGING ........................................................................................................................11-7
11.3.1 Nudging Techniques.............................................................................................11-7
11.4 ORIENTATION .................................................................................................................11-8
11.4.1 Reactive Torque....................................................................................................11-9
11.4.2 Magnetic and Gravity Tool Face ..........................................................................11-9
11.4.3 Single Shot Kickoff/Correction Run/Oriented Sidetrack .....................................11-13
11.4.3.1 Steering Tool ...............................................................................................11-13
11.4.3.2 Use of MWD Tool in PDM/TURBINE/STEERABLE BHA .....................11-14
11.4.3.3 GYRO Single-Shot Orientation ..................................................................11-14
11.4.3.4 Single-shot Kickoff Procedure ....................................................................11-14
11.5 CORRECTION RUNS.........................................................................................................11-16
11.6 THE OUIJA BOARD..........................................................................................................11-18
11.6.1.1 Ouija Board Calculations ............................................................................11-18
11.6.2 How to use the Ouija Board .................................................................................11-20
11.6.3 Typical uses of the Ouija Board ...........................................................................11-21
11.6.3.1 Estimating Dog Leg and Dog Leg Severity (DLS) .....................................11-21
11.6.3.2 Deflection tool calculations ........................................................................11-22
11.6.4 Ragland Diagram ..................................................................................................11-23
11.7 CONSTANT RATE OF TURN TO TARGET ..........................................................................11-23
11.7.1.1 Total Turn needed to hit Target ..................................................................11-24
11.7.2 Rate of Turn needed to hit Target.........................................................................11-25
11.7.3 Rate of Turn in Horizontal plane to hit Target .....................................................11-26
11.7.4 Procedure ..............................................................................................................11-26
11.8 CONSTANT RATE OF DROP/BUILD TO TARGET.................................................................11-27
11.8.1 Procedure ..............................................................................................................11-27
11.9 OPEN HOLE SIDETRACKING ............................................................................................11-28
11.9.1 Cement Job ...........................................................................................................11-29
11.9.2 Bit Selection for Sidetrack....................................................................................11-29
11.9.3 Open-hole Sidetracking Procedure .......................................................................11-29
11.9.4 Jetting BHA for Sidetracking ...............................................................................11-31
11.9.5 Low-side Sidetracking ..........................................................................................11-31
11.9.6 Steerable PDM......................................................................................................11-32
11.9.7 Turbodrill..............................................................................................................11-32
11.9.8 Open-hole Whip-stock..........................................................................................11-32
11.10 CASED HOLE SIDETRACKING ........................................................................................11-32

Table of Contents

Figure 11-1 Neutral point in the DC’s ................................................................................... 11-3
Figure 11-2 Concept of available WOB................................................................................. 11-3
Figure 11-3 Muleshoe orientation method ............................................................................. 11-8
Figure 11-4 Gravity tool face. .............................................................................................. 11-10
Figure 11-5 Relationships between GTF and hole direction. .............................................. 11-10
Figure 11-6 Relative of reactive torque and gravity. ........................................................... 11-11
Figure 11-7 Vector diagram showing dogleg required to change hole direction................. 11-19
Figure 11-8 The OUIJA board ............................................................................................. 11-20
Figure 11-9 Ragland diagram............................................................................................... 11-23
Figure 11-10 Calculating total turn to bit target................................................................... 11-24
Figure 11-11 Rate of drop/build to target ............................................................................ 11-27
List of Tables Page

Table 11-1 1:2 Lobe PDM Reactive Torque Estimates ........................................................ 11-12
Table 11-2 Deflection angle (Dog Leg Severity) in º/100 ft................................................ 11-18
Table 11-3 Sidetracking suggested BHAs to match downhole conditions ........................ 11-31

Drilling Operations
11 Drilling Operations
About this Chapter
A lot of the DD’s time is spend on the drill floor. His duties may involve supervising
BHA make-up, orienting, setting drilling parameters, doing a simple projection,
performing a sidetrack, nudging a well etc. This chapter is meant to cover the main areas
of DD “hands-on” responsibility during the course of drilling a directional well.
It is worthwhile to mention again that, during the time the DD is not on the drill floor,
the driller must have explicit instructions as to drilling parameters, BHA changes etc.
There must be good lines of communication with the drillers, toolpushers and, of course,
the drilling supervisor(s).
As steerable systems are in wide use today, it is vital that the drillers are educated in the
basics of PDM operation. They must be able to recognize, for example, when a PDM
stalls out. DWOB and DTOR are very useful tools, especially when using PDC bits.
Most drillers are willing to learn how to use this data. While the DD has to keep a close
watch on the drilling operation, he cannot be on the drill floor all the time! It is a good
idea to get the Anadrill MWD engineers familiar with some of the DD basics and
procedures.

exercises:
1. In a deviated well, show the relationship between the BHA weight in air and the
weight available to drill with.
2. Show how it is decided to pick up or lay down a BHA.
3. Explain what is meant by "nudging" in DD terminology.
4. Explain what is reactive torque. Show how the DD allows for it when setting the
tool-face.
5. In non-steerable PDM runs, explain what the DD actually orients.
6. Explain the influence the bit type has on reactive torque.
7. Show why, during a single-shot kickoff, it is advisable to keep a steady motor
differential pressure.
8. Explain the difference between MTF and GTF. Show when each one is used.
9. Show the difference between making a right-hand and a left-hand correction run,
from an orientation point of view.
10. Explain the influence hole inclination has on tool face setting.
11. Describe the mule-shoe method of orientation. Show all the components involved in
giving the DD a tool face reading on his survey disc.
12. Explain what is a Steering Tool. Show its uses and limitations.
13. Show how the angular offset between Anadrill MWD tool and the scribe line on the
bent sub is measured.

Drilling Operations
14. Explain whether or not it is advisable to orient a slow-speed PDM using single-shot
surveys.
15. Explain when and why gyro single-shot surveys are used.
16. Describe the procedure involved in doing a singleshot kickoff.
17. Show how the DD knows the hole direction at the bit when he decides the
single-shot kickoff is completed.
18. With 20 inclination in the hole, describe what effects the following tool face settings
(while drilling) have on hole inclination and direction:
20° Right
110° Right
45º Left
80º Left
135º Left
140º Right
19. Show how you decide whether a particular survey instrument is direct-reading or
indirect-reading.
20. Describe the factors involved in deciding if and when a correction run is necessary.
21. Show the effect hole inclination has on the rate of direction of change achieved
during a correction run.
11.1 BHA Weight

Before a BHA is designed, an estimate is made of the maximum weight on bit (WOB)
which will be required. This will depend on the bit specification and on the formation.
On reaching bottom, the WOB actually applied will also depend on the BHAs directional
response.
A BHA must be picked up which has an available WOB appropriate to the given
situation. The number of drill collars should be kept to the minimum. HWDP is used to
give the remainder of the required WOB.
The Neutral Point (N) of a drillstring is where the changeover from tension to
compression occurs. Everything below N is in compression. Everything above N is in
tension. Figure 11-1 shows a situation where N is in the DCs.
The weight per foot of each size of DC and HWDP is known. Thus, the weight in air of
any BHA is easily calculated. However, we must then correct this weight to actual
downhole conditions in a deviated well.
In any well, the buoyancy effect of the mud on the drillstring must be accounted for. A
table of values of Buoyancy Factor (BF) is available (Chapter 15). The higher the mud
weight, the lower the value of BF and the smaller the weight available for use on WOB.
Buoyancy can have a significant effect on the WOB calculation. In 14 ppg mud, 21% of
the weight in air is “lost” due to buoyancy.

Drilling Operations
Lnp - Distance from bit

to neutral point, ft.
Drill Pipe
WOB = Weight on bit,

lbs.
Neutral
N
Point
f = Buoyancy factor
Lnp WOB
Drill
Collars
W = Unit weight of DC,

lbs/ft. Lnp = WOB
Wxf
Figure 11-1 Neutral point in the DC’s
In Figure 11-2, an object weight W is shown lying on a plane inclined at an angle a. W

can be divided into two components, one perpendicular to the plane and the other
parallel to the plane. The perpendicular force P will tend to hold the object against the
plane. It creates the friction. The parallel force L will tend to slide the object down the
plane. L is the remaining force available from the weight of the object. L is thus the
component of W which is usable as weight.
L = W • cos a
In deviated wells, the inclination must be allowed for in the calculation of available
WOB.
Available WOB = (Buoyed BHA Weight) • (cos Inclination)
α
L
Figure 11-2 Concept of available WOB
Thus, in a well having an inclination of 45º, the BHA weight available as WOB is only
71% of that available if the well were vertical.

Drilling Operations
Drill pipe must not be run in compression in a non-horizontal well. To ensure that the
drill pipe is always in tension, the neutral point must be either in the HWDP or in the
DCs. Obviously, the lower the WOB, the closer to the bit N is. Therefore, the BHA must
be designed to account for the worst case i.e. when maximum WOB is applied.
A Safety Factor (SF) is used, if practical, in the calculation of the BHA weight required.
This is usually 10%.
Consider a well having an inclination a.
Available WOB + SF
BHA Weight in Air =
BF • cos a
A tapered drillstring may be used. This normally involves use of two (or more) sizes of
DCs below the HWDP. The WOB calculation is done as above, allowing for the
different DC weights.
Finally, the position of the drilling jars must be considered. The EQ jar trip mechanism
should be 5,000 lbs. in tension to avoid a neutral point location. For optimum down-hit
performance, the jars should be positioned so that there is at least 5,000 lbs. BHA weight
above them. Use 20,000 lbs. of drillpipe slack-off to obtain in the 8” free stroke required
by the EQ Jar tripping mechanism. The jars can be run in tension or in compression in
the BHA. If 6 1/4” or 6 1/2” EQ jars are run in compression, they are often placed close
to the bottom of the 5” HWDP. 7 3/4” and larger sizes would be placed in the drill
collars.
Example
12 1/4” hole; 30º inclination; Azimuth N25ºW; MW = 12 ppg. Design a tapered BHA
designed to hold inclination. 6 1/2” EQ jars will be run in tension. We only need 1x30’
NMDC above MWD. Maximum WOB required is 45,000 lbs. Use a 10% safety factor.
Note
The bottom part of the BHA (that which gives the directional response) is chosen based
on experience in the area.
(Re quired WOB + SF)

Wt. of BHA below jars =
BF ⋅ cos Inclination
( 45,000 + 4,500)
= = 69,960 lbs.
(0.817) • cos 30°
8” x 2 13/16” DC weighs 4642.6 lbs. per 31 ft length
6 1/2” x 2 1/2” DC weighs 2979.8 lbs. per 31 ft length
5” x 3” HWDP weighs 1480 lbs. per 30 ft length
Note
A useful “rule of thumb” when doing a preliminary WOB calculation is:
One stand of 5" x 3" HWDP weighs approximately the same
as one 8" x 2 13/16" x 30' drill collar.

Drilling Operations
The bottom 120 ft will determine the directional response of the BHA. There are several
possibilities of making up the total BHA weight required.
8x 8" DC = 37,140 lbs.
6 x 6 1/2" DC = 17,878 lbs.
11 x 5" HWDP = 16,280 lbs.
Total BHA Weight in Air = 71,300 lbs.
Note
NMDCs and MWD collar can be included as part of the 8" DCs.
A typical BHA could be:
12 1/4” Bit+ 12 1/4” NB Stab+ 8” SDC+ 12 1/8'' Stab + MWD + PRS + 12 1/4” Stab
+ 1 x 8” NMDC + 6 x 8” DC + X/O + 6 x 6 1/2’ DC + X/O + 11 x 5' HWDP +
Flex Joint + 6 1/2” EQ Jars + 9 x 5” HWDP.
Note
From the point of view of EQ jar position, the following general precautions apply:
• In tension: The worst case is when the WOB is maximum. Thus, the jars must
be far enough away from the bit to maintain a minimum tension of 5,000 lbs. at
the trip mechanism. As WOB is reduced, the jars go further into tension.
• In compression: The worst case is when the WOB is maximum, because the
tension at the jar trip mechanism is decreased. The jars must be far enough away
from the bit to allow for this case. As the WOB is increased, the jar trip
mechanism is put closer to the 5,000 lbs. tension minimum.
In designing the BHA, the jars should be positioned so that the worst case is allowed for.
However, this is not always practical. When drilling conditions necessitate a large
variation in WOB, the EQ jar trip mechanism may be close to the 5,000 lbs. minimum
tension at some stage. The duration of such a drilling condition should be minimized
and, if possible, avoided.
In practice, a good compromise is to position the EQ Jars close to the bottom of the
HWDP. Even if the jars are in compression in the BHA, it is unlikely that the trip
mechanism will have 5,000 lbs. tension on it while drilling.
In conclusion, ref. EQ Jar position in the BHA, there are only two restrictions:
1. The EQ Jar’s trip mechanism must always be 5,000 lbs. in tension while drilling. The
EQ Jars can be run "in compression" from the viewpoint of weight on bit. However,
the buoyed, inclined weight slacked-off above the EQ Jars while drilling must be at
least 5,000 lbs. less than the Pump Extension Force of the EQ Jar.
2. There must be 5,000 lbs. BHA weight above the EQ Jars, in order to have some mass
for jarring impact. This 5,000 lbs., together with 20,000 lbs. of drill pipe slack-off
weight above the BHA, gives the minimum DOWN setting for the EQ Jar. This is
covered in more detail in Chapter 6.

Drilling Operations
11.2 Tool Handling

The DD should be on the drill floor when a directional BHA is being laid down or picked
up. The following rules should be observed. Rig floor safety procedures must be strictly
adhered to.
1. A copy of the next BHA should be given to the driller and the assistant driller in
advance. The tools to be picked up should be marked and identified to the assistant
driller (or, possibly, the crane operator). There must be no confusion about what’s to
be laid down/picked up.
2. A crane must be used when handling PDMs, NMDCs, DCs, Stabilizers, EQ jars etc.
On land rigs, great care must be taken not to allow tools to be damaged by using the
cathead or a fork-lift.
3. Ensure all DD tools have thread protectors fitted, especially when they’re being
picked up or laid down.
4. Do not obstruct the driller’s view when handling a BHA. Never stand between the
driller and the rotary table.
5. Be aware of any activity on the drill floor and in the derrick. Wear all appropriate
safety gear (hard hat, boots, coveralls, safety glasses, gloves)
6. Plan (in consultation with the driller) the most efficient and sensible way to pick
up/lay down the BHA.
7. Before POOH, ensure that the driller is aware of what BHA components you need in
slips when he reaches the bit. The driller will then decide (based on his pipe tally)
whether to POOH "on a single", “on a double" or "on even stands".
8. Inspect the face of each BHA component for damage before torquing the connection.
Minor shoulder damage may be repaired by filing the shoulder carefully. Check for
thread damage also. NMDCs are particularly prone to galling. If in doubt, lay out the
component and pick up a replacement.
9. Ensure that the proper drill collar compound is used on every component below the
HWDP. The dope brush and thread compound container should be kept as clean as
possible.
10. Check the makeup torque of each connection. The length of the tong arm should be
known. If the makeup torque sensor is broken, the driller will use the "EZY-TORQ"
(if available). In any case, an accurate reading of tong line pull (and hence makeup
torque) must be taken before the driller is allowed to proceed further. This
sometimes involves rig down-time, while the hose or sensor is being repaired or
replaced.
11. When changing stabilizer sleeves, use of a hammer is sometimes necessary. Ensure
that the roughneck using the hammer has eye protection. Everybody else should
stand well clear, out of danger.
12. The driller should not use the weight of the NMDCs to force a float valve (placed on
top of the bit) into the near-bit stabilizer. This method can lead to the float valve
rubber seal being forced into the area between the bit and stabilizer threads. When
the bit is torqued up, the threads will be destroyed on both bit and stabilizer. The
float bore on the stabilizer should be cleaned out, doped and the valve installed on
the drill floor, checking that it has gone in past the thread area.

Drilling Operations
13. Stay clear of the rotary table when the driller opens the BOP.
14. The MWD engineer normally supervises the picking up/laying down of the MWD
collar. If he’s not available, the DD should ensure that the MWD collar is handled
carefully.
15. Mud motors must be handled with special care. The lift sub on the PDM should not
be used for handling other tools.
16. Be careful not to omit the baffle plate (TOTCO ring) from the BHA, if appropriate.
17. Occasionally the DD may be asked by the company representative to grade the bit
when POOH. While bit grading is subjective, it is important for the DD’s credibility
that his opinion of the bit condition makes sense.
18. Good relations between the DD and the driller are vital to the success of any
directional job! The DD should work with the driller, not act superior. Cooperation
leads to success!
11.3 Nudging
The technique of nudging is used on platforms in order to “spread out" conductors and
surface casings and thereby minimize the chance of a collision when wells are drilled.
Basically, when the surface hole is drilled, some inclination is built at a low rate (e.g.
1/100') in the chosen direction. Because of magnetic interference, single-shot gyro
surveys are used for orientation.
Other applications of nudging are:

1. to drill from a slot located on the opposite side of a platform from the target, when
there are other wells in between.
2. to keep wells which are drilled in the same general direction as far apart as possible.
3. in cases where the target displacement is large compared to the total vertical depth.
Building inclination right below the surface conductor helps to keep the buildup rate
and maximum angle manageable.
11.3.1 Nudging Techniques

• When the formation is soft, jetting is the safest technique to use where accurate
survey information on surrounding wells is not available. Use of a PDM in this
case might be vetoed because of the danger of drilling into an adjacent well.
• The most common method is to use a PDM. There are two possibilities:
– Use a 17 1/2" bit and 9 5/8" PDM with 1-1/2° bent sub. This combination
will give a low dogleg severity. The hole is opened out to the required gauge
after the motor run.
– Use a 26" bit and 9 5/8" PDM. In this case, a bent sub with a bigger offset
(e.g. 2°) would be required. It is difficult to build inclination in the large hole
size in soft formation. It also puts abnormal wear on the PDM.
On a multiwell template/platform, it is often considered more efficient to batch-drill all
the surface sections of the wells (36" and 26" hole phases, for example). In this case, the
PDM nudging assembly can be racked in the derrick while surface casing is being run.
After all the 20" casing strings have been set, the wells can be drilled to TD in turn.

Drilling Operations
11.4 Orientation
A PDM/bent sub BHA may be used for kicking off wells, for correction runs or for
sidetracks. A typical kickoff/ correction / sidetrack BHA is as follows:
Bit + PDM + Bent sub + Float sub + Orienting Sub (UBHO) + Non-magnetic DCs +
Steel DCs + HWDP + DP.
Correct deflection and direction of the hole can only be accomplished by accurate
orientation of the motor. The direction in which the tool should be faced in order to get a
certain result can be found using the OUIJA BOARD. This uses vector diagrams. The
uses of the Ouija Board are explained elsewhere in this chapter. It can be found
mathematically also.
Protective Case
Tool Face
Indicator
in Compass/
Angle Unit
Instrument
NMDC
Scribe Line
Combined Bent/
Orienting Sub
O-Ring
Orienting Sleeve
Allen Screws
Extension Bar
Muleshoe
Downhole
Motor
Key
Orienting
Sleeve
Figure 11-3 Muleshoe orientation method

Drilling Operations
In order to actually know how the scribe line on the bent sub is faced, some method of
surveying must be used. The survey should give us Inclination, Direction and Tool Face.
In all cases, the bent sub scribe line is the master reference for the tool face. Up until
reliable MWD tools arrived, orientation was normally done using MMO (Magnetic
Method of Orientation) or Mule Shoe method. MMO is seldom, if ever, used today. In
places where single-shot kickoffs are performed, the mule shoe method is what’s used.
The components of the mule shoe orientation method are illustrated in Figure 11-3. Hole
inclination, direction and tool face are read from the survey disc. The tool face is an
indication of the position of the bent sub scribe line. A decision on where to set the set
the tool face next is based on interpretation of the result of the last setting(s).
11.4.1 Reactive Torque

Reactive torque is created by the drilling mud pushing against the stator. When drilling
with a PDM, as weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling torque created by the motor
increases. There is a corresponding counter-clockwise torque on the motor housing. This
tries to twist the motor and, hence, the whole BHA counter-clockwise. This changes the
facing of the bent sub, i.e., the tool face orientation.
The big disadvantage of using a PDM/bent sub deflection method is that reactive torque
makes it difficult to keep a steady tool face. Using single-shot surveys, the DD must
estimate the magnitude of the reactive torque. He initially sets the tool face to the right of
the desired tool face position by that angular distance, so that the reactive torque will
allow the bit to drill off in the correct direction. This is one area where the "art" of the
DD comes into play.
On-bottom drilling parameters, especially pump pressure, should be kept constant when
using a PDM. This should lead to constant reactive torque and a steady tool face
(provided there are no formation changes).
Reducing the flow rate leads to less reactive torque. Reducing WOB also leads to less
reactive torque. Finally, use of a less aggressive bit means less reactive torque.
With the jetting deflection method, reactive torque does not apply. However, there is a
tendency for the bit to screw to the right during jetting. Usually this is no more than 20°.
It can be easily compensated for when the tool face is set.
11.4.2 Magnetic and Gravity Tool Face

From vertical until approximately 5° inclination, gravity forces are minimal. A borehole
does not have a well-defined high side (or low side). Until this point, the tool face is set
relative to North (e.g. N45W). This is called the Magnetic Tool Face (MTF) setting.
Above 5° inclination, the tool face is set using the high side of the hole as the reference.
This is called High Side Tool Face or Gravity Tool Face (GTF) setting. Exactly the same
convention applies whether we're using single-shot surveys, MWD or a Steering Tool.
If a plumb-bob were suspended in the hole, gravity forces would force it to hang toward
the low side of the hole. The high side of the hole is 180° away from the low side of the
hole.

Drilling Operations
Gravity Tool Face Orientation

(High Side)
Maximum Build
0˚
Build/Left Turn Build/Right Turn
Maximum Maximum
Left Turn Right Turn
Drop/Left Turn Drop/Right Turn
180˚
Maximum Drop
Figure 11-4 Gravity tool face.
GTF orientation is represented by Figure 11-4. In Figure 11-5, various positions of the
tool face relative to the high side of the hole are shown. If GTF were exactly at 0° while
drilling with a PDM, no change in hole direction would occur. All of the bent sub or bent
housing dog-leg capability would be used to increase hole inclination. Conversely, if
GTF were exactly at 180° while drilling with a PDM, no change in hole direction would
occur. All of the bent sub dog-leg capability would be used to drop hole inclination.
Figure 11-5 is an idealized representation of GTF; there are some rules of thumb.
High Side Bent Sub

of Hole
Courses That
the Wellbore
Could Take by
Rotating the
Drill String and
Bent Sub
Figure 11-5 Relationships between GTF and hole direction.

Drilling Operations
a) Above 30° inclination and when using a bent sub and PDM, at tool face settings
60° away from high side, the hole will normally drop inclination as well as turn.
At higher inclinations, this effect is even more evident.
b) When turning left, the effect is most pronounced, as the reactive torque acts in
the same direction as the weight of the BHA and tends to "flop-over" the motor
(Figure 11-6). Thus, particularly when doing a left-hand correction, great care
should be taken in setting the tool face. If the tool “flops-over", a severe dogleg
can result due to the hole dropping inclination while turning left. The higher the
inclination, the greater the damage that can be done. Unconsolidated formation
(e.g. loose Sand) will lead to a significant drop in inclination due to hydraulic
erosion.
Left-Hand Right-Hand
Correction Correction
High Side
i v e T or q u e R e a ct i
a ct ve
To
Re rq
ue
i ty F o
rc e G r a v i ty F or c
av e
Gr
Figure 11-6 Relative of reactive torque and gravity.
c) A "perfect” correction run is where we POOH with the same inclination as when
we started i.e. All of the dogleg capability of the bent sub was used to turn the
well. In this case, the dogleg severity achieved is the minimum possible when
using this bit/PDM/bent sub combination. In practice, while the ideal case is
rarely achieved, it is possible for a good DD to bring about minimal inclination
change during a correction run. As a rule of thumb, it is safer to build (rather
than drop) inclination slightly during a correction run. The inclination can be
dropped off (if required) afterwards using a rotary BHA.
d) Based on the above, the DD should anticipate some drop in inclination at
settings greater than 60° from high side. There are charts of expected reactive
torque at various depths and inclinations available from most PDM
manufacturers (Table 11-1).

Drilling Operations
Table 11-1 1:2 Lobe PDM Reactive Torque Estimates

K.O.P Estimated Left Torque for Vertical Hole
K.O.P Depth Estimated Torque

0 - 500’ 20° Left Torque
500'- 1000' 25° Left Torque
1000' - 1500' 35° Left Torque
1500'- 5000' 50° Left Torque
5000'- Total Depth 10°/1000'
Directional Change Estimated Torque Based on a
95° Whipstock Setting for Maximum Turn
Tool Face Settings
From High Side of Hole
Depth Hole Drift For For
Angle Left Turn Right Turn

From Surface to 1,000’ 2° to 5° 40° Left 140° Right
5° to 10° 30° Left 135° Right
10° to 15° 15° Left 130° Right
15° to 20° 10° Left 125° Right
20° to 25° 5° Left 120° Right
25° to 30° 0º 115° Right
30° to 35° 5° Right 110° Right
Above 35° 5° Right 105° Right
From 1,000, to 2,000' 2° to 5° 30° Left 155° Right
5° to 10° 20° Left 140° Right
10° to 15° 10° Left 135° Right
15° to 20° 5° Left 130° Right
20° to 25° 0º 125° Right
Above 35° 10° Right 110º Right
From 2,000' to T.D. 2° to 5° 25° Left 180° Right
5° to 10° 15° Left 170º Right
10° to 15° 5° Left 165° Right
15° to 20° 0º Left 145° Right
25° to 30° 10º Right 115° Right
When doing a left-hand correction, assume that higher reactive torque will occur than
estimated on the PDM guidelines. Set the tool face accordingly. If the tool face while
drilling leads to an increase in inclination while turning left (i.e. less reactive torque
occurred than allowed for), the DD can set the next tool face a bit further left.
When doing a right-hand correction, assume that less reactive torque will occur than
estimated on the PDM guidelines. Set the tool face accordingly. If the tool face while
drilling leads to an increase in inclination while turning right (i.e. more reactive torque
occurred than allowed for), the DD can set the next tool face a bit further right.
It is normally considered easier to perform a right-hand correction than a left-hand
correction, because of the above.

Drilling Operations
The objective in both cases is to ensure that the correction run is started properly. If the
first joint is drilled off with the correct tool face setting, the bent sub will lie in this
groove and tends to stay there. Minor corrections to tool facing are then easily achieved.
The hole will be turned smoothly. It is seen from Table 11-1 that, as hole inclination
increases, tool face setting becomes more critical.
11.4.3 Single Shot Kickoff/Correction Run/Oriented Sidetrack

This is probably the single most difficult and most critical part of the DD’s job. We will
deal here with magnetic (non-gyro) situation.
In the mule shoe orientation method, there are five components involved in giving the
DD the Tool Face on his Magnetic Single-Shot survey disc (see Figure 11-3).
a) The scribe-line on the bent sub.
b) The key of the UBHO sleeve (align exactly above a).
c) The mule shoe stinger at the bottom of the survey Running-Gear. The groove of
the mule shoe lands on b).
d) The position of the T-head of the snubber at the top of the survey Running-Gear.
This should be aligned exactly with the center of the groove on the mule shoe
when the survey orientation running gear is made up.
e) The tail on the cross-hairs (in case of Sperry-Sun instrument) on the glass of the
compass/angle unit. in other instruments, it may be an arrow or a short, heavy
line. This will be 180° away from d).
Note
To give a positive indication that the Mule Shoe has landed successfully on b), a Lead
Slug (Tell-Tale) is inserted in a hole at the top of the groove in the mule shoe. This is
checked every time a Single-Shot survey is run.
11.4.3.1Steering Tool
Uses a single-conductor wireline (continuous Tool Face readings on surface equipment).
Either Analog or Digital displays are available.
• Uses similar alignment system to Single-Shot (Mule Shoe groove seats on Key
of sleeve inside special full-Flow UBHO sub).
• Reactive Torque can be seen very clearly with Analog Display.
• Can use either Circulating Head (drill 1 stand at a time) or Side-Entry Sub with
Standoff for Kelly Bushing.
• Can only be used in oriented (non-rotary) drilling.
• Has a facility to "trigger" a film-disc magnetic singleshot survey downhole
before being pulled out at the end of the motor run. This is a useful means of
double-checking the last survey given by the steering tool.

Drilling Operations
11.4.3.2Use of MWD Tool in PDM/TURBINE/STEERABLE BHA

1. Much easier for the DD. However, offset angle (clockwise, looking downhole) from
MWD Tool Face Reference around to position of Bent Sub Scribe Line must be
measured accurately. This offset is then entered into MWD surface computer. Tool
Face readings on MWD Surface Readout will therefore give the position of the bent
sub scribe line either as a magnetic tool face (below 5º inclination) or as a gravity
tool face (when a good High Side of the hole has been established).
2. In case of MWD Tool failure (and to allow a Single-Shot check of hole Inclination,
Direction and Tool Face to be run, if required) a UBHO Sub is sometimes run
directly above the MWD.
• Key of UBHO Sleeve is aligned exactly above Bent Sub Scribe-Line (after all
connections are torqued up).
• Single-Shot Survey Disc will therefore give the same information as if doing
Single-Shot Orientation. (Only difference is that we are further back from the bit
with our survey).
Note
In all cases (Single-Shot, Steering Tool or MWD) the bent sub scribe line is the master
reference for our tool face. After all, the position of the bent sub scribe line (and thus the
response of the PDM/Turbine to hold, build or drop inclination and turn the hole left or
right or neither) is what we wish to set in a certain position, regardless of what type of
survey system is used.
Note
With a Steerable Motor/Turbine, what we wish to see is the position of the scribe-line
(which is at the center of the offset on the actual motor body). This is the only difference
from orienting a straight PDM/Bent Sub combination.
Note
Because of their high Torque output, it is normally considered impractical to attempt to
orient a Steerable Motor using Single-Shot method. Use an MWD if possible.
11.4.3.3GYRO Single-Shot Orientation

a) Uses same UBHO sub/sleeve/key as with Magnetic Single-Shot orientation.
b) Uses a mule shoe stinger at bottom of Survey Running Gear (same system as
with Magnetic Single-Shot orientation).
c) Remainder of gyro Running Gear is different from (but equivalent to) that of
Magnetic Single-Shot system.
d) Normally, this system is only used at shallow depths, when close to other
wells/conductors. As soon as magnetic interference has declined to an acceptable
level, change over to magnetic single-shot or (if available) MWD surveys.
11.4.3.4Single-shot Kickoff Procedure

1. Make up kickoff BHA. (See Chapter 7). Run in hole.

Drilling Operations
2. On reaching bottom, circulate briefly. Rack back kelly, work torque out of drillstring
using unlocked elevators.
3. Put in slips.
4. Put a chalk mark on the drillpipe in slips (in driller’s line of sight) in line with a fixed
chalk mark on the frame of the rotary table. The position of the mark on the pipe will
be changed later as desired. The fixed mark will remain our surface tool face
reference point.
5. Run orientation survey on slick-line.
6. Read survey. Inclination will be very low. Hole direction will be subjective. What’s
important is Tool Face. Read tool face accurately - As there is no high side, tool face
has a direction, e.g., S50°W. Read and record Inclination, Direction and MTF.
7. Allowing for reactive torque from the motor and expected formation walk later in the
well (i.e. a certain lead angle required), calculate where the tool face must be set in
order for the bit to drill off along the desired direction, e.g., target direction is
N30°W; estimated PDM reactive torque is 40; lead angle is 8° left.
Desired hole direction is N38°W.
Required tool face setting is N2°E.
8. Turn the drillstring by the angular amount necessary to set the tool face in the right
direction. In above case, turn the pipe 130° to the right. Erase original mark on
drillpipe. Replace with a new mark in line with the fixed reference.
9. Work the drillstring using the locked elevators.
10. Take a check orientation survey (check shot) .
11. Read the survey. The tool face should be close to the desired setting.
12. Make up kelly. Transfer mark from drillpipe up to kelly bushing. Put in kelly
bushing. Lock rotary table, ensuring that the fixed and movable chalk marks are
aligned.
13. Drill the single down. Observe normal precautions when using a PDM. Try to keep
on-bottom pump pressure constant, in order to keep reactive torque steady.
14. Make the connection carefully. Try not to rotate the pipe. Transfer the movable mark
carefully on to the new joint of drillpipe. The bent sub should align itself in the hole
close to the position it had while the last single was being drilled.
15. Take a survey. Read inclination, direction and tool face.
16. Reset the tool face if required. The reactive torque achieved may be different than
that expected.
17. If only a small angular change in tool face was made, it should not be necessary to
take a check shot. Work the torque down to the bit and drill another joint (rotary
table locked).
18. Repeat steps 13-17. No more than two singles should be drilled between surveys.
19. When about 5° inclination is reached, use Gravity Tool Face. Be careful when
reading the survey disc. Eastman and Sperry Sun instruments are in direct reading
(East and West are reversed on the survey disc). The Humphrey single- shot
instrument is direct-reading.

Drilling Operations
Note
It’s very important to remember that the single-shot surveys are taken approximately
45’-50’ back from the bit. We must allow for the effect of the tool face setting in this
“rat-hole" which is not yet surveyed.
20. When about 15° inclination has been reached in soft formation (8° in hard formation)
with the desired hole direction, the BHA can be POOH.
Note
Because single-shot surveys are taken about 50’ back from the bit, the only way to be
sure that the hole direction at the bit is the same as what we read on the survey disc is to
drill the last two singles with the tool face along High Side. If the tool face is not close to
high side when drilling the last 2 singles, there may be a significant difference between
the hole direction on our last survey before POOH and that of the first survey taken with
the rotary BHA which follows the PDM. In addition, the bit may follow the trend left by
the bent sub (either left or right).This could lead to a correction run later.
Thus, every effort must be made by the DD to ensure that the hole direction is “lined-up"
properly before he ends the kickoff. Even if it means drilling to 20° or more with the
PDM, it may be worth it (provided it's done in a reasonable time-scale).
21. Follow up with a rotary build-up BHA. Build inclination to maximum angle.
Note
If no gyro single-shot instrument is available, it is feasible to use a known direction (rig
heading) to help in the initial orientation. After the kickoff BHA has been made up, the
bent sub scribe line is marked and aligned in the known direction. As the driller runs
slowly to bottom, the mark is very carefully transferred from stand to stand. This
technique is known as “stoking". At shallow kickoff points, the cumulative error should
be <20°. The tool face mark (which has been carried up from the bent sub scribe line) is
then turned to the desired setting. After a few singles have been drilled, it should be
possible to use magnetic surveys for orientation (MWD).
11.5 Correction Runs

Deciding if a correction run is required is one of the DD’s most important duties. It is
relatively straightforward. If it appears that the target will be missed, either a target
extension or a correction run is called for. Deciding when to do the correction run is not
so clear-cut. The DD’s experience comes into play. Following are some rules of thumb:
1. Do not do the correction too soon. The well may continue to walk after the PDM is
POOH. A second correction may thus be required later. This means too many trips.
A well may stop walking (or even walk in the opposite direction) at a certain point.
Therefore, give the formation tendencies a chance to show themselves before
deciding to run the motor.

Drilling Operations
Note
Sometimes the client may prefer to do the correction run before setting casing i.e. “case
off the correction run” rather than wait until the next phase of hole. Each situation has
to be looked at and suggestions made to the client. There should be no
misunderstandings between the DD and the client. Try not to make more than one
correction run per well!
2. Do not leave the correction too late. The closer we get to the target, the more
direction change is required to hit a given point.
3. A typical correction run should be for 5°-12° direction change. This would
normally mean drilling between 5 and 12 singles with the PDM. Normally, anything
< 5° means a very short bit run. Anything >12° (unless hole inclination is low) takes
a long time and could take more than one bit run.
4. Try to do the correction run before the formation gets too hard. The harder the
formation, the slower the ROP.
5. Choose the correct bent sub. Data is available from the PDM manufacturers giving
the estimated dogleg severity (DLS) achievable from various bit/PDM/bent sub
combinations. Do not use a bigger bent sub than required.
Example: 12-1/4" hole. Hole inclination is 35°. We need to change hole direction by 8°,
while holding inclination.
Using a 7-3/4" PDM in 12-1/4" hole, a 1-1/2° bent sub would give an expected DLS of
2.5°/100' (Table 11-2).
Use the API dogleg equation:
100
DLS = x cos-1 (sin ∅1 • sin ∅2 •·cos A + cos ∅1 •·cos ∅2) °/100’
L
Bent Sub Assembly
where:
∅1 = hole inclination at start of interval
∅2 = hole inclination at end of interval
A = change in hole direction over the interval
L = course length.
At 35° inclination this would mean an estimated rate of turn of 4.4°/100'.
Thus we could expect to do an “8° correction”, for example, in about 200' (say 7 joints).

Drilling Operations
Table 11-2 Deflection angle (Dog Leg Severity) in º/100 ft.

BENT SUB ASSEMBLY
5" PDM 6-1/2" PDM 7-3/4" PDM 9 5/8" PDM 12" PDM
Bent Sub Hole Deflection Hole Size Deflection Hole Deflection Hole Deflection Hole Deflection
Angle Size Angle Angle Size Angle Size Angle Size Angle
1° 6" 3° 30' 8-3/4" 2° 30' 9-7/8" 2° 30' 13-1/2" 2° 00' 17-1/2" 2° 00’
1-1/2° 4° 45' 3° 30' 3° 45' 3° 00' 4° 00'
2° 5°30' 4°30' 5°00' 4°30' 5°30'
1° 6-3/4" 3° 00' 9-7/8” 1° 45' 10-5/8" 2° 00' 15" 1° 45’ 22" 2° 00'
1-1/2° 3° 00' 3° 30' 2° 30' 3° 15'
2° 5° 00' 3° 45' 4°15' 3° 45' 4° 00'
2-1/2° 5° 45' 5° 00' 5° 30' 5° 00'
1° 7-7/8" 2° 30' 10-5/8" 1° 15' 12-1/4" 1° 45' 17-1/2” 1° 15' 26" 1° 45’
1-1/2° 3° 30' 2° 00' 2° 30' 2° 15' 3° 00'
2° 4°30' 3°00' 3°30' 3°00' 3°30'
2-1/2° 5° 30' 4° 00' 5° 00' 4° 30'
6. For hole sizes greater than 8-1/2”, use either a 1 1/2° or a 2° bent sub for the
correction run. Occasionally, in larger hole sizes (e.g. 17-1/2") in very soft
formation, a 2-1/2° bent sub might be needed to get sufficient dogleg severity.
7. The greater the hole inclination, the slower the rate of turn, for a given dogleg
severity. This can be seen from the above dogleg equation. At higher inclinations
(usually above 40°), the 2° bent sub should be used. Otherwise, the correction run
takes too long.
8. As we know how much direction change is required, and we know the expected
dogleg severity, we have a close estimate of how many singles will be needed to do
the correction.
9. Bit choice is important. Estimate how many singles are needed to do the correction.
This gives a good idea of the PDM drilling hours needed to perform the correction.
Use a bit that will allow the correction to be done in one bit run.
10. Try not to drop inclination during the correction run (as discussed elsewhere in
this chapter). Use the bent sub to turn the hole smoothly. (This is obviously easier
when using an MWD tool!). Hole inclination can be dropped off later, if required,
using a rotary BHA.
11.6 The Ouija Board

11.6.1.1Ouija Board Calculations
Predicting the outcome of a mud motor run is essential for planning steering course
corrections. When using a mud motor, the survey point is normally 45 to 60 feet above
the bit, and the build and turn rate below this point must be calculated.
A tool which can be used to determine the performance of the mud motor is referred to
as the Ragland diagram or in its slide-rule form, the Ouija Board (so named for its ability
to predict the future). A programmable calculator can quite easily be programmed to give
the same information as the Ouija Board.
The Ouija Board is based on the simple vector diagram shown on Figure 11-7. A vector
has magnitude and direction. The inclination vector has a magnitude equal to the hole
inclination with a direction equal to hole direction.

Drilling Operations
io n
i n at
In c l
eg
N ew
D og L
Æ
Direction Change
Initial Inclination
Æ = Tool Face Orientation Relative to High Side

Figure 11-7 Vector diagram showing dogleg required to change hole
direction
The following observations can be made from the vector diagram.

1. For a given dog leg, the change in direction which can be achieved decreases with
increasing inclination.
2. When there is no change in direction between survey stations, the change in
inclination becomes the dog leg.
There are 5 scales on the Ouija Board (Figure 11-8). These are:
a) Previous Drift Angle. This normally has 2 scales (0-30 and 20-60)
b) Dog Leg (Semicircles)
c) Direction Change. This is the outside scale.
d) New Drift Angle. This is the rotating scale.
e) Tool Rotation. Radial lines originating from the center of the dog leg
semicircles show the Tool Face setting (0° - 180° from High Side). The scale is
marked on the outer dog leg semicircle.
We need to know 3 of these 5 values, then use the Ouija Board to find the other 2.
Note
The semicircles are dog leg semicircles. They give the dog leg (in degrees) for the
interval (course length) being considered. They are not dog leg severity semicircles. The
only time they give dog leg severity (DLS) directly is when a course length of 100’ is
being considered.
Dog Leg X 100

Dog Leg Severity ( °/100') =
Course Length
When using a PDM/bent sub BHA, we have a good estimate for the expected dog leg
severity (DLS), either from the PDM manual or previous experience in the area. We can
convert DLS to dog leg for the interval being considered when using the Ouija Board. As
we drill ahead, the actual DLS achieved may change due to hole inclination and/or
formation. We can update the dog leg input to the Ouija Board accordingly.

Drilling Operations
Figure 11-8 The OUIJA board
11.6.2 How to use the Ouija Board

There are several ways to use the Ouija Board. There are many possible combinations of
what may be known and what needs to be calculated.

Drilling Operations
However, in each case, the procedure is as follows:

1. Set Previous Drift Angle (in window) to the known value.
2. Locate your other two known values on the Ouija Board.
3. Read off the two unknown values from the Ouija Board.
Note
Obviously, the Ouija Board can not tell us the reactive torque. The actual off-bottom
(static) Tool Face setting of the deflecting tool to achieve any given result has to be
further right than the value got from the Ouija Board. The difference is the reactive
torque of the deflecting tool.
Note
We only use the Ouija Board at inclinations >5°, i.e.. when a good high side has been
established in the hole.
11.6.3 Typical uses of the Ouija Board
11.6.3.1Estimating Dog Leg and Dog Leg Severity (DLS)

In this case, we would have two successive surveys of Measured Depth, Inclination and
Direction. Course Length is easily calculated.
1. Set value of inclination at first survey station on "Previous Drift Angle" scale.
2. Set rotating scale to appropriate division on "Resultant Direction Change” on outside
scale.
3. Locate the value of the second inclination on the "New Drift Angle” ruler.
4. Read off the dog leg where the second inclination intersects the dog leg semicircle.
Note
The actual dog leg may fall between two dog leg semicircles. In this case, we estimate
the value.
5. Normalize the dog leg to 100' course length to find DLS.
Find the Tool Face setting to give a desired turn while building (or dropping) angle.
In this case, we know the previous drift angle and desired direction change. We choose a
course length. Using the appropriate DLS value, we thus can find the dog leg. We now
have 3 inputs to the Ouija Board. We find the new drift angle (inclination) and tool face
setting from the Ouija Board.
Achieve a desired build (or drop) in angle while turning the hole.
In this case, we know DLS, course length, previous drift angle and desired new drift
angle. We calculate the dog leg. We read off the estimated direction change and tool face
setting from the Ouija Board.
Calculate the course length needed to reach a desired survey result. In this case, we know
the present inclination and direction. We know the desired values of inclination and
direction at the end of an unknown course length. We know present drift angle, new drift
angle and direction change.

Drilling Operations
Using these values, we find the dog leg from the Ouija Board. Knowing DLS (from the
previous survey) we can calculate the course length required. The tool face setting is also
read off the Ouija Board.
Calculate the expected new direction and inclination given a certain tool face and
dog leg severity.
Knowing DLS and course length, dog leg can be calculated. We thus know previous drift
angle, tool face setting and dog leg. New drift angle and direction change are read from
the Ouija Board. Knowing the direction change, it is easy to find the expected new hole
direction.
11.6.3.2Deflection tool calculations

The main Ouija board formulae are listed below. They can all be derived from the basic
vector diagram in Figure 11-7, using simple trigonometric functions.
Dogleg = (a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos c )

where
b = drift angle of survey point 1
a = drift angle of survey point 2
c = change in direction
Tool Face Setting

1. If b > a, i.e., inclination dropping over the course length.
a sin c
TF = 180º - tan-1
b - a · cos c
2. If b < a, i.e., inclination increasing over the course length.
a · sin c
TF = tan-1
a · cos c - b
Expected Change of Hole Direction
Dogleg x sin ( toolfacesetting)

c = tan -1
b + (Dog Leg x cos toolface setting)
New drift angle
Dog Leg x sin ( tool face setting)

a=
sin ( Expected change of direction )
Maximum change of direction possible
(Dog Leg)
cmax = sin -1
Pr esent Drift Angle)

Drilling Operations
11.6.4 Ragland Diagram

The outcome of multiple tool settings can be visually evaluated by plotting the survey
inclination and direction at each station on polar graph paper. This is known as a
composed Ragland Diagram (Figure 11-9). The concentric circles are marked in equal
increments of degrees (inclination). The length of the line joining 2 successive survey
points on the diagram is the dog leg between the 2 survey stations. The Ragland Diagram
can be used to show us where the tool face actually worked at while drilling between two
survey stations. Alternatively, as the plot is to scale, we can use it to project ahead and
find the result of a certain tool face setting (assuming a certain value for reactive torque),
knowing the expected dog leg severity.
W E
Figure 11-9 Ragland diagram
11.7 Constant Rate of Turn to Target

Using a PDM/bent sub or a steerable motor to do a correction run is normally a quick
operation. The turn is achieved in a relatively short distance. On the directional well plot,
the correction appears as a sharp "kink". Thus, for practical purposes, it can be
considered as an instantaneous turn.
When deciding whether or not we need to do a course correction, we first look at the
average rate of required from our present position all the way to the target. Is this
constant average rate of turn likely from natural walk" due to bit and/or formation
effects? If yes, then we may decide to postpone the correction run. If no, we may run the
motor now or we may decide to wait and "give the well a chance to walk". Each case is
slightly different and must be evaluated logically by the DD.
In any case, at each survey station, we need to be able to calculate the Rate of Turn (Left
or Right) we need to hit the Left Hand Edge, Center and Right Hand Edge of the target in
the Horizontal Plan. We assume that the well will turn at a constant rate all the way from
our last survey point to the target. We need the 3 values for Rate of Turn to help us
decide on whether or not a Correction Run or (if feasible) a request for extension of the
Target is required.

Drilling Operations
11.7.1.1Total Turn needed to hit Target

Assume we have taken a survey and calculated the Rectangular Coordinates, giving us
point S on our horizontal plan (Figure 11-10). The hole Azimuth, measured w.r.t. North,
is a. The target is at point T. The direction to T from S is b. So, the instantaneous change
in Azimuth required to hit target T from last survey point S is (b-a). Let (b-a) = c.
North
b
X
S a
Y
e
c
P
Rc
d T
(Target)
Rc
O
Figure 11-10 Calculating total turn to bit target
If the well is supposed to turn at a constant rate from S to T, we can draw an arc ST
which subtends an angle d. Radius of Curvature of the arc (Rc) = OS = OT. The angle d
lies between them. The line XY = Tangent at the point S. It represents the Azimuth of the
last survey station.
OS is perpendicular to XY. Thus, angle OSY=90°
Also, angle OSY = (e+c).
Therefore, angle OST = (90°-c).
Lines OS and OT are same length. So, triangle OST is isosceles.
Therefore, angle OST = angle OTS = e.
Sum of angles = 180° = (e+e+d) = 2e+d.
Therefore, e = (180°-d)/2 = (90°-d/2).
However, we already had e = (90°-c).
Therefore, (90°-d/2) = (90°-c).
Thus, d=2c

Drilling Operations
Therefore, if we turn at a constant rate, the total turn required to hit the Target is twice
the instantaneous rate of turn to target measured from the last survey station. This is a
good rule of thumb. In practice, it is very close to what is actually required. The final
azimuth at the Target will be
(a+d) = (a+2c).
11.7.2 Rate of Turn needed to hit Target

From our Horizontal Well Plan, we can calculate the Rate of Change of Direction needed
per 100’ of Course Deviation. Call this r.
To calculate the Rate of Turn needed per 100’ of Measured Depth, we must take into
account the Inclination of the hole. Call this Rate of Turn rt.
Let I = Average hole Inclination we expect to hold to target.
rt = r x sinI
Radius of Curvature (Rc) = 180° / r x π

Therefore,
r = 180°/ Rc.
We must calculate Rc.
Draw OP perpendicular to ST.
OS=OT=Rc.
SP = SQRT(OS2-OP2) PT = SQRT(OS2-OP2)
Therefore,
SP = PT.
Therefore,
SP = ST/2.
Angle SOP = (180°-90°-e) = 90°-e = c
Rc of the arc ST = OS = SP/sin c

But SP = ST/2
Therefore,
Rc = OS = ST/2 sin c
Length of arc ST can now be calculated.
2π • RC • d
arc ST =
360°

Drilling Operations
And
ST
Rc = OS = = d = 2c
2 sin C
Therefore
2π • 2c πST • c
arc ST = =
360°•2 sin c 180°• sin c
11.7.3 Rate of Turn in Horizontal plane to hit Target

TotalTurn x 100
= °/100’
arc Length
As the hole Inclination (I) to the Target must be taken into account, the Rate of Turn
per 100’ of Measured Depth is given by:
36000 • sin c • sin I

ROT = °/100’ of Course Dev.
π • ST
In practice, a quick and quite accurate method of measuring the Rate of Turn needed to
hit Left-Hand Edge, Center or Right-Hand Edge of the Target from a given survey station
is as follows. Note again that this assumes a constant rate of turn all the way from the
last survey point to the Target. The method is most suitable in the Tangent section of a
well. Obviously, a calculation during the Build-up or Drop-off phase of a well is more
complicated.
11.7.4 Procedure
1. Calculate latest survey data. Plot the survey on both Vertical and Horizontal Plans.
2. On the Horizontal Plan, with your protractor, measure the Hole Direction from latest
survey point to the Left-Hand Edge, Center and Right-Hand Edge of the Target.
Alternatively, calculate it using the differences in coordinates.
3. The difference between the hole Azimuth of your latest survey and each of the above
Azimuths will give you the instantaneous Turn (Left or Right) required to hit the
Left-Hand Edge, Center and Right-Hand Edge of the Target.
4. From above, we know that the total turn needed to hit any part of the Target (when
turning at a constant rate) will be twice the instantaneous value. Thus, we now can
calculate the total turn needed to hit the Left Hand Edge, Center and Right-Hand
Edge of the Target.
5. From our Vertical Plan, we can get a good estimate of the Measured Depth (MD)
remaining from our latest survey station to the Target (We use the remaining TVD
and the Inclination we expect to hold from our latest survey station to the Target). In
most cases, this should be close to that of the Directional Program.
6. Rate of Turn Left or Right needed/allowed in each of the 3 cases is as follows:
( Total Turn ) · 100

ROT = °/100’
DMD

Drilling Operations
11.8 Constant rate of drop/build to target

We treat Rate of Drop-off or Buildup in a similar way (Figure 11-11). Let I1 be the
inclination at the latest survey point (S). I is the instantaneous change in inclination
required to hit the center of the target. I is the average hole direction measured from S to
the target (T). In this case, we need to drop angle if we’re to hit the target.
I
1
DI
D TVD
D SEC
Figure 11-11 Rate of drop/build to target
11.8.1 Procedure
1. On Vertical Plot, measure Inclination from latest survey station to (for example) the
center of the Target.
2. Using our survey Inclination, we can quickly calculate the instantaneous amount of
Inclination change (drop, in this case) we need to hit the center of the target.
3. Assuming a constant rate of Drop-off all the way to the Target, we quickly calculate
the Total Drop needed to hit the center of the target. It’s simply:
2 x Instantaneous Inclination Change = 2∆I

4. We have a close approximation of the Measured Depth remaining to the Target
(MD).
∆SEC
I = tan-1
∆TVD
5. Rate of Drop needed/allowed is:
(Total Drop) • 100 (2 ∆I ) • 100

ROB = = °/100’
∆MD ∆MD
In practice, this is seen to be a simple and quite accurate projection.
6. Final inclination at the target will be ( I ± 2 ∆ I ).

Drilling Operations
Note
We treat rate of build or drop in the same way. The only difference is that the final
inclination at the target will be less than at the present survey point by the amount of the
total drop.
We treat the 3 major parts of the vertical target (bottom edge, center and top edge) in
exactly the same way. This gives us 3 different rates of drop. We use this information to
decide when or if a rotary BHA change is needed.
Note
MacDD allows us to do projections to target in any type of well profile. It is particularly
useful in "S-type" wells during the drop-off phase. It tells us the required average rate of
drop from our present position to the target. As the actual rate of drop achieved will
probably be different on every survey (due to gravity and formation effects), it’s vital to
be able to project ahead.
11.9 Open hole Sidetracking

There are two main types of open-hole sidetrack:
1. "Blind" Sidetrack This is a sidetrack in a vertical hole, usually performed to avoid
junk (e.g. core barrel, BHA). A cement plug is set on top of the “fish". The well is
side-tracked off the cement plug using a bit/PDM/bent sub BHA. Some inclination
(and hence displacement) is built in a random direction. The sidetrack BHA is
POOH. The inclination is then dropped off to vertical using a pendulum assembly.
The sidetrack is usually considered successful when the depth of the "fish" has been
passed.
2. Oriented Sidetrack This is a sidetrack performed to hit a specific target. It may be
necessary due to an unsuccessful fishing job in a deviated well. The original target
tolerance may be kept or the client may give an increased target size.
Sometimes, after reaching TD, the open-hole logs may not look promising. The client
may decide to plug back and do an open-hole sidetrack with a much- different bottom
hole location. A direction change of 60º or more is not uncommon.
Another application is in horizontal drilling. The client may drill a pilot hole at a specific
inclination. At TD, the well is logged. The exact TVD of the target zone is ascertained.
The pilot hole is then plugged back and sidetracked to become a horizontal well.
If the cement plug is harder than the formation, the sidetrack should be fairly
straightforward. However, even in this situation, certain procedures must be observed in
order to enhance the chances of a successful sidetrack. When sidetracking, three
important rules of thumb are:
1. A good cement plug is vital.
• The only way to ascertain the hardness of the plug is to drill some of it. Setting
weight alone on the plug tells us nothing. Sometimes there's a hard "skin" at the
top of the plug. It holds significant weight-on-bit without rotation. However,
when a few feet of plug is drilled away, there may be soft slurry underneath!

Drilling Operations
2. The DD should not rush the job. Otherwise, the chances of a successful sidetrack are
greatly reduced. It is vital that the DD is on the drill floor while the cement plug is
being "dressed". As the DD will be doing the sidetrack, he must see and be happy
with the hardness of the plug.
3. A proper sidetracking bit will increase the chances of a successful sidetrack by 50%
in any formation. The harder the formation, the more important the bit choice
becomes.
11.9.1 Cement Job

1. A caliper survey will determine the volume of cement required (how much excess
volume). It also aids in choosing the sidetracking point. It is easier to sidetrack in
hole which is in-gauge.
2. To reduce cement slurry contamination, it should be preceded by a salt water slug of
equal volume.
3. Displace the cement slurry with open ended drill pipe (OEDP). However, if the hole
diameter is 8 1/2", it is recommended to run a tail pipe (tubing) of length equal to the
height of the cement slurry. This minimizes channeling.
4. Use of sand in the slurry is not recommended as it reduces the compressive strength
of the set cement.
5. Cement slurry of density 16 ppg or higher should be used. In deep wells with BHT
300°F, 35% silica flour added to the dry cement can be used instead of densified
cement slurry.
6. When sidetracking a fish, the minimum height of the cement column is 150'- 200'.
11.9.2 Bit Selection for Sidetrack

17 1/2" Hole: Normally not a problem. A milled tooth bit should last 25 hours.
12 1/4” Hole: A Tricone bit with Sealed Bearings and Gauge Protection should last for
15 hours (even with a high-speed PDM). However, the DD should watch for surface
indications of bit damage (e.g. frequent PDM stalling, abnormally low ROP).
8 1/2" Hole: If the formation is Medium-Hard, the sidetrack may need more than one bit
run. Therefore, we must orient the Motor, even for a “blind" sidetrack (in order to build
inclination most efficiently). In Hard formation, a special Sidetracking Diamond bit (flat-
bottomed) should be used. In 8 1/2" hole sizes, a diamond bit should be used.
11.9.3 Open-hole Sidetracking Procedure

1. RIH with OEDP. Set cement plug. Flush pipe. POOH.
2. Make up a rotary BHA to "dress" the plug. Use a milled-tooth bit. In a vertical well,
this is normally a slick assembly. In a deviated well, the BHA will normally contain
stabilizers. The exact BHA will depend on the well profile.
3. RIH to casing shoe. Wait on cement (WOC) at least 12 hours.
4. Tag cement. “Dress" the plug. This involves drilling several feet of the plug using
medium parameters. The ROP achieved is compared with that for the same depth on
the mud log when the formation was drilled.

Drilling Operations
As a rule, an ROP of 60’/hour is the maximum ROP acceptable when dressing the
sidetrack plug. Obviously, in hard formation, it is more difficult to sidetrack.
Decide if the plug is hard enough. The DD should be happy with the plug before he
proceeds further with the sidetrack. If the plug is acceptable, it should be dressed
down to the desired sidetrack point. Circulate the hole clean. POOH.
5. If the cement hardness is not acceptable, the options are either to POOH to the casing
shoe and WOC some more or drill out the complete cement plug and set another one.
It is generally accepted today that, if the cement plug has not hardened sufficiently in
24 hours, it is counterproductive to wait any longer. Either assume that the plug is
good enough or drill it out and set another. Repeat steps 1-4. It is advisable to leave a
little of the bottom of the original plug. This reduces the chances of contamination of
the new cement plug.
6. Make up the sidetracking BHA. This is typically:
BIT + PDM + BENT SUB + FLOAT SUB + UBHO + NMDC + DCs. Some other
common sidetracking BHAs are listed in Table 11-3.
Note
The choice of bent sub or housing will depend on the formation hardness. The greater
the offset, the greater the side force and the easier it is to get off the plug. However,
there are dogleg constraints. If the sidetracking point is shallow compared to the final
hole depth, dogleg becomes a more important consideration. For example, in a 12 1/4"
hole, a 7 3/4" O.D. PDM would be used with either a 1 1/2° or a 2° bent sub.
7. RIH to top of cement plug. Work pipe. Orient pipe using either single-shot or MWD
surveys. If it's a “blind" sidetrack, orient in a random direction but keep a mark on
the pipe and on the frame of the rotary table. Lock the top drive/rotary table. Record
off-bottom circulating pressure.
8. Tag cement plug. Use a low Pmotor in order to achieve a low ROP. This allows the
bit a chance to cut a shoulder, thus increasing the chances of getting off the plug.
"Time-drill" the first 10' in small increments. Control ROP to 4'/hour. DD and client
must be patient! The harder the formation, the longer this will take.
9. Check drilled cuttings samples. If the percentage of drilled cuttings increases
steadily, we may increase WOB. The footage drilled with the motor depends on the
hole size, formation hardness and bit condition. If there is 50% drilled formation in
samples, we should be safely sidetracked.
In a “blind" sidetrack to bypass a fish in a vertical hole, an inclination of 3° (possibly
6° in soft formation) should be seen on the survey disc/MWD before deciding to
POOH. This should ensure adequate displacement at the top of the fish.
10. The next BHA will depend on the situation. In a “blind" sidetrack of a vertical hole,
it would be a 60' pendulum BHA, designed to drop inclination to vertical.
Following are some guidelines:
• Keep the next BHA as limber as possible.
• If running a stiff BHA on the next run, be careful! Try to run an undergauge
near-bit stabilizer, if this is practical.

Drilling Operations
• If the formation is soft, beware of "sidetracking the sidetrack". Minimize rotation

while RIH.
• If the formation is Medium-Hard, ream carefully through the motor run until
hole Drag is normal.
Table 11-3 Sidetracking suggested BHAs to match downhole conditions
ROP
For 6" Hole 8 1/2" Hole 12 1/4" Hole 17 1/2" Hole Above 17 1/2"
Average Size Size Size Size Hole
Parameters Size
Tricone 8-1/2" Tricone 12-1 1/4” Tricone 17-1/2' Tricone 17-1/2"
Above Motor 6-1/2" Motor 7-3/4” Motor 7-3/4' Motor 9-1/2"
120 ft/hr 1.5° or 2° Bent Sub 2° Bent Sub 2.5° Bent Sub 2.5° Bent Sub
String of collars String of collars String of collars
Tricone 17-1/2"
"BLIND" "BLIND" Motor 9-1/2" “BLIND”
2° Bent Sub
String of collars
At or below Tricone 6” Tricone 8-1/2” Tricone 12 1/4” Tricone 17-1/2” Tricone 17-1/2”
120 ft/hr or Motor 6-1/2” Motor 7-3/4” Motor 9-1/2” Motor 9-1/2”
6” Flat Diamond Bit 2º Bent Sub 2º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub
Motor 6” String of collars String of collars String of collars
1.5º Bent Sub 17 1/2” Kick Sub
String of collars “BLIND” still OK “BLIND”
String of collars
Down to Orientation Orientation Opening “BLIND
45-50 ft/hr necessary recommended
with Tricone
At or below 6” Flat Diamond Bit 8-1/2” Flat Diam Bit 8-1/2” Diamond Bit Tricone 12-1/4” Tricone 12-1/4”
50 ft/hr Motor 5” Motor 6-1/2” Motor 6 -1/2” Motor 7-3/4”-9-1/2” Motor 9-1/2”
2” Bent Sub 2º Bent Sub 2º-2.5º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub
String of collars String of collars String of collars String of collars 17.5 Kick Stab.
String of collars
“BLIND” “BLIND” Hole Opening Reqd. Plus Hole Opening 2nd Run w/o Stb.
Down to “BLIND” Orientation Required Plus Hole Opening
10 ft/hr Plus Orientation
6” Diamond Bit 8-1/2” Flat Dimd Bit 8-1/2” Flat Dimnd Bit 12-1/4” Dimd Bit 12-1/4” Dimd Bit
Motor 5” Motor 6-1/2” Motor 6-1/2” Motor 9-1/2” Motor 9-1/2”
Below 2º - 2.5º Bent Sub 2º - 2.5º Bent Sub 2º - 2.5º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub 2.5º Bent Sub
10 ft/hr String of collars String of collars String of collars String of collars 17.5 Kick Stab.
String of collars
“BLIND” “BLIND” Hole Opening Req’d. Hole Opng “BLIND”
2nd Run w/o Stab
11.9.4 Jetting BHA for Sidetracking

Sometimes a jetting BHA is used to sidetrack off a cement plug in soft formation. It is
recommended to use one large nozzle and two blanks, to minimize the possibility of
washing out all around the plug.
11.9.5 Low-side Sidetracking

Sometimes, in deviated wells of inclination >10°, if no change in hole direction is
required, it may be decided to use a pendulum BHA and sidetrack off the low side of the
hole. This involves setting a cement plug (as above). The 60' pendulum BHA is used to
"dress" the plug. At the sidetrack point, low WOB and high RPM are used to allow the
bit to cut a shoulder on the low side. The harder the formation, the more time is required
to do this.
At inclinations 35°, it is advisable to run a less drastic drop-off BHA. A 30' pendulum
should be sufficient. Otherwise, gravity forces may lead to excessive dogleg.
Attempting a low-side sidetrack where hole inclination <10° is difficult, especially in
hard formation. If low WOB is used in hard formation, ROP will be very low.

Drilling Operations
11.9.6 Steerable PDM

Using a steerable mud motor BHA, the cement plug can be “dressed" and the hole
sidetracked in one run. Provided the BHA behaves as expected, the next casing point
may be reached (assuming the bit and motor are still good).
11.9.7 Turbodrill
For doing a deep sidetrack in hard (and possibly hot) formation, a diamond bit, short
turbine and bent sub have often been used successfully.
A pendulum BHA incorporating a sidetracking bit and turbine (no bent sub) has also
been used successfully to get off the low side of a cement plug.
11.9.8 Open-hole Whip-stock

There are certain situations where a whip-stock would be used in open-hole sidetracking.
A good example is in a geothermal well, to bypass a fish where high BHT precludes use
of a PDM. A cement plug is set and “dressed" as described above. The hole is circulated
clean. The whip-stock BHA is made up, run to bottom, oriented (if required) and the toe
of the wedge is seated firmly on the cement plug. The remainder of the procedure is
described in Chapter V.
11.10 Cased hole sidetracking

Sometimes, usually for geological reasons, it becomes necessary to sidetrack a hole from
inside the casing. There are two approaches:
1. Permanent casing whip-stock: This entails anchoring a whip-stock inside the
casing and milling a window. Several round trips are required. The operation is
performed by a specialist. In deep, geothermal wells, for instance, the permanent
casing whip-stock is the method used to do a cased-hole sidetrack.
2. Section Milling A section of casing is milled at the desired depth interval using a
section mill. Common types of section mill are the Servco K-mill and the Tristate
Metal Muncher. At least 50' of casing (preferably 75') should be milled.
It is best to start milling the section directly below a casing collar. Normally, two runs
are required to mill the section.
The section mill is usually run by a specialist. However, the DD may occasionally be
asked to run it (if it's provided by Anadrill). It is a relatively simple tool to use, provided
proper precautions are taken - high mud viscosity, use of ditch magnets etc. (Refer to
appropriate service manual).
The same procedure applies to setting the cement plug, waiting on cement and “dressing"
the plug as in the open-hole sidetrack. The cement plug is set from about 100' below the
milled section up to 50'-100' above the top of the section.
Again, the hardness of the plug is critical to the success of the operation. Apart from
permitting the bit to get into the formation, it is important that the plug will not be eroded
by the rotation and later tripping of the pipe.
The cement plug is dressed down to about 4' from the top of the milled section. At this
point, the hole is circulated clean before POOH for a sidetracking BHA (bit, PDM, bent
sub etc. as before).

Drilling Operations
The same procedure as before applies to getting off the cement plug etc. It must be
"time-drilled". When the bit has passed the depth of the bottom of the window and there
is a significant % of drilled cuttings coming over the shakers, the sidetrack should end up
as a success.
Beware of magnetic interference as the magnetic compass/D&I package passes the
bottom of the window!
If the hole inclination is >5° (i.e. a good high side had been established when the casing
was set), Gravity Tool Face (GTF) can be used to steer the bit out of the casing in the
desired direction. GTF is not effected by magnetism. When the D&I package is far
enough away from the casing, azimuth error will be acceptable and a survey calculation
can be made.

Section 12 - DD At The Rigsite
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
12 DD at the Rigsite Page

12.1 ON ARRIVAL AT THE RIG ................................................................................................12-3
12.2 GENERAL DD DUTIES AS THE WELL PROGRESSES ..........................................................12-5
12.3 LOCATION POLITICS .......................................................................................................12-6

No list of figures.
List of Tables Page

No list of tables.

DD At The Rigsite
12 DD at the Rigsite
About this chapter
The DD has other rig-site responsibilities not directly related to drilling. These include
keeping an accurate inventory of the DD tools. The logistics involved in getting
equipment to and from the rig-site varies, depending on the location. it is vital that the
DD keep the various reports up to date. This information is needed by the location
manager and, often, the unit technical manager.
Finally, knowing the rig-site politics and abiding by the rules makes the DD job run
much more smoothly than otherwise. The degree to which the DD is "his own boss"
often depends as much on himself as it does on the client. This chapter highlights the
above.

exercises:
1. Acquaint himself with the safety procedures of politics.
2. Produce timely and accurate reports.
3. Professionally handle rig-site any location.
4. Control rig-site tool inventory.
12.1 On Arrival at the Rig

On arrival at the rig, the following is a recommended routine.
1. Familiarize yourself with the safety procedures on board (life raft, life boat
assignments, frequency of fire drills and abandon ship drills etc.).
2. Meet the company representative. Discuss briefly the well program. Be aware of the
present operation on the rig. Confirm that there is at least one directional plot on
board (if you’re going to do a blind sidetrack, obviously this does not apply). Put up a
copy of the plot on the wall of the company rep’s office. The anti-collision map
("Spider Plot"), if applicable, is usually updated after each well and shows the
relative positions of the wells drilled to date.
3. Meet the toolpusher. Check that there are sufficient drill collars and HWDP on board
the rig.
4. Meet the driller on tour. If there’s any instructions to be given to him, do it now. For
instance, if he’s drilling down to the kickoff point, he will need to be informed if a
multishot survey will be taken prior to POOH, the composition of the next BHA etc.
5. Attend safety meeting with the other Anadrill cell members, if applicable.
6. Do a complete inventory of the directional tools. It is advisable to caliper everything
as you check them. The serial numbers of every tool must be recorded. While it takes
a few hours to caliper everything properly, a lot of the tools (apart from those that
will be re-cut and new tools that arrive) will only need to be calipered once in the
course of a project. Thus, it’s important to do it properly the first time.

DD At The Rigsite
7. Use a check-list. If there’s any tool obviously missing, check that it has been ordered.
Call the Anadrill office if necessary. Also check for damaged threads and shoulders.
Check the D+C hours already on the mud motors, if a different Anadrill DD was on
the rig most recently.
8. On a new job (e.g. multiwell platform) which is expected to last several months or
more, it is advisable to get a rack fabricated by the welder to hold all the subs,
stabilizers and, possibly, short collars. This minimizes the space occupied by the DD
tools. It also helps protect the tools, makes them easy to find and easy to pick up/lay
down.
Note
Permission must be gotten from the toolpusher before the tool rack is made. He will
normally coordinate the fabrication of the rack with the welder. The DD can make
design suggestions. To store stabilizer sleeves, an area should be found which is big
enough to allow gauging of the sleeves as required. The remaining tools (e.g. mud
motors, NMDCs, EQ Jars and possibly short collars) are normally kept in the drill collar
bay.
9. Fill out a DD inventory sheet. Give a copy to the company representative. Post one
copy in the doghouse to facilitate the driller’s BHA paperwork.
10. Check all the survey instrument kits systematically (gyro and/or magnetic, singleshot
and/or multishot). Run a check shot for confirmation. Take a short multishot test
film, if applicable. Order any necessary missing equipment from the base. If you will
be using the rig floor power supply (e.g. in case of gyro), ensure that the voltages are
compatible.
11. Check all the survey running gear. Make up the complete mule shoe orienting barrel
assembly. Make up the bottom-landing shock absorber assembly also. If it’s a hot
hole, ensure that the long protective barrel is at the rig-site.
12. The running gear which might be needed during the course of the well is normally
stored on a rack behind the drawworks. Ensure the storage place is dry and clean.
13. Excess running gear should be stored in the steel box in which it arrived on the rig.
14. Check the rig equipment. Ensure the slick line unit is in good condition and that
there is sufficient line on the drum. Watch out for “kinks" in the slick line. It is
recommended to get the driller/assistant driller to cut off some slick line before
attaching the upper part of the single-shot running gear.
15. Familiarize yourself with the driller's console. Check that there are adequate sensors
operational and that there is nothing obviously wrong with the drill-floor equipment
from a DD viewpoint.
16. Run the GEOMAG program, in conjunction with the MWD engineer. Otherwise, use
Zone maps to determine the number of NMDCs needed in the BHAs in this well.
17. If on a multiwell platform, or close to other wells, ensure that the surface coordinates
of the well to be drilled (referenced to the fixed origin) are entered in the Advisor
and/or Macintosh so that the anti- collision program can be run later.

DD At The Rigsite
18. Set up survey files on the Advisor and/or Macintosh for the well to be drilled. If any
TOTCO surveys have already been taken, they should be entered in the file(s). Prior
to running a multishot survey in a nominally- vertical hole, TOTCO survey data
allows the DD to choose the appropriate compass/angle unit.
12.2 General DD duties as the well progresses

1. Ensure that the drilling supervisor is kept up to date on the progress of the well from
a DD standpoint. He must be informed of your intentions to change the BHA If a
correction run is required, the DD should explain why. He should also make
recommendations as to when the correction should be done. Sometimes a target
extension is the better option. That decision is made by the client.
2. Ensure that the driller and assistant driller is given a copy of the next BHA in good
time. Mark all the tools to be picked up. Ensure no unnecessary lost rig time occurs
because of confusion over BHA components.
3. Have good communication with the drillers. Drilling parameters usually have to be
changed regularly.
4. Surveys should be taken as necessary. Give the updated survey calculation sheet to
the drilling supervisor promptly.
5. During a kickoff, it is not always easy to have time to plot all the surveys. A good
DD will know how the kickoff is progressing without having to plot every survey.
The desired hole direction is known. It is very easy to calculate whether or not the
build-up rate achieved is "keeping up with the program".
6. Even during the kickoff, each survey should be calculated promptly and given to the
company representative. Where Anadrill’s MWD tool is in use, this is usually taken
care of by the MWD engineer on the Advisor. If there is a Macintosh on board,
MacDD Survey file should be updated by the DD as time allows.
7. When the kickoff is almost finished, it s necessary to plot a few surveys. After the
kickoff, plot the latest survey position on the DD plot promptly. Project ahead. use
BHA history from previous wells in the area to help in decision-making.
8. Keep all DD paperwork up to date. Consumables, run charges, personnel charges
(where applicable) should be noted on the Anadrill Daily Drilling Report. All other
relevant forms - Mud Motor Report, Survey Calculations & Analysis, BHA Analysis,
Steerable Report, DD Tool Inventory etc. should be comprehensively filled out.
9. Perform basic maintenance on UBHO subs, Roller Reamers, stabilizer sleeves etc.
10. Underreamers and Hole Openers should be stored in an oil bath (usually a length of
casing which is filled with oil) when not in use.
11. Survey instrument kit should be kept in the quarters (in cases where MWD tools are
in use) or in the driller’s dog-house (provided it’s clean and secure).
12. The DD should be on the drill floor when EQ Jars or Shock Guard is being picked up
or laid down. Ensure the Jack Nut (if applicable) is screwed down torqued to correct
value before RIH.
13. It’s advisable to be on the drill floor when the driller’s change tour. Don’t rely on the
driller to relay your instructions to his relief.

DD At The Rigsite
14. Ensure that the company representative has up-to-date survey information on his
desk at report time. He shouldn’t have to come looking for survey calculation data!
15. Grading of the bits is often a joint effort between the DD and the driller.
12.3 Location Politics

The DD has a responsible and rewarding job at the rig-site. However, there are some
minefields which, if not avoided, can lead to major problems for the DD. Some advice
and guidelines are listed below.
1. Anadrill is a service company. We work to please the client. The service quality
which we provide will make us a major force in directional drilling.
2. Drilling of a directional well is a joint effort between the client and the DD
company. From the preplanning stage to the actual drilling of a directional well, the
plan may be changed several times. However, once the final plan is agreed, it is up to
the people on the rig to make their contribution to a successful well.
3. The amount of authority that the DD actually has at the wellsite depends on several
factors:
• The level of experience and competence of the DD.
• The level of confidence the client has in the particular DD. This is often based
on the previous performance of the DD.
• The amount of experience the client has in drilling directional wells.
• The amount of control the drilling superintendent wishes to have over BHA
selection etc.
• Whether or not the company representative is a former DD or at least has a good
knowledge of DD techniques.
4. Some DDs like to make all the decisions involved in drilling a directional well -
amount of lead angle, BHA composition, deciding on when to do a correction run,
choosing drilling parameters, possibly specifying bits. This is fine, provided the
client is happy with this arrangement. However, a situation should never arise where
the DD oversteps his authority. There are many clients who make all the major DD
decisions for the DD. In such a case, the DD is merely someone who makes up
BHAs, steers a mud motor, calculates surveys and keeps the DD plot up to date. Lots
of DDs are happy with this arrangement. Some are not. They would be better suited
to a DD job where they had more autonomy. Ideally, the DD and the client together
should make a lot of the decisions.
5. It is important to keep the Anadrill manager/supervisor informed of the progress of
the well.
6. If there is a disagreement between the DD and the company representative over a
decision related to DD (e.g. BHA composition) it may be necessary to
(confidentially) call the Anadrill manager/supervisor and inform him of the situation.
Try not to be made a scapegoat for something you never did!

DD At The Rigsite
7. The DD should ensure that he is not "caught in the middle” between the geologist
and the drilling supervisor. Unless told otherwise, the DD always should follow
instructions from the drilling supervisor only. Any internal disagreement between the
drilling supervisor and the geologist is no concern of the DD.
8. If possible, it is advisable to be present when the drilling supervisor makes his
morning phone report to the drilling superintendent. Some input may be needed from
the DD, e.g. When is the next BHA change planned ? Is a correction run likely ? Is a
request for a target extension imminent?
9. As mentioned earlier in this manual, if a mud pump needs repair while ROP is high
(particularly in larger hole sizes at shallow depths), the DD should recommend that
drilling cease until the pump is back on line. This may not suit the toolpusher, as it
increases the rig down-time. However, drilling with insufficient annular velocity can
lead to serious hole problems later.
10. On returning to base after the job, the DD would be well advised to visit the drilling
superintendent and thus "close the loop". A short discussion on the well just drilled
might lead to a slightly different approach to drilling the next well. This will,
hopefully, lead to increased drilling efficiency.

Section 13 - Drilling Problems
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
13 Drilling Problems Page

13.1 AN OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................13-1
13.1.1 Differential Sticking .............................................................................................13-2
13.1.1.1 Warning Signs .............................................................................................13-5
13.1.1.2 Stuck Pipe Identification .............................................................................13-5
13.1.1.3 Preventive Actions ......................................................................................13-6
13.1.1.4 Rig Site Preparation ....................................................................................13-6
13.1.2 Borehole Deterioration .........................................................................................13-6
13.1.2.1 Warning Signs .............................................................................................13-8
13.1.3 Dog Legs and Key Seats.......................................................................................13-8
13.1.3.1 High Friction Factors While Drilling and Tripping ....................................13-9
13.1.3.2 Warning Signs .............................................................................................13-9
13.1.4 Key Seats ..............................................................................................................13-9
13.1.4.1 Warning Signs .............................................................................................13-10
13.1.4.4 Rig Site Preparation ....................................................................................13-11
13.1.5 Drill String Failures Due to Excessive Reverse Bending.....................................13-11
13.1.6 Equipment Compatibility......................................................................................13-12
13.1.7 Borehole Stability .................................................................................................13-12

Figure 13-1 Differential sticking............................................................................................ 13-3
Figure 13-2 Development of filter cake ................................................................................. 13-3
Figure 13-3 Effect of drill solids on filter cake...................................................................... 13-4
Figure 13-4 Filter cake bridging............................................................................................. 13-4
Figure 13-5 Erosion of filter cake .......................................................................................... 13-5
Figure 13-6 Effect of hole deviation & mud weight on borehole stability ............................ 13-7
Figure 13-7 Development of key seats................................................................................. 13-10
Figure 13-8 Key seat wiper and string reamer. .................................................................... 13-11
List of Tables Page

No list of figures.

Drilling Problems
13 Drilling Problems
About this chapter
The development of new technologies in the past 10 years, like the MWD systems for
real-time surveying, steerable systems for an effective control of trajectory, PDC bits for
efficient drilling of long sections, mud and hydraulic systems for improved control of
hole cleaning and borehole stability, etc. have transformed directional drilling into a
common practice.
There are a few serious problems which may arise during the course of drilling a
directional well. The probability of certain drilling problems arising (e.g. differential
sticking) is increased by virtue of the well being deviated. The causes and implications of
differential sticking are discussed here, as well as solutions and possible preventive
measures. This is very relevant to the DD, particularly in areas which are prone to
differential sticking.
Dog legs and key seats are discussed here in detail. As mentioned elsewhere in this
manual, it is the DD’s responsibility to ascertain the client’s limit on dog leg severity at
the beginning of the project. The consequences of high dog leg severity at a shallow
depth often do not become apparent until much deeper in the well.
Problems caused by borehole instability due to poor hydraulics and mud conditioning are
outlined. Increases in Drag, particularly when drilling with a PDM, directly concern the
DD. In high-angle wells, it often becomes very difficult to "slide".

exercises:
1. Describe the main causes of differential sticking.
2. Explain how the API Filtrate (Water Loss) influences the chances of getting
differentially stuck.
3. Describe the precautions the DD should take or recommend when about to drill in an
area known for differential sticking.
4. Explain why the chances of borehole instability are influenced by hole inclination.
5. List the drilling (and other) problems arising from high dog leg severity in a deviated
well.
6. Explain what the DD should do if his survey indicates an unacceptably-high dog leg
severity in the interval just drilled.
13.1 An Overview
The development of new technologies in the 80’s, like the MWD systems for real-time
surveying, steerable systems for an effective control of trajectory, PDC bits for efficient
drilling of long sections, mud and hydraulic systems for improved control of hole
cleaning and borehole stability, etc. have transformed directional drilling into a common
practice.

Drilling Problems
But, if we compare the performance and drilling conditions of vertical and directional
wells, it is possible to identify some particular problems related to deviated boreholes. In
this chapter we analyze the most common directional drilling problems and possible
solutions.
13.1.1 Differential Sticking

Differential pressure sticking occurs only across a permeable zone, such as sand. One or
a combination of the following mechanisms will be responsible for sticking:
• Pipe sticking occurs when part of the drill string rests against the wall of the
borehole, which is the case in directional wells, imbedding itself in the filter
cake. The area of the drill pipe in contact with filter cake is then sealed from the
full hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
• The pressure difference between the mud column pressure and the formation
pressure acts on the area of the drill pipe in contact with the filter cake to hold
the drill pipe against the wall of the borehole.
Overpull due to differential pressure sticking can be calculated from the product of
differential pressure, contact area, and a friction factor as follows:
Overpull = (Mud Pressure - Formation Pressure) xContact Area x Friction Factor

where
Overpull (lbs.)
Mud Pressure (psi)
Formation Pressure (psi)
Contact Area (sq in)
Friction Factor (no unit)
Example: If there is a 6 ppg differential pressure across a sand at 7000 ft. T.V.D.
(Mud Pressure - Formation Pressure) = 0.052 x 7000 x 6 = 2184 psi.

Say we have a contact of 3 inches of drill collar circumference across a sand which is 10’
thick. That gives a contact area of 360 square inches. From experience, the friction
factors vary from 0.15 to 0.50. We will use 0.15 for this example.
Overpull = 2184 psi - 360 in2 x 0.15
= 117,936.00 lbs.
= 118000 lbs.
An extra overpull of 118 lbs. on top of the normal friction in the wellbore can easily
mean the difference between being free and being stuck. This example also used a
relatively thin sand of 10 feet.
We should actually use the projection of the contact area onto the horizontal plane to be
precise. This is more difficult to visualize and is not used here for simplicity.

Drilling Problems
Borehole
Wall
Mud Pressure
Contact
Area
Mud
Cake
Formation Pressure
Figure 13-1 Differential sticking
• Filter Cake Thickness The thicker the filter cake, the larger the contact area
with the drill collars and the higher the resulting differential sticking force. The
following illustrates the formation of a filter cake.
Many factors affect the rate of growth and the final thickness of the filter cake.
1. A higher differential pressure will increase the rate of growth of the filter cake. The
final thickness of the cake will be larger in order to seal off the higher pressure.
α
L
Figure 13-2 Development of filter cake
2. As the amount of drill solids in the mud increases, the filter cake becomes more
porous and permeable. This results in a faster rate of growth of the filter cake and a
larger final thickness. The ideal situation would be a thin, hard filter cake made up of
mud solids only.

Drilling Problems
High Drill Solids Low Drill Solids

Mud Pressure Mud Pressure
Pore Pressure Pore Pressure
Mud Solids
Drill Solids
Permeable Formation Permeable Formation

With a high amount of drill solids, the With low amounts of drill solids, the
filter cake tends to be more porous filter cake tends to be thin and tough
and permeable and the final thickness which reduces the chances of
of the cake tends to be larger. differential sticking.
Figure 13-3 Effect of drill solids on filter cake
3. The lower the water loss or filtrate of the mud, the thinner and harder the filter cake.
In the case of drilling into a sand after undergoing a pressure regression, the
differential pressure is so high that sufficient mud cake can be formed to stick the
BHA while drilling. The best defenses in these cases are proper pore pressure
detection, lowering the mud weight if possible or setting casing.
• If the pipe stays motionless (for example, taking surveys in a directional well)
for a period of time adjacent to the sand, the situation gets worse. The filter cake
tends to bridge around the pipe, thus increasing the contact area. The filter cake
in contact with the pipe is no longer in direct contact with the mud and the
friction factor increases by virtue of more water being filtered out of the filter
cake. The end result is that a much greater overpull is required to free the
drillstring.
Mud Pressure
Contact
Area
Bridging
Mud
Cake
Formation Pressure
Figure 13-4 Filter cake bridging

Drilling Problems
• Filter cake erosion occurs while drilling due to the drill pipe rubbing against the
borehole wall. This only affects a small portion of the circumference of the
wellbore. Wiper trips pull the stabilizers and bit through the filter cake and will
scrape off a significant amount. The best disruption of filter cake is reaming,
where most of the cake will be removed.
Drill Pipe Erosion Wiper Trip Reaming
Drill Pipe Erosion Wiper Trip Reaming

While drilling, the drill pipe A wiper trip will pass the Reaming does the best
is pressed against one stabilizers and the bit job of scraping awaw the
side of the hole. The across the formatioin filter cake but is very
rotation of the pipe wears scraping away a large time consuming.
away a section of filter portion of the filter cake
cake.
Figure 13-5 Erosion of filter cake
13.1.1.1Warning Signs
• Permeable formations in open hole, if known.
• Thick filter cake on mud tests.
• High differential pressure (1500 psi) across the permeable formations, if known.
• High torque/overpull after pipe is held motionless.
• Higher overpull on connections.
• Well developed area with depleted reservoirs. (Talk to Company Man).
13.1.1.2Stuck Pipe Identification

• The pipe was stationary just before sticking usually at a connection while
drilling or tripping
• Full circulation is possible and pump pressure is unaffected.
• BHA is adjacent to thick, permeable formation.
• Pressure overbalance at BHA.
• Stuck forces get larger with time.

Drilling Problems
13.1.1.3Preventive Actions
1. Pre-well Planning:
• Identify any permeable formations which may lead to differential sticking.
• Estimate the pressure of permeable formation, using nearby welldata and any
available RFT, DST or producing well data.
• If there is a chance of high differential pressure, consider a change in casing
design.
• Plan the use of lubricants ahead of time. Spotting fluid must be on location when
differential sticking occurs, otherwise it is useless. Studies show that spotting
fluid must be in place within 4 hours otherwise the chances of the pipe becoming
free are greatly reduced.
• Plan on having high quality mud cleaning equipment on the rig to control mud
solids.
• Minimize OD of drill collars used to minimize the contact area with the mud
cake. However, annular velocities and borehole cleaning need to be taken into
account when reducing the ODs of drill collars.
13.1.1.4Rig Site Preparation

• Keep the mud weight at the lowest safe level. This will keep differential pressure
across permeable formations at a minimum.
• Keep track of the differential pressure across permeable formations as accurately
as possible. This requires maintaining a record or plot of the pressure profile for
the entire open hole section.
• Maintain a tough, thin filter cake and keep drilled solids content to a minimum.
• Use spiral drill collars and minimize unstabilized sections of the BHA.
• If hole drag is not a problem, consider using under-gauge stabilizers on drill
collars to keep them away from the borehole.
• Keep the pipe moving at all times. Reciprocating is the preferred motion as it
allows you to monitor overpulls. When possible, begin pipe motion in a
downward direction.
• Minimize length of BHA. Use heavy weight drill pipe instead of a long section
of unstabilized drill collars.
• Avoid surveying methods which result in pipe remaining static for long periods
(use MWD).
• Frequent wiper trips through the permeable zones will scrape the filter cake and
may prevent it from becoming too thick.
13.1.2 Borehole Deterioration

One of the keys for a successful drilling operation, in vertical and directional drilling, is
to control mechanically and chemically the formations being drilled, mainly the shales,
in order to avoid sticking problems. These problems can be associated with any one of
the following cases

Drilling Problems
• Chemically active formations

• Overpressured formations
• High dip sloughing
• Unconsolidated formations
• Mobile formations
• Mechanical Stability
The behavior of vertical and directional wells in the first 5 cases above is similar; they
are controlled with the implementation of the correct mud system and operational
procedures.
The formation mechanical stability is a concern when drilling directional wells in general
and high inclination or horizontal wells in particular. When a borehole is drilled, the
process may be thought of as one of replacing the rock which was originally in the hole
with drilling mud. This causes a disturbance to the in-situ stress state local to the hole
because a column of rock which supported three, probably different, principal stresses
(three axes, i.e. two horizontal and one vertical) is replaced by fluid in which the three
principal stresses are equal and, typically, lower than any of the stresses in the original
rock column. Unbalanced conditions will generate borehole problems; lost circulation or
hole instability problems (e.g. sloughing or caving). The directional drilling plan,
deviation and azimuth, is a very important factor in the borehole stability.
Over the last years the industry has studied the borehole stability process to define, at the
planning stage, the borehole stability problems that would be faced during the actual
drilling operation. The intention is to identify the in-situ stress state where the well is to
be drilled, to calculate the stresses that will occur at the borehole wall when the well is
drilled and to substitute the borehole wall stresses into shear and tensile failure criteria to
see whether failure occurs. It was found that for a particular formation the upper and
lower formation stability limits (fracture initiation pressure and sloughing/caving
pressure) are greatly affected by the hole inclination and azimuth.
20
19
Fracture - Loss of Circulation
18
17
Mud Weight (ppg)
16
15 Safe
Working
14
Area
13
12
11 Sloughing - Caving
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Hole Deviation (deg)
Figure 13-6 Effect of hole deviation & mud weight on borehole stability

Drilling Problems
This figure shows the formation behavior, for a set of given conditions, changes with the
hole inclination. It is possible to see that safe drilling conditions are achievable in
inclinations up to 60º. Beyond that point, unstability situations would be unevitable.
The same type of analysis can be done for a well to be drilled; knowing the lithology,
formation characteristics and borehole trajectory, a set of plots can be generated:
This type of representation consists of three tracks: the first track gives the mud weight
which causes tensile failure of the borehole, that is the fracture initiation pressure (FIP);
the second track gives the maximum and minimum mud weights which can be used in
the hole without causing shear failure of the walls; the third track combines the FIP and
the shear failure limits on mud weight to give the maximum and minimum mud weights
which can be used to drill the well. It is possible to see that a vertical well can be drilled
without any borehole stability problems within a wide range of mud weight values;
however, at 50 inclination the operation becomes risky, because of a narrower safe mud
weight range and a totally unstable ledge at 2672m.
1. Formation stability problems in previous wells.
2. New directional well with higher inclination than normal.

1. Use of electric logs for formation stability problem identification.
2. Planning phase.
1. Plan borehole trajectory, inclination and azimuth, within a safe range.
2. Follow a pre-planned mud program.
3. If totally unstable formations are identified, have a contingency plan (short trips,
mud lubricity, etc.)
13.1.3 Dog Legs and Key Seats

In order to drill a directional well it is necessary to make controlled dog legs to change
borehole trajectory to reach a desired target. Dog legs are necessary but, simultaneously,
they have been recognized as a major contributing factor for drilling, logging,
completion and production problems, for example.
• High friction factors while drilling and tripping (torque and drag).
• Key seats.
• Failure of drill string components due to excessive reverse bending.
• Casing wear.
• Extra time to run wire line logs
• Problems to run casing and ECP.
• Bad cement bond on dog leg high side.
• Difficult to set mechanical production packers.
• Reduced life time of tubing and sucker rods.

Drilling Problems
When a deflecting tool is run in the hole, the directional driller must have permanent
control of the dog legs being generated, in order to take immediate remedial actions to
correct unexpected high dog leg values before continuing to drill. Once a high dog leg
has been created, efforts must be made to reduce the dog leg before drilling ahead.
In this section, the drilling related problems are analyzed.
13.1.3.1High Friction Factors While Drilling and Tripping

Friction factors are used to evaluate the planned maximum drilling and tripping stresses
while rotating or sliding, to be able to select the proper components to drill the well. Any
deviations from the plan, by making higher dog legs, could result in stopping the drilling
operation without reaching the desired T.D.; this is particularly important in extended
reach and horizontal wells.
The value of the dog leg is defined by the combination of several factors:
• Deflecting tool configuration (bent sub/housing angle, distance between
stabilizers).
• BHA design.
• Drilling parameters.
• Formation characteristics (dip angle, formation strength, compactation,
stratigraphy).
• Borehole trajectory (inclination and azimuth)
Not all the factors are under our control. Formation characteristics can be estimated, but
they are an unknown until we drill them. For this reason, sometimes higher than expected
dog legs are obtained from a planned BHA, generating more drag and torque.
• Unexpected changes of borehole trajectory (inclination and/or azimuth).
• Make a comprehensive plan, including torque and drag simulation.
• Use previous directional wells data in the same area to identify possible dog leg
problems.
• MWD surveys help to detect immediate borehole trajectory changes, so
immediate remedial action should be taken.
13.1.4 Key Seats

Dog legs, even severe ones, do not cause immediate problems as the drill collars are
under compression and accommodate themselves to the new trajectory A key seat is
caused by the drill string in tension, normally drill pipe rubbing against the formation in
the dogleg. If the lateral force at the contact point between the drill string in tension and
the formation is larger than the formation strength, the body and tool joints of drillpipe
start wearing a groove into the formation about the same diameter as the tool joints. The
wear is confined to a narrow groove because the high tension in the drill string prevents
sideways movement. During a trip out of the hole, the BHA may be pulled into one of
these grooves, which maybe too small for it to pass through (see diagram below).

Drilling Problems
Key seats are associated with doglegs, as the drill string will be forced into contact with
the formation. The more severe the dogleg and the higher it is up the hole, the greater the
side load will be and so the faster a key seat will develop. Other than doglegs, ledges are
features which provide points of continuous contact. Further variations include key seats
at the casing shoe, where the groove is made in metal instead of rock. Development of
key seats is dependent upon the number of rotating hours and the formation strength.
A A
Section A-A
After creating a Depending on the When tripping out of

dogleg, the drillstring strength of the formation, the hole, the drill collar
is forced against the the groove will eventually will become wedged in
borehole wall. Pipe wear deep into the the groove since they
rotation causes a formation as shown in have a larger O.D. than
groove to be worn section A-A. the drill pipe.
into the formation.
Figure 13-7 Development of key seats
• Large doglegs at shallow true vertical depth compared to T.D.
• Sticking will occur while tripping out.
• Overpull likely to be erratic as tool joints pass through key seat.

• First large OD section of BHA reached dogleg.
• Circulation unaffected.
• Rotation may be possible.
• Planning:
– Avoid severe doglegs. Directional driller should be given maximum dogleg
tolerances vs TVD guideline for planning the well.
– Incorporate key seat reamer (string reamer) into the BHA design if high
torque and drag is not a problem.

Drilling Problems
Figure 13-8 Key seat wiper and string reamer.
13.1.4.4Rig Site Preparation

• Minimize dogleg severity. Follow maximum dogleg severity guidelines.
• Ream any severe doglegs, before key seats have an opportunity to develop.
• If a key seat is suspected or expected to develop, consider using a key seat
reamer in the drill pipe to wipe the build section or dogleg.
• Minimize the number of correction runs. It is better to make one large correction
run close to target than numerous changes with a steerable assembly at shallow
TVDs.
• As soon as problem is recognized, attempt to correct by hole opening run.
• A high-lubricating pill set at stuck point level will be helpful to free the stuck
drill string.
• Jar down when attempting to get free.
13.1.5 Drill String Failures Due to Excessive Reverse Bending

The stress to which the drill string components are subjected when rotating through a
dogleg change from tension to compression every 1/2 turn, accelerates fatigue wear. As a
result the life of the drill pipe and drill collar connections will be reduced or rig time is
likely to be lost due to wash outs, twist offs, etc.
• Have superior grade quality tubulars.
• Apply recommended make up torque to connections using proper equipment.
• Implement a systematic pipe inspection system.
• Use an adequate safety factor. Make a proper torque and drag plan.

Drilling Problems
13.1.6 Equipment Compatibility

Modern directional drilling practices require the use of new technology; bits, downhole
motors, MWD systems, solids control system, pumps, etc.; it is common to have multiple
suppliers for these elements. The operational requirements and limits are different for
each one. The drilling performance can be seriously affected if the right parameters are
not used. Special care must be taken in the following areas:
• Maximum and minimum GPM’s
• Pressure losses through the drillstring.
• RPM.
• Weight on bit.
• Maximum operating pressure.
• Operating changes, if formation changes occur.
• Downhole static and circulating temperatures.
• Length of the bit run. Initial and final surface pressures.
• Know the technical and operational specifications of every tool run in the hole.
• Know the technical and operational specifications of the rig and surface system.
• Make hydraulic calculations before running in the hole.
• Verify the compatibility of the BHA elements.
• Define the expected formations and lithology to be drilled during the bit run.
13.1.7 Borehole Stability
Packing off:
Poor hydraulics and mud conditioning will lead to the hole packing off. Solids will build
up in the mud and plug up the annulus while in turbulent flow. Remedy: Shut down the
pumps, thereby reducing ECD and annular velocity. Attempt to free pipe by jarring down
and, if possible, rotating. If circulation can be established, bring pumps up to speed very
slowly and circulate the hole clean.
Mud Motor Sliding:

When a mud motor is in sliding mode, it becomes very difficult to maintain a constant
WOB. In the worst case, all the surface weight can be slacked off with no change in
WOB. This is due to high sliding friction (Drag).
Remedy:
To improve the sliding condition, add walnut hulls to the mud system. This helps to keep
the PDM and BHA off the borehole wall and hence allow sliding to continue. Sweeping
the hole with a low-vie pill and LCM should help to reduce friction. (The LCM must be
fine-to-medium, well-mixed). As a last resort, POOH and run a hole opener through the
problem section.

Section 14 - Glossary
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
14 Glossary Page
14.1 DRILLING FLUIDS ...........................................................................................................14-1
14.2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING .................................................................................................14-29

No list of figures.
List of Tables Page

No list of tables.

Glossary
14 Glossary
14.1 Drilling Fluids
Absorption: The penetration or apparent disappearance of molecules or ions of one or
more substances into the interior of a solid or liquid. For example, in hydrated bentonite,
the planar water that is held between the mica-like layers is the result of absorption.
Acid: Any chemical compound containing hydrogen capable of being replaced by
positive elements or radicals to form salts. In terms of the dissociation theory, it is a
compound which, on dissociation in solution, yields excess hydrogen ions. Acids lower
the pH. Examples of acids or acidic substances are: hydrochloric acid, tannic acid,
sodium acid pyrophosphate.
Acidity: The relative acid strength of liquid as measured by pH. A pH value below 7.
See pH.
Adhesion: The force which holds together unlike molecules.
Adsorption: A surface phenomenon exhibited by a solid (adsorbent) to hold or
concentrate gases, liquids, or dissolved substances (adsorptive) upon its surface, a
property due to adhesion. For example, that water held to the outside surface of hydrated
bentonite is adsorbed water.
Aeration: The technique of injecting air or gas in varying amounts into a drilling fluid
for the purpose of reducing hydrostatic head. Compare Air Cutting.
Agglomerate: The larger groups of individual particles usually originating in sieving or
drying operations.
Agglomeration: A group of two or more individual particles held together by strong
forces. Aggregates are stable to normal stirring, shaking, or handling as powder or a
suspension. They may be broken by drastic treatment such as ball milling a powder or by
shearing a suspension.
Aggregation: Formation of aggregates. In drilling fluids, aggregation results in the
stacking of the clay platelets face to face. The viscosity and gel strength decrease in
consequence.
Air Cutting: The inadvertent mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air into a
drilling fluid system Compare Aeration.
Alkali: Any compound having marked basic properties. See Base.
Alkalinity: The combining power of a base measured by the maximum number of
equivalents of an acid with which it can react to form a salt. In water analyses, its
represents the carbonates, bicarbonate, hydroxides and occasionally the borates, silicates,
and phosphates in the water. It is determined by titration with standard acid to certain
datum points. See API RP 13B* for specific directions for determination of
phenolphthalein (Pf) and methyl orange (Mf) alkalinities of the filtrate in drilling fluids
and the alkalinity of the mud itself (Pm). Also see Pf, Mf and Pm.
Aluminum Stearate: An aluminum slat of stearic acid used as a defoamer. See Stearate.

Glossary
Amorphous: The property of a solid substance which does not crystallize and is without
any definite characteristic shape.
Analysis: Mud or Drilling-Fluid Examination and testing of the drilling fluid to
determine its physical and chemical properties and condition.
Anhydrite: See Calcium Sulfate. Anhydrite is often encountered while drilling. It may
occur as thin stringers or massive formations.
Anhydrous: Without water.
Aniline Point: The lowest temperature at which equal volumes of freshly distilled
aniline and an oil which is being tested are completely miscible. This test gives and
indication of the character (paraffinic, naphthenic, asphaltic, aromatic, mid-continent,
etc.) of the oil. The aniline point of diesels or crudes used in drilling mud is also and
indication of the deteriorating effect these materials may have on natural or synthetic
rubber. The lower the aniline point of an oil the more severe it usually is in damaging
rubber parts.
Anion: A negatively charged atom or radical, such as Cl-, OH-, SO-4 =, etc., in solution
of an electrolyte. Anions move toward the anode (positive electrode) under the influence
of an electrical potential.
Annular Velocity: The velocity of a fluid moving in the annulus.
Annulus or Annular Space: The space between the drill string and the wall of the hole
or casing.
Antifoam: A substance used to prevent foam by greatly increasing the surface tension.
Compare Defoamer.
API Gravity: The gravity (weight per unit volume) of crude oil or other related fluids as
measured by a system recommended by the American Petroleum Institute. It is related to
specific gravity by the following formula:
1415
.
Deg API = - 131.5
SG
Apparent Viscosity: The viscosity a fluid appears to have on a given instrument at a
stated rate of shear. It is a function of the plastic viscosity and the yield point. The
apparent viscosity in centipoise, as determined by the direct-indicating viscometer, which
is equal to 1/2 the 600-rpm reading. See also Viscosity, Plastic Viscosity, and Yield
Point. In a Newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is numerically equal to the plastic
viscosity.
Asbestos: Terms applied to many fibrous silicate minerals, some forms of which are
used in certain drilling fluids.
Asphalt: A natural or mechanical mixture of solid or viscous bitumens found in natural
beds or obtained as a residue from petroleum. Asphalts, blends containing asphalt, and
altered asphaltic materials, e.g., air-blown, chemically modified, etc., have been added to
certain fluids for such widely different purposes as a component in oil-base muds, lost
circulation material, emulsifier, fluid loss- control agent, wall-plastering agent, etc.
Atom: According to atomic theory, the smallest quantity of an element which is capable
of entering into chemical combination or that can exist alone.

Glossary
Atomic Weight: The relative weight of an atom of an element as compared with the
weight of 1 atom of oxygen, using 16 as the weight of 1 atom of oxygen.
Attapulgite Clay: A colloidal, viscosity-building clay used principally in salt-water
muds. Attapulgite, a special fullers earth, is a hydrous magnesium aluminum silicate.
Balance, Mud: A term-type balance used in determining mud density. It consists
primarily of a base, graduated beam with constant-volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and
counterweight.
Barite, Barytes, Or Heavy Spar: Natural barium sulfate used for increasing the density
of drilling fluids. If required, it is usually upgraded to a specific gravity of 4.20. The
barite mineral occurs in white, grayish, greenish, and reddish ores or crystalline masses.
Barium Sulfate: BaSO4. see Barite
Barrel: A volumetric unit of measure used in the petroleum industry consisting of 42
gal. (US)
Barrel Equivalent: A laboratory unit used for evaluating or testing drilling fluids. One
gram of material in 350 ml of fluid is equivalent to 1 lb. of material in barrel of fluid.
Base: A compound of a metal, or a metal-like group, with hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion to form an OH radical, which ionizes in aqueous solution to yield excess
hydroxyl ions. Bases are formed when metallic oxides react with water. Bases increase
the pH. Examples are caustic soda and lime.
Base Exchange: The replacement of cations associated with the clay surface by those of
another species, e.g., the conversion of sodium clay to calcium clay.
Basicity: pH value above 7. Ability to neutralize or accept protons from acids.
Bentonite: A plastic, colloidal clay, largely made up of the mineral sodium
montmorillonite, a hydrated aluminum silicate. For use in drilling fluids, bentonite has a
yield in excess of 85 bbl/ton. The generic term bentonite is neither an exact
mineralogical name, nor is the clay of definite mineralogical composition.
Bicarb: See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Blooie Line: Flow line for air or gas drilling.
Blowout: An uncontrolled escape of: drilling fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well
caused by the formation pressure being greater than the hydrostatic head of the fluid in
the hole.
Boilerhouse: To make up a report on a condition as fact without knowledge of its
accuracy. Sometimes referred to as doghouse.
Brackish Water: Water containing low concentrations of any soluble salts.
Break Circulation: To start movement of the drilling fluid after it has been quiescent in
the hole.
Breakout, Oil: Oil that has risen to the surface of the mud which previously had been
combined in the mud as emulsion.
Bridge: An obstruction in a well formed by the intrusion of sub-surface formations.
Brine: Water saturated with or containing a high concentration of common salt (sodium
chloride); hence, any strong saline solution containing such other salts as calcium
chloride, calcium bromide, zinc bromide, etc.

Glossary
Bromine Value: The number of centigrams of bromine which are absorbed by 1g of oil
under certain conditions. This a test for the degree of unsaturation of a given oil.
Brownian Movement: Continuous, irregular motion exhibited by particles suspended in
a liquid or gaseous medium, usually as a colloidal dispersion.
BS or BS & W: Base sediment, or base sediment and water.
Buffer: Any substance or combination of substances which, when dissolved in water,
produces a solution which resists a change in its hydrogen ion concentration upon the
addition of acid or base.
Cable-Tool Drilling: A method of drilling a well by allowing a weighted bit at the
bottom of a cable to fall against the formation being penetrated. See Rotary Drilling.
Cake Consistency: According to API RP 13B, such notions as hard, soft, tough,
rubbery, firm, etc., may be used to convey some idea of cake consistency.
Cake Thickness: A measurement of the thickness of the filter cake deposited by a
drilling fluid against a porous medium, most often following the standard API filtration
test. Cake thickness is usually reported in 32nd of an inch. See Filter Cake and Wall
Cake.
Calcium: One of the alkaline earth elements with valency of 2 and an atomic weight of
about 40. Calcium compounds are a common cause of the hardness of water. It is also a
component of lime, gypsum, limestone, etc.
Calcium Carbonate: CaCO3. An insoluble calcium salt sometimes used as a weighting
material (limestone, oyster shell, etc.) in specialized drilling fluids. It is also used as a
unit and/or standard to report hardness.
Calcium Chloride: CaCl2. A very soluble calcium salt sometimes added to drilling
fluids to impart special properties, but primarily to increase the density of the fluid
phase.
Calcium Contamination: Dissolved calcium ions in sufficient concentration to impart
undesirable properties in a drilling fluid, such as flocculation, reduction in yield of
bentonite, increase in fluid loss, etc. See also Calcium Sulfate, Gyp, Anhydrite, Lime,
Calcium Carbonate.
Calcium Hydroxide: Ca(OH)2. The active ingredient of slaked lime. It is also the main
constituent in cement (when wet) and is referred to as lime in field terminology.
Calcium-Treated Muds: Calcium-treated muds are drilling fluids to which quantities of
soluble calcium compounds have been added or allowed to remain from the formation
drilled in order to impart special properties.
Calcium Sulfate: (Anhydrite: CaSO4, plaster of paris: CaSO4 . 1/2 H2O; and gypsum:
CaSO4 . 2H2O). Calcium sulfate occurs in muds as contaminant or may be added to
certain muds to impart special properties.
Cation: The positively charged particle in the solution of an electrolyte which, under the
influence of an electrical potential, moves toward the cathode (negative electrode).
Examples are:, H+, NH+4, Ca++, Mg++, A1+++.
Caustic or Caustic Soda: See Sodium hydroxide.
Cave-ln: See Sloughing. Cave-in is a severe form of sloughing.

Glossary
Cavernous Formation: A formation having voluminous voids, usually the result of

dissolution by formation waters which or may not be still present.
CC or Cubic Centimeter: A metric-system unit for the measure of volume. It is
essentially equal to the milliliter and commonly used interchangeably. One cubic
centimeter of water at room temperature weighs approximately 1g.
Cement: A mixture of calcium aluminates and silicates made by combining lime and
clay while heating. Slaked cement contains about 62.5 percent calcium hydroxide, which
is the major source of trouble when cement contaminates mud.
Centipoise (Cp): Unit of viscosity equal to 0.01 poise. A poise equals 1 g per
meter-second, and a centipoise is 1 g per centimeter-second. The viscosity of water at 20
C is 1.005 cp (1 cp = 0.000672 lb/ft-sec).
Centrifuge: A device for the mechanical separation of high specific gravity solids from
a drilling fluid. Usually used on weighted muds to recover weight material and discard
drill solids. The centrifuge uses high-speed mechanical rotation to achieve this separation
as distinguished from the cyclone-type separator in which the fluid energy alone provides
the separating force. See Cyclone and Desander.
Chemicals: In drilling-fluid terminology, a chemical is any material that produces
changes in the viscosity yield point, gel strength, and fluid loss, as well as surface
tension.
Chemical Barrel: A container in which various chemicals are mixed prior to addition to
the drilling fluid.
Chromate: A compound in which chromium has a valency of 6 e.g.., sodium
bichromate. Chromate may be added to drilling fluids either directly or as a constituent
of chrome lignites or chrome lignosulfonates. In certain areas, chromate is widely used
as an anodic corrosion inhibitor, often in conjunction with lime.
Chrome Lignite: Mined lignite, usually leonardite, to which chromate has been added
and/or reacted. The lignite can also be causticized with either sodium or potassium
hydroxide.
Circulation: The movement of drilling fluid from the suction pit through pump, drill
pipe, bit, annular space in the hole, and back again to the suction pit. The time involved
is usually referred to as circulation time.
Circulation, Loss of (or Lost): The result of whole drilling fluid escaping into the
formation by way of crevices or porous media.
Circulation Rate: The volume flow rate of the circulating fluid usually expressed in
gallons or barrels per minute.
Clabbered: A slang term commonly used to describe moderate to severe flocculation of
mud due to various contaminants; also called gelled up.
Clay: A plastic, soft, variously colored earth, commonly hydrous silicates of alumina,
formed by the decomposition of feldspar and other aluminum silicates. See also
Attapulgite, Bentonite, High Yield, Low Yield and Natural Clays. Clay minerals are
essentially insoluble in water but disperse under hydration, shearing forces such as
grinding, velocity effects, etc., into the extremely small particles varying from submicron
to 100-micron sizes.

Glossary
Clay Extender: Several substances, usually high molecular weight organic compounds
that, when added in low concentrations to a bentonite or to certain other clay slurries,
will increase the viscosity of the system, for example polyvinyl acetate-maleic anyhdride
copolymer. See Low-solids Muds.
CMC: See Sodium Carboxymethylcelluose.
Coagulation: In drilling-fluid terminology, a synonym for flocculation.
Coalescence: The change from a liquid to a thickened curd-like state by chemical
reaction. Also the combination of globules in an emulsion caused by molecular attraction
of the surfaces.
Cohesion: The attractive forces between molecules of the same kind, i.e., the force
which holds the molecules of a substance together.
Colloid: A state of subdivision of matter which consists either of single large molecules
or of aggregations of smaller molecules dispersed to such a degree that the surface forces
become and important factor in determining its properties. The size and electrical charge
of the particles determine the different phenomena observed with colloids, e.g..,
Brownian movement. The sizes of colloids, range from 1 x 10-10 to 5 x 10-10, 1 x 10-7 cm
to 5 x 10-5 cm, 10-6, 10-9 (0.001 to 0.5 microns) in diameter, although the particle size of
certain emulsoids can be in the micron range.
Colloidal Composition: A colloidal suspension containing one or more colloidal
constituents.
Colloidal Suspension: Finely divided, ultramicroscopically sized particles swimming in
a liquid.
Conductivity: Measure of the quantity of electricity transferred across unit area per unit
potential gradient per unit time. It is the reciprocal of resistivity. Electrolytes may be
added to the drilling fluid to alter its conductivity for logging purposes.
Connate Water: Water that was probably laid down and then entrapped with
sedimentary deposits, as distinguished from migratory waters that have flowed into
deposits after they were laid down.
Consistency: The viscosity of a non-reversible fluid, in poises, for a certain time interval
at a given pressure and temperature.
Consistometer: A thickening-time tester having a stirring apparatus to measure the
relative thickening time for mud or cement slurries under predetermined temperatures
and pressures. See API RP 10B*.
Contamination: The presence in a drilling fluid of any foreign material that may tend to
produce detrimental properties of the drilling fluid.
Continuous Phase: The fluid phase which completely surrounds the dispersed phase
that may be colloids, oil, etc.
Controlled Aggregation: A condition in which the clay platelets are maintained stacked
by a polyvalent cation, such as calcium, and are deflocculated by use of a thinner.
Conventional Mud: A drilling fluid containing essentially clay and water.

Glossary
Copolymer: A substance formed when two or more substances polymerize at the same
time to yield a product which is not a mixture of separate polymers but a complex having
properties different from either polymer alone. See Polymer. Examples are polyvinyl
acetate-maleic anyhdride copolymer (clay extender and selective flocculant), acrylamide
carboxylic acid copolymer(total flocculant),etc.
Corrosion: The adverse chemical alteration of a metal or the eating away of the metal by
air, moisture, or chemicals; usually an oxide is formed.
Crater: The formation of a large funnel-shaped cavity at the top of a hole resulting from
a blowout or occasionally from caving.
Creaming of Emulsions: The settling or rising of particles from the dispersed phase of
an emulsion as observed by a difference in color shading of the layers formed. This can
be either upward or downward creaming, depending upon the relative densities of the
continuous and dispersed phases.
Created Fractures: Induced fractures by means of hydraulic or mechanical pressure
exerted on the formation.
Cuttings: Small pieces of formation that are the result of the chipping and/or crushing
action of the bit. See Samples.
Cycle time, Drilling-Fluid: The time of a cycle, or down the hole and back, is the time
required for the pump to move the drilling fluid in the hole. The cycle in minutes equals
the barrels of mud in the hole divided by barrels per minute.
Cyclone: A device for the separation of various particles from a drilling fluid, most
commonly used as a desander. The fluid is pumped tangentially into a cone, and the fluid
rotation provides enough centrifugal force to separate particles by mass weight. See
Centrifuge.
Darcy: A unit of permeability. A porous medium has a permeability of 1 darcy when a
pressure of 1 atm on a sample 1 cm long and 1 sq cm in cross section will force a liquid
of 1-cp viscosity through the sample at the rate of 1 cc per sec.
Deflocculation: Breakup of flocs of gel structures by use of a thinner.
Defoamer or Defoaming Agent: Any substance used to reduce or eliminate foam by
reducing the surface tension. Compare Antifoam.
Dehydration: Removal of free or combined water from a compound.
Diesel-Oil Plug: See Gunk Plug.
Deliquesence: The liquefaction of a solid substance due to the solution of the solid by
absorption of moisture from the air, e.g.., calcium chloride.
Density: Matter measured as mass per unit volume-expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg),
grams per cubic centimeter and pounds per cubic ft (lb./cu.ft). Mud density is commonly
referred to as mud weight.
Desander: See Cyclone.
Diatomaceous Earth: An infusorial earth composed of siliceous skeletons of diatoms
and which is very porous. Sometimes used for combatting lost circulation and as an
additive to cement; also has been added to special drilling fluids for various purposes.

Glossary
Differential Pressure: The difference in pressure between the hydrostatic head of the
drilling-fluid column and the formation pressure at any given depth in the hole. It can be
positive, zero, or negate with respect to the hydrostatic head.
Differential-Pressure (Wall) Sticking: Sticking which occurs because part of the drill
string (usually the drill collars) becomes embedded in the filter cake resulting in a
non-uniform distribution of pressure around the circumference of the pipe. The
conditions essential for sticking require a permeable formation and a pressure differential
across a nearly impermeable filter cake and drill string.
Diffusion: The spreading, scattering, or mixing of material (gas, liquid, or solid).
Dilatant Fluid: A dilatant or inverted plastic fluid is usually made up of a high
concentration of well-dispersed solids which exhibits a non-linear consistency curve
passing through the origin. The apparent viscosity increases instantaneously with
increasing rate of shear. The yield point, as determined by conventional calculations
from the direct-indicating viscometer readings, is negative; however, the true yield point
is zero.
Diluent: Liquid added to dilute or thin a solution.
Direct-Indicating Viscometer: See Viscometer, Direct-indicating.
Dispersant: Any chemical which promotes the subdivision of a dispersed phase.
Dispersed Phase: The scattered phase (solid, liquid, or gas) of a dispersion. The
particles are finely divided and completely surrounded by the continuous phase.
Dispersion (of Aggregates): Subdivision of aggregates. Dispersion increases the
specific surface of the particle; hence results in an increase in viscosity and gel strength.
Dispersoid: A colloid or finely divided substance.
Dissociation: The splitting of a compound or element into two or more simple
molecules, atoms, or ions. Applied usually to the effect of the action of heat or solvents
upon dissolved substances. The reaction is reversible and not as permanent as
decomposition; i.e., when the solvent is removed, the ions recombine.
Distillation: Process of first vaporizing a liquid and then condensing the vapor into a
liquid (the distillate), leaving behind non-volatile substances, the total solids of a drilling
fluid. The distillate is the water and/or oil content of a fluid.
Dogleg: The change in wellbore curvature between any two points, expressed in degrees.
Dogleg Severity (DLS): The dogleg normalized to a certain interval (e.g., 100’, 30m or
10m) expressed in °/100 ft. or °/30m or °/10m.
Drilling In: The operation during the drilling procedure at the point of drilling into the
pay formation.
Drilling Mud or Fluid: A circulating fluid used during rotary drilling to perform any or
all of various functions required in the drilling operation.
Drilling Out: The operation during the drilling procedure when the cement is drilled out
of the casing before further hole is made or completion attempted.
Drill-Stem Test (DST): A test to determine whether oil and/or gas in commercial
quantities has been encountered in the well bore.
Dynamic: The state of being active or in motion; as opposed to static.

Glossary
Electric Logging: Electric logs are run on a wire line to obtain information concerning
the porosity, permeability, fluid content of the formations drilled, and other information.
The drilling-fluid characteristics may need to be altered to obtain good logs.
Electrolyte: A substance which dissociates into charged positive and negative ions when
in solution or a fused state and which will then conduct an electric current. Acids, bases,
and salts are common electrolytes.
Emulsifier or Emulsifying Agent: A subspace used to produce an emulsion of two
liquids which do not mix. Emulsifiers may be divided, according to their behavior, into
ionic and nonionic agents. The ionic types may be further divided into anionic, cationic
and amphoteric, depending upon the nature of the ionic groups.
Emulsion: A substantially permanent heterogeneous mixture of two or more liquids
which do not normally dissolve in each other but which are held in suspension or
dispersion, one in the other, by mechanical agitation or, more frequently, by adding small
amounts of substances known as emulsifiers. Emulsions may be mechanical, chemical, or
a combination of the two. They may be oil-in-water or water-in-oil types.
Emulsoid: Colloidal particles which take up water.
End Point: Indicates the end of some operation or when a clear and definite change is
observed. In titration this change is frequently a change in color of an indicator which
has been added to the solution or the disappearance of a colored reactant.
Engineer, Mud or Drilling-Fluid: One versed in drilling fluids whose duties are to
manage, carry through, and maintain the various types of oil-well mud programs.
EP Additive: See Extreme-pressure Lubricant.
Epm or Equivalents Per Million: The unit chemical weight of solute per million unit
weights of solution. The epm of a solute in solution is equal to the ppm (parts per
million) divided by the equivalent weight. Refer also to Ppm.
Equivalent Circulating Density: For circulating fluid, the ECD or equivalent
circulating density in lb./gal equals the hydrostatic head (psi) plus the total annular
pressure drop (psi) divided by the depth (ft) and by 0.052.
Equivalent Weight or Combining Weight: The atomic weight or formula weight of an
element, compound, or ion divided by its valence. Elements entering into combination
always do so in quantities proportional to their equivalent weights.
Extreme-Pressure Lubricant: Additives which, when added to the drilling fluid, impart
lubrication to the bearing surfaces when subjected to extreme pressure conditions.
Fault: Geological term denoting a formation break, upward or downward, in the
subsurface strata. Faults can significantly affect the area mud and casing programs.
Fermentation: Decomposition process of certain substances, e.g., starch, in which a
chemical change is brought abut be enzymes, bacteria, or other micro-organisms. Often
referred to as souring.
Fiber or Fibrous Materials: Any tough stringy material used to prevent loss of
circulation or to restore circulation. In field use, fiber generally refer to the larger fibers
of plant origin.
Fill-up Line: The line through which fluid is added to the hole.

Glossary
Filter Cake: Suspended solids that are deposited on a porous medium during the process
of filtration. See also Cake Thickness.
Filter-Cake Texture: The physical properties of a cake as measured by toughness,
slickness, and brittleness. See also Cake Consistency.
Filter-Cake Thickness: A measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper in 32nd
of an inch during the standard 30-min. API filter test. See Cake Thickness. In certain
areas the filter-cake thickness is a measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper for
a 7.5 min duration.
Filter Loss: See Fluid Loss.
Filter Paper: Porous unsized paper for filtering liquids. The API filtration test specifies
9-cm filter paper Whatman No 50, S&S No 576, or equivalent.
Filter Press: A device for determining the fluid loss of a drilling fluid having
specifications in accordance with API RP 13B.
Filtrate: The liquid that is forced through a porous medium during the filtration process.
For tests, see Fluid Loss.
Filtration: The process of separation of suspended solids from their liquid by forcing the
latter through a porous medium. Two types of fluid filtration occur in a well: dynamic
filtration while circulating, and static filtration when at rest.
Filtration Rate: see Fluid Loss
Fishing: Operations on the rig for the purpose of retrieving from the well bore sections
of pipe, collars, junk, or other obstructive item which are in the hole.
Flat Gel: A condition wherein the 10-min. gel strength is essentially equal to the initial
gel strength.
Flipped: When the opposite effect of what is intended occurs in a drilling fluid. In an
invert water-in-oil emulsion, the emulsion is said to be flipped when the continuous and
dispersed phases reverse.
Flocculates: A group of aggregates or particles in a suspension subject to being broken
up by normal shaking and stirring and reforming on standing.
Flocculating Agent: Substances, e.g. most electrolytes, a few polysaccharides, certain
natural or synthetic polymers, that bring about the thickening of the consistency of a
drilling fluid. In Bingham Plastic fluids, the yield point and gel strength increase.
Flocculation: Loose association of particles in lightly bonded groups, sometimes called
flocs, with non-parallel association of clay platelets. In concentrated suspensions, such as
drilling fluids, flocculation results in gelation. In some drilling fluids, flocculation may
be followed by irreversible precipitation of colloids and certain other substances from
the fluid, e.g.., red beds.
Fluid: Any substance which will readily assume the shape of the container in which it is
placed. The term includes both liquids and gases. It is a substance in which the
application of every system of stresses (other than hydrostatic pressure) will produce a
continuously increasing deformation without any relation between time rate of
deformation at any instant and the magnitude of stresses at the instant.

Glossary
Fluid Flow: The state of fluid dynamics of a fluid in motion is determined by the type of
fluid (e.g.., Newtonian plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant), the properties of the fluid such as
viscosity and density, the geometry of the system, and the velocity. Thus, under a given
set of conditions and fluid properties, the fluid flow can be described as plug flow,
laminar (called also Newtonian, streamline, parallel, or viscous) flow, or turbulent flow.
See above terms and Reynolds number.
Fluidity: The reciprocal of viscosity. The measure of rate with which a fluid is
continuously deformed by a shearing stress. Ease of flowing.
Fluid Loss: Measure of the relative amount of fluid lost (filtrate) through permeable
formations or membranes when the drilling fluid is subjected to a pressure differential.
For standard API filtration-test procedure, see API RP 13B.
Fluorescence: Instantaneous re-emission of light of a greater wave length than that of
light originally absorbed.
Foam: A foam is a two-phase system, similar to an emulsion, where the dispersed phase
is a gas or air.
Foaming Agent: A substance that produces fairly stable bubbles at the air-liquid
interface due to agitation, aeration, or ebullition. In air or gas drilling, foaming agents are
added to turn water influx into aerated foam. This is commonly called mist drilling.
Formation Damage: Damage to the productivity of a well as a result of invasion into
the formation by mud particles or mud filtrates. Asphalt from crude oil will also damage
some formations. See Mudding Off.
Formation sensitivity: The tendency of certain producing formations to adversely react
with invading mud filtrates.
Functions of Drilling Fluids: The most important function of drilling fluids in rotary
drilling is to being cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Some other
important functions are: control, subsurface pressures, cool and lubricate the bit and drill
string, deposition of an impermeable wall cake, etc.
Funnel Viscosity: See Marsh Funnel Viscosity.
Galena: Lead sulphide (Pbs). Technical grades (specific gravity about 7) are used for
increasing the density of drilling fluids to points impractical or impossible with barite.
Gas Cut: Gas entrained by a drilling fluid. See Air Cutting.
Gel: A state of a colloidal suspension in which shearing stresses below a certain finite
value fail to produce permanent deformation. The minimum shearing stress that will
produce permanent deformation is known as the shear or gel strength of the gel. Gels
commonly occur when the dispersed colloidal particles have a great affinity for the
dispersing medium, i.e., are lyophilic. Thus gels commonly occur with bentonite in
water. For their measurement, see Gel Strength, initial and 10-min.
Gel: A term used to designate highly colloidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building
commercial clays, such as bentonite and attapulgite clays.
Gelation: Association of particles forming continuous structures.
Gel Cement: Cement having a small to moderate percentage of bentonite added as a
filler and/or to reduce the slurry weight. See Gunk Plug.

Glossary
Gelled Up: Oil-field jargon usually referring to any fluid with a high gel strength and/or
highly viscous properties. Often a state of severe flocculation.
Gel Strength: The ability or measure of the ability of a colloid to form gels. Gel strength
is a pressure unit usually reported in lb./100 sq.ft. It is a measure of the same of the same
inter-particle forces of a fluid as determined by the yield point except that gel strength is
measured under static conditions, yield point under dynamic conditions. The common
gel-strength measurements are initial and the 10-min. gels. See also Shear and
Thixotropy.
Gel Strength, Initial: The measured initial gel strength of a fluid is the maximum
reading (deflection) taken from a direct reading viscometer after the fluid has been
quiescent for 10 sec. It is reported in lb./100 sq.ft. See API RP 13B.
Gel Strength, 10 min.: The measured 10-min. gel strength of a fluid is the maximum
reading (deflection) taken from a direct reading viscometer after the fluid has been
quiescent for 10 min. The reading is reported in lb./100 sq.ft. See API RP 13B for details
of test procedure.
Gpg or Grains per Gallon: Ppm equals gpg x 17.1.
Gravity, Specific: The weight of a particular volume of any substance compared to the
weight of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature. For gases, air is usually
taken as the reference substance, although hydrogen is sometimes used.
Greasing Out: Certain organic substances, usually fatty-acid derivatives, which are
added to drilling fluids as emulsifiers, e.p. lubrications, etc., may react with such ions as
calcium and magnesium that are in or will subsequently come into the system. An
essentially water-insoluble greasy material separates out.
Gum: Any hydrophilic plant polysaccharides or their derivatives which when dispersed
in water, swell to produce a viscous dispersion or solution. Unlike resins, they are
soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol.
Gumbo: Any relatively sticky formation, such as clay, which is encountered in drilling.
Guar Gum: A naturally occurring hydrophilic polysaccharide derived from the seed of
the guar plant. The gum is chemically classified as a galactomarman. Guar gum slurries
made up in clear fresh or brine water possess pseudoplastic flow properties.
Gunk Plug: A slurry in crude or diesel oil containing any of the following materials or
combinations: bentonite, cement, attapulgite, and guar gum (never with cement). Used
primarily in combating lost circulation The plug may or may not be squeezed.
Gunning the Pits: Mechanical agitation of the drilling fluid in a pit by means of a mud
gun, electric mixer or agitator.
Gyp Or Gypsum: See Calcium Sulfate. Gypsum is commonly encountered while
drilling. It may occur as thin stringers or massive formations.
Hardness (of Water): The hardness of water is due principally to the calcium and
magnesium acid ions. The total hardness is measured in terms of parts per million of
calcium carbonate or calcium and sometimes equivalents per million of calcium. For
hardness tests, see API RP 13B.
Heaving: The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole resulting from internal
pressures due primarily to swelling from hydration or formation gas pressures. See
Sloughing.

Glossary
Heterogeneous: A substance that consists of more than one phase and is not uniform,
such as colloids, emulsions, etc., It has different properties in different parts.
High-pH Mud: A drilling fluid with a pH range above 10.5. A high-alkalinity mud.
High-Yield Drilling Clay: A classification given to a group of commercial drilling-clay
preparations having a yield of 35 to 50 bbl/ton and intermediate between bentonite and
low-yield clays. High-yield drilling clays are usually prepared by peptizing low-yield
calcium montmorillonite clays or, in a few cases, by blending some bentonite with the
peptized low-yield clay.
Homogeneous: Of uniform or similar nature throughout; or a substance or fluid that has
at all points the same property or composition.
Hopper, Jet: See Mud-mixing Devices. A device to facilitate the addition of drilling
fluid additives to the system.
Humic Acid: Organic acids of indefinite composition found in naturally occurring
leonardite lignite. The humic acids are the most valuable constituent. See Lignin.
Hydrate: A substance containing water combined in molecular form (such as CaSO4
.2H2O). A crystalline substance containing water of crystallization.
Hydration: The act of a substance to take up water by means of absorption and/or
adsorption.
Hydrogen ion Concentration: A measure of either the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution, normally expressed as pH. See pH.
Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water to form an acid and base. For
example, soda ash (Na2CO3) hydrolyzes basically, and hydrolysis is responsible for the
increase in the pH of water when soda ash is added.
Hydrometer: A floating instrument for determining the specific gravity or density of
liquids, solutions and slurries. A common example is the Mudwate hydrometer used to
determine the density of mud.
Hydrophile: Any substance usually in the colloidal state or an emulsion, which is wetted
by water; i.e., it attracts water or water adheres to it.
Hydrophilic: A property of a substance having an affinity for water or one that is wetted
by water.
Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB): The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is
one of the most important properties of emulsifiers. It is an expression of the relative
attraction of an emulsifier for water and oil determined largely by the chemical
composition and ionization characteristics of a given emulsifier. The HLB of an
emulsifier is not directly related to its solubility, but it determines the type of an
emulsion that tends to be formed. it is an indication of the behavior characteristics and
not an indication of emulsifier efficiency.
Hydrophobe: Any substance, usually in the colloidal state, not wetted by water.
Hydrophibic: Descriptive of a substance which repels water.
Hydrostatic Head: The pressure exerted by a column of fluid, usually expressed in
pounds per square inch. To determine the hydrostatic head in psi at a given depth,
multiply the depth in feet by the density in pounds per gallon by 0.052.

Glossary
Hydroxide: A designation that is given for basic compounds containing the OH- radical.
When these substances are dissolved in water, they increase the pH of the solution. See
Base.
Hygroscopic: The property of a substance enabling it to absorb water from the air.
Indicator: Substances in acid-base titrations which, in solution, change color or become
colorless as the hydrogen ion concentration reaches a definite value, these values varying
with the indicator. In other titrations such as chloride, hardness, and other
determinations, these substances change color at the end of the reaction. Common
indicators are phenolphthalein methyl orange, chromate, etc.
Inhibited Mud: A drilling fluid having an aqueous phase with a chemical composition
that tends to retard and even prevent (inhibit) appreciable hydration (swelling) or
dispersion of formation clays and shales through chemical and/or physical means. See
Inhibitor (Mud).
Inhibitor (Corrosion): An agent which when added to a system, slows down or prevents
a chemical reaction or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors are used widely in drilling and
producing operations to prevent corrosion of metal equipment exposed to hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide, oxygen salt water, etc. Common inhibitors added to drilling
fluids are filming amines, chromates and lime.
Inhibitor(Mud): Substances generally regarded as drilling-mud contaminants, such as
salt and calcium sulfate, are called inhibitors when purposely added to mud so that the
filtrate from the drilling fluid will prevent or retard the hydration of formation clays and
shales.
Initial Gel: See Gel Strength Initial.
Interfacial Tension: The force required to break the surface between two immiscible
liquids. The lower the interfacial tension between the two phases of an emulsion, the
greater the ease of emulsification. When the values approach zero, emulsion formation is
spontaneous. See Surface Tension.
Interstitial Water: Water contained in the interstices or voids of formations.
Invert Off-Emulsion Mud: An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil emulsion where fresh
or salt water is the dispersed phase and diesel, crude, or some other oil is the continuous
phase. Water increases the viscosity and oil reduces the viscosity.
Iodine Number: The number indicating the amount of iodine absorbed by oils, fats and
waxes, giving a measure of the unsaturated linkages present. Generally, the higher the
iodine number, the more severe the action of the oil on rubber.
Ions: Acids, bases and salts (electrolytes), when dissolved in certain solvents, especially
water, are more or less dissociated into electrically charged ions or parts of the
molecules, due to loss or gain of electrons. Loss of electrons results in positive charges
producing a action. A gain of electrons results in the formation of an anion with negative
charges. The valency of an ion is equal to the number of charges borne by it.
Jetting: The process of periodically removing a portion or all of, the water, mud and/or
solids, from the pits, usually by mean of pumping through a jet nozzle arrangement
Jones Effect: The net surface tension of all salt solutions first with an increase in
concentration, passes through a minimum, and then increases as the concentration is
raised.

Glossary
Kelly or Kelly Joint: A heavy, square pipe or some other configuration that works
through a like hole in the rotary table and rotates the drill stem.
Key Seat: A section of a hole, usually of abnormal deviation and relatively soft
formation, which has been eroded or worn by drill pipe to a size smaller than the tool
joints or collars. This keyhole type configuration will not allow these members to bass
when pulling out of the hole.
Killing A Well: Bringing a blowing out well under control, also, the procedure of
circulating water and mud into a completed well before starting well-service operations.
Kill Line: A line connected to the annulus below the blowout preventers for the purpose
of pumping into the annulus while the preventers are closed.
Kinematic Viscosity: The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of the viscosity
(e.g.., cp in g/cm-sec) to the density (e.g.., g/cc) using consistent units. In several
common commercial viscometers the kinematic viscosity is measured in terms of the
time of efflux (in seconds) of a fixed volume of liquid through a standard capillary tube
or orifice. See Marsh Funnel Viscosity.
Laminar Flow: Fluid elements flowing along fixed streamlines which are parallel to the
walls of die channel of flow. In laminar flow, the fluid moves in plates or sections with a
differential velocity across the front which varies from zero at the wall to a maximum
toward the center for flow. Laminar flow is the first stage of flow in a Newtonian fluid; it
is the second stage in a gingham plastic fluid. This type of motion is also called parallel,
streamline, or viscous flow. See Plug and Turbulent flow.
Leonardite: A naturally occurring oxidited lignite. See Lignins.
Lignins, Mined or Humic Acids: Mined lignins are naturally occurring special lignite,
e.g.., leonardite, that are produced by strip mining from special lignite deposits. The
active ingredient is the humic acids. Mined lignins are used primarily as thinners, which
may or may not be chemically modified. However, they are also widely used as
emulsifiers.
Lignosulfonates: Organic drilling-fluid additives derived from by-products of sulfite
paper manufacturing process from coniferous woods. Some of the common salts, such as
the ferrochrome, chrome, calcium and sodium, are used as universal dispersants while
others are used selectively for calcium-treated systems. In large quantities, the
ferrochrome and chrome salts are used for fluid-loss control and shale inhibition
Lime: Commercial form of calcium hydroxide.
Lime-Treated Muds: Commonly referred to as “lime-based' muds. These high-pH
systems contain most of the conventional freshwater additives to which slaked lime has
been added to impart special properties. The Alkilinities and lime contents vary from low
to high.
Limestone: See Calcium Carbonate.
Lipophile: A substance usually colloidal and easily wetted by oil.
Lipophilic: Having an affinity for oil.
Live Oil: Crude oil that contains gas and has not been stabilized or weathered. This oil
can cause gas cutting when added to mud and is a potential fire hazard.
Logging: See Mud Logging and Electric Logging.

Glossary
Loss of Circulation: See Circulation, loss of.

Loss of Head or Friction Loss: See “Pressure-Drop Loss”.
Lost-Circulation Additives: Materials added to the mud to gain control or prevent lost
circulation. These materials are added in varying amounts and are classified as fiber,
flake or granular.
Lost Returns: See “Circulation, loss of”.
Low-Solids, Muds: A designation given to any type of mud where high-performance
additives, e.g.., CMC, have been partially or wholly substituted for commercial or natural
clays. For comparable viscosity and densities (weighted with barite), a low-solids mud
will have a lower volume-percent solids content.
Low-Yield Clays: Commercial clays chiefly of the calcium montmorillonite type having
a yield of approximately 15 to 30 bbl/ton.
Lyophilic: Having an affinity for the suspending medium such as bentonite in water.
Lyophilic Colloid: A colloid that is not easily precipitated from a solution and is readily
dispersible after precipitation by an addition of the solvent
Lyophobic: A colloid that is readily precipitated from a solution and cannot be
redispersed by addition of the solution.
Marsh Funnel: An instrument used in determining the Marsh funnel viscosity. The
Marsh funnel is a container with a fixed orifice at the bottom so that when filled with
1500 cc fresh water, 1 qt (946 ml) will flow out in 26 + 0.5 sec. For 1000 cc out, the
efflux time for water is 27.5 + 0.5 sec. See API RP 13B for specifications.
Marsh Funnel Viscosity: Commonly called funnel viscosity. The Marsh funnel
viscosity is reported as the time in seconds required for 1 qt of fluid to flow through the
funnel. In some are, the efflux quantity is 1000 cc. See API RP 13B for instructions. See
also Kinematic Viscosity.
Meniscus: The curved upper surface of a liquid column, concave when the containing
walls are wetted by the liquid and convex when not.
Mesh: A measure of fineness of a woven material screen, or sieve; e.g.., a 200-mesh
sieve has 200 openings per linear inch. A 200-mesh screen with a wire diameter of
0.0021 inch (0.0533 nun) has and opening of 0.074 mm, or will pass a particle of 74
microns. See Micron. Mf. The methyl orange alkalinity of the filtrate, reported as the
number of millilitres of 0.02 Normal acid required per millilitre of filtrate to reach the
methyl orange end point (pH 4.3).
Mica: Naturally occurring flake material of various sizes used in combating lost
circulation. An alkali aluminum silicate.
Micelles: Organic and inorganic molecular aggregates occurring in colloidal solutions.
Long chains of individual structural units chemically joined to one another and laid side
by side to form bundles. When bentonite hydrates, certain sodium or other metallic ions
go into solution, the clay particle plus its complement of ions is technically known as a
micelle.
Micron x= u: A unit of length equal to one millionth part of a metre, or one thousandth
part of a millimetre.
Mil: A unit of length = 1/ 100 inch.

Glossary
Milk Emulsion: See Oil-emulsion Water.

Millidarcy: 1/1000 darcy. See Darcy.
ML or Millilitre: A metric system unit for the measurement of volume. Literally
1/1000th of a litre. In drilling-mud analyses work, this term is used interchangeably with
cubic centimeter (cc). One quart is about equal to 946 mi.
Mist Drilling: A method of rotary drilling whereby water and or oil is dispersed in air
arid/or gas as the drilling fluid.
Molecule: Atoms combine to form molecules. For elements or compounds, a molecule is
the smallest unit which chemically still retains the properties of the subs in mass.
Montmorillonite: A clay mineral commonly used as an additive to drilling muds.
Sodium montmorillonite is the main constituent in bentonite. The structure of
montmorillonite is the main constituent in bentonite. The structure of montmorillonite is
characterized by a form which consists of a thin plate-like sheet with the width and
breadth indefinite, and thickness that of the molecule. The unit thickness of the molecule
consists of three layers. Attached to the surface are ions that are replaceable. Calcium
montmorillonite is the main constituent of low-yield clays.
Mud: A water or oil-base drilling fluid whose properties have been altered by solids,
commercial and/or native, dissolved and/or suspended. Used for circulating out cuttings
and many other functions while drilling a well. Mud is the term most commonly given to
drilling fluids. See Drilling Fluids.
Mud Additive: Any material added to a drilling fluid to achieve a particular effect.
Mudding Off: Commonly thought of as reduced productivity caused by the penetrating,
sealing, or plastering effect of a drilling fluid.
Mudding Up: Process of mixing mud additives to achieve some desired purpose not
possible with the former fluid, which usually has been water, air or gas.
Mud House: A structure at the rig to store and shelter sacks of materials used in drilling
fluids.
Mud Logging: A method of determining the presence or absence of oil or gas in the
various formations penetrated by the drill bit. The drilling fluid and the cuttings are
continuously tested on their return to the surface, and the results of these tests are
correlated with the depth or origin.
Mud-Mixing Devices: The most common device for adding solids to the mud is by
means of the jet hopper. Some other devices for mixing are: eductors, paddle mixers,
electric stirrers, mud guns, chemical barrels, etc.
Mud Pit: Earthen or steel storage facilities for the surface mud system. Mud pits which
vary in volume and number are of two types: circulating and reserve. Mud testing and
conditioning is normally done in the circulating pit system.
Mud Program: A proposed or followed plan or procedure for the type(s) and properties
of drilling fluid(s) used in drilling a well with respect to depth. Some factors that
influence the mud program are the casing program and such formation characteristics as
type, competence, solubility, temperature, pressure, etc.
Mud Pumps: Pumps at the rig used to circulate drilling fluids.
Mud Scales: See Balance, Mud.

Glossary
Mud Still: An instrument used to distill oil, water, and any other volatile material in a
mud to determine oil, water, and total solids contents in volume-percent.
Natural Clays: Natural clays, as opposed to commercial clays, are clays that are
encountered when drilling various formations. The yield of these clays varies greatly,
and they may or may not be purposely incorporated into the mud system.
Neat Cement: A slurry composed only of Portland cement and water.
Neutralization: A reaction in which the hydrogen ion of an acid and the hydroxyl ion of
a base unite to form water, the other ionic product being a salt.
Newtonian Flow: See Newtonian Fluid.
Newtonian Fluid: The basic and simplest fluids from the standpoint of viscosity
consideration in which the shear force is directly proportional to the shear rate. These
fluids will immediately begin to move when a pressure or force in excess of zero is
applied. Examples of newtonian fluids are water, diesel oil, and glycerine. The yield
point as determined by direct-indicating viscometer is zero.
Non-Conductive Mud: Any drilling fluid, usually oil-based or invert-emulsion muds,
whose continuous phase does not conduct electricity, e.g.., oil. The spontaneous potential
(SP) and normal receptivity cannot be logged, although such other logs as the induction,
acoustic velocity, etc., can be run.
Normal Solution: A solution of such a concentration that it contains 1 gram-equivalent
of a substance per liter of solution.
OH-Based Mud: The term "oil-base mud" is applied to a special type of drilling fluid
where oil is the continuous phase and water the dispersed phase. Oilbased mud contains
blown asphalt and usually 1 to 5 percent water emulsified into the system with caustic
soda or quick lime and an organic acid. Silicate, salt and phosphate may also be present.
Oil-based muds are differentiated from invert-emulsion muds (both water-in-oil
emulsions) by the amounts of water used, method of controlling viscosity and thixotropic
properties, was building materials, and fluid loss.
Oil Content: The oil content of any drilling fluid is the amount or oil in volume-percent.
Oil-Emulsion Water (Milk Emulsion): A drilling fluid in which the oil content is
usually kept between 3 to 7 percent and seldom over 10 percent (it can be considerably
higher). The oil is emulsified into fresh or salt water with a chemical emulsion.
Sometimes CMC, starch, or gum may be added to the fresh and salt water systems.
Oil-in-Water Emulsion Mud: Commonly known as "emulsion mud," any conventional
or special waterbase mud to which oil has been added. The oil becomes the dispersed
phase and may be emulsified into the mud either mechanically or chemically.
Packer Fluid: A fluid placed in the annulus between the tubing and casing above a
packer, along with other functions, the hydrostatic pressure of the packer fluid is utilized
to reduce the pressure differentials between the formation and the inside of the casing
and across the packer itself.
Particle: A minute unit of matter, usually a single crystal, with a regular shape and
specific gravity approximating that of a single crystal.
Parts Per Million: See Ppm
Parallel Flow: See Laminar Flow

Glossary
Pay Zone or Pay Formation: The formation drilled into that contains oil and/or gas in
commercial quantities.
Penetration, Rate of: The rate in feet per hour at which the drill proceeds to deepen the
well bore.
Peptization: An increased dispersion due to the addition of electrolytes or other
chemical substances. See Deflocculation and Dispersion.
Peptized Clay: A clay to which an agent has been added to increase its initial yield. For
example, soda ash is frequently added to calcium montmorillonite clay.
Percent: For weight-percent, see ppm. Volume-percent is the number of volumetric parts
of the whole. Volume-percent is the most common method of reporting solids, oil and
water contents of drilling fluids.
Permeability: Normal permeability is a measure of ability of any rock formation to
transmit a one-phase fluid under conditions of laminar flow. Unit of permeability is the
darcy.
Pf: The phenolphthalein alkalinity of the filtrate is reported as the number of millilitres
of 0.02 Normal acid required per millilitre of filtrate to reach the phenolphthalein end
point
pH: An abbreviation for potential hydrogen ion. The pH range is numbered from 0 to 14,
7 being neutral, and is an index of the acidity (below 7) or alkalinity (above 7) of the
fluid. The numbers are a function of the hydrogen ion concentration in gram ionic
weights per litre which, in turn, is a function of the dissociation of water as given by the
following expression:
[H ][OH]
= KH20 = 1 X 10µ
[H 20]
pH may be expressed as the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal (or the negative
logarithm) of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of a solution offers valuable
information as to the immediate acidity or alkalinity, in contrast to the total acidity or
alkalinity (which may be titrated).
Phosphate: Certain complex phosphates, commonly sodium tetraphosphate (Na6P4013)
and sodium-acid-pyrophosphate (SAPP, Na2H2P204), are used either as mud thinners or
for treatment of various forms of calcium and magnesium contamination.
Pilot Testing: A method of predicting behavior of mud systems by mixing small
quantities of mud and mud additives, then testing the results.
Plastic Flow: See Plastic Fluid.
Plastic Fluid: A complex, non-Newtonian fluid in which shear-force is not proportional
to shear rate. A definite pressure is required to start and maintain fluid movement. Plug
flow is the initial flow type and only occurs in plastic fluids. Most muds are plastic
fluids. The yield point as determined by direct-indicating viscometer is in excess of zero.
Plasticity: The property possessed by some solids, particularly clays and clay slurries, of
changing shape or flowing under applied stress without developing shear planes or
fractures. Such bodies have yield points, and stress must be applied before movement
begins. Beyond the yield point, the rate of movement is proportional to the stress applied,
but cease when the stress is removed. See Fluid.

Glossary
Plastic Viscosity: The plastic viscosity is a measure of internal resistance to fluid flow
attributable to the amount, type and size of solids present in a given fluid. It is expressed;
shearing force in excess of the Bingham yield value that will induce a unit rate of shear.
This value, expressed in centipoise is proportional to the slope of the consistency curve
determined in the region of laminar flow for materials obey Bingham’s Law of Plastic
Flow. When using the direct indicating viscometer, the plastic viscosity is found by
subtracting the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm reading.
Plug Flow: The movement of material as a unit without shearing within the mass. Plug
flow is the first type of flow exhibited by a plastic fluid after overcoming the initial force
required to produce flow.
Pm: The phenolphthalein alkalinity of whole mud is reported as the number of milliliters
of 0.02 Normal (N/50) acid required per millilitre of mud to reach the phenolphthalein
end point.
Polymer: A substance formed when two or more molecules of the same kind are linked
end to end into another compound having the same elements in the same proportion but
higher molecular weight and different physical properties, e.g.., paraformaldehyde. See
Copolymer.
Porosity: The amount of void space in a formation rock, usually expressed as percent
voids per bulk volume. Absolute porosity refers to the amount of connected pore spaces,
i.e., the space available to fluid penetration. See Permeability.
Potassium: One of the alkali metal elements with a valency of 1 and an atomic weight of
about 39. Potassium compounds, most commonly potassium hydroxide (KOH) are
sometimes added to drilling fluids to impart special properties, usually inhibition.
Pound Equivalent: A laboratory unit used in pilot testing. One gram or pound
equivalent, when added to 350 MI of fluid, is equivalent to 1 lb./bbl.
Ppm or Parts Per Million: The unit weight of solute per million unit weights of
solution (solute plus solvent), corresponding to weight-percent except that the basis is a
million instead of a hundred. The results of standard API titrations of chloride, hardness,
etc. are correctly expressed in milligrams (mg) per liter but not in ppm. At low
concentrations mg/1 is about numerically equal to ppm. A correction for the solution
specific gravity or density in g/ml must be made as follows:
mg/l
ppm =
soln den, g/ml
mg / l PPM
% by wt = =
(10,000)( soln den, g / ml ) 10,000
Thus, 316 000 mg/1 salt is commonly called 316 000 ppm or 31.6 percent, which
correctly should be 264 000 ppm and 26.4 percent respectively.
Precipitate: Material that separates out of solution or slurry as a solid. Precipitation of
solids in a drilling fluid may follow flocculation or coagulation, as occurs width
dispersed red-bed clays upon addition of a flocculation agent to the fluid.
Preservative: Any material used to prevent starch or any other substance from
fermenting via bacterial action. Usually paraformaldehyde.

Glossary
Pressure-Drop Loss: The pressure lost in a pipeline or annulus due to the velocity of the
liquid in the pipeline, the properties of the fluid, the condition of the pipe wall and the
alignment of the pipe. In certain mud-mixing systems, the loss of head can be substantial.
Pressure Surge: A sudden, usually brief increase in pressure. When pipe or casing is run
into a hole too rapidly, an increase in the hydrostatic pressure results, which may be
great enough to create lost circulation.
Pseudoplastic Fluid: A complex non-Newtonian fluid that does not possess thixotropy.
A pressure or force in excess of zero will start fluid flow. The apparent viscosity or
consistency decreases instantaneously with increasing rate of shear until at a given point
the viscosity becomes constant. The yield point as determined by direct-indicating
viscometer is positive, the same as in Bingham plastic fluids; however, the true yield
point is zero. An example pseudoplastic fluid is guar gum in fresh or salt water.
Quebracho: An additive used extensively for g/dispersing to control viscosity and
thixotropy. It is a crystalline extract of the quebracho tree consisting mainly of tannic
acid.
Quicklime: Calcium oxide, CaO. Used in certain oil-based mud to neutralize the organic
acid.
Quiescence: The state of being quiet or at rest, being still. Static.
Radical: Two or more atoms behaving as a single chemical unit, i.e. as an atom; e.g..,
sulfate, phosphate, nitrate.
Rate of Shear: The rate at which an action or effect, resulting from applied forces,
causes or tends to cause two adjacent parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a
direction parallel to their plane of contact. Generally referred to in reciprocal seconds
(s-1).
Red Mud: A clay, water-base drilling fluid containing sufficient amounts of caustic soda
and tannates to give a pronounced red appearance. Normally a high pH mud.
Red-Lime-Mud: Any red mud which has been converted into a lime-treated mud. The
pH is usually 12.0 to 13.0.
Resin: A semi-solid or solid complex or amorphous mixture of organic compounds
having no definite melting point or tendency to crystallize. Resin may be a component of
compounded materials that can be added to drilling fluids to impart special properties to
the system, wall cake etc.
Resistivity: The electrical resistance offered to the passage of a current, expressed in
ohm-meters; the reciprocal of conductivity. Fresh-water muds are usually characterized
by high resistivity, salt-water muds by a low resistivity.
Resistivity Meter: An instrument for measuring the resistivity of drilling fluids and their
cakes.
Reverse Circulate: The method by which the normal flow of a drilling fluid is reversed
by circulating down the annulus then up and out the drill string.

Glossary
Reynolds Numbers: A dimensionless number, Re, that occurs in the theory of fluid
dynamics. The diameter, velocity, density and viscosity (consistent units) for a fluid
flowing through a cylindrical conductor are related as follows:
Re = (diameter) (velocity) (density) / (viscosity) or
Re=(D.V.ρ)/h
Re is important in hydraulics calculations for determining flow regimes, i.e. laminar or
turbulent. The transitional range occurs approximately between 2000 and 3000; below
2000 flow is laminar, above 3000 it is turbulent
Rheology: The science that deals with deformation and flow of water.
Rotary Drilling: The method of drilling wells that depends on the rotation of a column
of drill pipe to the bottom of which is attached a bit A fluid is circulated to remove the
cuttings.
Salt: In mud terminology, the term salt is applied to sodium chloride, NaCl. Chemically,
the term salt is also apples to any one of a class of similar compounds formed when the
acid hydrogen of an acid is partly or wholly replaces by a metal or a metallic radical.
Salts are formed by the action of acids on metals, or oxides and hydroxides, directly with
ammonia, and in other ways.
Salt-Water Clay: See Attapulgite Clay.
Salt-Water Muds: A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt (brackish to saturated).
These fluids may also include native solids, oil and/or such commercial additives as
clays, starch etc.
Sample Mud: A drilling fluid possessing properties to bring up suitable samples.
Samples: Cuttings obtained for geological information from the drilling fluid as it
emerges form the hole. They are washed, dried and labeled as to the depth.
Sand: A loose granular material resulting from the disintegration of rocks, most often
silica.
Sand Content: The sand content of a drilling fluid is the insoluble abrasive solids
content rejected by a 200 mesh screen It is usually expressed as the percentage bulk
volume of sand in a drilling fluid. This test is an elementary type is that the retained
solids are not necessarily silica nor may not be altogether abrasive. For additional
information concerning the kinds of solids retained on the 200-mesh screen, more
specific test would be required. See Mesh.
Saturated Solution: A solution is saturated if it contains, at a given temperature, as
much of a solute as it can retain. At 68°F it takes 126.5 lb./bbl salt to saturate 1 bbl of
fresh water. See Supersaturated.
Screen Analysis: Determination of the relative percentages of substances, e.g.., the
suspended solids of a drilling fluid, passing through or retained on a sequence of screens
of decreasing mesh size. Analysis may be by wet or dry methods. Referred to also as
"sieve analysis." See Mesh.
Sealing Agents: Any of many materials added to drilling fluids to restore circulation.
Sea-Water Muds: A special class of salt-water muds where sea water is used as the
fluid phase.

Glossary
Seconds API: A unit of viscosity measured with a Marsh funnel according to API
procedure. See API RP 13B and Marsh funnel Viscosity.
Sequestration: The formation of stable calcium, magnesium, iron complex by treating
water or mud with certain complex phosphates.
Set Casing: The installation of pipe or casing in a wellbore. Usually requires mudding
up, reconditioning or at least checking the drilling fluid properties.
Shale: Fine-grained clay rock with slate-like cleavage, sometimes containing an organic
oil-yielding substance.
Shale-Shaker: Any of several mechanical devices for removing cuttings or other large
solids from the mud. Common types are vibrating screen, rotating cylindrical screen, etc.
Shear(Shearing Stress): An action, resulting from applied forces, which causes or tends
to cause two contiguous parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a direction
parallel to their plane of contact
Shearometer: A device used as an alternative method for measuring gel strengths. See
API RP 13B for specifications.
Shear Strength: A measure of the shear value of the fluid. The minimum shearing stress
that will produce permanent deformation. See Gel Strength.
Side Tracking: See Whip-stock
Sieve Analysis: See Screen Analysis.
Silica Gel: A porous substance consisting Of SiO2. Used on occasion as a dehydrating
agent in air or gas drilling where small amount of water is encountered.
Silt: Materials that exhibit little or no swelling whose particle size generally falls
between 2 microns and API sand size, or 74 microns (200-mesh). A certain portion of
dispersed clays and barite for the most part also fall into this same particle -size range.
Skid: Moving a rig from one location to another, usually along tracks where little
dismantling is required.
Slip Velocity: The difference between the annular velocity of the fluid and the rate at
which a cutting is removed from the hole.
Sloughing: The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole resulting from
incompetent or unconsolidated formations, high angle or repose and wetting along
internal bedding planes. See Heaving and Cave-in.
Slug the Pipe: A procedure before pulling the drill pipe whereby a small quantity of
heavy mud is pumped into the top section to cause and unbalanced column. As the pipe
is pulled the heavier column in the drill pipe will fall, thus keeping the inside of the drill
pipe dry at the surface when the connection is unscrewed.
Soap: The sodium or potassium salt of a high-molecular weight fatty acid. When
containing some metal other than sodium or potassium, they are called "metallic" soaps.
Soaps are commonly used in drilling fluids to improve lubrication, emulsification,
sample size, defoaming, etc.
Soda Ash: See Sodium Carbonate.

Glossary
Sodium: One of the alkali metal elements with a valency of 1 and an atomic weight of
about 23. Numerous sodium compounds (all of which see) are used as additives to
drilling fluids.
Sodium Bicarbonate: NaHCO3, a material used extensively for treating cement
contamination and occasionally other calcium contamination in drilling fluids. It is the
half-neutralized sodium salt of carbonic acid.
Sodium Bichromate: Na2Cr2O7. Also correctly called “sodium dichromate". See
Chromate.
Sodium Carbonate: Na2CO3. A material used extensively for treating out various types
of calcium Contamination. It is commonly called "soda ash". When sodium carbonate is
added to a fluid, it increases the pH of the fluid by hydrolysis. Sodium carbonate can be
added to salt (NaCl) water to increase the density of the fluid phase.
Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose: Commonly called CMC. Available in various
viscosity grades and purity. An organic used to control filtration, suspend weighting
material, and build viscosity in drilling fluids. Used in conjunction with bentonite where
low-solids muds are desired.
Sodium Chloride: NaCl. Commonly known as salt. Salt may be present in the mud as a
contaminant or may be added for any of several reasons. See Salt.
Sodium Chromate: Na2CrO4. See Chromate.
Sodium Hydroxide: NaOH. Commonly referred to as "caustic" or “caustic soda". A
chemical used primarily to impart a higher pH.
Sodium Polyacrylate: A synthetic, high molecular weight polymer of acrylonitrile used
primarily for fluid loss control.
Sodium Silicate Muds: Special class of inhibited chemical muds using as their bases
sodium silicate, salt, water and clay.
Solids Concentration or Content: The total amount of solids in a drilling fluid as
determined by distillation includes both the dissolved and the suspended or undissolved
solids. The suspended solids content may be a combination of high and low specific
gravity solids and native or commercial solids. Examples of dissolved solids are the
soluble mats of sodium, calcium and magnesium. Suspended solids make up the wall
cake, dissolved solids remain in the filtrate. The total suspended and dissolved solids
contents are commonly expressed as percent by volume and less commonly as percent by
weight.
Sol: A general term for colloidal dispersions, as distinguished from true solutions.
Solubility: The degree to which a substance will dissolve in a particular solvent.
Solute: A substance which is dissolved in another (the solvent).
Solution: A mixture of two or more components that form a homogeneous single phase.
An example solution is salt dissolved in water.
Solvent: Liquid used to dissolve a substance (the solute).
Souring: A term commonly used to mean fermentation.
Specific Gravity: See Gravity, Specific.

Glossary
Specific Heat Capacity: The number of calories required to raise 1 g of a substance 1

deg Centigrade. The specific heat capacity of a drilling fluid gives and indication of the
fluid’s ability to keep the bit cool for a given circulation rate.
Spudding In: The starting of the drilling operations of a new hole.
Spud Mud: The fluid used when drilling starts at the surface, often a thick
bentonite-lime slurry.
Spurt Loss: See “Surge Loss”.
Squeeze: A procedure whereby slurries of cement, mud, gunk plug, etc. are forced into
the formation by pumping into the hole while maintaining a back pressure, usually be
closing the rams.
Stability Meter: An instrument to measure the breakdown voltage of invert emulsions.
Stacking a Rig: Storing a drilling rig upon completion of a job when the rig is to be
withdrawn from operation for a period of time.
Starch: A group of carbohydrates occurring in many plant cells. Starch is specially
processed (pre-gelatinized) for use in muds to reduce filtration rate and occasionally to
increase the viscosity. Without proper protection, starch can ferment.
Static: Opposite of dynamic. See Quiescence.
Stearate: Salt of stearic acid, which is a saturated, 18-carbon fatty acid. Certain
compounds, such as aluminum stearate, calcium stearate, zinc stearate, have been used in
drilling fluids for one or more of the following purposes; defoamer, lubrication, air
drilling in which a small amount of water is encountered, etc.
Streaming Potential: The electrokinetic portion of the SP (Spontaneous potential)
electric-log curve which can be significantly influenced by the characteristics of the
filtrate and mud cake of the drilling fluids that was used to drill the well.
Streamline Flow: See Laminar Flow.
Stuck: A condition whereby the drill pipe, casing, or any other device inadvertently
becomes lodged in the hole. May occur while drilling is in progress, while casing is
being run in the hole, or while the drill pipe is being hoisted. Frequently a fishing job
results.
Supersaturation: If a solution contains a higher concentration of a solute in a solvent
that would normally correspond to its solubility at a given temperature, this constitutes
supersaturation. This is an unstable condition, as the excess solute separates when the
solution is by introducing a crystal of the solute. The term “supersaturation" is frequently
used erroneously for hot salt muds.
Surface-Active Materials: See Surfactant
Surfactant: Material which tends to concentrate at an interface. Used in drilling fluids to
control the degree of emulsification, aggregation, dispersion, interfacial tension,
foaming, defoaming, wetting etc.
Surfactant Mud: A drilling fluid which contains a surfactant. Usually refers to a drilling
fluid containing g surfactant material to effect control over degree of aggregation and
dispersion or emulsification.

Glossary
Surface Tension: Generally the force acting within the interface between a liquid and its
own vapor which tends to m the area of the surface at a minimum and is expressed in
dynes per centimetre. Since the surface tension between the liquid and air, it is common
practice to refer to values measured against air as surface tension, and to use the term
"interfacial tension" for measurements at an interface between two liquids or a liquid and
a solid.
Surge Loss: The flux of fluids and solids which occurs in the initial stages of any
filtration before pore openings are bridged and a filter cake is formed. Also called "spurt
loss."
Suspensoid: A mixture that consists of finely divided colloidal particles floating in a
liquid. The particles are so small that they do note settle but are kept in motion by the
moving molecules of the liquid (Brownian movement).
Swabbing: When pipe is withdrawn from the hole in a viscous mud or if the bit is
balled, a suction is created.
Swelling: See Hydration.
Synergism, Synergistic Properties: Term describing an effect obtained when two or
more products are used simultaneously to obtain a certain result. Rather than the result of
each product being additive to the other, the result is a multiple of the effects.
Tannic Acid: Tannic acid is the active ingredient of quebracho and other quebracho
substitutes such as mangrove bark, chestnut extract, hemlock, etc.
Temperature Survey: An operation to determine temperatures at various depths in the
hole. This survey is used to find the location of inflows of water into the hole, where
doubts exists as to cementing of the casing, and for other reasons.
Ten-Minute Gel: See Gel Strength, 10-min.
Thermal Decomposition: Chemical breakdown of a compound or substance by
temperature into simple substances or into its constituent elements. Starch thermally
decomposes in drilling fluids as the temperature approaches 300F.
Thinner: Any of the various organic agents (e.g.... tannins, lignins, lignosulfonates, etc.)
and inorganic agents (pyrophosphates, tetraphosphates, etc.) that are added to a drilling
fluid to reduce the viscosity and/or thixotropic properties.
Thixotropy: The ability of a fluid to develop gel strength with time. That property of a
fluid which causes it to build up a rigid or semi-rigid gel structure if allowed to stand at
rest, yet can be returned to a fluid state by mechanical agitation. This change is
reversible.
Tighten Up Emulsion Or Mud: Jargon describing condition in systems to which oil has
been added then breaks out and rises to surface. Any chemical or mechanical means
which will emulsify the free oil is known as "tightening up."
Titration: The process of using a standard solution in order to determine of the amount
of some substance in anther solution. The known solution is usually added in a definite
quantity to the unknown until a reaction is complete.
Tool Joint: A drill-pipe coupler consisting of a pin and a box of various designs and
sizes. The internal design of tool joints has an important effect on mud hydraulics.

Glossary
Torque: The measure of the force or effort applied to a shaft and causing it to rotate. On
a rotary rig this applies especially to the rotation of the drill stem in its action against the
bore of the hole. Torque reduction can usually be accomplished by the addition of
various drilling-fluid additives.
Total Depth (TD): The greatest depth reached by the drill bit.
Total Hardness: See Hardness of Water.
Tour: A person’s turn in an orderly schedule. The word, which designates the shift of a
drilling crew, is pronounced as if it were spelled t-o-w-e-r.
Turbulent Flow: Fluid flow in which the velocity at a given point changes constantly in
magnitude and the direction of flow; pursues erratic and continually varying courses.
Turbulent flow is the second and final stage of flow in a Newtonian fluid; it is the third
and final stage in a Bingham plastic fluid. See Velocity Critical and Reynolds Number.
Twist-Off: The severing in two drill-string components by excessive force applied by
the rotary table.
Ultraviolet Light: Light waves shorter than the visible blue and violet waves of the
spectrum. Crude oil, colored distillates, residuum, a few drilling-fluid additives, and
certain minerals and chemicals fluoresce in the presence of ultraviolet light. These
substances, when present in mud, may cause the mud to fluoresce.
Univalent: Monovalent, See Valence.
Valence or Valency: The valence is a number representing the combining power of an
atom, i.e., the number of electrons lost, gained, or shared by an atom in a compound. It is
also a measure of the number of hydrogen atoms with which an atom will combine or
replace, e.g.., an oxygen atom combines with two hydrogens, hence has a valence of 2.
‘Thus, there are mono-, tri, etc. valent ions.
Valence Effect: In general, the higher the valence of an ion, the greater the loss of
stability to emulsions, colloidal suspensions, etc. these polyvalent ions will impart.
Velocity: Time rate of motion in a given direction and sense. It is used as a measure of
the fluid flow and may be expressed in terms of linear velocity, mass velocity,
volumetric velocity, etc. Velocity is one of the factors which contribute to the carrying
capacity of a drilling fluid.
Velocity, Critical: That velocity at the transitional point between laminar and turbulent
types of fluid flow. This point occurs in the transitional range of Reynolds numbers of
which is approximately 2000 to 3000.
V-G Meter or Viscosity-Gravity Viscometer: The name more commonly used for the
direct-indicating viscometer. See Viscometer.
Vibrating Screen: See Shale Shaker
Viscometer: An apparatus to determine the viscosity of a fluid or suspension
Viscometers vary considerably in design and methods of testing.
Viscometer, Direct-Indicating: Commonly called "V-G meter.” The instrument is a
rotational-type device powered by means of an electric motor or handcrank, and is used
to determine the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strengths of
drilling fluids. The usual speeds are 600 and 300 rpm. See API RP 13B for operational
procedures.

Glossary
Viscometer, Stormer: A rotational shear viscometer used for measuring the viscosity
and gel strength of drilling fluids. This instrument has been largely superseded by the
direct indicating viscometer.
Viscometer: See Viscometer.
Viscosity: The internal resistance offered by a fluid to flow. This phenomenon is
attributable to the attractions between molecules of a liquid, and is a measure of the
combined effects of adhesion and cohesion to the effects of suspended particles, and to
the liquid environment The greater this resistance, the greater the viscosity. See Apparent
and Plastic Viscosity.
Viscosity, Funnel: See Funnel Viscosity.
Viscous Flow: See Laminar Flow.
Volatile Matter: Normally gaseous products, except moisture, given off by a substance,
such as gas breaking out of live crude oil that has been added to a mud. In distillation of
drilling fluids, the volatile matter is the water, oil, gas, etc., that are vaporized, leaving
behind the total solids which can consist of both dissolved and suspended solids.
Wall Cake: The solid material deposited along the wall of the hole resulting from
filtration of the fluid part of the mud into the formation.
Wall Sticking: See Differential-Pressure Sticking.
Water-Based Mud: Common conventional drilling fluids. Water is the suspending
medium for solids and is the continuous phase, whether or not oil is present.
Water Block: A reduction in the permeability of the formation caused by the invasion of
water into the pores (capillaries). The decrease in permeability can be caused by swelling
of clays, thereby shutting off the pores, or in some cases by a capillary block of the pore
due to surface tension phenomena.
Water-In-Oil Emulsion: See Invert Oil-emulsion Mud.
Water Loss: See Fluid Loss.
Weight: In mud terminology, this term refers to the density of a drilling fluid. This is
normally expressed in either lb/gal, lb./cu ft, or psi hydrostatic pressure per 1,000 ft of
depth.
Weight Material: Any of the higher specific gravity materials used to increase the
density of drilling fluids. This material is most commonly barite but can be galena, etc.
In special applications limestone is also called a weight material.
Well Logging: See Electric Logging and Mud Logging.
Wetting: The adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid.
Wetting Agent: A substance or composition which, when added to a liquid, increases
the spreading of the liquid on a surface or the penetration of the liquid into a material.
Whip-stock: A device inserted in a well bore used for deflecting or for directional
drilling.
Wildcat: A well in unproved territory.
Workover Fluid: Any type of fluid used during work-over.

Glossary
Yield: A term used to define the quality of a clay by describing the number of barrels of
a given viscosity (usually 15 cp) slurry that can be made from a ton of the clay. Based on
the yield, clays are classified as bentonite, high-yield, low-yield etc., types of clays. Not
related to yield value below. See API RP 13B for procedures.
Yield Point: In drilling-fluid technology, yield point means they yield value. Of the two
terms, yield point is by far the most commonly used expression. See Yield Value.
Yield Value: The yield value (commonly called a “yield point”) is the resistance to
initial flow, or the stress required to start fluid movement. Resistance is due to electrical
charges on or near the surfaces of the particles. The values of yield point and thixotropy,
respectively, are measurements of the same fluid properties under dynamic and static
states. The Bingham yield value, reported in lb./100 sq. ft, is determined by the
direct-indicated viscometer by subtracting the plastic viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.
Zero-Zero Gel: A condition wherein the drilling fluid fails to form measurable gels
during a quiescent time interval (usually 10 min.).
Zeta Potential: The electrokinetic potential of a particle as determined by its
electrophoretic mobility. This electric potential causes colloidal particles to repel each
other and stay in suspension.
Zinc Bromide: ZnBr2. A very soluble salt used to increase the density of fluid to more
than double that of water. Normally added to calcium chloride/calcium bromide mixed
brines.
14.2 Directional Drilling

Acid Bottle: Early method of measuring the angle of inclination. A glass bottle with
hydrofluoric acid was lowered to the bottom and allowed to set until the acid etched the
glass. The angle of inclination was determined by the etched line.
Angle of Attack: Angle between the wellbore inclination/direction and the dip
inclination/direction.
Angle of Buildup: Rate of change (degrees/100 ft) of the inclination angle in the section
of the hole where the inclination from the vertical is increasing (See “Buildup").
Angle Drop-off: Rate of change (degrees/100 ft) of the inclination angle in the section
of the wellbore that is decreasing toward vertical (See “Drop Off”).
Angle of Drift: See "Angle of Inclination."
Angle of Inclination: That angle in degrees, taken at one or at several points of
variation, from the vertical as revealed by a deviation survey; sometimes called the
inclination or angle of deviation.
Angle of Twist: The azimuth change through which the drill stem must be turned to
offset the twist caused by the reactive torque of the downhole motor.
Angle Unit: See “Inclinometer."
Anisotropic Formation Theory: Stratified or anisotropic formations are assumed to
possess different drillabilities parallel and normal to the bedding planes, with the result
that the bit does not drill in the direction of the resultant force.
Austenite: A solid solution of one or more elements in face-centered cubic iron.

Glossary
Austenitic Stainless: A stainless steel whose structure is austenitic at room temperature

and which is used for non-magnetic drill collars.
Average Angle: The arithmetic average of the two angles, one at each end of the course
length.
Azimuth: Direction of a course measured in a clockwise direction from 0°- 360° referred
to North; also bearing.
Bearing: See "Azimuth."
Bending Stress: When the drill stem buckles, each cross-section is subjected to a
bending moment generating a tensile stress on one side and a compressive stress on the
other. As the drill stem rotates these stresses reverse and, consequently, cause fatigue of
the metal.
Bent Sub: Sub used on top of a downhole motor to give a non-straight bottom assembly.
One of the connecting threads is machined at an angle to the axis of the body of the sub.
Big-eyed Bit: Drill bit with one large-sized jet nozzle, used for jet deflection.
Bit Boss: A commercial name for a deflecting tool; hydraulic pistons in a non-rotating
sleeve push the bit to one side of the hole.
Bit Geometry: Refers to the geometric construction of a bit; i.e., 3-cone, 4- cone,
2-cone, flat-face, configuration of the teeth, etc.
Bit Stabilization: Refers to stabilization of the downhole assembly near the bit; a
stabilized bit is forced to rotate around its own axis.
Borehole: The wellbore; the hole made by drilling or boring a well.
Borehole Axis: See "Hole Axis."
Borehole Direction: Refers to the azimuth in which the borehole is heading.
Borehole Directional Survey: Refers to the measurements of the inclinations, azimuths,
and specified depth of the stations through a section of borehole.
Borehole Survey Calculation Methods: See a “Wellbore Survey Calculation Methods."
Bottom-hole: Refers to the lowest or deepest part of a borehole.
Bottom-hole Assembly: Assembly composed of the bit, stabilizers, reamers, drill
collars, subs, etc. used at the bottom of the drill string. Sometimes abbreviated as BHA.
Bottom-hole Back Torque: Torque on the drill stem causing a twisting of the string
(See a “Pipe Windup Angle").
Bottom-hole Location: Position of the bottom of the hole given with respect to some
known surface location.
Bottom-hole Orientation Sub: A sub in which a free-floating ball rolls to the low side
and opens a port indicating an orientation position (See a “Hydraulic Orientating Sub").
Sometimes abbreviated as BHO sub.
Bottom-hole Roll-off: See “Roll-off."
Buckle: A distortion, bend, or kink.
Build-and-hold Wellbore: A wellbore configuration where the inclination is increased
to some terminal angle of inclination and maintained at that angle to the specified target.

Glossary
Build Angle: The act of increasing the inclination of the drilled hole; the rate of change
(degrees/100 ft) of the increasing angle in the hole.
Buildup: That portion of the hole in which the inclination angle is increased; rate of
buildup is usually expressed as the angular increase per 100 feet of measured depth.
Calculation Methods: See "Wellbore Survey Calculation Methods."
Calculation Sheet: “See Survey Data Sheet."
Caving: Collapse of the walls of the wellbore; falling in of the material surrounding the
borehole; sloughing.
Centrifugal Force: Force tending to pull outwardly on a body when it is rotating around
a center.
Circle "C” Assembly: Commercial name for a bottom-hole assembly composed of a
full- gauge bit stabilizer, a connecting sub, and a full-gauge string stabilizer.
Circular-arc Method: See “Wellbore Survey Calculation Methods."
Circulating Whipstock: A whip-stock equipped with means to circulate to the bottom
of the tool. Can be used to wash to bottom.
Clearance: Space between the outer diameter of the tool in question and the side of the
drilled hole; the difference in the diameter of the hole and tool.
Clinograph: An instrument to measure and record inclination.
Closed Traverse: Term used to indicate the closeness of two surveys, one survey going
in the hole and the second survey coming out of the hole.
Closure: See “Line of Closure”.
Compression: Act of compressing, or state of being compressed. In the sense of being
the opposite of tension.
Control/Directional Drilling: The art and science involving the intentional deflection of
a wellbore in a specific direction in order to reach a predetermined objective below the
surface of the earth.
Control Cylinders: Hypothetical limits in the form of a cylinder around the planned
trajectory of the wellbore and in which the borehole is to be maintained.
Corrective Jetting Runs: Action taken with a directional jet bit to change the direction
or inclination of the borehole.
Course: The axis of the borehole over an interval length.
Course Bearing: The azimuth of the course.
Course Deviation: The length of a line made by projecting a course length onto a
horizontal plane. In practice, the horizontal displacement between two stations regardless
of direction.
Course Length: The difference in measured depth or actual hole length from one station
to another.
Crackers: Bottom-hole assembly in which single joints of drill string can be run
between drill collars to produce a limber assembly.
Crippled Bit: By removing one cone, a bit is “crippled" and made to act erratically.
Such bits have been used in deflecting holes.

Glossary
Crooked Hole: Wellbore which has been inadvertently deviated from a straight hole.
Crooked hole Tendency: A characteristic of the formation, bottom-hole assembly, or
drilling practices to cause a crooked hole to be drilled.
Crowd the Bit: Term used to indicate that more weight is applied to the bit than needed
for efficient drilling. A crowded bit will usually increase the inclination or cause an
azimuth change.
Cumulative Fatigue Damage: The total of fatigue damage caused by repeated cyclic
stresses.
Curvature in the Horizontal Plane: Projection of the curvature of the hole onto a
horizontal plane.
Curvature in the Vertical Plane: Projection of the curvature of the hole onto a vertical
plane.
CurlewJet Bit: A full-gauge deflecting tool; a type of jet spud bit.
Cylinder (In directional drilling): See "Control Cylinders."
Cylinder Drilling: Refers to drilling in which the course of the borehole is held within
previously determined limits set by the circumference of imaginary cylinders extending
from the surface location to the desired objective of the hole.
Declination: See "Magnetic Declination."
Deflected Hole: Wellbore which is intentionally deviated.
Deflection Tools: Drilling tools and equipment used to change the inclination and
direction of the drilled wellbore.
Deleted Bit: See “Crippled Bit."
Departure: Horizontal displacement of one station from another in an east or west
direction.
Deviation: See “Inclination”
Deviation Angle: See "Angle of Inclination”
Deviation Bit: A bit specifically designed to reduce the tendency to drill a crooked hole.
Deviation Control Techniques:
Fulcrum Technique. Utilizes a bending moment principle to create a force on the
bit to counteract reaction forces which are tending to push the bit in a given
direction.
Mechanical Technique: Utilizes bottom-hole equipment which is not normally a
part of the conventional drill string to aid deviation control. This equipment acts to
force the bit to turn the hole in direction or inclination.
Packed-hole Technique: Utilizes the hole wall to minimize bending of the
bottom-hole assembly.
Pendulum Technique: The basic principle involved is gravity or the "plumb-bob
effect."
Deviation Survey: See "Inclination Survey."
Deviation Type:

Glossary
Abnormal Deviation: Usually associated with highly faulted formations having

fracture planes on either side of a fault.
Abrupt Deviation: Usually associated with interbedded, anisotropic, laminar
formations.
Drift Deviation: Usually associated with a gradual hole change.
Induced Deviation: Man-made, either intentional or unintentional.
Rotational Deviation: Usually results from the bit moving in a slow spiral due to
drill stem rotation.
Differential Sticking: The action of a differential pressure holding the drill stem against
the wall of the borehole.
Direction: Refers to the azimuth; direction of projection of the hole onto a horizontal
plane referred to North.
Directional-Drilling Data Sheet: Data sheet on which a detailed description of
bottom-hole assembly and operating parameters are indicated as a function of depth.
Directional Holes: Boreholes purposely drilled in a planned trajectory other than
vertical; boreholes drilled with controlled directional drilling methods.
Directional Service Company: See “Directional Drilling Contractor."
Directional Surveillance: See "Controlled Directional Drilling."
Directional Survey: See "Borehole Directional Survey."
Direction of Closure: The direction of the line of closure.
Direction of Inclination: The direction of the course.
Directional Turbodrill: A turbodrill which can follow the hole curvature developed
with a bent sub, usually shorter in length than a straight-hole turbodrill.
Displacement: The lateral distance from the surface location to the primary target.
Dogleg: Total curvature in the wellbore consisting of a change of inclination and/or
direction between two points.
Dogleg Angle: See "Dogleg Severity."
Dogleg Control Program: Program designed specifically to eliminate or decrease the
severity of doglegs in a drilled hole.
Dogleg Severity: A measure of the amount of change in the inclination and/or direction
of a borehole, usually expressed in degrees per 100 feet of course length.
Dogleg Types (Qualitative):
Abrupt Dogleg: A dogleg caused by a sudden change inclination and/or direction
over a short interval.
Decreasing Dogleg: A dogleg in the borehole with the change in inclination
returning the borehole toward vertical.
Excessive Dogleg (Severe Dogleg): Doglegs larger than permissible doglegs (See
"Permissible Doglegs").

Glossary
Increasing Dogleg: A dogleg in the borehole with the change in inclination

increasing the angle away from vertical.
Long Dogleg: A dogleg with a gradual change in inclination and/or direction over a
long interval.
Permissible Dogleg: A dogleg through which equipment and/or tubulars can be
operated without sticking tools or providing excessive stresses or wear.
Double Doglegging: See "S-Type Well."
Double-wall Drill Pipe: A two-tube concentric drill pipe assembled with the inner pipe
in compression and the outer pipe in tension. Used to replace drill collars in directional
holes.
Downhole Motor: A power source located just above the bit to rotate the bit; usually
refers to the turbodrill or the Dyna-Drill.
Drag: The extra force needed to move the drill stem resulting from the drill stem being
in contact with the wall of the wellbore.
Drain Holes: Several high-angle holes drilled laterally from a single wellbore into the
producing zone.
Drift (1): Horizontal component of the distance from the surface to any certain point in
the wellbore (usually the bottom of the wellbore).
Drift (2): Normally random precession in a displacement gyro caused by stray torques
from bearings, pickoffs, imperfect balance, mass shift, etc.
Drift Angle(1): The angle between the axis of the wellbore and the gravity vertical (See
"Inclination").
Drift Angle (2): More or less constant angle at which the wellbore is carried after
sufficient angle has been obtained in the buildup (See “Maximum Angle").
Drift Indicator: See “Inclinometer”.
Drift Survey: See "Inclination Survey”.
Drill Collars: Round, square, and triangular drill stem elements utilized to provide a
load on the bit for the purpose of drilling.
Drilling Collisions: See “Intersection”
Drill Pipe: The tubular member of the drill string to which tool joints are attached.
Drill Stem: The entire drilling assembly from the swivel to the bit; composed of the
kelly, drill pipe with tool joints, subs, drill collars, stabilizers, shock absorbers, and
reamers. Used to rotate the bit and transport the drilling fluid to the bit.
Drill Stem Buckling: To bend; to become distorted due to effects of forces on the drill
stem in a wellbore.
Drill String: The drill pipe with tool joints attached.
Drill String Behavior: A term describing the mechanics and action of the drill string.
Drill String Fatigue: The cumulative effect of the stresses imposed on the drill string
due to cyclic stressing during drilling operations.

Glossary
Droop Error: The error introduced by the hanging downward of the protruding
instrument extending through and ahead of the trigger bit.
Drop-off: That portion of the wellbore in which the inclination is reduced (See "Angle
Drop-off”).
Drop-off Interval: The interval in the wellbore where the inclination angle is purposely
decreased and returned toward the vertical.
Drop-off Rate: The rate of change of the inclination in the part of the wellbore where
the inclination angle is purposely returned toward the vertical, usually expressed in
degrees per 100 feet of course length.
Drop Time: The amount of time needed for a "go-devil" type instrument to fall from the
surface through the drilling fluid within the drill stem to the desired position.
Drop-type Survey: A directional or inclination survey taken with an instrument that is
free released to fall within the drill stem to the desired position within the wellbore.
Dyna-Drill: A Moyno pump used in reverse as a downhole source of power to rotate the
bit Used with a bent sub for hole deflection.
Dyna-flex: A commercial name for a hydraulically operated bent sub.
Electronic Yaw Equipment: Term used to describe the "EYE Tool" (See “EYE Tool").
Eroded Orientation Pockets: Enlargements made on one side of the wellbore by jetting
methods.
Extra-weight Drill Pipe: Commercial name for a particular manufacturer's heavy
weight drill pipe.
EYE Tool: Commercial name for a surface readout orienting device; refers to Electronic
Yaw Equipment.
Fatigue Failure: Failure of equipment due to cumulative effect of repeated change of
stress.
Fatigue Life: Number of cycles a metal can endure at a given stress level before failure
will occur.
Flat-bottom Bit: A bit which produces a nearly plane surface when drilling, usually a
four-cone bit.
Flexweight Drill Pipe: Commercial name for a particular manufacturer's heavy weight
drill pipe.
Fluted Drill Collar: Drill collar with external deep grooves.
Follow-up: Change in inclination angle and/or direction in addition to that obtained
from the original tool run.
Four-cone Symmetrical Bits: A four-cone roller rock bit with nearly a flat face and no
cone offset. Used in some areas to hold inclination and direction when three-cone rock
bits have a tendency to walk or deviate.
Full-packed Assembly: See "Full-packed, Bottomhole Assembly."
Full-packed, Bottom-hole Assembly: Configuration of tools with a relatively high
degree of rigidity and wall bearing surfaces.

Glossary
Gauge Reamers: A sub with a set of cutting edges or rollers with an outer diameter
equal to that of the bit (See “Reamer”).
Gammaloy (Registered trademark of National Supply Division of Armco Steel):
Commercial name for a non-magnetic drill collar of stainless steel.
Gimbal Correction: The difference in measurements obtained with the gimbal system
of a gyroscope in a plane non-parallel to the horizontal plane of a borehole and those
obtained if the gimbal system were in the horizontal plane.
Go-devil: A term used to describe a tool or instrument that is dropped and free falls from
the surface through the drilling fluid within the drill stem.
Goniometer: An instrument for measuring angles, as in surveying.
Goodman Diagram: A plot of reversed bending stress versus the average tensile stress
in, for example, drill pipe.
Grid Convergence: The angle between Grid North and True (or geographic) North.
Grid North: The direction from any geographical location within a grid system
paralleling the Universal True Meridian as determined by observation of Polaris.
Gyro Precession: See "Precession" and "Drift”
Gyro Rigidity: First property of a gyroscope, tendency of a spinning gyro to maintain
the original axis of rotation.
Gyroscopic Survey: A directional survey conducted using a gyroscope for directional
control, usually used where magnetic directional control cannot be obtained.
Hangdown: The weight of drill stem suspended below a dogleg.
Hard Banding: A hard metal deposited on tool joints to resist abrasion from the contact
of the tool joint to the wall of the borehole.
Heat Checking at Tool-Joints: A condition that exists when a tool joint is excessively
heated by friction caused by rotation against the wall in the borehole.
Heavy Weight Drill Pipe: Drill pipe fabricated with thick wall tube. Frequently used in
place of drill collars to apply weight on the drill bit. Handles like normal drill stem in
drilling operations.
Helical Buckling: Buckling in which the pipe forms a helix or spiral shape.
Hevi-Wate Drill Pipe: Commercial name for a particular manufacturer's heavy weight
drill stem made with extra length for tool joints. The pipe has a wear pad at the middle of
the joint.
High-angle Holes: Generally conceded to be holes for which the inclination angle from
vertical exceeds 50 degrees.
High Side of Hole: Opposite side of the hole from the low side, the low side being
determined by the force of gravity, and on which side a free length of pipe would rest.
HJD Tool: A Hydraulic Jet Deflection Tool. A tool with an extensible reservoir which
holds a volume of drilling fluid, the drilling fluid is forcefully expelled through the bit
nozzles by application of weight from the drill stem. The purpose of the tool is to provide
added hydraulic horsepower at the bit for jet deflection.
Hold Angle: The borehole inclination and direction are maintained constant.

Glossary
Hole Axis: A line through the center of the hole, generally considered to be the
centralized position that would be taken by a stiff tubular member inserted through that
section of the hole.
Hole Azimuth Angle: The angle between north and the projection of the hole axis onto
a horizontal plane. Angle is referred to either true north, magnetic north, or grid north.
Hole Caving: See "Caving."
Hole Clearance: See "Clearance."
Hole Curvature: Refers to the changes in inclination and direction of the borehole.
Horizontal Displacement: The distance between two points that are projected onto a
horizontal plane.
Hydraulic Orientating Sub: Used in direction holes, with inclination greater than six
degrees, to find the low side of the hole. A ball falls to the low side of the sub and
restricts an orifice causing an increase in the circulating pressure. The position of the
tool is then known with relation to the low side of the hole.
Hydraulic Whip-stock: See "Circulating Whip-stock"
Hydraulically-operated Bent Sub: A deflection sub which is activated by hydraulic
pressure of the drilling fluid.
Inclination(Inclination Angle): The angle of the wellbore from the vertical.
Inclination Survey: A survey to obtain the angle through which the bit was deflected
from the vertical during drilling operations. Usually implies a survey where no azimuth
readings are taken.
Inclinometer: An instrument that measures an angle of deviation from the vertical.
Indented Drill Collar: Round drill collar with a series of indentations on one side to
form an eccentrically weighted collar.
Ink Blob: An early method of measuring inclination (See “Acid Bottle”).
Interference: Occurs when drilling boreholes that are deemed too close to the borehole
of another well (See “Intersection").
Intersection: Occurs when two wellbores meet at a common point, usually happens
when a drilling bit or stem contacts the casing of a previously drilled well.
Isogonic Chart: A chart showing lines of equal magnetic declination.
Jet Bit: A drilling bit having nozzles through which the drilling fluid is directed in a
high velocity stream.
Jet Bit Deflection: A method of changing the inclination angle and direction of the
wellbore by using the washing action of a jet nozzle a one side of the bit.
Jet Spud Bit: A special bit used to cause deflection of the wellbore by a combination of
jetting and spudding action.
Jetting: The action of causing erosion by fluid impingement on the formation.
Jetting Runs (Corrective Jetting Runs): Trips, jetting, and drilling made to change the
inclination and direction of the wellbore.

Glossary
Keyseat: A condition wherein the borehole is abraded and extended sideways and with a
diameter smaller than the drill collars and the bit; usually caused by the tool joints on the
drill pipe.
Keyseat Wiper: A special reamer device designed to run in the drill stem assembly to
enlarge the diameters of keyseats to the size of the drill collars.
Kick-off-point (Kick off Depth): The position in the wellbore where the inclination of
the hole is first purposely increased.
Kinked Double: A bent double of drill string, forerunner to the fabricated bent sub.
Knuckle Joint: A deflection tool employing a ball-type universal joint permitting 360°
flexure of the lower part of the tool.
KOP: See "Kick off Point”
Lambert Coordinate System: A system of coordinates on a conical projection based on
two standard parallels.
Latitude: The horizontal displacement of one station from another in a north or south
direction.
Lead Angle: A method of setting the direction of the wellbore in anticipation of the bit
walking.
Ledge: A protecting ridge or edge in the side of the wellbore. A ledge may be created
with the bit by rotating off bottom. Other ledges occur when consolidated formations are
exposed by wall cavings in the softer unconsolidated formations.
Limber Hookup: A bottom-hole assembly that is relatively free to buckle.
Line of Closure: A straight line, in a horizontal plane containing the last station of the
survey, drawn from the projected surface location to the last station of the survey.
Lined Out: Refers to being on a satisfactory trajectory with the proper angle of
inclination and direction.
Locked-in: Refers to the condition where the bottom-hole assembly is held relatively
fixed within the borehole by the outer diameter of the assembly being nearly the same
diameter as the drill bit, the inclination and direction of the borehole are maintained.
Low-angle Holes: Generally conceded to be holes for which the inclination from
vertical is less than 20 degrees.
Magnetic Declination: Angular difference, east or west, at any geographical location,
between true north or geographic north and magnetic north.
Magnetic Field: Region around a magnet experiencing lines of force from that magnet.
Magnetic interference: That condition which occurs when extraneous magnetic forces
cause a magnetic compass to read incorrectly.
Magnetic Movement: The product of the strength of one of the poles of a magnet by the
distance between the poles.
Magnetic North: The direction from any geographical location on the earth's surface to
the north magnetic pole.
Magnetic Pole: The area on a magnet at which the magnetic field enters and leaves the
magnet. Magnets have two poles, the north pole and the south pole.

Glossary
Magnetic Survey: A directional survey in which the direction is determined by a

magnetic compass detecting the earth’s magnetic field.
Magnetized Drilling Assemblies: A drilling assembly may retain residual magnetism,
this magnetism affects the magnetic compass.
Master Well Course Maps: Plots showing the locations of the wellbores of several
wells in an area.
Maximum Angle (Maximum Average Angle): Refers to the angle of inclination to
which the wellbore is held in the "locked-in" straight section.
Maximum Permissible Dogleg: See “Dogleg Types, Permissible."
Measured Depth: Actual length of the wellbore from its surface location to any
specified station (See “Well Depth").
Mechanical Orientating Tool: A device to orient deflecting tools without the use of
subsurface surveying instruments.
Meridian-seeking Compass: A gyroscopic compass that has the capability to return
itself to the meridian if moved away by some disturbing force.
Methods of Orientation:
Direct Method: Magnets imbedded in the non-magnetic drill collar are used to
indicate the position of the tool face with respect to magnetic north. A picture of a
needle compass pointing to the magnets is superimposed on the picture of a
compass pointing to magnetic north. By knowing the position of the magnets in the
tool, the tool can be positioned with respect to north.
Indirect Method: A method of orienting deflecting tools in which two survey runs
are needed, one showing the direction of the hole and the other showing the position
of the tool.
MMO (Magnetic Method of Orientation): See "Methods of Orientation, Direct
Method”
R-1: A method of orienting a deflection tool using the "R-1 instrument." Magnets in
the non-magnetic collar and the magnetic north and a superimposed picture of two
compasses indicate the position of the tool with respect to north. See "Methods of
Orientation, Direct Method."
Surface Readout: A device on the rig floor to indicate the subsurface position of
the tool.
Stoking: Method to orient a tool using two pipe clamps, a telescope with a hair line,
and an aligning bar to determine the orientation at each section of pipe run in the
hole.
Minimum Angle: The lowest angle for easy control of azimuth in a directional well,
almost universally agreed to be about 18 degrees, not less than 14 degrees, and
preferably 20 degrees.
Model Error: That portion of the error that is due to the difference between the position
of the real well and the position derived from the model calculation under the assumption
that the survey data contain no errors.

Glossary
Moderate Angle Wellbore: Generally conceded to be wellbores which have an

inclination from vertical between 20 and 60 degrees.
Moment: Tendency, or measure of tendency, to produce motion about a reference point
or axis.
Monel (K Monel): A permanently non-magnetic alloy used in making downhole tools.
Motion Sensor: A device used in directional surveys that senses motion and will not
permit the measurement of the survey until after motion ceases.
MST Tool (Registered trademark of Sperry Sun Well Surveying Co.): Commercial
name for a surface readout orienting device (acronym for Magnetic Steering Tool).
Mud Motor: Usually a “Dyna-Drill" or a turbodrill.
Mule Shoe: A shaped form used on the bottom of orienting tools to position the tool.
The shape resembles a mule shoe or that of the end of a pipe cut both diagonally and
concave. The shaped end forms a wedge to rotate the tool when lowered into a mating
seat for the mule shoe.
Multi-Shot Survey: A directional survey in which multiple data points are recorded
with one trip into the wellbore, data are usually recorded on rolls of film.
Naturally Deviated Hole: A hole which has deviated from vertical without use of
deflection tools, for example, many holes will drill updip.
Near-bit Stabilizer: A stabilizer placed in the bottom-hole assembly just above the bit.
Negatively Skewed Bit: A bit with offset built into the cones in an opposite direction to
that normally used. Some effort has gone into determining if negative offset will reverse
the bit walk of the normally-offset, soft-formation bits.
Neutral Point: This term has been defined variously as (1) the point where tension is
zero; or (2) where stresses are zero.
Non-magnetic Drill Collar: A drill collar fabricated with non-magnetic material.
Nudge: Refers to the practice where very small deflection angles are induced to displace
conductor or shallow surface pipe a short distance away from an area of well congestion.
One-Eyed Bit: Bit with only one jet nozzle open and used in jet deflection.
Open Hole: Wellbore in which casing has not been set.
Open Hook Survey: A survey made in the uncased section of the borehole and not
within the drill string.
Orientating Techniques: Techniques used in positioning the tools that change the
inclination and the direction of the wellbore (See “Methods of Orientation”).
Ouija Board: An instrument composed of two protractors and a straight scale which is
used to determine the positioning direction for a deflecting tool in an inclined wellbore.
Overswing: Term denoted to excessive walk of the bit; walk of the bit greater than
expected.
Packed Assembly: See “Packed Bottom-hole Assembly”
Packed Bottom-hook Assembly: A configuration of tools with a certain degree of
rigidity and wall-bearing surfaces.
Packed Hole: A wellbore drilled with a packed bottom-hole assembly.

Glossary
Pendulum Effect: Refers to the pull of gravity on a body, tendency as a pendulum to

return to a vertical position.
Pendulum Hookup: A bit and drill collars with a stabilizer placed to attain the
maximum pendulum effect.
Perforated-pad Stabilizer (Perforated-sleeve Stabilizer): Stabilizer with a built-on
perforated pad to extend the outer diameter.
Picture: A survey chart or film on which a survey recording has been made.
Pilot Bit: Bit with a smaller diameter than the hole finally to be drilled. Used on
deflecting tools, such as the whip-stock and knuckle joint. Also used with hole openers
which follow and enlarge the original hole.
Pipe Wind-up Angle: The twist in the drill stem due to reactive torque (See "Angle of
Twist").
Plane of Closure: Vertical plane that contains both the surface location of the wellbore
and the last station of the survey.
Plug Back: To fill part of the wellbore with cement, sometimes used for side-tracking.
Plumb-bob Effect: The pendulum action, due to the force of gravity, pulling the drill
stem to a vertical position.
Precession: Motion about the vertical and/or horizontal axis of a gyro due to imbalance
friction, earth’s rotation, or externally applied forces.
Primary Deflecting Tools: Historically, the whip-stock, knuckle joint, and spudding bit,
and more recently, the jet bit and downhole motor.
Quadrant Bearing: An azimuth angle measured from north to south in the direction of
east or west.
Rat Hole(1): Hole that is drilled ahead of the main wellbore and which is of a smaller
diameter that the bit used in the main borehole (See "Pilot Bit”).
Rat Hole (2): Surface facilities used to store the kelly during tripping operations.
Reactive Torque: Based on the physical property that action equals reaction, the torque
reacting on the drill stem is that torque being generated at the point in question, such as
at the bit.
Ream: Enlargement of the wellbore to straighten the hole.
Reamer: Tool employed to smooth the wall of a wellbore, enlarge the hole, stabilize the
bit, and straighten the wellbore where kinks or doglegs are encountered.
Rebel Tool: Tool designed to prevent and correct lateral drift (walk) of the bit tool, it
consists of two paddles on a common shaft which are designed to push the bit in the
desired direction.
Reference Magnets: Magnets inset in the wall of the non-magnetic drill collar. Used to
indicate a position of the deflecting tool with respect to magnetic needle compass at the
magnets is imposed on the picture of the magnetic north compass.
Relief Well: A well drilled with the specific purpose to provide communication at a
below-ground position to another well which is out of control.
Reversed Cone Offset: See “Negatively Skewed Bit."

Glossary
Rigidity: Usually refers to the stiffness or flexibility characteristics or a bottom-hole

assembly or an element thereof.
Rock Anistropy: Refers to the differences in physical properties of rocks as related to
the directional characteristics; for example, “strength" or "drillability" may be different
when measured in different directions through the rock.
Rolling Cutter Reamer: A reamer with the outermost radius provided by cutting roller
members.
Roll Off: Correction in the facing of the deflection tool, usually determined by
experience, and which must be taken into consideration in order to give the proper facing
to the tool.
"S" Wellbore: See "S-type Well."
Selectrograph: Chart used to select the minimum required length of non-magnetic drill
collars.
Sensing Probe: Wireline instrument used in connection with electronic yaw equipment.
Servconel: Commercial name for a non-magnetic drill collar of austenitic stainless steel.
Setting Off Course: A method of setting the direction of the wellbore in anticipation of
the bit walking (See "Lead Angle").
Short Hook Up: Assembly composed of gauge bit, a near-bit gauge stabilizer, and one
or more drill collars. Used to build angle after an initial kick off.
Shot: The measurement taken, the survey reading taken as a picture or as a punched hole
on a chart (See "Picture").
Side Track: An operation performed to redirect the wellbore by starting a new hole at a
position above the bottom of the original hole.
Side-tracking Pocket: An enlargement of one side of the wellbore made to facilitate
changing the direction of the wellbore. The wellbore enlargement is usually
accomplished by use of jetting action.
Single-shot Survey: A measurement of the inclination and direction of a wellbore at one
position with one recording.
Skew (directional drilling): The angular difference between the wellbore direction and
the formation dip direction.
Slant Hole: A non-vertical hole; usually refers to a wellbore purposely inclined in a
specific direction; also used to define a wellbore which is non- vertical at the surface.
Slant Portion of a Well: The straight portion of the wellbore that is not vertical; the
“locked-in" angled portion of the wellbore.
Slant Rig (Slant-hole Rig): Drilling rig specifically designed to drill a wellbore which is
non-vertical at the surface; the mast is slanted and special pipe handling equipment is
needed.
Slant-type Directional-Hole: Usually refers to a wellbore which has a vertical section,
an angle-build section, and an angled-but-straight section to total depth (See "Straight- in
Directional Hole"). Also used to define a wellbore which is non- vertical at the surface
(See “Slant Hole”).

Glossary
Spiral Drill Collar: Drill Collar on which large grooves have been machined on the
outer diameter in a helical or spiral configuration.
Spiraled Wellbore: A wellbore which has attained a changing configuration as of a
spiral or helical form.
Spud Bit: In directional drilling, a special bit used to change the direction and
inclination of the wellbore.
Square Drill Collar: A drill collar fabricated with the outer cross section in the form of
a square; the corners are normally rounded off.
Stabilizer: A tool placed in the drilling assembly to: 1) change or maintain the
inclination angle in a wellbore by controlling the location of the contact point between
the hole and drill collars, 2) center the drill collars near the bit to improve drilling
performance, and/or 3) prevent wear and differential sticking of the drill collars.
Stabilizer Types:
Rotating Blade: Stabilizer with the largest outside diameter sections composed of
narrow blades extending form the stabilizer body (i.e., welded blade, replaceable
blade, integral blade, etc.).
Non-rotating Blade: Stabilizer used to center drill stem in the wellbore without
reaming the hole. Stabilizer ribs, usually of rubber, will not wear out rapidly since
rotation occurs between the sleeve and a mandrel.
Full-body, Spiral-grooved: Full gauge long stabilizer with sets of spiral grooves
cut along the full body length.
Round-fluted: Round integral blade stabilizer milled and machined from a solid
forging to produce flutes and grooves on the outer diameter.
Station Interval: The length of the course with one end at the depth described as the
station course length.
Steering Readout: Directional instrument indication of the drilling tool alignment taken
while drilling (See "MST Tool” and “EYE Tool”).
Stiff Hookup: A well-stabilized, rigid bottom-hole assembly to maintain inclination and
direction of the hole; opposite to limber hookup.
Stiffness: Quality or state of being rigid, resistance to bending under stresses within the
elastic limit.
Stoking: See “Methods of Orientation."
S-type Well (S-shaped Well): Well drilled with a vertical portion, and a return toward
the vertical.
Straight Wellbore: Wellbore drilled with the intention to proceed in a non-changing
direction.
Straight-hole Downhole Motor: A downhole motor designed to drill straight ahead;
usually a straight-hole motor that is longer, larger, and provides more torque than does a
“directional" downhole motor.
Straight-hole Turbo-drill: See “Straight-hole Downhole Motor."

Glossary
Straight-in Directional Hole: A wellbore with a build and a straight locked-in section.
There is no drop-off section.
Stratification: The natural layering or lamination usually characteristic of sediments and
sedentary rocks.
Stress Reversal: Change in stress from tension to compression, or vice versa.
String Reamer: Reamer placed within the drill stem assembly that will increase the
diameter of any keyseat through which it passes; used to remove doglegs and key-seats
and to straighten the wellbore.
String Stabilizer: Stabilizer placed anywhere in the drill stem assembly above the
near-bit stabilizer.
Survey Calculation Methods: See “Wellbore Survey Calculation Methods."
Survey Data Sheet: Commonly called the calculation sheet. A paper form on which to
tabulate the data and results of calculations of a wellbore survey.
Surveying Frequency: Refers to the number of feet between survey records.
Survey Instrument: An instrument used to measure inclination of the wellbore and the
direction of the inclination from a position within the wellbore.
Swinging Square: A square drill collar located between two round drill collars.
Tandem Squares: Two or more square drill collars adjacent in a bottom-hole assembly.
Tandem Stabilizers: Refers to the use of two or more stabilizers at one position in a
bottom-hole assembly.
Target Area: A defined area, at a prescribed vertical depth, which is planned to be
intersected by the wellbore.
Target Point: The coordinates in space considered to be the preferred point within the
target area for the wellbore intersection. The planned point, within the target area, for the
wellbore to intersect.
Teleorientor: A commercial name for a tool which measures the direction of the
borehole with respect to the low side and transmits the data to the surface by pulsed
pressure waves through the drilling fluid.
Tension: Actual tension in the pipe due to its own weight plus the product of the drilling
fluid pressure and the cross-sectional area on which the pressure acts.
Terminal Angle: The inclination and direction angles of the lower end of the course.
Thermal Shield: A heat sink and insulator used to prolong the life of heat sensitive
instruments used in wellbore surveys.
Theta Angle: The angle that will correct grid north to true north.
Tilted Rig: See “Slant Rig”
Tool Azimuth Angle: The angle between north and the projection of the tool reference
axis onto a horizontal plane. Also called Magnetic Tool Face.
Tool-Face: Can be “magnetic tool face” when referred to magnetic North or "gravity
tool face" when referred to high side of the hole. Angle between high side of Bent and
North or high side of hole respectively. See "Tool Azimuth Angle" and "Tool High Side
Angle”

Glossary
Tool High-side Angle: The angle between the tool reference axis and a line
perpendicular to the hole axis and lying in the vertical plane. Also called Gravity Tool
Face.
Tool Joint: A heavy coupling element for drill pipe having coarse, tapered threads and
seating shoulders designed to sustain the weight of the drill stem, withstand the strain of
repeated makeup and breakout, and provide a leak proof seal. The male section (pin) is
attached to one end of a length of drill pipe and the female section (box) is attached to
the other end. Tool joints may be welded to the drill pipe, screwed onto the pipe, or a
combination of screwed on and welded.
Total Curvature: Implies three-dimensional curvature (See "Dogleg Severity").
Traveling Cylinder Views: A plat of the well profile within the control cylinder.
Traverse Tables: Tables of numerical values used in calculating wellbore survey
results.
Trigger Bit: A bit with a removable center through which surveying instruments were
run into the open hole. Used prior to industry’s general acceptance of non-magnetic drill
collars.
True North: The direction from any geographical location on the earth’s surface to the
north geometric pole.
True Vertical Depth (TVD): The actual vertical depth of an inclined wellbore (see
"Vertical Depth”).
Turbodrill: A downhole motor which utilizes a turbine for power to rotate the bit.
Turn: Charge in bearing of the hole. Usually spoken of as the right or left turn with
orientation that of an observer who views the well course from the surface site.
ULSEL Log: Ultra-long spaced electric log; a long range electric method which detects
resistive anomalies at a distance from the wellbore, used to indicate nearness to a casing
or drill string.
Uncontrolled Sidetrack (Blind Sidetrack): The side tracking of a wellbore where
direction is unimportant and not controlled.
Vertical Depth: Vertical component of the measured well depth.
Vertical Drilling: The action of drilling a hole with the intent of maintaining the
borehole in a position vertically below the surface location.
Vertical Hole: A hole in which the wellbore is nearly maintained in a position vertically
below the surface location.
Vertical Profile (Vertical Section): A projection of the borehole into a vertical plane
parallel to the course bearing and scaled with vertical depth.
Walk(of bit): The action of the bit to change the direction of the wellbore by its
tendency to run into the side of the wellbore while rotating.
Walk(of hole): The tendency of a wellbore to deviate in the horizontal plane; generally
thought to be caused by the bit rotating preferentially into the side of the hole and the
anisotropic nature of the formation.
Washout (of hole): Excessive wellbore enlargement by solvent or erosional action of the
drilling fluid.

Glossary
Wellbore Survey Calculation Methods: Refers to the mathematical methods and

assumptions used in reconstructing the path of the wellbore and in generating the space
curve path of the wellbore from inclination and direction angle measurements taken
along the wellbore. These measurements are obtained from gyroscopic or magnetic
instruments of either the single shot or multi-shot type.
Acceleration Method: Utilizes the angles at the top and bottom of the course
length and from these generates a curve on the assumption that the measured angles
change smoothly from top to bottom of the measured course as though under the
influence of a constant force of an acceleration. The results obtained are the same as
Balanced Tangential, Trapezoidal, and Vector Averaging methods.
Average Angle Method: Uses the angles measured at both the top and bottom of
the course length in such a fashion that the average of the two sets of measured
angles is the assumed inclination and direction. The wellbore survey is then
calculated tangentially using these averaged angles over the course length.
Angle Averaging Method: See "Average Angle Method."
Backward Station Method: See “Tangential Method”.
Balanced Tangential Method: Uses the inclination and direction angles at the top
and bottom of the course length in a manner so as to tangentially balance the two
sets of measured angles over the course length. Results obtained are the same as
Acceleration, Trapezoidal, and Vector Averaging methods.
Circular Arc Method: Uses both sets of measured angles associated with each
course length to recreate the wellbore path as a sequence of small circular arcs
constrained by the measured angles to pass through the end points with inclination
and direction angles as measured.
Compensated Acceleration Method: See “Mercury Method”.
Combined Method: See "Mercury Method”.
Mercury Method: A combination of the Tangential and Balanced Tangential
methods so as to treat that portion of the measured course defined by the length of
the measuring tool as a straight line (tangentially) and the remainder of the
measured course trapezoidally. See also "Compensated Accelerated Method” and
"Combined Method” (Mercury Method).
Minimum Curvature Method: Uses the sets of angles measured at the top and
bottom of the course length to establish coordinate velocities through which a space
curve (which represents the calculated path of the wellbore) passes in a manner that
minimizes its total curvature.
Quadratic Method: A method in math modeling considering the wellbore as a
curve; the projections into three orthogonal planes are quadratic functions.
Radius of Curvature Method: Uses the sets of angles measured at the top and
bottom of the course length to generate a space curve (representing the wellbore
path) that has the shape of a spherical arc passing through the measured angles at
both the upper and lower ends of the measured course.
Secant Method: This name has been applied with two different meanings, one to
mean the “Trapezoidal Method" and one to mean the “Average Angle Method."

Glossary
Simpson’s Rule Method: Uses as many measured angle values as are available (a
minimum of three sets) to recreate the wellbore path through Simpson’s Rule for
numeric integration which approximates by passing a parabola through three points.
Tangential Method: Uses only the inclination and direction angles measured at the
lower end of the course length. The wellbore path is assumed to be tangent to these
angles through the course.
Terminal Angle Method: See “Tangential Method”.
Trapezoidal Method: Uses the measured inclination and direction angles at both
ends of the measured course in a fashion that recreates the wellbore path by a
sequence of trapezoidal integration segments using the measured angles as
constraints on the integral over the measured course. Results obtained are the same
as Acceleration, Balanced Tangential, and Vector Averaging methods.
Well Depth: Measured depth in the wellbore. Usually measured from the kelly bushing,
derrick floor, or foundation as a datum.
Well Profile: The projection of the wellbore onto a plane.
Whip-stock: A long wedge and channel-shaped piece of steel with a collar at its top
through which the subs and drill stem can pass, the face of the whip-stock sets an angle
to deflect the bit.
Window: A section of casing milled out to provide an opening to sidetrack or kick off.
Woodpecker Drill Collar: See “Indented Drill Collar”.

Section 1 - Introduction
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval
Revision History 02 Dec 96 Second Revision

Table of Contents
1 Introduction Page
1.1 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING ................................................1-1
1.1.1 Historical Background ..............................................................................................1-1
1.1.2 Technology Advances...............................................................................................1-2
1.1.3 Applications of Directional Drilling.........................................................................1-3

Figure 1-1 Side tracking........................................................................................................... 1-3
Figure 1-2 Inaccessible locations ............................................................................................. 1-4
Figure 1-3 Salt dome drilling. .................................................................................................. 1-4
Figure 1-4 Fault controlling. .................................................................................................... 1-5
Figure 1-5 Multiple exploration wells from a single well bore. .............................................. 1-5
Figure 1-6 Onshore drilling...................................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-7 Offshore multiwell drilling..................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-8 Multiple sands from a single well bore. ................................................................. 1-7
Figure 1-9 Intercepting a high pressure zone. .......................................................................... 1-7
Figure 1-10 Horizontal wells.................................................................................................... 1-8
List of Tables Page

Error! No table of figures entries found.

Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 History and Applications of Directional Drilling
Controlled directional drilling is the science of deviating a well bore along a planned
course to a subsurface target whose location is a given lateral distance and direction from
the vertical. At a specified vertical depth, this definition is the fundamental concept of
controlled directional drilling even in a well bore which is held as close to vertical as
possible as well as a deliberately planned deviation from the vertical.
1.1.1 Historical Background

In earlier times, directional drilling was used primarily as a remedial operation, either to
sidetrack around stuck tools, bring the well bore back to vertical, or in drilling relief
wells to kill blowouts. Interests in controlled directional drilling began about 1929 after
new and rather accurate means of measuring hole angle was introduced during the
development of Seminole, Oklahoma field.
The first application of oil well surveying occurred in the Seminole field of Oklahoma
during the late 1920’s. A subsurface geologist found it extremely difficult to develop
logical contour maps on the oil sands or other deep key beds. The acid bottle
inclinometer was introduced into the area and disclosed the reason for the problem;
almost all the holes were crooked, having as much as 50 degrees inclination at some
check points.
In the spring of 1929 a directional inclinometer with a magnetic needle was brought into
the field. Holes that indicated an inclination of 45 degrees with the acid bottle were
actually 10 or 11 degrees less in deviation. The reason was that the acid bottle reading
chart had not been corrected for the meniscus distortion caused by capillary pull. Thus
better and more accurate survey instruments were developed over the following years.
The use of these inclination instruments and the results obtained showed that in most of
the wells surveyed, drill stem measurements had very little relation to the true vertical
depth reached, and that the majority of the wells were "crooked". Some of the wells were
inclined as much as 38 degrees off vertical. Directional drilling was employed to
straighten crooked holes.
In the early 1930’s the first controlled directional well was drilled in Huntington Beach,
California. The well was drilled from an onshore location into offshore oil sands using
whipstocks, knuckle joints and spudding bits. An early version of the single shot
instrument was used to orient the whipstock.
Controlled directional drilling was initially used in California for unethical purposes, that
is, to intentionally cross property lines. In the development of Huntington Beach Field,
two mystery wells completed in 1930 were considerably deeper and yielded more oil
than other producers in the field which by that time had to be pumped. The obvious
conclusion was that these wells had been deviated and bottomed under the ocean. This
was acknowledged in 1932, when drilling was done on town lots for the asserted purpose
of extending the producing area of the field by tapping oil reserves beneath the ocean
along the beach front.

Introduction
Many legal entanglements developed when it was established through directional surveys
that oil was being removed from a productive zone under the tidelands, the ownership of
which was claimed by both the town of Huntington Beach and the State of California.
The state now supervises the Huntington Beach operations, and subsequently the art of
cylinder drilling or drilling a prescribed “right of way" was developed .
In 1933, during the development of the Signal Hill field in Long Beach, California,
several wells were drilled under the Sunnyside Cemetery from locations across the
streets surrounding the cemetery and even from more distant points to tap a productive
zone underlying the cemetery.
Controlled directional drilling had received rather unfavorable publicity until it was used
in 1934 to kill a wild well near Conroe, Texas. The Madeley No.1 had been spudded a
few weeks earlier and, for a while, everything had been going normally. But on a cold,
wet, dreary day the well developed a high pressure leak in its casing, and before long, the
escaping pressure created a monstrous crater that swallowed up the drilling rig. The
crater, approximately 170 feet in diameter and of unknown depth, filled with oil mixed
with sand in which oil boiled up constantly at the rate of 6000 barrels per day. As if that
were not enough, the pressure began to channel through upper formations and started
coming to the surface around neighboring wells, creating a very bad situation indeed.
Many people felt that there was nothing to do except let the well blow and hope that it
would eventually bridge itself over, and pray that it would do it soon so everyone could
get back to work.
In the meantime, however, a bright young engineer working for one of the major oil
companies in Conroe suggested that an offset well be drilled and deviated so that it
would bottom out near the borehole of the cratered well. Then mud under high pressure
could be pumped down this offset well so that it would channel through the formation to
the cratered well and thus control the blow out. The suggestion was approved and the
project was completed successfully, to the gratification of all concerned. As a result,
directional drilling became established as one way to overcome wild wells, and it
subsequently gained favorable recognition from both companies and contractors. With
typical oilfield ingenuity, drilling engineers and contractors began applying the
principles of controlled directional drilling whenever such techniques appeared to be the
best solution to a particular problem.
Current expenditures for hydrocarbon production have dictated the necessity of
controlled directional drilling, and today it is no longer the dreaded operation that it once
was. Probably the most important aspect of controlled directional drilling is that it
enables producers all over the world to develop subsurface deposits that could never be
reached economically in any other manner.
1.1.2 Technology Advances

The development of reliable mud motors was probably the single most important
advance in directional drilling technology. Surveying technology also has advanced in
great strides. The technologies complement each other.
The development of the steering tool replaced the magnetic single shot instrument as a
means of orienting a mud motor with a bent sub or housing. The tool was lowered by a
wireline unit and seated in the muleshoe orienting sleeve. The wireline was passed
through a circulating head mounted on a drill pipe and had to be retrieved every 90 feet.

Introduction
Data sent to the surface by the wireline was processed by a surface computer.
Continuous updates were given on azimuth, inclination, temperature and tool face. With
the advent of the side-entry sub, the wireline was passed through the side of the sub thus
eliminating the need to pull the wireline every 90 feet. However, no rotary drilling was
possible with the steering tool.
In the early 1980’s ANADRILL MWD started to gain widespread acceptance as an
accurate and cost-effective surveying tool. Today the MWD has virtually replaced the
steering tool on kick-offs and is used exclusively with the steerable mud motor. A new-
generation MWD has been developed with the additions of gamma ray, resistivity, and
DWOB/DTOR giving the MWD real time formation evaluation capabilities. Surveys
obtained with the MWD are now widely accepted by both oil industry and regulatory
agencies.
Gyro technology has also progressed. The SRG (Surface Readout Gyro) is the latest
addition to the survey line. It provides fast and accurate surveys electronically,
eliminating the need to read a film base system. Many surveying companies provide their
own tool: "FINDER", "SEEKER”, "GCT”, “FINDS", etc.
1.1.3 Applications of Directional Drilling

1. Sidetracking: Side-tracking was the original directional drilling technique. Initially,
sidetracks were “blind". The objective was simply to get past a fish. Oriented
sidetracks are most common. They are performed when, for example, there are
unexpected changes in geological configuration (Figure 1-1).
Figure 1-1 Side tracking

Introduction
2. Inaccessible Locations: Targets located beneath a city, a river or in environmentally

sensitive areas make it necessary to locate the drilling rig some distance away. A
directional well is drilled to reach the target (Figure 1-2).
Figure 1-2 Inaccessible locations

3. Salt Dome Drilling: Salt domes have been found to be natural traps of oil
accumulating in strata beneath the overhanging hard cap. There are severe drilling
problems associated with drilling a well through salt formations. These can be
somewhat alleviated by using a salt-saturated mud. Another solution is to drill a
directional well to reach the reservoir (Figure 1-3), thus avoiding the problem of
drilling through the salt.
Figure 1-3 Salt dome drilling

Introduction
4. Fault Controlling: Crooked holes are common when drilling nominally vertical. This
is often due to faulted sub-surface formations. It is often easier to drill a directional
well into such formations without crossing the fault lines (Figure 1-4).
Figure 1-4 Fault controlling

5. Multiple Exploration Wells from a Single Well-bore: A single well bore can be
plugged back at a certain depth and deviated to make a new well. A single well bore
is sometimes used as a point of departure to drill others (Figure 1-5). It allows
exploration of structural locations without drilling other complete wells.
Figure 1-5 Multiple exploration wells from a single well bore

Introduction
6. Onshore Drilling: Reservoirs located below large bodies of water which are within
drilling reach of land are being tapped by locating the wellheads on land and drilling
directionally underneath the water (Figure 1-6). This saves money-land rigs are much
cheaper.
Figure 1-6 Onshore drilling

7. Offshore Multiwell Drilling: Directional drilling from a multiwell offshore platform
is the most economic way to develop offshore oil fields (Figure 1-7). Onshore, a
similar method is used where there are space restrictions e.g. jungle, swamp. Here,
the rig is skidded on a pad and the wells are drilled in “clusters".
Figure 1-7 Offshore multiwell drilling

Introduction
8. Multiple Sands from a Single Well-bore: In this application, a well is drilled

directionally to intersect several inclined oil reservoirs ( Figure 1-8). This allows
completion of the well using a multiple completion system. The well may have to
enter the targets at a specific angle to ensure maximum penetration of the reservoirs.
Figure 1-8 Multiple sands from a single well bore

9. Relief Well: The objective of a directional relief well is to intercept the bore hole of a
well which is blowing and allow it to be “killed" (Figure 1-9). The bore hole causing
the problem is the size of the target. To locate and intercept the blowing well at a
certain depth, a carefully planned directional well must be drilled with great
precision.
Figure 1-9 Intercepting a high pressure zone

Introduction
10. Horizontal Wells: Reduced production in a field may be due to many factors,
including gas and water coning or formations with good but vertical permeability.
Engineers can then plan and drill a horizontal drainhole. It is a special type of
directional well (Figure 1-10). Horizontal wells are divided into long, medium and
short-radius designs, based on the buildup rates used. Other applications of
directional drilling are in developing geothermal fields and in mining.
Figure 1-10 Horizontal wells

Section 2 - Fundamentals
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval
06 Dec 96 Final review and approval MJS

Table of Contents
2 Fundamentals Page
2.1 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY .......................................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Basic concepts of geology ........................................................................................2-2
2.1.1.1 Early History of the Earth ...............................................................................2-2
2.1.1.2 How is the duration of eras and subdivisions measured? ...............................2-3
2.1.2 The Sedimentary Cycle.............................................................................................2-3
2.1.2.1 Weathering ......................................................................................................2-4
2.1.2.2 Erosion and deposition ....................................................................................2-4
2.1.2.3 Diagenesis .......................................................................................................2-4
2.1.3 Sedimentary rock types.............................................................................................2-4
2.1.4 Terrigenous sediments (clastic)................................................................................2-5
2.1.4.1 Clays................................................................................................................2-5
2.1.4.2 Silts..................................................................................................................2-6
2.1.4.3 Sands ...............................................................................................................2-6
2.1.4.4 Rudites.............................................................................................................2-6
2.1.5 Pyroclastic sediments................................................................................................2-6
2.1.6 Carbonates ................................................................................................................2-6
2.1.6.1 The Chemical Components of Carbonates......................................................2-7
2.1.6.2 The physical components of carbonates .........................................................2-7
2.1.6.3 The Classification of Limestone Rocks ..........................................................2-7
2.1.7 Evaporites .................................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8 Carbonaceous rocks ..................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.1 Coal .................................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.2 Oil Shale..........................................................................................................2-8
2.1.8.3 Bituminous Limestone ....................................................................................2-8
2.1.9 Structural geology.....................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.2 Earth movements.............................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.3 Faults ...............................................................................................................2-9
2.1.9.4 Folds ................................................................................................................2-10
2.1.9.5 Joints ...............................................................................................................2-11
2.1.9.6 Unconformities................................................................................................2-11
2.1.10 Petroleum accumulations........................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.1 Origin of petroleum.......................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.2 Reservoir rocks..............................................................................................2-11
2.1.10.3 Traps..............................................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.4 Structural traps ..............................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.5 Stratigraphic Traps ........................................................................................2-12
2.1.10.6 Combination traps .........................................................................................2-13
2.1.11 Reservoir fluids and pressure .................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.1 Types of reservoir fluids ...............................................................................2-13
2.1.11.2 Water .............................................................................................................2-13
2.1.11.3 Oil..................................................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.4 Gas.................................................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.5 Fluid distribution ...........................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.6 Reservoir pressure .........................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.7 Normal pressure ............................................................................................2-14
2.1.11.8 Abnormal pressure ........................................................................................2-14

Table of Contents
2.2 ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY .........................................................................................2-16

2.2.1 Equations ..................................................................................................................2-16
2.2.1.1 Plotting of Equations.......................................................................................2-17
2.2.2 Geometry ..................................................................................................................2-18
2.2.2.1 Angles..............................................................................................................2-18
2.2.3 Right-angle triangles.................................................................................................2-22
2.2.4 Similar triangles........................................................................................................2-23
2.2.5 Trigonometry ............................................................................................................2-23
2.2.5.1 Solution of right-angle triangles......................................................................2-25
2.2.6 The circle ..................................................................................................................2-27
2.2.6.1 Tangent............................................................................................................2-27
2.2.6.2 Arc...................................................................................................................2-28
2.2.6.3 Radians ............................................................................................................2-28
2.2.6.4 Unit circle........................................................................................................2-29
2.2.6.5 Trigonometric Functions by Quadrant ............................................................2-29
2.2.6.6 Projections of Lines ........................................................................................2-30
2.2.6.7 Projections of Lines - Perpendicular Directions .............................................2-31
2.2.6.8 Projection of Lines onto Planes ......................................................................2-31
2.2.6.9 Radius of Curvature ........................................................................................2-32
2.2.6.10 Circumference of a circle ..............................................................................2-32

Table of Contents

Figure 2-1 Cross section of earth with crust, mantle, core and inner core............................... 2-2
Figure 2-2 Uplifted horst and down dropped graben ............................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-3 Weight of overlying unconsolidated sediments (B) compacts layer (A) into
sedimentary rocks................................................................................................... 2-4
Figure 2-4 Normal Fault........................................................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2-5 Reverse fault........................................................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2-6 Unconformities ..................................................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-7 Folding and cleavage............................................................................................ 2-10
Figure 2-8 Simplified diagram of the Milano, Texas fault. ................................................... 2-12
Figure 2-9 Simple faults - normal (a), reverse (b), thrust (c) and lateral (d) ......................... 2-12
Figure 2-10 Common types of stratigraphic traps.................................................................. 2-13
Figure 2-11 In map view, fault traps may be simple (a) or compound (b)............................. 2-13
Figure 2-12 Discontinuous peripheral traps around piercement salt dome............................ 2-13
Figure 2-13 Artesian well....................................................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2-14 The first order (straight line) equation ............................................................... 2-18
Figure 2-15 Angles a and b are supplementary...................................................................... 2-18
Figure 2-16 The sum of all angles around one point is 360° ................................................. 2-19
Figure 2-17 This figure shows the relationship of angles. ..................................................... 2-19
Figure 2-18 In this figure, angle a is equal to angle a’........................................................... 2-20
Figure 2-19 The sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180°................................................. 2-20
Figure 2-20 ln this figure, angle a + c = angle e. ................................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-21 This figure can be solved as above..................................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-22 lf angle c = 29°17’, what are angles a and b....................................................... 2-22
Figure 2-23 Angles of a right-angle triangle.......................................................................... 2-22
Figure 2-24 Similiar triangles. ............................................................................................... 2-23
Figure 2-25 Right angle triangle ............................................................................................ 2-23
Figure 2-26 Right angle triangle. ........................................................................................... 2-24
Figure 2-27 Example of right angle triangle. ......................................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-28 Right-angle triangle example.............................................................................. 2-26
Figure 2-29 Equality of segments. ......................................................................................... 2-26
Figure 2-30 Circle and chord. ................................................................................................ 2-27
Figure 2-31 Circle and tangent............................................................................................... 2-27
Figure 2-32 Circle and arc...................................................................................................... 2-28
Figure 2-33 Unit circle. .......................................................................................................... 2-29
Figure 2-34 Sign of sine, cosine and tangent in a circle. ....................................................... 2-30
Figure 2-35 Projections of lines. ............................................................................................ 2-30
Figure 2-36 Projection of lines - example............................................................................. 2-30
Figure 2-37 Projection of lines - perpendicular direction. ..................................................... 2-31
Figure 2-38 Projection of lines onto planes. .......................................................................... 2-31
Figure 2-39 Radius of curvature definitions .......................................................................... 2-32
Provisory - 07 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 2-iii

Table of Contents
List of Tables Page

Table 2-1 Geologic time scale.................................................................................................. 2-3
Table 2-2 Common evaporites ................................................................................................. 2-8
Provisory - 07 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 2-iv

Fundamentals
2 Fundamentals
About this chapter
A solid foundation in geology as well as algebra and trigonometry is essential to
understanding directional drilling techniques and procedures. Geology, a science based
on the history and structure of the earth, combined with a thorough knowledge of
mathematics, forms the core discipline necessary for proficiency in this complex
business. Although it is far beyond the scope of this manual to completely describe the
total essence of geology and mathematics, this chapter is designed to refresh any
knowledge that should already be a part of the directional drilling trainee.

exercises:
Part A/Petroleum Geology

1. Describe the phases that occurred during the formation of the earth that resulted in the
various features of its surface and inner structures.
2. Be prepared to explain the several terrigenous sediments (clastic) that can found
under the Earth’s surface.
3. Be prepared to describe the four general classes of sedimentary materials and how
they are categorized by relative size.
4. Be prepared to define pyroclastic sediments and explain the various of sub-groups.
5. Describe the basic concepts of structural geology and how the various elements are
related to exploration and production of petroleum.
Part B/Algebra and Trigonometry

1. Observe and explain miscellaneous equations of algebraic and trigonometric
mathematics.
2. Be prepared to describe geometric descriptions of a circle.
3. Understand and solve equations applicable to various straight line problems.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of angles resulting from intersecting lines.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of circles and parts of circles resulting from
intersecting lines.
6. Demonstrate an understanding of the trigonometric quadrants identified by sine,
cosine and tangent; solve various equations using these quadrants.
2.1 Petroleum Geology

Rock is a natural substance composed of a mineral or group of minerals which lead to the
formation of rocks and to accumulations of hydrocarbons. A study of this phenomenon is
aimed to help directional drillers in understanding of geological environments. Geology
is so essential to the petroleum industry that a knowledge of the basic principles of this
science is desirable for anyone associated with oil or gas.

Fundamentals
Geological information is acquired by observing rocks and their relationship to each

other as they were formed in the layers of the earth. Chronological events can then be
reconstructed in order to understand rock formations and, in the particular field of
petroleum geology, to be able to predict where oil accumulations might occur.
2.1.1 Basic concepts of geology
2.1.1.1 Early History of the Earth

The earth is thought to have originated some 4 to 5 billion years ago out of a condensing
cloud of cosmic dust. During its early life, the earth passed through a molten or partially
molten stage induced by gravitational compression or the release of energy by
radioactive elements. During this stage, the components of the earth separated to produce
a heavy core 4,400 miles in diameter, a mantle of lighter material some 1,800 miles thick
and a crust of the lightest materials some 10 to 30 miles thick (Figure 2-1). At the same
time, large amounts of water vapor and gases erupted to form the primeval atmosphere.
Figure 2-1 Cross section of earth with crust, mantle, core and inner core
A second stage can be considered as the atmosphere developed and the earth cooled, rain
began to fall. Water coming down from the heights and flowing to the valleys eroded the
surface of the earth by removing particles of rocks whereas sedimentary accumulations
deposited in the lower reliefs.
The tectonic activity resulting from the internal adjustments led to the formation of
horsts and grabens filled with sedimentary deposits (Figure 2-2), as it is attested by the
Red Sea between Asia and Africa.
Figure 2-2 Uplifted horst and down dropped graben

Fundamentals
Life began in the oceans sometime in the Precambrian period and eventually spread onto
the land during the Devonian period (about 350 million years ago).
Fossils preserved in deposits attest to the progressive evolution of the fauna and flora
and enabled the succession of rocks to be subdivided into eras and smaller subdivisions.
The more important ones are shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1 Geologic time scale
Era Period Epoch Duration Dates
(millions (millions
of years) of years)
Recent 0.01 0.00
Quaternary 0.01
Pleistocene 1
1
Pilocene 10
11
Cenozoic Miocene 14
25
Tertiary Oligocene 15
40
Eocene 20
60
Paleocene 10
70±2
Cretaceous 65
135±5
Mesozoic Jurasic 30
165±10
Triassic 35
200±20
Permian 35
235±30
Pennsylvanian 30
265±35
Mississippian 35
300±40
Palezoic Devonian 50
350±40
Silurian 40
380±40
Ordovician 70
460±40
Cambrian 90
550±50
Precambrian 4,500±
2.1.1.2 How is the duration of eras and subdivisions measured?

Absolute ages for these subdivisions were determined from studies of radioactive
minerals.
2.1.2 The Sedimentary Cycle

The classic cycle is one of uplift, weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition,
lithification and renewed uplift.

Fundamentals
2.1.2.1 Weathering
Weathering can be either a physical process, a biological process or a chemical process
which all result in the breakup and the decay of rocks at the earth’s surface. Erosion is the
process or removing newly formed sediments and is caused by four agents which are also
responsible for the subsequent transportation of the sediment. This sediment
transportation can be achieved through the action of gravity, water, glaciers or wind.
2.1.2.2 Erosion and deposition

Erosion results from the action of many agents such as wind, freezing water, waves and
moving ice, which remove particles from the surface of the earth (Figure 2-3).
Unconsolidated deposits (A) resulting from the accumulation of those particles were
compacted by the weight of the overlying sediments (B) and, under the action of pressure
and heat, were transformed into metamorphic rocks. Most oil and gas accumulations
occur in sedimentary rocks.
Figure 2-3 Weight of overlying unconsolidated sediments (B) compacts

layer (A) into sedimentary rocks.
2.1.2.3 Diagenesis
A name given to the processes which change sediments to a rock. As the energy of the
transporting agent slows down, removed sediments will deposit; the coarsest part would
drop first whereas the fine fraction (such as clay) might then be slowly deposited further
away. This natural segregation of coarse materials from fine, and the soluble from
insoluble, form the basis for the classification of sedimentary rocks.
Diagenesis occurs under the effects of compaction, dewatering (water squeezed out of
the sediments) or cementation (chemical processes). All these mechanisms can be
combined over a certain period of time.
2.1.3 Sedimentary rock types

In order to differentiate between the various rock types, several classifications are
structured either on the basis of the grain size or on the fundamental mineralogy. The
sedimentary processes which have formed the rock can as well be invoked into the
classification.
When it comes to classifying rocks seen at the well site, we stick to a descriptive
classification and leave environmental factors alone. This simplifies matters a great deal.
We will now go on to look at the main rock types encountered in the drilling of oil wells
and how these rocks can induce the drilling process.

Fundamentals
2.1.4 Terrigenous sediments (clastic)

These are land derived sediments and are represented by the clay minerals that coarser
material formed from the fragmentation of silicate rocks. They have been sub-divided
further on the basis of their grain size.
• Group A - Clays (particles with a diameter less than 0.004 mm)
• Group B - Silts (particle diameter 0.004 to 0.06 mm)
• Group C - Sands (particle diameter 0.06 mm to 2 mm)
• Group D - Rudites (coarser rock fragments).
2.1.4.1 Clays
Clay minerals are hydrous platy aluminosilicates. They form a complex and extensive
series due not only to variations in ordering of the sheet-like crystal lattices, but also to
the presence of different cations between the lattices.
Clay minerals can be subdivided into five important groups with different chemical and
physical characteristics; kaolinite, illites, smectites, chlorites and glauconites.
The term “shale", generally used to name those argillaceous sediments, mostly describes
the tendency of those materials to split, especially when they have been exposed to high
compactions and pressures. Soft clays which are encountered in the topmost sections of
wells usually drill fine unless their affinity to water causes them to form so-called gumbo
formations.
Gumbo is a term used to describe claystone formations which absorb water, hence,
hydrating shales tend to expand. Sticking mechanisms are associated with such
formations:
• Contraction of the wellbore behind the BHA makes it difficult to trip out.
• Large clumps of gumbo will fall into the wellbore and will eventually stick to the
BHA. Chemical inhibitors can be added to the drilling fluid in order to restrict or
avoid such phenomenon.
Kaolinite clays generally form by sub-aerial weathering of granites: rocks with a low
proportion of iron or magnesium rich minerals. The clay particles may be washed out as
colloids or formed in situ. When they come in contact with water rich in potassium ions
(for instance sea water) they slowly alter to illite.
Illites are the dominant clay mineral group. They are formed by the direct weathering of
feldspars or by alteration of kaolinite and montmorillonite under marine or later
post-depositional conditions.
Montmorillonites form by the alteration of minerals rich in iron and magnesium. For
instance, certain types of volcanic ash. They too gradually change to illite when
transported into sea water.
Clays may also be the subsidiary minerals of other sedimentary rocks. Their origin
(petrogenesis) may be primary in that they were deposited at the same time as other
major constituents. Alternatively, they may have formed as a later alteration product of
those less stable minerals in the original sediment, their origin in this case being
secondary or diagenetic.

Fundamentals
2.1.4.2 Silts
Silts are clastic sediments, intermediate in size between clays and fine sands (particle
diameter 0.004 to 0.06 mm). They are derived from fragmented rocks or minerals and are
called clastic or detrital sediments. Silt size particles are generally the result of extreme
abrasion (mechanical wearing down), and therefore all the minerals found in that size
range may also be found as sand-grade particles. They consist of quartz, feldspar, heavy
minerals, iron ores and phosphates. While sand may be silt free, most clays and
claystones contain about 35% silt or more (thus named silty claystones or argilaceous
siltstones). Very abrasive siltstones can be encountered in the drilling processes and,
therefore, frequent bit changes become necessary.
2.1.4.3 Sands
Sands, like silts, are defined by their grain size (0.062mm) and not by their mineralogy.
Terrigenous or siliclastic sands are of prime, economic importance because they are
often of wide lateral extent and are frequently porous and permeable, thereby satisfying
three basic requirements for major aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments, micas and heavy minerals are the major mineralogical
groups found in detrital sands.
2.1.4.4 Rudites
These are sediments whose grain size exceed 2 mm in diameter. This coarse rock
fraction is not unique to terrigenous deposits, and rudite grade particles are common in
both the carbonate and pyroclastic groups.
The shape of the class is also important. Rounded rock fragments which have undergone
physical abrasion are called conglomerates. Angular ones, physically as well as
chemically immature, are termed breccias.
2.1.5 Pyroclastic sediments

These are derived by volcanic eruption into the air. They may be chemically weathered
or physically reworked to closely resemble terrigenous deposits. This is because they
may have similar mineralogies, and the range of grain sizes are comparable.
Volcanic ash or tuff can fall as clay, silt or sand grade particles whereas the still coarser
agglomerate is the direct equivalent of conglomerate.
While traces of volcanic ash are common in most deep sea sediments, pyroclastic
deposits are generally rare within sedimentary sequences.
2.1.6 Carbonates
This major group of sediments is fundamentally different to the terrigenous (or
siliclastic) and pyroclastic rocks just discussed. In these clastic groups, the mineralogy of
the deposits is largely controlled by the processes of weathering and erosion of the
bedrock in the area of the sediment source; namely outside the basin. In carbonate rocks,
however, it is the depositional environment within the basin which exerts the prime
control on the mineralogy and sediment type. In this respect carbonates have closer
affinities to the evaporite and carbonaceous rocks.
Biological activity around the area of deposition is of prime importance in generating the
basic particles of carbonate sediments.

Fundamentals
In order to determine the depositional environment and the genesis of carbonate rocks, a
fairly precise description of the chemical and physical components is required.
2.1.6.1 The Chemical Components of Carbonates

The chemical components are:
• Aragonite
• Magnesian
• Calcite
• Dolomite
All these minerals, know as polymorphs of calcium carbonate (CaC03), present different
degrees of chemical stability depending on the environmental characteristics of the
depositional basin.
2.1.6.2 The physical components of carbonates

Four basic physical components are taken into account for the description of carbonates:
The grain types either mineral or biological.
The matrix which consists of the fine material.
The cement which grows in the pore spaces of the sediment after it deposition.
The pore space remaining after cement has taken place.
2.1.6.3 The Classification of Limestone Rocks

In an essentially monomineralogical calcium carbonate system, there is apparently as
wide a range of particle type as there is in the multi-mineral terrigenous group. The most
successful attempts to solve the nomenclature problem are those of Folk, in which the
basic components of the rock are described, and of Dunham where the basic fabric is
described.
Four more terms are frequently used to describe grain size in carbonate rocks.
• Group A - Calcilutite up to 0.004 mm grain diameter
• Group B - Calcisiltite 0.004 to 0.065 mm
• Group C - Calcarenite 0.065 to 2 mm
• Group D - Calcirudite above 2 mm grain diameter
Certain specific types of limestones like chalk, marl, bituminous limestones and dolomite
can be as well mentioned at this stage.
• Chalk This is a soft white limestone composed of the tests (or skeletons) of once
floating micro-organisms.
• Marl This is a calcareous clay - generally an intermediate mixture of terrigenous
clay and micrite.
• Bituminous Limestones These are micrites which contain much organic or
carbonaceous matter, mostly in the form of tarry hydrocarbons which are usually
described as bitumen.
• Dolomite This term is applied to limestones where the calcium carbonate has
been completely replaced by the mineral dolomite.

Fundamentals
2.1.7 Evaporites
These sediments, which include mineral salts such as anhydrite. gypsum and rock salt
(halite), are believed to form by precipitation from brines (waters concentrated in salt by
evaporation processes).
They are important as mineral deposits sometimes occurring in thick, relatively pure
mono-mineralogic sequences. They play an important role in petroleum geology, being
excellent cap rocks for oil or gas reservoirs. They are also very plastic and thick salt
sequences deform and flow to produce salt domes. Salt movements frequently produce
hydrocarbon traps.
The more frequently encountered evaporate minerals are listed Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Common evaporites
Common name Chemical composition Group
Gypsum Ca S042H2O
Anhydrite Ca SO4 Sulphates
Polyhalite K2 SO4Mg SO4(CaSO4)2H2O
Halite Na Cl
Sylvite K Cl Chlorides
Carnalite M Mg C136H2O
Kainite Mg S04KC13H2O Mixed
Trona Ta SO3NaHCO3H2O Bicarbonate
2.1.8 Carbonaceous rocks

Small traces of organic material are present in most sedimentary deposits with the
notable exception of desert red-beds where it has been entirely destroyed by oxidation.
However, in certain very reducing anaerobic (oxygen free) environments it may form an
appreciable proportion of the sediment.
2.1.8.1 Coal
Coals are formed by the action of fungi and anaerobic (oxygen hating) bacteria on
decaying vegetal or “humic" matter in a reducing environment. Compaction by deep
burial is an important agent in reducing the volatile content of the rock. The series
PEAT, LIGNITE, HUMIC COAL, ANTHRACITE expresses the increase in the carbon
content as oxygen and hydrogen are progressively driven off.
2.1.8.2 Oil Shale

This is more an economic rather than geological term, and refers to argillaceous
sediments with an organic content of at least 5%, but generally meaning considerably
higher (20 to 50%). They must be sufficiently rich in organic matter to yield free oil on
heating.
They generally form in lakes where algae matter decays in a strongly reducing (or
anaerobic) environment, thereby preserving the organic material. This is referred to as
"sapropelic" matter and is a good source for oil. Marine equivalents are also known.
2.1.8.3 Bituminous Limestone

This is again an economic rather than geological concept being the direct carbonate
equivalent of terrigenous oil shales. Such sediments may form in lagoons behind a reef.

Fundamentals
2.1.9 Structural geology
2.1.9.1 Introduction
At destructive plate margins, the sediments and the top part of the crust are compressed
and deformed by the process of collision. The rocks are bent and fractured. The study of
the structures that result and the processes that form them is called Structural Geology.
2.1.9.2 Earth movements

Most rocks are fractured during earth movement, resulting in cracks called joints. If the
rock layers on one side of a fracture have moved in relation to the other side, the fracture
is called a fault (Figure 2-4). Displacement - or how far apart the sides of the fault have
moved - may range from only a few inches to many miles, as along the San Andreas fault
in California.
Figure 2-4 Normal Fault
2.1.9.3 Faults
A simple classification system outlines four kinds of faults: normal, reverse, thrust, and
lateral (Figure 2-4). The names are derived from the movement of adjacent blocks.
Movement is up or down in normal and reverse faults but is mainly horizontal in thrust
and lateral faults. A combination of vertical and horizontal movements is also possible in
all faults.
Rotational faults and upthrusts (Figure 2-5) are variations of normal and reverse faulting.
They are most important to the petroleum geologist because they affect the location of
oil and gas accumulations.
Figure 2-5 Reverse fault.
Earth movements often bury or prevent the depositing of part of a sediment series that is
present elsewhere. Such buried erosion surfaces are called unconformities. Two general
kinds of unconformities are the disconformity and the angular Figure 2-6). Earth
movements are most important to petroleum geology because they produce barriers that
cause a large proportion of petroleum accumulations.

Fundamentals
Figure 2-6 Unconformities
2.1.9.4 Folds
Folds can be classified in many ways, one of the simplest is into anticlinal and synclinal
folds.
As compressional forces increase, the folds become tighter and the limbs drop more
steeply. Assymetric folds are ones in which one limb dips more steeply than the other.
These dips can eventually become greater than vertical and folds become overturned.
Axial plane cleavage can develop which is caused by alignment of platey minerals
parallel to the fold axis. With increasing deformation this cleavage can dominate the
structure of the rock, obliterating the original bedding. Fold axes need not be horizontal,
in which case they are said to plunge.
If more than one episode of the folding takes place, then the axial planes cleavage
developed by the first phase may itself be folded. This is then known as superimposed
folding and can often be recognized by statistical analysis of several fold axes in one
area.
Figure 2-7 Folding and cleavage
Folding in sedimentary rocks is important as it creates the potential for oil traps on the
Crest of folds, and these are a major cause of hydrocarbon accumulations.

Fundamentals
2.1.9.5 Joints
These are fractures in the rock which are not associated with any significant movement
of the rock. They typically occur in Limestones and Dolomites due to solution along
natural planes of weakness by percolating underground waters, or by removal of
overlying weight of rock by erosion which allows the rock to expand slightly from stress
release, and fracture. They normally develop in three planes, all at right angles, and often
have a strong control on the geomorphology of the area. Jointing in the rocks can lead to
large volumes of porosity and is an important reservoir type, particularly in carbonate
rocks. It can also give lost circulation problems when drilling a highly jointed or
cavernous area.
2.1.9.6 Unconformities
Although these are not strictly structural features, we will look briefly at unconformities.
An unconformity is any break in the geological sequence.
2.1.10 Petroleum accumulations

A petroleum accumulation must have (1) a source of oil and gas, (2) a porous and
permeable bed or reservoir rock and (3) a trap that acts as a barrier to fluid flow so that
accumulation can occur.
2.1.10.1Origin of petroleum
Oil and gas probably originated from organic matter in sedimentary rocks. The origin of
coal on land is a process similar to the origin of petroleum in the sea. In the formation of
coal, dead vegetation in the absence of oxygen ceases to decompose and accumulates as
humus in the soil and as deposits of peat in bogs and swamps. Peat buried beneath a
cover of clays and sands becomes compacted. As the weight and pressure of the cover
increase, water and gases are driven off. The residue, very rich in carbon, becomes coal.
In the sea a similar process takes place. An abundance of marine life is eternally falling
in a slow, steady rain to the bottom of the sea. Vast quantities of matter are eaten or
oxidized before they reach the bottom but a portion of this microscopic animal and plant
residue escapes destruction and is entombed in the ooze and mud on the sea floor. The
organic debris collects in sunken areas at the bottom and is buried within an
ever-increasing accumulation of sands, clays and more debris until the sediment is
thousands of feet thick. As the sediment builds, the pressure of deep burial begins to
work. Bacteria take oxygen from the trapped organic residues and gradually break down
the matter, molecule by molecule, into substances rich in carbon and hydrogen. The
extreme weight and pressure of the mass compacts and squeezes the clays into hard
shales. Within this deep. unwitnessed realm of immense force, oil is born.
2.1.10.2Reservoir rocks
A petroleum reservoir is a rock capable of containing gas, oil, or water. To be
commercially productive, it must be big enough, be thick enough, and have enough pore
space to contain an appreciable volume of hydrocarbons. Also, it must give up the
contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well.
Sandstones and carbonates (such as limestone and dolomite) are the most common
reservoir rocks.

Fundamentals
Besides porosity, a reservoir rock must also have permeability; i.e., the pores of the rock
must be connected. Connected pores allow petroleum to move from one pore to another.
2.1.10.3Traps
Migration is a continuing process once the hydrocarbons have been generated and
expelled from the source rock. Hydrocarbons will move ever upward until they escape at
the surface unless something stops the movement. Therefore, a barrier, or trap, is needed
to impede this migration in order to get subsurface accumulation of petroleum.
A trap is produced by geological conditions that cause oil and gas to be retained in a
porous reservoir. Reservoir traps for hydrocarbons have two general forms: (1) an arched
upper surface, commonly called structural and (2) an up-dip termination of porosity,
called stratigraphic (Figure 2-8).
Figure 2-8 Simplified diagram of the Milano, Texas fault.
2.1.10.4Structural traps
A structural trap is formed by the folding or faulting of the rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons (Figure 2-9). Structural traps vary widely in size and shape. Some of the
more common structural traps are anticlinal traps, fault traps and dome and plug traps.
Figure 2-9 Simple faults - normal (a), reverse (b), thrust (c) and lateral (d)
2.1.10.5Stratigraphic Traps
A stratigraphic trap is caused either by a nonporous formation sealing off the top edge of
a reservoir bed or by a change of porosity and permeability within the reservoir bed itself
(Figure 2-10). Two general kinds of stratigraphic traps are the disconformity and the
angular unconformity, both resulting from unconformities.

Fundamentals
Figure 2-10 Common types of stratigraphic traps
2.1.10.6Combination traps
Another common type of reservoir is formed by a combination of folding, faulting,
changes in porosity and other conditions - some structural and some stratigraphic in
origin. Examples of reservoirs of this nature are the many reservoirs found in the
Seeligson field in Southwest Texas or parts of the East Texas field.
Figure 2-11 In map view, fault traps may be simple (a) or compound (b)
Figure 2-12 Discontinuous peripheral traps around piercement salt dome
2.1.11 Reservoir fluids and pressure
2.1.11.1Types of reservoir fluids

By definition, a fluid is any substance that will flow. Oil, water, and gas are all fluids; oil
and water are liquids as well as fluids; gas is a fluid but not a liquid.
2.1.11.2Water
Oil reservoirs are composed of sediments that were deposited in the sea. Consequently,
these sedimentary beds were originally saturated with salt water. However, part of this
water was displaced by petroleum when it was formed. Salt water that remains in the
formation is called formation water.

Fundamentals
2.1.11.3Oil
Oil, which is lighter than water and will not mix with it, makes room for itself in the void
space of the reservoir rock by pushing the water downward. However, oil will not
displace all the original water. A film of water sticks to, or is absorbed by, the solid rock
material surrounding the pore spaces. The film of water lining the pores is called wetting
water. In other words, water is not only in the reservoir below the oil accumulation, but
also within the pores along with the oil.
2.1.11.4Gas
Natural gas is always associated with oil produced from a reservoir. The energy supplied
by gas under pressure is probably the most valuable drive in the withdrawal of oil from
reservoirs. The industry has come a long way since the day it was general practice to
"blow" gas caps into the atmosphere, so that a well in the gas zone of a reservoir could
finally be induced to produce a little crude oil. Gas is associated with oil and water in
reservoirs in two principal ways as solution gas and as free gas in gas caps.
2.1.11.5Fluid distribution
The oil-water contact line (the point in the reservoir where the oil and water touch) is of
prime interest to all concerned in the early development of a field because, to get
maximum production from the reservoir, the water should not be produced with the oil.
Practically all reservoirs have water in the lowest portions of the formation, and the oil
lies just above it. However, no sharp line divides the oil and water, nor is the contact line
horizontal throughout a reservoir. Actually, the oil-water contact is a zone of part water
and part oil, and this zone may be from 10 to 15 feet thick. The gas-oil contact has
somewhat the same properties. However, because oil is much heavier than gas, oil does
not tend to rise as high into the gas zone as water does into the oil zone.
2.1.11.6Reservoir pressure
Every reservoir that contains fluids contains those fluids under pressure.
2.1.11.7Normal pressure
Under normal conditions, the only pressure that exists in a reservoir is the pressure
caused by the water in it. Contrary to what might seem logical, all the rocks that overlie a
buried reservoir do not create pressure in the reservoir under normal circumstances.
In any case, as long as the reservoir has some ultimate outlet to the surface, the pressure
in it is caused only by the water and is considered to be normal pressure.
2.1.11.8Abnormal pressure
Reservoirs that do not have a connection with the surface are totally surrounded by
impermeable formations. In such cases, the overlying rock formations do have a bearing
on reservoir pressure. What happens in this case is that the heavy weight of the overlying
beds presses down and squeezes the reservoir. Since the water in the reservoir cannot
escape to the surface, the reservoir pressure builds up to abnormally high amounts.

Fundamentals
Another way in which abnormally high pressure can exist is when there is an artesian
effect (Figure 2-13). In this case, the reservoir does connect with the surface. However,
the outcrop to the surface is on the side of a hill or mountain, at an elevation much higher
than the part of the reservoir buried below the level plain. A well drilled at this point
spouts water like a fountain. The water tries to seek its own level. Such wells are called
artesian wells.
Figure 2-13 Artesian well

Fundamentals
2.2 Algebra and Trigonometry

The level of mathematics required for directional drilling work is fairly basic. However,
a minimum competence in algebra and trigonometry is required. In order to understand
how wells are planned, trigonometry is necessary. When doing projections, planning,
etc., quick calculations are often required at the rig-site. While these calculations are
often performed by a computer/programmable calculator, it is a useful exercise to check
the results "by hand", using a scientific calculator. This chapter is a refresher course in
the basics and should provide a adequate mathematical background for what’s normally
required of the directional driller.
2.2.1 Equations
Question
3b
If a = , what is a when b = 60?
2
Answer
180
a= = 90
2
Ratios
15 x
If = , find x.
500 78x
Solution
Cross-multiply:
(15) • (789)
x= = 23.67
500
3a 3b
If = , find a when b = 6.
4 8
Solution
Cross-multiply:
b
24a= 12b a= =3
2
Rule
If we add, subtract, multiply or divide the same quantity to both sides of an
equation, the identity does not change.
Example
If a=3b then a+c=3b+c and a-c=3b-c

Fundamentals
Rule
If a component of an equation is adding to one of the sides, it can be moved to the
other side but it changes sign.
Example
If a=b+c then a-c=b
Thus a-c=b
Example
a
Given equation - 3 = 4b - 6
2
If b = 4 find the value of a
a
= 4b - 6 + 3
2
a= 2 (4b - 6 + 3)
With b=4:
a = 2 x 13 = 26
2.2.1.1 Plotting of Equations

An equation of the type y= ax+b is known as the equation of a straight line. If plotted in
rectangular (X-Y) coordinates, it gives a straight line.
a is the slope of the straight line. It is defined as "the tangent of the angle which the line
makes with the positive direction of the X-axis”.
b is the intercept which the line makes with the Y-axis.
Example
y = 2x- 3 Plot points on X-Y plane.

When
x=1 y = -1
x=2 y=1
x=4 y=5
x=5 y=7

Fundamentals
-3
2x
y=
5
x
4
-3
Figure 2-14 The first order (straight line) equation
This first-order (straight line) equation is shown plotted in Figure 2-1. The slope of the
line is 2. The intercept is -3.
2.2.2 Geometry
Note
1 degree (°) = 60 minutes (')
1 minute (') = 60 seconds (")
2.2.2.1 Angles
Some important properties of angles are listed below.
• The sum of the angles on one side of a straight line gives 180°. These are called
supplementary angles.
Example
If a = 75° find b (Figure 2-2)
a = 75˚
b=?
Figure 2-15 Angles a and b are supplementary
Solution
a + b = 180°, b = 180° - 75° = 105°

Example
If b = 64°18' find a (Figure 2-15)

Fundamentals
Solution
a = 115° 42'
• The sum of all the angles around one point gives 360°.
a + b + c + d = 360° (Figure 2-16)
d
a
c
b
Figure 2-16 The sum of all angles around one point is 360°
The opposite angles are equal.
a=c and b=d (Figure 2-16)

Example (see Figure 2-16)
If a = 45°, find angles b, c and d.

Solution
We know a + b = 180°. Therefore b = 135°.
We know a + d = 180° Therefore d = 135°
a + b + c + d = 360°, c = 360° - a - b - d = 45°

• Parallel Lines cut by a Straight Line. Parallel lines meet at infinity. If two
parallel lines are cut by a third straight line (Figure 2-4), the following table
shows the relationships that apply:
a
b
d c
a'
b'
d'
c'
Figure 2-17 This figure shows the relationship of angles
Corresponding angles Alternate angles
a = a’ a = c’
b = b’ b = d’
c = c’ c = a’
d = d’ d = b’

Fundamentals
d
a = 51˚ 17'
c
b
d'
a'
c'
b'
Figure 2-18 In this figure, angle a is equal to angle a’
Note
a = c = 45° and b = d = 135° in this case.
Example
InFigure 2-18, a = 51°17'. Find the other angles.

Solution
c = a = 51°17'
b = (180° - a) = 128°43'
d = b = 128° 43'
a' = a = 51° 17'
b'= b = 128° 43'
c' = a' = 51°17'
d' = b' = 128° 43'

• The sum of the internal angles in a triangle is 180°. Therefore, if we know any
two angles in a triangle, we can calculate the third one.
b = 85˚
a = 68˚
c
A C
Figure 2-19 The sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180°

Fundamentals
Example
In Figure 2-19, find the angle c.
Solution
68° + 85° + c = 180°.

Therefore
c = 27°
• The sum of two angles in a triangle is equal to the external angle at the third
corner.
C' B'
B e
a c
A C
Figure 2-20 ln this figure, angle a + c = angle e
In Figure 2-20, a + c = e
Example
B
e = 140˚
a c = 65˚
A C
Figure 2-21 This figure can be solved as above
In Figure 2-21, find a and b.
a + c = e = 140°
Therefore
a = 140° - 65° = 75°
We know a + b + c = 180°
Therefore
b = 40°

Fundamentals
2.2.3 Right-angle triangles

A right-angle triangle is one in which one of the angles = 90°. Consequently, the sum of
the other two (complementary) angles is also = 90°.
Example
B
b
a c
A C
Figure 2-22 lf angle c = 29°17’, what are angles a and b
In Figure 2-22, if c = 29°17' find angles a and b.

Solution
a = 90° and b + c = 90°

Therefore
b = 90° - 29°17' = 60°43'

If we draw two lines perpendicular to the lines enclosing an angle, the angle between the
perpendiculars will be equal to the original angle.
In Figure 2-23, BD and CD are at 90° to AB and AC respectively.
B
b
a e C
A e c
E
D
Figure 2-23 Projections from a right-angle triangle
a = 90° - e and d = 90 - e
Therefore
a=d

Fundamentals
2.2.4 Similar triangles

Triangles in which all three angles are identical are defined as similar triangles. The ratio
of the sides of similar triangles is constant. In Figure 2-24,
AB BC AC
= = and
AB’ B’C’ AC’
AB AB’ AB"
= = etc.
AC AC" AC"
It does not matter what size the triangles are - the ratio of their sides will always be
constant.
B
B'"
B"
B'
A C
C' C" C'"
Figure 2-24 Similiar triangles
2.2.5 Trigonometry
In a right-angle triangle (Figure 2-25) the side XY opposite to the right angle is called the
hypotenuse. The following trigonometric functions are defined:
x
X Z
Figure 2-25 Right angle triangle
Consider the angle x

OPPOSITE YZ
sin x = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
ADJACENT XZ
cos x = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
OPPOSITE YZ
tan x = =
ADJACENT XZ

Fundamentals
Consider the angle y

OPPOSITE XZ
sin y = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
ADJACENT YZ
cos y = =
HYPOTENUSE XY
OPPOSITE XZ
tan y = =
ADJACENT YZ
Note
sin OPPOSITE
tan = =
cos ADJACENT
1
cosecant =
sin
1
secant =
cos
1
cotangent =
tan
In a right-angle triangle, the sum of the two complementary angles is 90°. In Figure 2-26,
A
c
b
C B
a
Figure 2-26 Right angle triangle
a b
sin A = cos A =
c c
b a
sin b = cos B =
c c
Therefore
sin A=cosB and cos A= sin B

The sine of one complementary angle is the same as the cosine of its complement.
The cosine of one complementary angle is the same as the sine of its complement, e.g.:
sin 70° = cos 20° = 0.9397
cos 70° = sin 20° = 0.342

Fundamentals
2.2.5.1 Solution of right-angle triangles

The components of a right-angle triangle are three sides and two angles (the third angle
is 90°). Knowing the values of two components, we can solve for the other components.
60˚
b = 20'
c=?
C B
a=?
Figure 2-27 Example of right angle triangle
Example (Figure 2-27):
given b = 20' and A = 60°

Solution:
B = 90° - 60° = 30°
b b 20
cos A = c= =
c cosA cos60°
cos 60° = 0.50 (from calculator)

Therefore:
c = 40’
a
sin A = a = c • sin A = 40 • sin 60°
c
sin 60° = 0.86603 (from calculator)

Therefore:
a = 34.64’
Pythagorean Theorem
"The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides."
c2 = a2 + b2 (See Figure 2-26)

Thus, knowing the lengths of two sides in a right-angled triangle, we can find the length
of the third side.
Note
This is how we calculate Horizontal Displacement or Closure from the rectangular
coordinates.

Fundamentals
Other Properties of Triangles

• Let A, B and C be the angles at the 3 corners of a triangle and a,b and c are the 3
sides opposite the respective corners (see Figure 2-28). The following
relationships hold true for any triangle:
a b c
= = Sine Rule
sin A sin B sin C
and
A
c
b
C B
a
Figure 2-28 Right-angle triangle example
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc cos A Cosine Rule

b2 = c2 + a2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
• In any triangle, any one of the sides must be smaller than the sum of the other
two sides and bigger than the difference. Otherwise, there will be no triangle.
• If two similar (i.e., all 3 angles identical) triangles have one corresponding side
equal, then the triangles are equal.
• The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
• The shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpendicular.
• The segments of parallels cut by other parallels are equal. In Figure 2-29,
parallel lines 1 and 2 are cut by two other parallel lines 3 and 4.
AB = CD and AC= BD
4 3 1 2
B
A D
Figure 2-29 Equality of segments
h
• Area of a triangle = b x , where:
2
b = length of the base of the triangle.
h = height of the triangle.

Fundamentals
2.2.6 The circle
Circumference of a circle = 2 π R
where
R = Radius of circle
Area of a circle = π R2
A straight line which passes through the centre of a circle from opposite points on the
circle is called the diameter (d).
Diameter of a circle = 2R
A
D
R O B
Figure 2-30 Circle and chord
In Figure 2-30, AB is called a chord. CD is the perpendicular bisector of the chord. It

goes from the centre of the chord to the circumference of the circle, following the
direction of the radius at that point.
AC = CB OD = Radius Right angle at C
Angle ACO = Angle OCB = 90°
2.2.6.1 Tangent
R E
Figure 2-31 Circle and tangent
TE (Figure 2-31) is a tangent to the circle. It touches the circle at only one point (E), the
point of tangency.

Fundamentals
The tangent forms a right angle with the radius of the circle at the point of tangency,
because the radius is the shortest distance from the tangent to the centre of the circle.
2.2.6.2 Arc
O a
Figure 2-32 Circle and arc
We need to find the length of the arc AB (Figure 2-32). We know that if a is 360°, the
arc is the circumference of the circle = 2 πR. For any other angle, the ratio of the arc to
the circumference will be the same as the ratio of the angle to 360°.
2πR • a πRa
Arc AB = =
360° 180°
Example If R = 15m and a = 60°, find circumference (C) and length of the arc (AB).
C=2 π R = 2 π (15) = 94.2m
πR • a (15)(60)π
arc AB = = = 15.7m
180 180
2.2.6.3 Radians
In the radian system of measurement, the angles are given in radians instead of degrees.
A radian is defined as the angle at the centre of the circle when the length of the arc is 1.
2 π Radians = 360°
360°
1 Radian =
2π
1 Radian = 57.295°
Also
90° = π/2 radians
180° = π radians
270° = 3π/2 radians
360° = 2π radian

Fundamentals
Example
How many radians in 60°?
(60° )2π
x= = 1.05 radians
360°
2.2.6.4 Unit circle

We will derive the trigonometric functions for a unit circle (radius = 1). Consider Figure
2-33.
Figure 2-33 Unit circle
In triangle OSC, sin a = SC/OS and cos a = OC/OS.
In triangle OTB, tan a = TB/OB.
But OS = OB = R = 1.
Therefore
sin a = SC, cos a = OC, and tan a = TB.

Also
sin2a + cos2a = 1
2.2.6.5 Trigonometric Functions by Quadrant

The sign of Sine, Cosine and Tangent in all 4 quadrants is best illustrated by the unit
circle in Figure 2-22. All three functions are (+) from 0° to 90°. From 90° to 180°, only
sine is (+). From 180° to 270°, only tangent is (+). From 270° to 360º, only cosine is (+).
Note
We will see in Chapter 3 that the incremental Vertical Section is (-) in our survey
calculation when the difference between average hole direction and target direction is >
90°. We can see why in Figure 2-22.

Fundamentals
Figure 2-34 Sign of sine, cosine and tangent in a circle
2.2.6.6 Projections of Lines

The projection of any segment AB onto another line X is the distance between the
perpendiculars drawn from A and B onto X. In Figure 2-35, A’B’ is the projection of line
AB onto line OX.
Figure 2-35 Projections of lines
The projection of one line onto any other line is equal to the length of the line times the
cosine of the angle formed between the two lines. (If the lines don't meet, simply draw a
line parallel to the other line).
A’B’ = AB x COSα
Example (Figure 2-36):
Figure 2-36 Projection of lines - example
Given AB = 12', find its projection onto line AC, with which it forms an angle of 60°.
Draw line BB' at 90° to AC. AB’ is the projection.
AB' = AB. cos 60° = 12 x 0.5 = 6' = projection.

Fundamentals
2.2.6.7 Projections of Lines - Perpendicular Directions

In Figure 2-37, AC is drawn parallel to OX. OX and OY are the 2 axes onto which we
wish to project the line AB.
AxBx = Projection of AB onto X-axis.
AyBy = Projection of AB onto Y-axis.
Figure 2-37 Projection of lines - perpendicular direction
In triangle ABC:
AxBx = AB • cos a
AyBy = AB • sin a
Thus, the projections of a line onto two perpendicular axes are equal to the length of the
line times the cosine and sine, respectively, of the angle formed with one of the axes.
2.2.6.8 Projection of Lines onto Planes

In Figure 2-38, line AB is projected onto plane P. The angle a is formed between them.
The projection of AB is AB'. Triangle ABB’ is a right-angle triangle (Angle B' is 90°).
Figure 2-38 Projection of lines onto planes
AB’
cos a =
AB
AB’=AB • cos a
Note
If a > 90°, the projection will be negative.

Fundamentals
2.2.6.9 Radius of Curvature

In Figure 2-27, Rc is the radius of curvature for the build-up section of a well. Knowing
the buildup rate (BUR), we can calculate the value of Rc. Knowing the values of
inclination (I1 and I2) at the start and end of the arc, we can find the incremental values
for Horizontal Displacement (HD), Vertical Depth (TVD) and Measured Depth (MD).
Figure 2-39 Radius of curvature definitions
2.2.6.10Circumference of a circle
360X100
C = 2π R =
BUR
360X100 arcangle x100
BUR = = in°/100ft
2πRc arc Length
18000
Rc= in feet
π • BUR
TVD1= Rc x sinI1 & TVD2 = Rc x sinI2
∆TVD = TVD2 - TVD1 = Rc( sinl2 - sinI1)
HD1 = Rc - Rc x cosI1 = Rc (1 - cosI1)
HD2 = Rc - Rc x cosI2 = Rc (1 - cosI2)
∆HD = HD2 - HD1 = Rc (cos I1 - cosI2)
∆MD = π Rc x
( I2 − I1) = length of the arc (ft)
360
Also
(I2 − I1) • 100

∆MD = in feet
BUR

Section 3 - Directional Well Planning
Source File DDTM_03A.DOC
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
3 Directional Well Planning Page

3.1 POSITIONING AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS .........................................................................3-1
3.1.1 Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude) ..................................................3-2
3.1.2 Ellipsoid....................................................................................................................3-3
3.1.3 Geodetic Datum ........................................................................................................3-4
3.1.4 Map Projection .........................................................................................................3-4
3.1.4.1 UTM System ...................................................................................................3-4
3.1.4.2 LAMBERT Map Projection ............................................................................3-6
3.1.5 Legal Coordinate Systems ........................................................................................3-7
3.1.5.1 State Plane Coordinate System 1927 (SPCS 27) ............................................3-8
3.1.5.2 State Plane Coordinate System 1983 (SPCS 33) ............................................3-9
3.1.5.3 Local Coordinate Systems...............................................................................3-11
3.1.5.4 Leaselines or Boundaries ................................................................................3-12
3.1.6 Land Locations .........................................................................................................3-13
3.1.7 Offshore Locations ...................................................................................................3-13
3.1.8 Bottomhole Targets ..................................................................................................3-14
3.1.8.1 Geological Requirements ................................................................................3-14
3.2 SURVEY CALCULATION METHODS .....................................................................................3-15
3.2.1 Definitions of Terms.................................................................................................3-15
3.2.2 Introduction...............................................................................................................3-16
3.2.3 Tangential Method....................................................................................................3-16
3.2.3.1 Balanced Tangential........................................................................................3-17
3.2.3.2 Average angle..................................................................................................3-18
3.2.4 Radius of Curvature..................................................................................................3-19
3.2.4.1 Vertical Projection ..........................................................................................3-19
3.2.4.2 Horizontal Projection ......................................................................................3-20
3.2.5 Minimum Curvature .................................................................................................3-21
3.2.5.1 Dog-leg............................................................................................................3-21
3.2.5.2 Ratio Factor .....................................................................................................3-21
3.2.6 Mercury.....................................................................................................................3-22
3.2.7 Relative accuracy of the different methods ..............................................................3-22
3.2.8 DogLeg Severity.......................................................................................................3-23
3.3 BASIC WELL PLANNING......................................................................................................3-24
3.3.1 Determining the Kick-off Point ................................................................................3-25
3.3.2 Determining Build and Drop Rates ..........................................................................3-25
3.3.3 Calculating the Trajectory ........................................................................................3-26
3.4 ANTICOLLISION AND ADVANCED WELL PLANNING...........................................................3-34
3.4.1 Anti-collision Considerations ...................................................................................3-34
3.4.1.1 Volumes of Uncertainty ..................................................................................3-35
3.4.1.2 Determining a "Lead Angle"...........................................................................3-36
3.4.2 Well Plan Maps ........................................................................................................3-37
3.4.3 Computer Programs ..................................................................................................3-38
3.4.3.1 Survey Calculations ........................................................................................3-38
3.4.3.2 Planning...........................................................................................................3-38
3.4.3.3 Anti-collision...................................................................................................3-38
3.4.3.4 Extrapolation and Interpolation ......................................................................3-38

Table of Contents

Figure 3-1 Location on the earth’s surface by geographic coordinates.................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2 The UTM system of location on the earth’s surface............................................... 3-5
Figure 3-3 Convergence ........................................................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-4 Lambert conformal projection, USA...................................................................... 3-7
Figure 3-5 Corrections to survey azimuth.............................................................................. 3-12
Figure 3-6 Lease definitions................................................................................................... 3-12
Figure 3-7 Old style lease definitions. ................................................................................... 3-13
Figure 3-8 Definitions of terms used in survey calculation methods..................................... 3-15
Figure 3-9 Tangential method definitions.............................................................................. 3-17
Figure 3-10 Average angle method........................................................................................ 3-18
Figure 3-11 Radius of curvature method................................................................................ 3-19
Figure 3-12 Radius of curvature method - vertical projection ............................................... 3-20
Figure 3-13 Radius of curvature - horizontal projection........................................................ 3-20
Figure 3-14 Minimum curvature - dog leg............................................................................. 3-21
Figure 3-15 Slant type well; R < total target displacement.................................................... 3-26
Figure 3-16 Slant type well; R > total target displacement.................................................... 3-27
Figure 3-17 "S" type well; (R1 + R2) <total target displacement........................................... 3-28
Figure 3-18 "S", type well; (R1 + R2)>total target displacement. .......................................... 3-29
Figure 3-19 Worksheet, Slant well, R < total displacement of target .................................... 3-30
Figure 3-20 Worksheet, Slant well, R >total displacement of target ..................................... 3-31
Figure 3-21 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 < total displacement of target ......................... 3-32
Figure 3-22 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 > total displacement of target ......................... 3-33
Figure 3-23 Spider plot, small scale....................................................................................... 3-34
Figure 3-24 Spider plot, large scale ....................................................................................... 3-34
Figure 3-25 Traveling Cylinder analysis and display. ........................................................... 3-35
Figure 3-26 Ellipsoid of certainty .......................................................................................... 3-36
Figure 3-27 Determining lead angle....................................................................................... 3-37
Figure 3-28 Example of a basic well plan map...................................................................... 3-37
List of Tables Page

Table 3-1 Rectangular coordinates of a target position. ........................................................ 3-14
Table 3-2 Relative accuracy of the different methods ........................................................... 3-22

Directional Well Planning
3 Directional Well Planning

About this chapter
This chapter covers a number of topics which must be understood by the DD. The
various systems of coordinates used in the oilfield are discussed and compared. The
different survey calculation methods are described.
Understanding how a well plan (proposal) for a directional well is calculated is one of
the most important duties of the DD, particularly if he is working as an FSM or manager.
The basics of well planning are covered in this chapter.
One of the biggest mistakes a DD can make is to collide with another well. This chapter
describes the implications and dangers of kicking off close to other wells. The uses of
volume of uncertainty and traveling cylinder in anti-collision analysis are explained.
Although computer-based DD software is used to do (multiwell) anti-collision
calculations, the DD must understand what is actually being calculated. It is dangerous to
blindly accept the outputs from any computer program. It is advisable that the trainee DD
plot surveys by hand on the "Spider" plot in order to get familiar with anti-collision
techniques.

exercise:
1. Describe the various systems of coordinates used in the oilfield.
2. List the various methods of calculating a directional survey.
3. Calculate a few surveys by hand (with a scientific calculator) using the Average
Angle method.
4. Explain what preliminary information for the directional well is needed from the
client.
5. Describe the effect on maximum angle of changing the kickoff point.
6. Explain the implications of high buildup and dropoff rates from a drilling standpoint.
7. Describe the four most common types of directional well profile.
8. Explain the principle behind the traveling cylinder method of anti-collision analysis.
9. Explain what is meant by Ellipse of Uncertainty.
3.1 Positioning and Coordinate Systems

Since the dawn of time, man has had to describe his location in one way or another. Just
as man evolved from relative to absolute positioning, the oil industry has evolved from
relative (i.e., the target is 1200' from the surface location along N 48.6° E) to absolute
(i.e., the target is located at UTM 6,234,345.67 m N and 474,628.34 m E). The need to
interchange meaningful data with others, government regulations, the requirement to
locate the blow out wellbore when the surface rig has cratered, and many other equally
important reasons require that the DD of today understand far more about positioning
and coordinate systems.

The problem
The earth is a sphere. Well, really it is an oblate spheroid (a squashed sphere). The radius
of the earth at the North pole is about 13 miles shorter than the radius at the Equator. If
the earth was the size of a billiard ball, the human eye could not tell the difference; but,
when it comes to modeling the size and shape of the border of a country or an oilfield
lease this 13 miles causes many problems for the geodesist ( a scientist who studies the
shape of the earth).
The maps and drawings used in directional drilling are flat. Plotting data which lies on
the surface or subsurface of a sphere onto a flat map is impossible without compromises
and the introduction of controlled error.
The science of geodesy and cartography (map making) are drawn upon heavily to
provide a complex, yet straight forward method for the DD to represent and plot his
surveys and wellplans.
3.1.1 Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude)

To identify the location of points on the Earth, a graticule or network of longitude and
latitude lines has been superimposed on the surface. They are commonly referred to as
meridians and parallels, respectively. Given the North and South Poles, which are
approximately the ends of the axis about which the Earth rotates, and the Equator, an
imaginary line halfway between the two poles, the parallels of latitude are formed by
circles surrounding the Earth and in planes parallel with that of the Equator. If circles are
drawn equally spaced along the surface of the sphere, with 90 spaces from the Equator to
each pole, each space is called a degree of latitude. The circles are numbered from 0 at
the Equator to 90 North and South at the respective poles. Each degree is subdivided into
60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds of arc.
Meridians of longitude are formed with a series of imaginary lines, all intersecting at
both the North and South Poles, and crossing each parallel of latitude at right angles, but
striking the Equator at various points. If the Equator is equally divided into 360 parts,
and a meridian passes through each mark, 360 degrees of longitude result. These degrees
are also divided into minutes and seconds. While the length of a degree of latitude is
always the same on a sphere, the lengths of degrees of longitude vary with the latitude
(see Figure 3-1). At the Equator on the sphere, they are the same length as the degree of
latitude, but elsewhere they are shorter.
Figure 3-1 Location on the earth’s surface by geographic coordinates

There is only one location for the Equator and poles which serve as references for
counting degrees of latitude, but there is no natural origin from which to count degrees of
longitude, since all meridians are identical in shape and size. It, thus, becomes necessary
to choose arbitrarily one meridian as the starting point, or prime meridian. There have
been many prime meridians in the course of history, swayed by national pride and
international influence. Eighteenth-century maps of the American colonies often show
longitude from London or Philadelphia. During the 19th century, boundaries of new
States were described with longitudes west of a meridian through Washington, D.C.,
77°3'02.3" west of the Greenwich (England) Prime Meridian, which was increasingly
referenced on 19th century maps (Van Zandt, 1976, p. 3). In 1884, the International
Meridian Conference, meeting in Washington, agreed to adopt the "meridian passing
through the center of the transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich as the initial
meridian for longitude," resolving that "from this meridian longitude shall be counted in
two directions up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude minus"
(Brown, 1949, p. 297).
When constructing meridians on a map projection, the central meridian, usually a
straight line, is frequently taken to be the starting point or 0° longitude for calculation
purposes. When the map is completed with labels, the meridians are marked with respect
to the Greenwich Prime Meridian. The formulas in this bulletin are arranged so that
Greenwich longitude may be used directly.
The concept of latitudes and longitudes was originated early in recorded history by
Greek and Egyptian scientists, especially the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (2nd century,
B.C.). Claudius Ptolemy further formalized the concept (Brown, 1949, p. 50, 52,68).
Because calculations relating latitude and longitude to positions of points on a given map
can become quite involved, rectangular grids have been developed for the use of
surveyors. In this way, each point may be designated merely by its distance from two
perpendicular axes on the flat map.
3.1.2 Ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is the name of the volume obtained when an ellipse is rotated about one of
its axes. Specifically, an oblate spheroid is an ellipse rotated about the shorter
(semi-minor) axis. The oblate spheroid is the principal shape used in modeling the
surface of the earth.
The Earth is not an exact ellipsoid, and deviations from this shape are continually
evaluated. For map projections, however, the problem has been confined to selecting
constants for the ellipsoidal shape and size and has not generally been extended to
incorporating the much smaller deviations from this shape, except that different
reference ellipsoids are used for the mapping of different regions of the Earth.
There are over a dozen principal ellipsoids which are used by one or more countries. The
different dimensions do not only result from varying accuracy in the geodetic
measurements (the measurements of locations on the Earth), but the curvature of the
Earth's surface is not uniform due to irregularities in the gravity field. Until recently,
ellipsoids were only fitted to the Earth's shape over a particular country or continent. The
polar axis of the reference ellipsoid for such a region, therefore, normally does not
coincide with the axis of the actual Earth, although it is made parallel.

The same applies to the two equatorial planes. The discrepancy between centers is
usually a few hundred meters at most. Only satellite-determined coordinate systems, such
as the WGS 72, are considered geocentric. Ellipsoids for the latter systems represent the
entire Earth more accurately than ellipsoids determined from ground measurements, but
they do not generally give the “best fit" for a particular region.
3.1.3 Geodetic Datum

A geodetic datum is a definition of a model for the surface of the earth. They usually
consist of the definition of an ellipsoid, a definition of how the ellipsoid is oriented to the
earth's surface, a definition for the unit of length, an official name, and region(s) of the
earth's surface for which the datum is intended to be used. The reference ellipsoid is used
with an "initial point" of reference on the surface to produce a datum, the name given to
a smooth mathematical surface that closely fits the mean sea-level surface throughout the
area of interest. The “initial point” is assigned a latitude, longitude, and elevation above
the ellipsoid. Once a datum is adopted, it provides the surface to which ground control
measurements are referred. The latitude and longitude of all the control points in a given
area are then computed relative to the adopted ellipsoid and the adopted "initial point”.
The projection equations of large-scale maps must use the same ellipsoid parameters as
those used to define the local datum; otherwise, the projections will be inconsistent with
the ground control. The North American Datum 1927 (NAD27) is the most commonly
used datum for Canada, The U.S.A., and Mexico. European Datum 1950 (ED50) is the
most commonly used datum in the offshore North Sea. Geodetic datums are part
scientific and part political.
3.1.4 Map Projection

A map projection is a mathematical formula which has been designed to convert the
latitude/longitude method of positioning on the surface of a sphere into another method
of positioning which can be plotted onto a flat map with some degree of controlled error
and known accuracy. The most common family of positioning methods is X Y Cartesian
coordinates. Ninety nine percent of the earth's wellbores are located by some form of X
Y coordinate system. Map projections are defined in a specific unit of length. They
usually have defined coefficients which vary with the location on the surface of the
earth. In order to apply a map projection, a geodetic datum has to be selected as the local
representation for the earth’s surface.
The most commonly used map projection is the Transverse Mercator (TM) developed by
Johann Lambert in 1772. A worldwide specification of the variable coefficients, called
the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is the most commonly used member of the
TM family. The Lambert map projection is also common throughout the world and is
currently the most used projection in the U.S.A.
3.1.4.1 UTM System

On most projections the lines of longitude and latitude are curved. The quadrangles
formed by the intersection of these lines (normally referred to as parallels and meridians,
respectively) are of different shapes and sizes, which severely complicates the locations
of points and the measurement of directions.
In the UTM system (Universal Transverse Mercator), the world is divided up into 60
equal zones (each, therefore, 6° wide) between 84° North and 80° South. Polar regions
are covered by other, special projections. See Figure 3-2.

Each zone has its own origin at the intersection of its central meridian and the equator.
Each zone is flattened and a square imposed on it. Thus, its outer edges are curved when
drawn on a flat map since they follow the meridian lines on the globe. Each of the 60
zones is numbered, starting with zone 1 at the 180th meridian. The areas East and West
of the Greenwich Meridian are covered by zones 30 and 31.
Figure 3-2 The UTM system of location on the earth’s surface
Any point on the earth may be identified by its zone number, its distance in meters from
the equator (“northing”) and its distance in meters from a north - south reference line
(“easting"). Zones are sometimes divided into sectors representing intervals of 8°
latitude, starting with zone C at 80° S, and ending with zone X at 72° N, omitting I and
O. It is not essential to use the grid sector letter to identify the position of a point on the
globe.
To avoid negative values for eastings, the central meridian in any zone is assigned the
arbitrary eastings value of 500,000m. Along the equator a zone is about 600,000 meters
wide, tapering towards the polar region. Eastings range in value from approximately
200,000 to 800,000.
For points north of the equator, northings are measured directly in meters, with a value of
zero at the equator and increasing toward the north. To avoid negative northing values in
the S. Hemisphere, the equator is arbitrarily assigned a value of 10,000,000 meters and
displacements in the southern hemisphere are measured with decreasing, but positive,
values as one heads south.
The scale factor ( = grid distance/true distance) at the central meridian is, by definition,
0.9996, and changes slightly as you move away from the central meridian.
Convergence is the difference between Grid North and True North (Figure 3-3). Clearly,
at the central meridian, Grid North equals True North. Convergence will vary with
distance away from the central meridian and with distance away from the equator.
Convergence is negative to the East and positive to the West.

Figure 3-3 Convergence
The well proposal is usually derived from coordinates in a grid system, and therefore
directions will be referenced to Grid North. However, the well surveys will use sensors
that reference either Magnetic or True North, and the user must therefor be able to
convert from one reference to the other.
3.1.4.2 LAMBERT Map Projection

History The Lambert Conformal Conic Projection (Figure 3-4) was the first new
projection which Johann Heinrich Lambert presented in 1772, in the same publication
which contained his Transverse Mercator described previously. In some atlases,
particularly British, the Lambert Conformal Conic is called the "Conical Orthomorphic"
projection.
Lambert yields the greatest similarity that any plane figure can have with one drawn on
the surface of a sphere. Meridiens are equally-spaced radii of the concentric circular arcs
representing parallels of latitude; the parallels become further apart as the distance from
the central parallels increases. Straight lines between points approximate great circle arcs
for maps of moderate coverage.
Two parallels may be made standard or true to scale. In the State Plane Coordinate
System (SPCS) for States using the Lambert projection, the choice of standard parallels
has the effect of reducing the scale of the central parallel by an amount which cannot be
expressed simply in exact form, while the scale for the central meridien of a map using
the Transverse Mercator projection is normally reduced by a simple fraction.

Figure 3-4 Lambert conformal projection, USA
Note
Lambert Conformal Conic projection with standard parallels 20° and 60°N. North
America is illustrated here to show the change in spacing of the parallels. When used for
maps of the conterminous United States or individual States, standard parallels
In the U.S., the Lambert Conformal Conic projection was adopted as the official
projection for the SPCS for States of predominantly east-west expanse. A Transverse
Mercator system was prepared for the remaining States. One or more zones is involved in
the system for each State. In addition, the Lambert projection is used for the Aleutian
Islands of Alaska, Long Island in New York and northwest Florida, although the
Transverse Mercator (and Oblique Mercator in one case) is used for the rest of each of
these States.
3.1.5 Legal Coordinate Systems

The term “Legal Coordinate System” is used here to describe the legal definition which
combines all of the above concepts and components into a workable system of
positioning defined for a particular geopolitical entity - country, state, OCS, etc. A
"Legal Coordinate System” is defined by law at the national government level and quite
often at the State or local level. The U.S. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) or the
U.K National Grid are two common examples. In the State Plane Coordinate System of
1927, NAD27 is the geodetic datum, a foot is the unit of length, three different map
projections are used depending upon where in the U. S. the point to be positioned is, and
the system applies to all 50 states and a number of island possessions and protectorates.

3.1.5.1 State Plane Coordinate System 1927 (SPCS 27)

The State Plane Coordinate System of 1927 was designed in the 1930s by the U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey (predecessor at the National Ocean Service) to enable surveyors,
mappers, and engineers to connect their land or engineering surveys to a common
reference system, the North American Datum of 1927. The following criteria were
applied in the design of the State Plane Coordinate System of 1927:
• Use of conformal mapping projections.
• Restricting the maximum scale distortion to less than one part in 10,000.
• Covering an entire State with as few zones of a projection as possible.
• Defining boundaries of projection zones as an aggregation of counties.
It is impossible to map a curved Earth an a flat map using plane-coordinates without
distorting angles, azimuths, distances, or area. It is possible to design a map such that
some of the four remain undistorted by selecting an appropriate “map projection”. A map
projection in which angles on the curved Earth are preserved after being projected to a
plane is called a “conformal" projection. Three conformal map projections were used in
designing the original State plane coordinate systems, the Lambert conformal conic
projection, the transverse Mercator projection, and the oblique Mercator projection.
The Lambert projection was used for States that are long in the east-west direction (e.g.,
Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina), or for States that prefer to be divided into several
zones of east-west extent.
The transverse Mercator projection was used for States (or zones within States) that are
long in the north-south direction (e.g., Vermont and Indiana), and the oblique Mercator
was used in one zone of Alaska when neither of these two was appropriate.
These same map projections are also often custom designed to provide a coordinate
system for a local or regional project. For example, the equations of the oblique Mercator
projection produced project coordinates for the Northeast Corridor Rail Improvement
project when a narrow coordinate system from Washington, DC, to Boston, MA, was
required.
Land survey distance measurements in the 1930s were typically made with a steel tape,
or something less precise. Accuracy rarely exceeded one part in 10,000. Therefore, the
designers of the SPCS 27 concluded that a maximum systematic distance scale distortion
attributed to the projection of 1:10,000 could be absorbed in the computations without
adverse impact on the survey. If distances were more accurate than 1:10,000, or if the
systematic scale distortion could not be tolerated, the effect of scale distortion could be
eliminated by computing and applying an appropriate grid scale factor correction.
Admittedly, the one in 10,000 limit was set at an arbitrary level, but it worked well for its
intended purpose and was not restrictive on the quality of the survey when grid scale
factor was computed and applied.
To keep the scale distortion at less than one part in 10,000 when designing the SPCS 27,
some States required multiple projection “zones." Thus some States have only one State
plane coordinate zone, some have two or three zones, and the State of Alaska has 10
zones that incorporate all three projections.

With the exception of Alaska, the zone boundaries in each State followed county
boundaries. There was usually sufficient overlap from one zone to another to
accommodate projects or surveys that crossed zone boundaries and still limit the scale
distortion to 1:10,000. In more recent years, survey accuracy usually exceeded 1:10,000.
More surveyors became accustomed to correcting distance observations for projection
scale distortion by applying the grid scale factor correction. When the correction is used,
zone boundaries become less important, as projects may extend farther into adjacent
zones.
3.1.5.2 State Plane Coordinate System 1983 (SPCS 33)

In the mid-1970s NGS considered several alternatives to SPCS 83. Some geodesists
advocated retaining the design of the existing State plane coordinate system (projection
type, boundaries, and defining constants) and others believed that a system based on a
single projection type should be adopted. The single projection proponents contended
that the present SPCS was cumbersome, since three projections involving 127 zones
were employed.
A study was instituted to decide whether a single system would meet the principal
requirements better than SPCS 27. These requirements included ease of understanding,
computation, and implementation. Initially, it appeared that adoption of the Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) system would be the best solution because the grid had long
been established, to some extent was being used, and the basic formulas were identical in
all situations. However, on further examination, it was found that the UTM 6 degree
zone widths presented several problems that might impede its overall acceptance by the
surveying profession.
For example, to accommodate the wider zone width, a grid scale factor of 1:2,500 exists
on the central meridian while a grid scale factor of 1:1,250 exists at zone boundaries. As
already discussed, similar grid scale factors on the SPCS rarely exceeded 1:10,000. In
addition, the "arc-to-chord" correction term that converts observed geodetic angles to
grid angles is larger, requiring application more frequently. And finally, the UTM zone
definitions did not coincide with State or county boundaries. These problems were not
viewed as critical, but most surveyors and engineers considered the existing SPCS 27 the
simpler system and the UTM as unacceptable because of rapidly changing grid scale
factors.
The study then turned to the transverse Mercator projection with zones of 2° in width.
This grid met the primary conditions of a single national system. By reducing zone
width, the scale factor and the arc-to-chord correction would be no worse than in the
SPCS 27. The major disadvantage of the 2° transverse Mercator grid was that the zones,
being defined by meridians, rarely fell along State and county boundaries. A more
detailed review showed that while many States would require two or more zones, the 2°
grid could be defined to accommodate those who wanted the zones to follow county
lines. Furthermore, seldom did this cause larger scale factor or arc-to-chord corrections
than in the existing SPCS 27, although several of the larger counties would require two
zones. However, the average number of zones per State was increased by this approach.
Throughout this study, three dominant factors for retaining the SPCS 27 design were
evident, SPCS had been accepted by legislative action in 37 States. The grids had been in
use for more than 40 years and most surveyors and engineers were familiar with the
definition and procedures involved in using them.

Except for academic and puristic considerations the philosophy of SPCS 27 was
fundamentally sound. With availability of electronic calculators and computers, little
merit was found in reducing the number of zones or projection types. There was merit in
minimizing the number of changes to SPCS legislation. For these reasons a decision was
made to retain the basic design philosophy of SPCS 27 in SPCS 83.
The necessity for SPCS 83 arose from the establishment of NAD 83. When NAD 27 was
readjusted and redefined by the National Geodetic Survey, a project which began in 1975
and finished in 1986, SPCS 27 became obsolete. NAD 83 produced new geodetic
coordinates for all horizontal control points in the National Geodetic Reference System
(NGRS). The project was undertaken because NAD 27 values could no longer provide
the quality of horizontal control required by surveyors and engineers without regional
recomputations (least squares adjustments) to repair the existing network. NAD 83
supplied the following improvements:
One hundred and fifty years of geodetic observations (approximately 1.8 million) were
adjusted simultaneously, eliminating error propagation which occurs when projects must
be mathematically assembled on a "piecemeal" basis.
• The precise transcontinental traverse, satellite triangulation, Doppler positions,
baselines established by electronic distance measurements (EDM), and baselines
established by very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), improved the internal
consistency of the network.
• A new figure of the Earth, the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80),
which approximates the Earth’s true size and shape, supplied a better fit than the
Clarke 1866 spheroid, the reference surface used with NAD 27.
• The origin of the datum was moved from station MEADES RANCH in Kansas
to the Earth’s center of mass, for compatibility with satellite systems.
Not only does the published geodetic position of each control point change, but the State
plane coordinates change for the following reasons:
• The plane coordinates are mathematically derived (using “mapping equations")
from geodetic coordinates.
• The new figure of the Earth, the GRS 80 ellipsoid, has different values for the
semimajor axis “a” and flattening "f” (and eccentricity “e" and semiminor axis
"b"). These ellipsoidal parameters are often embedded in the mapping equations
and their change produces different plane coordinates.
• The mapping equations are accurate to the millimeter, whereas previous
equations promulgated by NGS were derivatives of logarithmic calculations with
generally accepted approximations.
• The defining constants of several zones have been redefined by the States.
• The numeric grid value of the origin of each zone has been significantly changed
to make the coordinates appear clearly different.
• The State plane coordinates for all points published on NAD 83 by NGS will be
in metric units.
• The SPCS 83 uses the Gauss-Kruger form of the transverse Mercator projection,
whereas the SPCS 27 used the Gauss-Schreiber form of the equations.

3.1.5.3 Local Coordinate Systems

In most cases, the DD will use a system of local coordinates for day-to-day activities.
This local system depends upon and has a direct relationship to all the concepts
presented thus far in this chapter. Many assumptions are often made in defining local
coordinate systems which are not obvious, but very important. Care must be used in
specifying local coordinate systems so that all implicit and explicit relationships to
“legal” coordinate systems are preserved.
The Local Coordinate System must have its origin at a point that can be positioned in the
“legal” coordinate system. This point should be referred to as the Structure Reference
Point, if the local coordinate system applies only to a single structure (platform/rig) or as
the Field Reference Point, if the local coordinate system is used over the entire field. The
term Reference Point will be used in this chapter to mean either or both. The Reference
Point has a location in the a “legal” coordinate system and it has a location of (0,0) in the
newly defined Local Coordinate System. This reference point has only North and East
coordinates defined. An additional reference, the Vertical Reference Datum, must be
defined in order to measure depth, either TVD or MD. Common examples of a Vertical
Reference Datum are RKB, MSL, LAT, mud line, etc. If necessary, a separate Vertical
Reference Datum can be defined for each of MD and TVD.
Unless specifically defined otherwise, a Local Coordinate System has each of its axis
oriented parallel to the corresponding axis of the "legal" coordinate system in which its
Reference Point is defined.
Obviously, there must be a defined unit of length, however, this is normally dictated by
the customer's preference or governmental regulation.
By definition, a Local Coordinate System is a grid system and has to use a Grid North in
order to be plotted correctly. Only on a plot drawn using Grid North, can distances and
angles be measured directly. If True North or Magnetic North is used to plot directional
survey data, the relationships between lines and points on the plot are not linear and
therefore can not be measured directly with a compass or ruler. Quite often, the error
(distortion) is small, but this is not something that is readily apparent and can not be left
to individual judgment.
In many cases, governmental reporting requirements are dictating the use of Grid North.
Under no circumstances should Anadrill employees prepare or use a well plan based
upon a Local Coordinate System which uses anything but Grid North. Requests from a
customer to do this should be directed to Senior management and technique and will be
evaluated on a case by case basis.
Often, it is necessary to convert location data from one local" coordinate system to
another. A good example is the slot pattern of a multiwell platform which is usually
defined on the "as built” drawings of the construction company. The slot locations on
this drawing are usually defined relative to a drawing local reference system which has
its own origin and reference North.
It is up to the planner to determine the amount of translation (moving the pattern in N, E)
and rotation (moving the pattern around a point) required to allow the slots to be located
in the DD's local coordinate system. In order to translate the data, at least one point on
the "as built" drawing must be locatable in the “legal” coordinate system or the DD's
coordinate system.

Likewise, to rotate the pattern into the DD’s local coordinate system, a reference line on
the “as built” drawing has to be related to a reference line in the DD's or “legal"
coordinate system. These reference lines should be referred to as Structure Reference
Lines. An analogous discussion can be made for relocating Targets from a geophysical or
reservoir based reference system to the Local Coordinate System.
Magnetic Declination correction is the angle between Magnetic North and True North.
Values of magnetic declination change with time and location. As the movement of
Magnetic North is constant and predictable, Magnetic declination can be calculated for
any given point on the earth at any given time. Charts depicting the various declinations
and rate of change (usually expressed as an annual change) are widely used. An Easterly
declination is expressed as a Positive value and a Westerly declination is expressed as a
Negative value. Although converting from one reference to another appears a simple
task, considerable care is needed, depending on the relative directions of convergence
and magnetic declination. For example, see Figure 3-5.
GN
TN
MN Wellbore
Azimuth
D 3
2
TN = True North 1
MN = Magnetic North
GN = Grid North
C = Grid Convergence
D = Magnetic Declination Correction
Ð 1 = Magnetic Azimuth
Ð 2 = True Azimuth = Magnetic Azimuth + Magnetic Declination
Ð 3 = Grid Azimuth = True Azimuth - Grid Convergence
All azimuths and corrections are positive in a clockwise direction.
Figure 3-5 Corrections to survey azimuth
3.1.5.4 Leaselines or Boundaries

Leases are normally administered by local or national governing bodies or agencies and
have clearly defined boundaries. Any point within a lease can usually be defined in terms
of distance from any two adjoining boundaries (Figure 3-6).
Northern Boundary of Lease

Western Boundary of Lease
Surface Location
Eastern Boundary of Lease
y
tor
jec
ra
ell t
e dw
os
op
Pr
Target
Leaseline
Coordinates
Southern Boundary of Lease
Figure 3-6 Lease definitions

However, this is not generally true for leases on property which have been defined by the
old survey method of “bounds and metes". In this method, lines are surveyed along the
irregular edges of the property and the azimuth and length of the lines recorded. When a
well is placed in this type of property, the well location is often described as in the
following example (See Figure 3-7).
• 300.6' from the S43.8°W line
• 248.8' from the N50.2°W line.
E
.2 1˚
N68
S0.1˚W
˚E
0 .3
N3
W
8˚
30
. 6'
3.
0
. 8'
S4
8
24
N5
0.
2˚
W
Figure 3-7 Old style lease definitions.
In this case, there are no references defined to a national or international measurement

system. This method has been used for the majority of the wells drilled in Texas.
3.1.6 Land Locations

Planning a directional well assumes some limiting factors in the positioning of the
surface location. With land wells, the surface location of the well will usually be
determined by the factors originally prompting the decision to drill a deviated (as
opposed to a vertical) well.
3.1.7 Offshore Locations

The main difference between positioning a surface location on land and offshore is the
number and proximity of wellbores. Offshore platforms tend to have between 6 and 60
wells. Adjacent wells may have only 6' feet between centers.
Many factors which directly affect installations including water depth, bottom slope,
sandy bottom versus coral reef, local currents, etc., interact to control the selection of the
offshore platform site.

3.1.8 Bottomhole Targets
3.1.8.1 Geological Requirements

The first step in planning any well is, of course, to define the objectives. A directional
well can have one or more objectives. The most obvious of the objectives is the target.
These can be geological structures, geological features such as faults or pinch-outs, other
wellbores (as in relief well drilling) or a combination of these. In this section, we look at
the way in which targets are defined.
As we have seen, there are various ways of referring to a surface location (UTM,
Lambert, Geographic, etc.). The same is true for the target location, with the addition of
the vertical depth of the target. When planning and drilling a well, it is simpler to use
local coordinates when referring to the target. Once the exact location of the local
reference point and the target are known, the local coordinates can easily be determined.
Rectangular coordinates of a target are usually given in feet/meters North/South and
East/West of the local reference point. They can easily be derived by subtracting the grid
coordinates of the surface location from those of the target. For example:
Table 3-1 Rectangular coordinates of a target position.
N/S E/W
Grid Coordinates Target 6,354,500.00 N 262,744.00 E
Grid Coordinates Surface 6,355,000.00 N 262,544.00 E
Partial Coordinate -500.00 200.00
A positive value denotes North or East.
A negative value denotes South or West.
Polar coordinates can be derived from the rectangular coordinates. They are expressed
as a Distance (Departure) and a Direction (either Quadrant or azimuth). Polar
coordinates are derived from the rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinates as follows:
Azimuth = tan-1 ((E/W Coord) / (N/S Coord)).

In the above example,
Azimuth = tan-1 (200/-500) =-21.8°

As we know the target is South and East of the surface location, we know the direction
of the target from the rig is S21.8°E or 158.2°.
Departure = ((E/W)2 +(N/S2)1/2

In the above example,
Departure = (2002 + (-5002)1/2 = 538.5

So we can refer to our target in Polar coordinates as being 538.5 metres at Azimuth
158.2°.
Remember, these equations will not work for the N/S coordinate equal to 0. The azimuth
is then E or W depending on the sign of the E/W coordinate. The tan function on most
calculations normalizes the answer to a value between 0 and 90 degrees. Always restore
your azimuth to the correct quadrant.

3.2 Survey Calculation Methods

3.2.1 Definitions of Terms
Figure 3-8 Definitions of terms used in survey calculation methods
"O" is the Reference Point for the Well. From O, there are three axes; to North, to East
and "z" vertical (down).
"S" is the Surface Location Reference Point.
"B" is a Survey Point.
"a" is the Azimuth in degrees of the Vertical Section plane. It is measured in a
Horizontal Plane from the North Direction (geographic), beginning at 0° and continuing
through 360° (clockwise from North axis).
"TVD" is the projection of SB (Measured Depth, MD, along the well path) onto the
vertical axis "z". The distance is SB 3.
"HD" is the Horizontal Displacement, measured in the Horizontal plane passing through
the Survey Point. The distance is BB3 (between Survey point end “z” axis).
"VS" is the Vertical Section; it is the length of the projection of the Horizontal
Displacement (HD) onto the Vertical Section plane defined by its azimuth. The distance
is B3B2.
A Vertical Section Plane is defined by its Azimuth and the U.S. origin point. Usually, the
Vertical Section passing through the center of the Target is used for plotting the well
profile.

3.2.2 Introduction
Regardless of which conventional survey method is used (single-shot, multishot, steering
tool, surface readout gyro, MWD), the following three pieces of information are known
at the end of a successful survey:
• Survey Measured Depth
• Borehole Inclination
• Borehole Azimuth (corrected to relevant North).
In order to ascertain the latest bottom-hole position, it is necessary to perform a survey
calculation which includes the three inputs listed above. Only then can the latest
bottom-hole coordinates be plotted on the directional well plot (TVD vs Vertical Section
on the vertical plot, N/S vs E/W rectangular coordinates on horizontal plot). Projections
to the target, etc., can then be done (See Figure 3-8).
A number of survey calculation methods have been used in directional drilling. Of these,
only four have had widespread use:
• Tangential
• Average Angle
• Radius of Curvature
• Minimum Curvature.
The Tangential Method is the oldest, least sophisticated and most inaccurate method.
This method should never be used.
Average Angle and Radius of Curvature methods are in common field use. Average
Angle method (in particular) lends itself easily to a hand-held calculator. Radius of
Curvature method is more widely used. However, official survey reports should not use
either if the above methods except when demanded by the customer.
Minimum Curvature method should be used for all office calculations and official survey
reports. Where possible, it should also be the field calculation method chosen. The DD is
advised to have at the well-site a hand-held calculator which is programmed for both
Radius of Curvature and Minimum Curvature methods of survey calculation.
3.2.3 Tangential Method

This method uses only the inclination and direction at the latest survey station (Figure 3-
9). The well bore is then assumed to be tangential to these angles. On any curved section
of the hole there are flaws in this assumption and this method of survey calculation
cannot provide realistic results for anything but a hold section of the well.

Figure 3-9 Tangential method definitions
∆North = ∆ MD sin I2 cos A2

∆East = ∆ MD sin I2 sin A2
∆TVD = ∆ MD cos I2
∆ Displacement = ∆ MD sin I2
On an "S" type well, if the build and drop rates are the same, and over similar intervals,
then the error at the end of the well would be small since errors introduced in the build
and drop sections would tend to negate one another.
In a build and hold well, the TVD would be less (i.e. shallower) than the true TVD. With
the well turning to the right in the North East quadrant, one would introduce errors that
would result in a position too far to the East, and not far enough to the North.
3.2.3.1 Balanced Tangential

This tries to make a closer approximation of the well path by using both the current and
the previous survey results.
Effectively, the course length between the two survey points is divided into two, equal
length, straight line segments.
Thus, if A1 and I1 are the azimuth and inclination respectively at the previous survey
point, then:
∆MD
∆North = (sin I1 cos A1 + sin I2 cos A2)
2
∆MD
∆East = (sin I1 sin A1 + sin I2 sin A2)
2
∆MD
∆TVD = (cos I1 + cos I2)
2
∆MD
∆ Displacement = (sin I1 + sin I2)
2

The main reason for the higher accuracy of the balanced tangential method, on well paths
that change direction and inclination, is that errors introduced into one calculation are
largely canceled by the subsequent calculation.
The errors that remain tend to show too great a TVD, and too little displacement during
the build section.
Although its accuracy is comparable to the average angle method, this method is not
commonly used since the formulae are more complicated.
3.2.3.2 Average angle

This method of calculation simply averages the angles of inclination and azimuth at the
two survey stations.(Figure 3-10) This is then the assumed well path, with a length equal
to the actual course length between the two stations.
Point 1
Assumed well path
Actual well path North
or
de err
Latitu
ror
rtu re er
Depa
Ve
rtic
al e
rro
r
Figure 3-10 Average angle method
∆North = ∆MD sin

(I1 + I2) cos ( A1 + A2)
2 2
∆East = ∆MD sin

(I1 + I 2) sin (A1 + A2)
2 2
∆TVD = ∆MD cos

(I1 + I 2)
2
∆Displacement = ∆MD sin

(I1 + I 2) = Course Deviation (CD)
2
 A1 + A2  
∆Vertical Section =CD x cos   − Target Direction
 2  

Provided that the distance between the stations is not too great in relation to the
curvature of the well path, this method of survey calculations provides a simple, yet
accurate means of calculating a well bore survey.
3.2.4 Radius of Curvature

This calculation method seeks to fit the two survey station points onto the surface of a
cylinder. As such the well bore can be curved in both the vertical and horizontal planes
(Figure 3-11).
Survey 1
A1
I1
A 2
Survey 2
I2
Figure 3-11 Radius of curvature method
3.2.4.1 Vertical Projection

Taking a vertical section through the well path, by “unwrapping” the cylinder, one has an
arc length of MD and a change of inclination from I1 to I2, as shown here (Figure 3-12).
Assuming I and A to be measured in degrees, the radius is:
180 ⋅ ∆MD
Rv =
π(I2 − I1)
from which we can determine that:
∆TVD = Rv (sin I2 - sin I1)

and
∆H = Rv (cos I1 - cos I2)

I1
I2
R-v
I1
∆TVD ∆MD
I
∆H 2
Figure 3-12 Radius of curvature method - vertical projection
3.2.4.2 Horizontal Projection

To find the North and East displacements, one can consider a horizontal projection of the
well bore, having a radius of curvature Rh (Figure 3-13).
Figure 3-13 Radius of curvature - horizontal projection
In a manner analogous to that for the vertical projection, one can show that:
180 ⋅ ∆H
Rh =
π(A2 − A1)
such that
∆North = Rh (sin A2 - sin A1)
∆East = Rh (cos A1 - cos A2)

Accuracy Whereas the average angle method is quite accurate when the well curvature is
small and stations are close together, the radius of curvature method is accurate for
stations spaced far apart, and with higher rates of curvature.

3.2.5 Minimum Curvature

This method effectively fits a spherical arc onto the two survey points. To be more
specific, it takes the space vectors defined by the inclination and azimuth at each of the
survey points and smooths these onto the well bore by use of a ratio factor which is
defined by the curvature of the well bore section. This curvature is the Dog-leg (Figure
3-14).
Figure 3-14 Minimum curvature - dog leg
This method provides one of the more accurate methods for determining the position of
the well bore.
3.2.5.1 Dog-leg
DL = cos -1 [cos (I2-I1) -sin I1 sin I2 (1-cos (A2 - A1))]
3.2.5.2 Ratio Factor

The course length MD is measured along a curve, whereas I and A define straight line
directions in space. It is necessary to smooth the straight line segments onto the curve
using a Ratio Factor, RF, given by:
360 DL
RF = tan
DL • π 2
or
360 1 − cos DL
RF = •
DL • π sin DL
Where DL is in degrees. For small angles (DL<.0001) it is usual to set RF = 1.
We can then determine the increments along the three axes, to define the position of the
second survey point.

∆MD
∆TVD = • (cos I1 + cos I2) • RF
2
∆MD
∆North = • (sin I1 cos A1 +sin I2 cos A2) • RF
2
∆MD
∆East = • (sin I1 sin A1 + sin I2 sin A2) • RF
2
Minimum curvature is the most accurate method in common use today. It is the Anadrill
method of choice.
3.2.6 Mercury
So called because it was used at Mercury, Nevada at the U. S. nuclear test site. It
combines the tangential and balanced tangential calculation methods, and takes into
account the length of the survey tool (STL).
It treats the portion of the course over the length of the survey tool as a straight line (i.e.
tangential) and the rest of the course in a balanced tangential manner.
∆MD − STL
∆TVD = • (cos I1+cos I2)+STL • cos I2
2
∆MD − STL
∆North = • (sin I1+cos A1+sin I2 cos A2)+ STL • sin I2 cos A2
2
∆MD − STL
∆East = • (sin I1+sin A1+sin I2 sin A2)+ STL • sin I2 sin A2
2
3.2.7 Relative accuracy of the different methods

Assuming a theoretical well in a due North direction, from zero to 2000’ MD, with a
3/100’ build rate, and survey stations every 100’, we can calculate the relative accuracy of
the various methods.
Compared to the "actual" TVD of 1653.99’, and North displacement of 954.93’, we find
the following:
Table 3-2 Relative accuracy of the different methods
Calculation Error on Error on
Method TVD Displacement
(ft) (ft)
Tangential -25.38 +43.09
Balanced tangential -0.38 -0.21
Average angle +0.19 +0.11
Radius of Curvature 0.00 0.00
Minimum Curvature 0.00 0.00
Mercury (STL = 15’) -0.37 -0.04

Clearly, this is only an indication of the relative accuracy, and favours those methods
that assume the well bore to be made up of a series of segments of arcs and circles. The
actual well bore may behave very differently.
In addition, this comparison does not include any turn, so reasonable amounts of caution
should be used when comparing on method to another. However, it is fairly reasonable to
assume that methods which compare badly in a single plane situation will almost
certainly behave worse in a three dimensional case.
3.2.8 DogLeg Severity

Dogleg severity is a measure of the amount of change of inclination and/or direction of a
borehole. It is usually expressed in degrees per 100 feet or degrees per 10 or 30 metres of
course length.
Several formulae are available to compute the total effects when there is a change in both
inclination and direction between survey points. In the following formulae:
d = DLS interval
I1 = Inclination at Survey point 1
A1 = Azimuth at Survey point 1
I2 = Inclination at Survey point 2
A2 = Azimuth at Survey point 2
The following formula is commonly used in estimating fatigue and strength criteria for
tubular goods. It makes no assumptions about the well path, and is therefore independent
of survey calculation methods.
1. Lubinski:
 2 2 
d  ∆I   ∆A 
DLS = 2 sin −1  sin  + sin  • sin I1 • sin I 2 
∆MD  2  2  
2. For the Tangential Method (gives an approximation only):
d
DLS = cos -1 (sin I1 • sin I2) (sin A1 • sinA2 + cos A1 • cos A2) + (cos I1 • cos I2)
∆ MD
3. For the Minimum Curvature Model (Mason & Taylor):
d
DLS = cos -1 [cos ∆ I - (sin I1 • sin I2) (1 - cos ∆ A)]
∆ MD
All three equations are trigonometric identities and any one could be used, subject to the
possible constraint that cosines of small angles may be more difficult to handle
accurately than sines.

3.3 Basic Well Planning

The careful planning of a directional project prior to the commencement of actual
operations is probably the single most important factor of a project. Each directional well
is unique in the sense that it has specific objectives. Care has to be exercised at the
planning stage to ensure that all aspects of the well are tailored to meet those objectives.
Drilling a directional well basically involves drilling a hole from one point in space (the
surface location) to another point in space (the target) in such a way that the hole can
then be used for its intended purpose. To be able to do this we must first define the
surface and target locations.
Location The first thing to do is to define a local coordinate system (See Chapter 3.1)
originating at the structure reference point. In many land wells, this will be the surface
location. The target location is then converted to this local coordinate system, if
necessary.
Target Size During the drilling phase of a directional well, the trajectory of the wellbore
in relation to the target is constantly monitored. Often, costly decisions have to be made
in order to ensure that the objectives of the well are met. A well defined target is
essential in making these decisions. The technology available today allows us to drill
extremely accurate wells. The cost of drilling the well is largely dependent on the
accuracy required so the acceptable limits of the target must be well defined before the
well is commenced.
Cost versus Accuracy is the key consideration here. In many cases, operator companies
adopt an arbitrary in-house target size (or radius of tolerance), particularly in multi-well
projects. The size of the target radius often reflects the convention rather than the actual
geological requirements of the well. It is common for specific restrictions or hard lines to
be specified only when they depict critical features such as fault lines, pinch outs or legal
restrictions such as leaseline boundaries. Many directional wells have been unnecessarily
corrected or sidetracked in order to hit a target radius which in fact did not represent the
actual objective of the well.
Good communication with the relevant department (Geology or Exploration) before
beginning the well can help to avert this kind of error. This is particularly true when a
correction run is being contemplated. The first step of any plan to correct the azimuth of
a well should always be consultation with the Geology Department.
Wellbore Profile Knowing the position of the surface location and given the location of
the Target, its TVD and rectangular coordinates, it is possible to determine the best
geometric well profile from surface to the bottom-hole target. In general, Directional
wells can be either:
• Straight
• Slant type
• “S" type
• Horizontal
The type of profile selected will depend upon the Geological objective and production
mechanism of the well. Once the profile has been selected, the well can be planned.
From a Directional Drilling point of view, this involves choosing the following:

3.3.1 Determining the Kick-off Point

The Kick-off point is defined as a point in the wellbore at a given vertical depth below
the surface location where the well is to be deviated away from vertical in a given
direction up to a given inclination at a given build rate. The selection of the Kick-off
point is made by considering the geometrical well-path and the geological characteristics.
The optimum inclination of the well is a function of the maximum permissible build rate
(and drop rate if applicable) and the location of the target.
3.3.2 Determining Build and Drop Rates

The maximum permissible build/drop rate is normally determined by one or more of the
following:
• The total depth of the well.
• Maximum Torque and Drag limitations.
• High dogleg severity in the build section of the well results in high torque and
drag while drilling the remainder of the well. This can be a severe limiting factor
in deeper wells.
• The formations through which the build section must pass. Higher build rates are
often not possible to achieve in soft formations.
• Mechanical limitations of the drill string or casing.
• Mechanical limitations of logging tools and production strings.
• Formation of “Keyseats" in the Kick-off arc.
Optimum build/drop rates in conventional wells vary from place to place but are
commonly in the range of 1.5° to 3° per 100 ft (30m).
Once the desired build rate and inclination have been established, the kick-off point can
be determined. There is usually some flexibility in order to accommodate casing points.
From a mathematical point of view the two well types must be further broken down into
those where the radius of build, or sum of the radii of build is greater or lesser than the
total displacement of the well.

3.3.3 Calculating the Trajectory

Slant type well where the Radius of build is less than the total displacement of the target
(see Figure 3-15 and Figure 3-19).
KOP R
V1 O
Ø
B
V2
Ø
F E D
D1 C
V3
D2
Figure 3-15 Slant type well; R < total target displacement.

Given:
• Wellhead coordinates
• Target coordinates
• Target TVD, V3
To determine:
• KOP vertical depth, V1
• Build up rate, BUR
• KOP Kick-off point.
• V1 TVD of straight section/surface to KOP.
• V2 TVD of end of build up.
V2 - V1 TVD of Build up section with BUR corresponding to radius of
curvature R.
• V3 - V2 TVD of Tangent section to total depth.
• D1 Displacement at end of build up.
• D2 Total horizontal displacement of target.
• ∅ Maximum inclination of well.

Slant type well where the Radius of build is greater than the total displacement of the
target (see Figure 3-16 and Figure 3-20).
KOP R
V1 Ø O
B
V2
Ø
F E D
V3 D1 C
D2
Figure 3-16 Slant type well; R > total target displacement.

Given:
• Target TVD, V3
To determine:
V2 -V1 TVD of Build up section with BUR corresponding to radius of
curvature R.
• V3 - V2 TVD of Tangent section to total depth.

"S" type well where the sum of the Radius of build and the Radius of drop is less than
the total displacement of the target (see Figure 3-17 and Figure 3-21).
Vertical
A R1 O
V1 Ø
B
KOP V2
Ø
ß
D1
C
V3
F R2
D
V4
X E
V5 D2
D3
Figure 3-17 "S" type well; (R1 + R2) <total target displacement.
Given:
• Target TVD, V5
To determine:
• Drop off rate, DOR
• Vertical depth at end of drop, V4
• V3 TVD of start of drop.
• V4 TVD of end of drop.
curvature R1.
• V3 - V2 TVD of Tangent section.
• V4 - V3 TVD of drop section
• D2 Displacement at end of tangent

"S" type well where the sum of the Radius of build and the Radius of drop is greater
than the total displacement of the target (see Figure 3-18 and Figure 3-22).
A R1 O
V1 Ø
ß
KOP B
V2
Ø
D1
C
V3
F R2 D
V4 X
D2
D3 E
V5
Figure 3-18 "S", type well; (R 1 + R2)>total target displacement.

Given:
• Target TVD, V5
To determine:
• Drop off rate, DOR
• Vertical depth at end of drop, V4
• V1 VD of straight section/surface to KOP.
• V2 VD of end of build up.
• V3 VD of start of drop.
• V4 VD of end of drop.
curvature R1.
• V3 -V2 TVD of Tangent section.
• V4 -V3 TVD of drop section.
• D2 Displacement at end of tangent.

CALCULATIONS
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL MEASURED
DEPTH DISPLACEMENT DEPTH
V1
KOP
END OF BUILD V2 D1
TARGET
V3 D2
MAX, INCLINATION Ø°
BUILD UP RATE BUR BUR = °/100 ft =
100
180
RADIUS OF CURVATURE R R= BUR x ∏ =
KOP R
V1 O
Ø
Line DC = D2 - R DC =____
Line DO = V3 - V1 DO =____
( DC
-1
Angle DOC = tan
DO
) DOC =____
B
Line OC = DO OC =____
V2 cos DOC
Ø
-1 R
Angle BOC = cos ( ) BOC =____
OC
Angle BOD = BOC - DOC R < D2
F E D
C
V3 D1 Angle BOD =______
D2
Maximum Angle of Well, Ø = 90 - BOD
Horizontal Ø =____________
∂ = Direction
to Target 2 2
Line BC = OC - R BC =____
Line EC = BC sin Ø EC =____
N∂W N∂E D3 = E or W
sin ∂
-1 E or W
N=
∂ = tan N or S
E= End of build
Ø
W= Measured depth = V1 +
BUR
Vertical depth = V1 + R sin Ø
S∂W S∂E Displacement = R (1 - cos Ø)
S=
Target
Ø
Measured depth = V1 + + BC
BUR
Declination
N/S E/W
GRID Rig
GRID Tgt
Figure 3-19 Worksheet, Slant well, R < total displacement of target

CALCULATIONS
Vertical VERTICAL HORIZONTAL MEASURED
V1
KOP
END OF BUILD V2 D1
TARGET
V3 D2
MAX, INCLINATION Ø°
BUILD UP RATE BUR BUR = °/100 ft =
100
180
RADIUS OF CURVATURE R R= BUR x ∏ =
KOP R
V1 Ø O
Line DC = D2 - R DC =____
Line DO = V3 - V1 DO =____
( DC
-1
Angle DOC = tan
DO
) DOC =____
B
V2
Line OC = DO OC =____
Ø
cos DOC
-1 R
Angle BOC = cos ( ) BOC =____
OC
Angle BOD = BOC + DOC R > D2
F E D
V3 D1 C Angle BOD =______
D2
Maximum Angle of Well, Ø = 90 - BOD
Horizontal Ø =____________
∂ = Direction
to Target 2 2
Line BC = OC - R BC =____
Line EC = BC sin Ø EC =____
N∂W N∂E D3 = E or W
sin ∂
-1 E or W
N=
∂ = tan N or S
E= End of build
Ø
W= Measured depth = V1 +
BUR
Vertical depth = V1 + R sin Ø
S∂W S∂E Displacement = R (1 - cos Ø)
S=
Target
Ø
Measured depth = V1 + + BC
BUR
Declination
N/S E/W
GRID Rig
GRID Tgt
Figure 3-20 Worksheet, Slant well, R >total displacement of target

Vertical CALCULATIONS
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL MEASURED
KICK-OFF POINT KOP

V1
END OF BUILD V2 D1
START DROP V3 D2
A R1 O END DROP V4 D4
V1 Ø TARGET V5 D5
B MAX. INCLINATION Ø
KOP V2
Ø °/100
BUILD UP RATE BUR BUR = 100 FT =
ß
°/100
DROP OFF RATE DOR DOR = 100 FT =
D1
180
RADII OF CURVATURE, R1 = BUR x ∏ =
180
R2 = DOR
x∏
=
G
C Line X = D3 - ( R1 + R2 ) X = ________
V3
F R2 Angle ß = Tan ( X ) ß = ________°
D V4 - V1
V4 X
D2 Line OF = V4 - V1 OF = ________
Cos ß
D3 E 2 2
V5 Line OG = OF - (R1 + R2) = ________
-1 R1 + R2
Angle FOG = Sin ( ) = ______°
OF
Angle Ø = Angle FOG + ß R1 + R2 < D3
Horizontal
∂ = Direction Ø = _______°
to Target
End of Build
Ø
N∂W N∂E D3 = E or W Measured depth = V1 +
sin ∂ BUR
-1 E or W
N=
∂ = tan N or S Vertical depth,V2 = V1 + R1 Sin Ø

E= Displacement, D1 = R1 (1 - Cos Ø)
W=
Start of Drop
Ø
Measured depth = V1 + + OG
BUR
S∂W S∂E
Vertical depth,V3 = V2 + OG Cos Ø
S=
Displacement, D2 = D1 + OG Sin Ø
Declination
End of Drop
N/S E/W
Measured depth = V1 + Ø + OG + Ø
GRID Rig
Vertical depth = V4 BUR DOR
GRID Tgt
Displacement = D3
Figure 3-21 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 < total displacement of target

Figure 3-22 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 > total displacement of target

3.4 Anticollision and Advanced Well Planning

3.4.1 Anti-collision Considerations
Collision with neighboring wells can be a problem when drilling multiple boreholes from
one surface location. This is especially true when adjacent wells are producing and a
collision could result in an extremely dangerous situation. Anti-collision planning begins
with accurate surveys of the position of the subject well and all existing wells in its
vicinity as well as a complete set of proposed well plans for future wells to be drilled in
the vicinity. The surveys and well plans are used to carefully map the relationship of the
proposed new well to all existing wells and any proposed future wells. These maps,
sometimes referred to as “Spider" Plots are usually of the horizontal projection. The
Spider-plots are normally small scale to provide an overall view of the field (Figure 3-
23), and large scale to permit careful analysis of a given part of the field, such as the
surface location (Figure 3-24). The Spider-plot can be used for tracing a planned
trajectory and visually analyzing the threat of collision with other wells.
-3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000
3000
2369
2766
2000
1547 1766
1250
1002
1000
778
2699
689
1877 2456
1560
1265 1120
822
0
705 1325
2009
499
674
-1000
525 944
973
1226
1125
1789 923
2566 1895
2665
-2000
1059
1726
-3000
SPIDER PLOT TESTER FIELD

SCALE I:100000
Depths Shown are TVD
2465 Ellipse of Uncertainty at TD
Figure 3-23 Spider plot, small scale
-10 0 10 20
10
10
20
Figure 3-24 Spider plot, large scale

Computerized Directional Drilling planning programs usually offer some form of

anti-collision, or proximity analysis. Analysis by manual calculation is not practical due
to the large number of survey stations involved. One of the more commonly used types
of proximity analysis is known as a Traveling Cylinder.
Traveling Cylinder analysis (seeFigure 3-25) involves imagining a cylinder with a given
radius enclosing the wellbore from one depth to another, the zone of interest. Any well
entering this cylinder i.e. approaching closer than the radius of the cylinder to the central
well, is plotted and displayed graphically. The traveling cylinder analysis is a useful
planning tool, enabling the planner to test various trajectories and select the one which is
most suitable. During the drilling process, the trajectory of the well can be extrapolated
and analyzed to ensure that unsafe proximity to adjacent wells is avoided.
Distances
Neighboring Well
Travelling Cylinder
Downhole
Pr
ox
im
ity
Reference Wellpath
Typical Display
500
600
Adjacent Wells
400
300 entering within
500
Cylinder
400
300
Closest approach
400
300
500
Figure 3-25 Traveling Cylinder analysis and display.
3.4.1.1 Volumes of Uncertainty

The systems for surveying directional wells have limited accuracy. Some systems are
more accurate than others, but they are all prone to some degree of inherent error. In
addition to the accuracy of the measuring device, the survey may also be subject to errors
resulting from downhole changes in the magnetic field, Magnetic Interference, which
may not be detected at the surface.

Wolff & De Wardt1 analyzed surveys from a number of wells in the North Sea and based
their recommendations on this data. They proposed an ellipse (actually an ellipsoid since
it is a 3-D body) that represents the envelope of the likely position of a given well survey
point based on the error associated with the components of a survey measurement.
They quantified systematic errors associated with either a magnetic or gyro compass,
and those due to misalignment of the tool in the hole, depth measurement, and
inclination. By quantifying these errors for different tools it is possible to estimate the
total range of error on the position given by a survey - and hence define the ellipsoid of
certainty (see Figure 3-26).
Figure 3-26 Ellipsoid of certainty
3.4.1.2 Determining a "Lead Angle"

Directional Wells which are drilled with rotary assemblies often have a tendency to turn
or "walk" during the drilling process. This tendency can vary from negligible to severe
and is the reason for most directional corrections. The problem with walking tendencies
is that they are very often difficult to predict.
The conventional solution to walking problems is the "Lead Angle" where the tendency
is anticipated using past experience in the same or similar areas, and built into the initial
directional orientation of the well. Directional drilling databases are useful tools for
quantifying walking tendencies. There is as yet no exact means of predicting bit walk
and if the direction of the wellbore is critical, general, “rule of thumb" estimates should
not be relied upon.
The use of steerable systems, while more costly, removes a lot of the guesswork and
allow a straighter, more accurate hole to be drilled. If the direction is not critical, then the
lead angle can be estimated and put to test.
1
Wolff, C.M.M. & DeWardt, J.P., “Borehole Position Uncertainty. Analysis of measuring methods
and derivation of a systematic error model”. SPE #9223, 1980

Anticipated Geological features such as formation bedding planes and contact lines,
should also be used as guidelines for expected bit walk but cannot be relied upon as an
accurate means of predicting it either (see Figure 3-27).
Lead Angle
Target
jectory
nticipated Tra
ß A
Target
A z im uth to
d
Planne
Figure 3-27 Determining lead angle.
3.4.2 Well Plan Maps

Once a Directional well has been planned, it is usually depicted graphically as a Well
Plan Map. This is used to plot the progress of the well while it is being drilled. The map
is plotted on gridded paper so that the survey points can be entered manually and is
presented as a Vertical projection and a Horizontal projection. The vertical projection of
the actual well is plotted using the TVD and Vertical Section values from the survey
calculations. The Horizontal projection is plotted using the North/South and East/West
coordinates (see Figure 3-28).
TESTER OIL COMPANY

WELL : EXAMPLE 1
FIELD : XXXX XXX 3000
VERTICAL PROJECTION
scale 1 : 1000
PLANE OF PROPOSAL : N17 E
0 2000
1000 17 1/2" Csg 1000 ft MD 1000 TVD 0° 1000
Kick-off Point 1500 ft MD 1500 TVD 0°

Build @ 2°/100ft
2000 0
0 1000
HORIZONTAL
PROJECTION
scale 1 : 1000
3000
End Build 3650 ft MD 3515 TVD 43°
4000
5000
Target 5974 MD 5200 TVD 43°
PBHL 6521 MD 5600 TVD
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Figure 3-28 Example of a basic well plan map

3.4.3 Computer Programs

Directional Drilling Computer Programs are commercially available and most are quite
adequate. Some are designed to run on small, hand-held calculators while others require
powerful computers. The key factor in selection is need. If the program is needed to
calculate surveys and plan wells, then a small hand held calculator is sufficient, if the
program is needed to drive a large plotter and generate well plan maps, store bulk survey
data and run a sophisticated BHA database, then obviously something larger and more
powerful is called for. Anadrill has its own software packages; e.g. MacDD, Sysdrill,
ADAPT, and PowerPlan.
3.4.3.1 Survey Calculations

Preferably, the program should offer a selection of survey calculation methods: Balanced
Tangential, Average angle, Radius of Curvature, Minimum Curvature. (...), etc. The
survey calculation output is important and should allow the user to specify the required
format. Minimum Curvature is the Anadrill preferred method and is the industry
standard.
3.4.3.2 Planning
A good planning program should be flexible. Well planning often calls for
unconventional well profiles, so the planning program should allow the user as much
freedom as possible to specify the requirements of the well. In addition to Build-and
Hold, and "S" Type wells, the user may wish to plan wells with several targets, several
build rates or planned sums, and horizontal wells with inclinations above 90 degrees.
The program could also allow the inclusion of known formation tendencies such as left
or right hand walk, or building/dropping tendencies.
3.4.3.3 Anti-collision
Volume of Uncertainty and some form of proximity analysis, e.g., Traveling Cylinder,
with projections (perpendicular to the well on a parallel horizontal plane) are essential
features for a Directional Drilling program. The quality and format of the output can
make this tool easier to understand and use.
3.4.3.4 Extrapolation and Interpolation

Extrapolation allows bit-to-target analysis and “look ahead" capabilities. This is
particularly important when drilling horizontal wells where target intersection is critical.
Interpolation allows more accurate plotting of Geological features.

Section 4 - Surveying
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
4 Surveying Page
4.1 MAGNETIC & NON-MAGNETIC REQUIREMENTS ................................................................4-1
4.1.1 Magnetic Fields ........................................................................................................4-1
4.1.1.1 Aspects of the transitory field .........................................................................4-2
4.1.2 Magnetic field strength .............................................................................................4-4
4.1.3 Magnetic Dip angle...................................................................................................4-5
4.1.4 Magnetic Declination Angle.....................................................................................4-6
4.1.5 Magnetic Interference ...............................................................................................4-7
4.1.5.1 Drill String Magnetic Interference ..................................................................4-7
4.1.5.2 Minimizing Errors ...........................................................................................4-10
4.1.5.3 External Magnetic Interference.......................................................................4-12
4.1.5.4 D&l Package Spacing......................................................................................4-13
4.1.6 Earth’s Gravitational Field........................................................................................4-13
4.2 MAGNETIC SINGLE SHOTS & MULTISHOTS........................................................................4-15
4.2.1 Survey Instruments ...................................................................................................4-15
4.2.1.1 Magnetic Surveys............................................................................................4-15
4.2.2 Magnetic Single Shot................................................................................................4-15
4.2.2.1 Power pack ......................................................................................................4-15
4.2.2.2 Timer or Sensor...............................................................................................4-15
4.2.2.3 Camera ............................................................................................................4-16
4.2.2.4 Angle unit, Compass .......................................................................................4-17
4.2.3 Magnetic Multi-shot Survey Instrument...................................................................4-18
4.2.3.1 The multi-shot timer........................................................................................4-18
4.2.3.2 The multi-shot camera.....................................................................................4-18
4.3 GYROSCOPES ......................................................................................................................4-19
4.3.1 Principles of Gyroscopic Surveying .........................................................................4-19
4.3.1.1 Historical Background ....................................................................................4-19
4.3.2 The Gyroscope..........................................................................................................4-19
4.3.2.1 Components.....................................................................................................4-22
4.3.3 Classification of Gyroscopes ....................................................................................4-23
4.3.3.1 Use...................................................................................................................4-23
4.3.3.2 Construction and Function. .............................................................................4-23
4.3.3.3 Restraints on the movement of the spin axis...................................................4-23
4.3.4 Evolution of Gyroscopes used in surveying oil-wells ..............................................4-25
4.3.4.1 The Surface Read out Gyro.............................................................................4-25
4.3.5 Forces acting upon Gyroscopes ................................................................................4-25
4.3.5.1 Precession........................................................................................................4-26
4.3.5.2 Nutation...........................................................................................................4-26
4.3.5.3 Fundamental Precession..................................................................................4-27
4.3.5.4 Origin of Precession ........................................................................................4-28
4.3.5.5 Gimbal Lock....................................................................................................4-28
4.3.5.6 Tumbling .........................................................................................................4-29
4.3.5.7 Caging .............................................................................................................4-29

Table of Contents
4 Surveying Page
4.3.6 Directional Gyro .......................................................................................................4-29
4.3.7 Level Rotor Gyro......................................................................................................4-30
4.3.7.1 Apparent Drift .................................................................................................4-30
4.3.7.2 Temperature Effect..........................................................................................4-30
4.3.7.3 Intercardinal Tilt Error or Gimbal Error .........................................................4-30
4.3.8 Rate Gyroscopes .......................................................................................................4-31
4.3.8.1 Accelerometer Operation ................................................................................4-32
4.3.8.2 Rate-Gyro Operation .......................................................................................4-33
4.3.9 Other Rate Gyro Systems .........................................................................................4-35
4.3.9.1 Rate Gyro ........................................................................................................4-35
4.3.9.2 Torsion Bar Rate Gyro ....................................................................................4-35
4.3.9.3 Rate Integrating Gyro......................................................................................4-35
4.3.9.4 Rate Integrating Gyro Use...............................................................................4-36
4.3.9.5 Strap Down System.........................................................................................4-36
4.3.9.6 Accuracy, quality control and why Rate Gyros?.............................................4-36
4.3.9.7 Errors in Rate Gyros........................................................................................4-37
4.3.10 Gyroscope suspension ............................................................................................4-38
4.3.11 North Seeking Gyros ..............................................................................................4-38
4.3.12 Drift Values ............................................................................................................4-39
4.3.12.1 Nature and Source of Drift ............................................................................4-39
4.3.12.2 Acceleration sensitive drift ...........................................................................4-39

Table of Contents

Figure 4-1 Earth’s magnetic field - rotation of liquid core ...................................................... 4-2
Figure 4-2 Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory.................................................................. 4-2
Figure 4-3 Earth’s magnetic field............................................................................................. 4-3
Figure 4-4 Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field .............................................................. 4-3
Figure 4-5 Magnetic field strength........................................................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-6 Magnetic dip angle ................................................................................................. 4-5
Figure 4-7 Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator .............................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-8 Magnetic declination angle..................................................................................... 4-7
Figure 4-9 Drill string magnetism............................................................................................ 4-8
Figure 4-10 Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference...................................... 4-8
Figure 4-11 Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference ........................................ 4-9
Figure 4-12 Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes ...................................... 4-10
Figure 4-13 Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring ............................................................ 4-11
Figure 4-14 Effect of magnetic hot spot in MWD collar ....................................................... 4-12
Figure 4-15 NMDC requirements. ......................................................................................... 4-13
Figure 4-16 Deviation of Universal Gravitation Constant ..................................................... 4-14
Figure 4-17 Simplified diagram of a typical gyroscope......................................................... 4-20
Figure 4-18 Realistic view of the configuration of a typical gyroscope ................................ 4-21
Figure 4-19 Gyro rotation around outer gimbal axis.............................................................. 4-22
Figure 4-20 Gyro rotation around inner gimbal axis.............................................................. 4-22
Figure 4-21 Single degree of freedom gyro ........................................................................... 4-24
Figure 4-22 Two degree of freedom gyro ............................................................................... 4-24
Figure 4-23 Representation of nutation.................................................................................. 4-26
Figure 4-24 Relationship of celestial and ecliptic poles ........................................................ 4-27
Figure 4-25 Origin of precession ........................................................................................... 4-27
Figure 4-26 Free gyro............................................................................................................. 4-28
Figure 4-27 Two degree gyro................................................................................................. 4-29
Figure 4-28 Rate gyro............................................................................................................. 4-31
Figure 4-29 Rate gyro accelerometer operation..................................................................... 4-32
Figure 4-30 Rate gyro accelerometer principle of operation ................................................. 4-32
Figure 4-31 Three step process to calculate survey from rate gyro ....................................... 4-33
Figure 4-32 Rate gyro survey axes......................................................................................... 4-34
List of Tables Page

Table 4-1 Common relative values of total magnetic field strength ........................................ 4-5
Table 4-2 Common relative values for dip angle..................................................................... 4-5
Provisory - 04 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 4-iii

Surveying
4 Surveying
About this chapter
This chapter describes the various survey methods used in the oilfield. Magnetism and
non-magnetic requirements are discussed. As a logical progression from this, magnetic
survey instruments are covered. Both single shot and multishot instruments are
described.
While MWD tools are in wide use today, every DD must know how to take magnetic
single shot surveys. Maintenance of the survey instrument is a necessary task for the DD.
There are various types of survey instruments available. The DD must familiarize
himself with each type.
Gyroscopic surveys are necessary in certain situations. It is not possible to cover all the
gyro procedures in this manual. However, a good introduction to gyros is given in this
chapter. There are parts of the world (e.g. W. Africa) where the Anadrill DD is trained to
run both single shot and multishot gyro surveys.
An introduction to MWD tools is included in this chapter. It is designed to give the DD
an appreciation of the various telemetry systems used in different MWD tools. An
explanation is given of how the signal is transmitted to surface in each case.

exercises:
1. Explain what influences the amount of non-magnetic material needed in a directional
BHA.
2. Explain the principle behind gyro surveys.
4.1 Magnetic & Non-Magnetic Requirements

4.1.1 Magnetic Fields
There are several theories to explain the Earth’s magnetic field:
Theory #1: Rotation of the Earth’s solid exterior relative to its liquid iron core is
believed to induce a slow rotation of the core. A magnetic field results from the electrical
currents generated by the relative motion between the liquid core and the mantle. The
conclusion that there is a liquid portion of the core is compatible with available data
(Figure 4-1).
Theory #2: Similar to theory #1. The center portion of the Earth is largely composed of
iron and has the mechanical properties of a fluid. These fluids are subjected to internal
circulation currents similar to phenomena observed at the periphery of the sun. The
internal circulation of these fluids acts as the source of the Earth’s magnetic field
according to the principle of a self excited dynamo (Figure 4-2).

Surveying
Core
Figure 4-1 Earth’s magnetic field - rotation of liquid core
Figure 4-2 Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory
The total magnetic field is the sum of two fields of different origins:
• The principal field which originates within the fluid nucleus of the Earth.
• The transitory field generated outside the Earth. This field is caused by the
rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun and by the cycles of the Sun’s activity.
4.1.1.1 Aspects of the transitory field

The transitory field is responsible for the following variations of the magnetic field.
• Secular variations of approximately 15 gammas per year - a minor effect.
• Diurnal solar variation on the order of 30 to 40 gammas per day - a minor effect.
• The cyclical "Eleven Years" variation - a minor effect.
• Magnetic storms which may reach several hundreds of gammas - a major effect.

Surveying
The Earth’s own magnetic field extends out to approximately 8 times the radius of the
planet. Beyond this prevails the Magneto Pause, a region in space where the Earth’s
magnetic field contacts the Solar Wind. On its sunward side, the Earth’s magnetosphere
is compressed by high energy particles from the solar wind (Figure 4-3).
10 5 5 10
Figure 4-3 Earth’s magnetic field
These particles collide with the Earth’s magnetic field at a speed of 640 miles per second
and are slowed down at the shock front to 400 miles per second. Variations in the solar
wind produce changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. Solar flare particles reach the Earth
in approximately two days. The shock wave preceding the cloud of plasma from the solar
flare compresses the magnetosphere and rapidly intensifies the geomagnetic field at
ground level (Figure 4-4).
This compression takes place over a few minutes and is called the Sudden Storm
Commencement (SSC). It is followed by the Initial Phase (IP) which lasts from 30
minutes to a few hours. The Main Phase (MP) produces a drop in the magnetic field
strength due to an opposing field generated by the energized particles in the
magnetosphere.
This is normally not a problem for locations in the Gulf of Mexico and at lower latitudes.
In Alaska and some parts of the North Sea, however, this has serious effects.
Solar Wind
15 20 25
5 10
15 10 5
il
Magneto Ta
Solar Wind
Figure 4-4 Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field

Surveying
4.1.2 Magnetic field strength

The total magnetic field strength may be referred to as the H value, HFH, magnetic field
strength or total field. The C.G.S. Electromagnetic Units are used for measuring the
strength of the Earth’s magnetic field and are called Gammas. Some useful conversions:
• 1 gamma = 1 nano tesla
• 1 micro tesla = 1000 gammas
• 1 tesla = 109 gammas
• 1 gauss = 105 gammas
• 1 gauss = 10-4 tesla
• 1 gauss = 1 oersted
The magnetic field intensity recorded at ground level is of a much smaller magnitude
than that prevailing around the Earth’s core. At the periphery of the core (approximately
3500 kilometers outward from the center of the Earth), the field strength reaches 800,000
gammas. Extreme total field values at the surface which you are unlikely to see range
from 63,000 gammas close to the North Pole to 27,000 gammas near the equator (on the
east coast of Brazil).
The total magnetic field intensity is the vector sum of its horizontal component and its
vertical component (Figure 4-5). The vertical component of the magnetic field points
toward the ground and therefore contributes nothing to the determination of the direction
of magnetic north.
The horizontal component can be computed from the following equation:
Magnetic Field Strength (HFH) x cos (Magnetic Dip Angle) = Horizontal Component
Definition of Dip Angle can be found in Figure 4-6.
Horizontal
Component of
Magnetic Field
Y Strength
Figure 4-5 Magnetic field strength.
In Alaska:
57,510 gammas x cos (80.6) = 9392 gammas
Gulf of Mexico:
50,450 gammas x cos (59.7) = 25,250 gammas

Surveying
MWD instruments measure the three components of the magnetic field vector H. The
expected value can be obtained from a previous acceptable survey, from the "Geomag"
program or from the Anadrill district office. Differences observed between the measured
HFH value and the value derived from Geomag may be due to the following factors:
• Uncertainties in drill string magnetism.
• Uncertainties induced by temporal variations in the magnetic field.
• Uncertainty in the measured value of the magnetic field.
• Temperature sensitivity of the magnetometers.
• Errors from the tool electronics.
Table 4-1 Common relative values of total magnetic field strength
Gulf of East Beaufort North
Mexico Canada Sea Sea
50,000 54,000 58,500 50,000
gammas gammas gammas gammas
Acceptance limit is ± 660 gammas between the expected value and the measured value.
This is not to be confused with repeatability or change from one survey to the next. (On
the latest M1 specifications, the value has been reduced to 500 gammas).
4.1.3 Magnetic Dip angle

The magnetic dip angle is equal to the angle between the tangent to the Earth's surface
and the magnetic field vector (Figure 4-6). This is also the angle formed between the
total magnetic field vector (HFH) and the horizontal vector. Extreme values which you
are unlikely to see for dip angle range from 90 degrees close to the North Pole to almost
zero degrees at the equator (see Figure 4-7). There are also several other points on the
Earth's surface where the dip is equal to 90 degrees. These are due to local anomalies and
are called "dip holes".
Magnetic North
Magnetic
Dip Angle
Figure 4-6 Magnetic dip angle
Table 4-2 Common relative values for dip angle.

Gulf of East Beaufort North
Mexico Canada Sea Sea
59 degrees 70 degrees 84 degrees 70 degrees

Surveying
NORTH POLE or TOTAL

magnetic field vector
DIP = 0°
Equator Tangent at the
Equator
Angle formed with
magnetic vector
is equal to 0°
NORTH POLE or TOTAL

magnetic field vector
Tangent at the North Pole
DIP = 90°
Equator
Figure 4-7 Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator
The acceptance limit is +/- 0.75 degrees between the normal expected value and the
measured value. This is not to be confused with repeatability or change from one survey
to the next. (On the latest M1 specifications, the value is +/- 0.75 for horizontal holes and
+/- 0.50 in other cases.)
4.1.4 Magnetic Declination Angle

The Earth can be thought of as having a magnetic dipole running through its center with
north and south poles at either end. This dipole does not correspond with the Earth’s
rotational axis. The angle between magnetic north and geographic north (true north) is
defined as the magnetic declination or the angle of declination (Figure 4-8). This is
dependent upon the location (both in latitude and longitude) and can vary in areas of
high magnetic activity (such as Alaska). All magnetic surveys require a conversion to
geographic direction by adding or subtracting this angle (Figure 4-8). If magnetic
declination is known, then the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field relative to true
north can be calculated. Angles of declination to the west of geographic north are
negative and magnetic declinations to the east of geographic north are positive. For
example, 5° west can be written as -5° and 5° east can be written as +5°.
Magnetic declination can vary and the total magnetic field strength may vary greatly
during extreme sun spot activity. Also remember, the closer to the equator:
• the lower the total field strength.
• the higher the horizontal component.
• and the less the dip angle.

Surveying
MAGNETIC
TRUE NORTH
NORTH
ANGLE OF
DECLINATION
Figure 4-8 Magnetic declination angle
4.1.5 Magnetic Interference

There are two types of magnetic interference:
• Drill string magnetic interference.
• External magnetic interference, which can include interference from:
• A fish left in the hole.
• Nearby casing.
• A magnetic "hot spot" in the drill collar
• Fluctuation in the Earth’s magnetic field.
• Certain formations (iron pyrite, hematite and possibly hematite mud).
Any deviation from the expected magnetic field value can indicate magnetic interference.
External magnetic interference can occur as the drill string moves away from the casing
shoe or from the casing window. It can also occur as another cased hole is approached.
All surveying instruments using magnetometers will be affected in accuracy by any
magnetic interference. In such a case, gyroscopic (gyro) measurements will have to be
used. There are certain instances where a gyro survey may need to be used if the well
requires steering out of casing or if a possible collision exists with another well. There
are also cases where magnetic interference may be corrected or at least taken into
account until a different BHA is used.
4.1.5.1 Drill String Magnetic Interference

The drill string can be compared to a long slender magnet with its lower end comprising
one of the magnetic poles. Even if the components of a drilling assembly have been
demagnetized after inspection, the steel section of the drill string will become
magnetized by the presence of the Earth’s field (Figure 4-9).

Surveying
Note in Figures 4-9 through 4-12 that the Z axis reference is for the Slim 1 tool. This
would be the X axis for all other Anadrill tools. The discussion for Drill String Magnetic
Interference uses the Slim 1 example throughout.
DRILL STRING MAGNETISM
Magnetic Magnetic
Flux Lines Flux Lines
Earth’s
Z Magnetic
Y
X Flux
MAG
Z
Y
X
INC
Figure 4-9 Drill string magnetism
Drill string magnetism can be a source of error in calculations made from the supplied
magnetometer data. This may happen as the angle builds from vertical (Figure 4-10) or
as the azimuth moves away from a north/south axis (Figure 4-11). Also, changing the
composition of the BHA between runs may change the effects of the drill string.
Correction programs for magnetism of the drill string exist; Anadrill uses the well known
Shell correction technique.
Horizontal Horizontal
component component
of Z axis error of Z axis error
smaller with Z
Z larger with
no inclination Y Y increased angle.
X M X
AG
Z
MAG
Y
Z X
Y IN
C
X
INC
Figure 4-10 Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference

Surveying
MAG
INC
Z
Horizontal
Y
X
X
component
of Z axis error
smallest in the Z Horizontal
North-South Y
X component
direction. of Z axis error
MAG largest in the
Z
Y East-West
X direction.
INC
Figure 4-11 Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference
It is because of drill string magnetism that non-magnetic drill collars are needed.
Non-magnetic drill collars are used to position the compass or D&I package out of the
magnetic influence of the drill string. The magnetometers are measuring the resultant
vector of the Earth’s magnetic field and the drill string. Since this is in effect one long
dipole magnet with its flux lines parallel to the drill string, only the Z-axis of the
magnetometer package (Z-axis is usually the axis of the surveying tool). is affected,
normally creating a greater magnetic field effect along this axis.
The magnitude of this error is dependent on the pole strength of the magnetized drill
string components and their distance from the MWD tool. The error will normally appear
in the calculated survey as an increased total HFH value (higher total field strength than
the Earth alone). This increase is due to the larger value of the Z-axis magnetometer. The
total H value should remain constant regardless of the tool face orientation or depth as
long as the hole inclination, azimuth and BHA remain relatively constant.
When drill string magnetism is causing an error on the Z-axis magnetometer, only the
horizontal component of that error can interfere with the measurement of the Earth’s
magnetic field (see Magnetic Field Strength section). The horizontal component of the Z-
axis error is equal to the Z-axis error multiplied by the sine of the hole deviation.
This is why experience has shown that the magnetic survey accuracy worsens as the hole
angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic interference). Since the horizontal
component of the Earth’s magnetic field is smaller on the Alaskan Slope, the error from a
magnetized drill string is relatively greater than that experienced in lower latitudes
(Figure 4-12). Thus, a 50 gammas error has a larger effect on a smaller horizontal
component, 0.53% error in Alaska compared to only 0.20% in the Gulf of Mexico.
The increased value of the Z-axis due to drill string magnetism will normally cause all
calculated azimuths to lie closer to north. This error will show up when a gyro is run in
the well. All MWD surveys will be positioned (magnetically) north of the gyro survey
stations. (Some gyros derive true north from the Earth’s rotation.)

Surveying
DRILL STRING MAGNETISM
Horizontal
Component of
Drill String
Magnetic Field Z
Y
M X
AG
Z
Y
X
IN
C
50 GAMMAS
Horizontal Component
of Earth's Magnetic
Field in Alaska 9.400 GAMMAS
Horizontal Component
of Earth's Magnetic
Field in Gulf of Mexico 25,200 GAMMAS
Figure 4-12 Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes
4.1.5.2 Minimizing Errors

One way to minimize the error caused by the drill string is to eliminate as much of the
magnetism as possible. This is done by isolating the magnetometer package with as many
non-magnetic drill collars as possible. The length of the non-magnetic collars implies a
uniform and non-interrupted non-magnetic environment. This, however, is not true in
practice.
Each connection in a drill string, whether magnetic or not, is magnetic due to the effects
of the mechanical torque of the pin in the box. This mechanical stress causes the local
metal around the connection change its magnetic properties and can actually cause a
survey azimuth reading error in the tens of degrees in some cases. Therefore, never space
within 2 feet of a connection. Additionally, do not space exactly in the center of a non-
magnetic collar.
When a collar has been bored from both ends, there is a very slight ridge at the point
where the two bores come together. This becomes magnetically hot due to the cyclic
rotation stresses to which the collar is subjected during rotary drilling. Usually, this
effect can be removed by trepanning the collar bore. As much as 40% of azimuth error
has been seen due to this effect.
Obviously the presence of a steel stabilizer or steel component between two
non-magnetic collars results on a pinching of the lines of force (Figure 4-13). This is
detrimental to the accuracy of the survey. A steel stabilizer may be satisfactory on the
Equator, but not as far north as Alaska. In Alaska all stabilizers used in the BHA are
non-magnetic, since a conventional steel stabilizer located between two non-magnetic
collars results in an interfering field which may reach 250 gammas.

Surveying
Non Magnetic C ollar

Steel
Stabilizer
Non Magnetic Collar

Length of Non Magnetic Collars

implies a uniform, non-interrupted
non-magnetic environment.
Figure 4-13 Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring
Even non-magnetic stabilizers are actually magnetic near the blades. At a minimum, hard
metal facing and matrix used on stabilizers can be very magnetic. Never space inside a
non-magnetic stabilizer.
The following are circumstances where more non-magnetic drill collars are necessary to
counter drill string magnetism effects. These are also examples in which the azimuth
accuracy will likely decrease.
• The further away from the Equator (in latitude).
• The larger the hole inclination.
• The further away from a north/south hole azimuth.
Note that with 120 feet of non-magnetic material above the magnetometer package the
effects of drill string magnetism in places like ALASKA may still be seen. In fact,
Anadrill has performed jobs in Alaska with as much as much as 165 feet of non-magnetic
material (Motor - 30 feet Monel - 45 feet M1 collar - 90 feet Monel).
Remember:
• If magnetic interference is encountered from the drill string, the total H value
should remain constant regardless of tool face orientation or depth as long as the
hole inclination, azimuth and BHA remain fairly constant.

Surveying
• The horizontal component of the Z-axis error is equal to:

– [(Z-axis error) x sin(drift)]. This is why magnetic survey accuracy declines
as hole angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic interference).
• Remember that drill string interference is more pronounced in areas of high dip
angle.
• Best results can be achieved by using a combination of Monel collar and one of
the magnetic connection algorithms such as developed by Shell.
4.1.5.3 External Magnetic Interference

When magnetic interference from external sources is encountered (such as from a fish in
the hole or from nearby casing), all three axis of the D&I package will be affected.
Therefore, the total magnetic field will vary. (The total H value will also vary when the
D&I package is close to casing joints.).
If a hot spot occurs on a non-magnetic collar, our total H value will change with varying
tool face settings, but will be repeatable when the BHA is placed in the same orientation
(Figure 4-14). Remember, in places such as Alaska, total field strength can routinely vary
by 100 gammas.
• Do not mistakenly interpret change in total H value as a failed magnetometer
sensor. It may be caused by magnetic interference.
• Do not mistakenly interpret a change in a survey with a failed magnetometer or
inclinometer; it may be due to a tool face dependency.
Normal Earth Magnetic Field

Hy
Y
Hx Hz
X Z
Hot spot
H total
Magnetic Hot Spot
Rotating With
MWD Collar
On thisdrawing hot spot is
perfectly aligned with X axis.
Hot spot
All 3 axis measurements are
affected. Fluctuation in total
field is observed when MWD
tool is rotated. Calculated
azimuth will be wrong but
will be repeatable with the
same tool face.
H Earth
H measured
Figure 4-14 Effect of magnetic hot spot in MWD collar

Surveying
4.1.5.4 D&l Package Spacing

In order to avoid magnetic interference, non-magnetic drill collars must be used.
In the past, empirical charts were used to estimate the length of non-magnetic material
needed. These charts were valid at the time because most wells were kicked off to less
than 10 degrees of inclination and often without a mud motor (whipstock, jetting).
Experiments have shown that mud motors produce a magnetic field from 3 to 10 times
greater than components such as steel stabilizers and short drill collars. As a rule of
thumb, anytime a mud motor is run, a non-magnetic short drill collar (of 10 to 15 feet)
should be placed between the motor and D&I package. It may even be necessary to use a
non-magnetic orienting sub in some areas of the world. The empirical charts are still
useful to obtain a rough estimate of the non-magnetic material needed in a particular
area, but these charts should not be used for reliable answers.
The formula in Figure 4-15 can be used to accurately predict errors in azimuth due to
magnetic interference from the drilling assembly. Other formulas exist for D&I spacing
but this is probably the most accurate.
Figure 4-15 NMDC requirements.
This formula is relatively easy to use and interpret. The absolute value of the predicted
azimuth error (AE) should be less than 0.5 degrees. If it is not, continue adding lengths
of non-magnetic drill collars both above and below the MWD collar until the AE value is
below 0.5 degrees.
For horizontal drilling, and especially for well paths with a medium radius of curvature,
it may be impractical to achieve a predicted azimuth error of less than 0.5 degree. Some
operators may prefer to drill with a predicted error of one degree during the build up
phase of the well and then correct for it later. If a mud motor is used to correct the well
azimuth (on a slant hole) and a change in the magnetic field is observed, due to magnetic
interference from the motor, the change may not be problem as long as the operator and
directional driller are aware of the change and take it into account. A simple way would
be to resurvey the corrected path with a different spacing or a different BHA.
4.1.6 Earth’s Gravitational Field

Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every
other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational force is a function of distance from the center of the bodies in question
(Figure 4-16).

Surveying
The gravitational field (G) is primarily a function of:

• Latitude (main factor).
• Depth/Altitude: referenced to mean sea level (MSL)
• Regional fluctuations in the density of the Earth’s crust.
Some of the changes in the measured value of G over the Earth are attributed to the
Earth’s rotation. The rotation has given the Earth a slightly flattened shape. Therefore,
the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius. The G value changes from 0.997 at 0
degree latitude (Equator) to approximately 1.003 at 90 degree latitude (a 0.006 change ).
A decrease in G can also be seen with increasing hole depth. The rate of change is
approximately 0.0005 per 10000 feet. You would have to be at 20,000 feet to see 0.001.
In other words, if the G value was exactly 1.000 on the surface, it would be 0.999 at
20000 feet. Regional fluctuations in the density of the Earth’s crust are practically
negligible.
Earth's Gravitational Field

Mass = m
GmM e g
g=
r2
G = Universal Gravitational Constant

r = radius between centers
Mass of Earth = Me
Figure 4-16 Deviation of Universal Gravitation Constant
Other reasons for discrepancies in the measured G value are due to instrumentation
errors in the inclinometer. These can be attributed to:
• Temperature sensitivity.
• Errors due to bad axis alignment.
• Errors due to electronic circuitry.
• Shifts in the sensor operating parameters which occur when the inclinometer is
exposed to the shocks and vibrations of the drilling environment. (This can be
observed when surveying with “time option").

Surveying
4.2 Magnetic Single Shots & Multishots

4.2.1 Survey Instruments
Directional surveying permits
• The determination of bottom hole location relative to the surface location or
another reference system.
• The location of possible dog legs or excessive hole curvatures.
• The monitoring of the azimuth and inclination during the drilling process.
• The orientation of deflection tools.
The inclination and azimuth of the well bore at specific depths can be determined by one
type of survey called the "single shot survey", while “multiple shot" surveys are used to
record several individual readings at required depth intervals.
Wireline steering tools give continuous survey readings while drilling.
4.2.1.1 Magnetic Surveys

Magnetic survey instruments must be run inside non magnetic drill collars or open hole.
4.2.2 Magnetic Single Shot

The magnetic single shot instrument is used to simultaneously record the magnetic
direction of the course of an uncased well bore and its inclination from vertical. It is also
used to determine the toolface of a deflection device when deviating the well.
The instruments consist of four basic units:
• a power pack or battery tube
• a timing device or sensor
• a camera unit
• a compass - inclinometer unit.
These four elements are assembled together and usually inserted into a carefully spaced
protective barrel (running gear) before being lowered or dropped, inside the drill-pipe, to
bottom. The protective casing can be thermally insulated for wells where the downhole
temperature exceeds the tolerance of the photographic film used.
4.2.2.1 Power pack

The size and number of batteries required varies with the instrument as does their
polarity. Care should be taken to identify the correct polarity prior to loading batteries
into the battery tube. Failure to do so can lead to a "mis-run" survey, causing lost time
while the survey is re-run. The battery tube may have a snubber for use with top landing
running gear.
4.2.2.2 Timer or Sensor

The timing device is used to operate the camera at a predetermined time. The surveyor
must estimate the time it will take for the instrument to fall to bottom whether lowered
on wire line or dropped (go deviled).

Surveying
The timers available today are either mechanical, or electronic. In the past, mechanical
timers have been considered more robust, although less accurate than the electronic
timers. With modem solid state electronics this is no longer true and mechanical timers
are now rarely used. Electronic timers allow the operator to preset the time delay on the
instrument, often to the nearest second before loading it into the running gear.
Problems arise when using either type of timer which are not necessarily due to
instrument malfunction. The most common problem results from timer miscalculation. If
the time delay expires before the instrument has seated inside the non-magnetic drill
collar, the resulting survey will be invalid, affected by motion and magnetic interference
from the drill string. Since it is quite difficult to accurately predict the time involved in
lowering the instrument to bottom, and anticipate problems with wire-line units or other
surface equipment, the usual solution to this problem is for the operator to overestimate
the time required, "just to be safe". This then results in time lost waiting for the timer to
expire with the instrument in place, as well as unnecessary risk of stuck pipe resulting
from not moving the drill string. The benefit of the timer is that it can be used when
dropping or "go deviling" the survey; the operator knows exactly when the lights will
come on and can minimize the length of time that the pipe is still.
For Magnetic single shot surveys taken on wireline, timing devices are being replaced
with electronic sensors which detect either the lack of movement as with a motion
sensor, or, more commonly, the presence of non magnetic materials, as with a "Monel"
sensor.
The motion sensor detects when all motion has stopped for a given time (usually about
thirty seconds), before activating the camera unit. This system has several drawbacks; if
the descent of the survey instrument is interrupted for any reason below surface, a
wireline problem for example, the motion sensor will detect the loss of movement and
fire the camera resulting in a mis-run. The motion sensor is to some extent mechanical: it
employs a movable element to detect motion and this may stick or lose sensitivity again
resulting in a mis-run. From a floating rig, the downhole movement of the drill pipe
imparted by the heave of the ocean, may affect a motion sensor, particularly at shallow
depths.
A "Monel", or non-magnetic collar sensor, is not subject to these limitations. It senses
the change in the surrounding magnetic field as it enters the non magnetic drill collar.
Most Monel sensors must be in a non-magnetic environment for a set time, as a safety
factor, usually from thirty seconds to one minute before firing the camera unit. This
serves to ensure that the instrument is actually seated in the non-magnetic collar and
allows the compass card and inclinometer in the angle unit to settle before the picture is
taken.
Timers and sensors should always be surface tested before use.
4.2.2.3 Camera
The magnetic single shot camera has three main components:
• the film disk seat
• the lens assembly
• the lamp assembly.

Surveying
Unlike normal cameras, the single shot camera unit has no shutter mechanism, the
exposure of the film is controlled instead by the timing of the light illumination. In most
instruments, the lens assembly is prefocussed and no field adjustments are necessary.
4.2.2.4 Angle unit, Compass

This is the measurement device. The inclinometer measures the inclination of the well
bore, and the compass measures the direction or azimuth of the well. These devices are
nominally designed for a specific application and vary in design and principle. They may
measure inclination only, high side (for use with mud motors), a combination of
inclination and direction, they may use pendulums, weighted floats or air bubbles. We
will try to discuss most of the commonly used angle units in this section. A detailed
description of the survey output and operating procedure will be discussed in chapter
five.
Perhaps the simplest inclinometer is one which is used for measuring very low
inclinations, the bubble inclinometer. Somewhat like a round carpenter’s level, it is very
sensitive to low inclinations and is often used to survey vertical holes such as those
drilled for conductor pipe where absolute verticality can be critical. Just as simple, and
using the same principle, is the "low ball" type inclinometer, used not to measure
inclination, but to identify the “low side" of the hole with a small metal ball enabling the
gravity tool-face of a deflection tool, such as a mud motor, to be measured in an
environment where magnetic interference precludes the use of conventional angle units.
These are the simplest but least used inclinometers as they apply only to special cases.
The more commonly used angle units fall into three basic categories:
Cross-hair pendulum - compass One of the most common types of angle unit for
inclination and direction up to twenty degrees. The compass card is free to rotate inside
the housing and maintain a reference to magnetic north. The inclinometer is an
independent and free swinging pendulum cross-hair. The compass card is printed in
reverse in order for the pendulum, which naturally falls to the low side, to depict the
direction as it should be on the high side. The survey disk is read as correct. Care should
be taken when interpreting gravity tool face using this type of angle unit.
Scale inclinometer - compass Similar in principle to the pendulum cross-hair, this angle
unit has an independent weighted inclinometer which appears as a scale superimposed
onto the compass card on the survey photo disc. This type of angle unit is normally used
for higher inclinations ( above twenty degrees). Depending on the manufacturer, gravity
toolface is interpreted either “as read" or is reversed. Care should be taken to establish
the correct method of determining gravity toolface, before using the single shot for
downhole orientation.
Floating ball inclinometer- compass This type of angle unit utilizes a compass ball
floating in fluid. The ball is inscribed with both azimuth and inclination. The cross hair
sight is centered in the instrument and does not move, rather the compass ball tilts and
rotates beneath it. Because the inclination and azimuth are not read independently, the
angle units must be manufactured Geographically specific for the area or zone in which
they will be used. This is normally identified by a stamp on the angle unit itself.

Surveying
4.2.3 Magnetic Multi-shot Survey Instrument

The Magnetic Multishot survey tool differs from the single shot tool in that the timer is
programmed to take a series of readings separated by a preset time interval, and the
camera unit is designed to take a series of recordings instead of just one as in the single
shot. The battery tube is often lengthened in order to accommodate a greater number of
batteries. The running gear used is normally the same for both types of survey, and the
compass units are usually interchangeable.
4.2.3.1 The multi-shot timer

Depending on the manufacturer, some tools allow the operator to specify the interval
between shots, while others are fixed. This interval is commonly in the one to three shots
per minute range, and in normal applications, is adequate. As the instrument is dropped
or "go deviled" inside the drill pipe, and the surveys taken when the pipe is placed in the
slips on tripping put of the hole, in most cases, one survey per minute would be
acceptable. The capacity of the Multi-shot to store data depends upon the amount of
photographic film that can be stored in the camera unit. In the case where the pipe is
pulled extremely slowly, or reciprocated for long periods, and where the hole depth
dictates a lengthy trip out of the hole, longer periods between shots can extend the
running time of the instrument and allow a full survey in one run.
4.2.3.2 The multi-shot camera

These also vary with manufacturer, but do not differ much in principal. Basically the
camera consists of a film magazine spool, which is loaded by the operator and installed
in the tool, a guide spool which passes the film across the focus of the camera lens, and
the take-up spool which stores the exposed film. The photographic film is, of course,
light sensitive and must be handled either in a darkroom, or a portable developer bag
(often supplied with the tool) prior to development. In some types of tools, the film
spools fit into separate cartridge-type magazines which can be preloaded and
interchanged outside the darkroom without fear of exposure.
The other feature of the multi-shot camera is the drive mechanism which turns the film
spools in synchronization with the exposure-timer. The drive mechanisms are usually
simple worm-drive devices or solenoid plunger - ratchet type.
The film, when developed shows as a series of shots spaced along it. The operator, by
carefully recording bit-depth against time, can match individual shots with given depths,
and calculate the survey using this data. Because the multi-shot takes continual surveys,
some are unreadable due to pipe movement. The valid surveys are found at the points
where the pipe was set in the slips for a connection and the compass was still. Because of
this, the common interval between surveys is equivalent to the length of a stand of drill
pipe (90 ft).

Surveying
4.3 Gyroscopes
4.3.1 Principles of Gyroscopic Surveying
This section discusses gyroscopic wellbore surveying services available today in the oil
industry beginning with basic gyroscopic theory and leading up to Rate Gyro technology.
There is no attempt to compare systems or provide expert technical description of any
company’s technology. The intent is rather to provide a basic understanding of gyro
technology, its background, goals, and place among other surveying methods.
4.3.1.1 Historical Background

The industry began developing what is now most commonly referred to as “rate-gyro
surveying systems" in the late 1970's, in a few instances with funding from the major oil
companies. The goal of the overall development was to adapt modern aerospace
guidance techniques for oil industry applications with the following objectives:
1. Provide a significant enhancement in survey accuracy.
2. Provide a means of quality assurance.
It had been found that the existing surveying methods, magnetic-based and free-gyro
systems, could not provide a reliable means of quality assurance for the level of accuracy
wanted by the industry - approximately 1% of hole depth. Wellbore survey technology
can be classified into four groups, as follows:
1. Inclination Only Device (Totco)
2. Magnetic-Based (film-based / electronic, single / multi-shot, MWD, steering tools,
dip-meter)
3. Free-Gyro Systems (film-based/electronic)
4. Rate-Gyro Systems
Other terms used in the industry to describe rate-gyro systems include: inertial
navigation, gyrocompassing, north-seeking, north-referencing and continuous guidance.
The first system developed applying modem aerospace techniques was the Ferranti
FINDS tool, which was adapted from the navigation system in the Harrier Jump Jet. Now
five companies offer rate-gyro service in various areas of the world. These are:
• Gyrodata
• Schlumberger
• Baker Hughes Inteq
• Sperry Sun
• Scientific Drilling
4.3.2 The Gyroscope

A Gyroscope is basically a balanced, spinning mass, which is free to rotate on one or
more axes. The basic operation of a gyroscope can be compared to a spinning top. As
long as the top spins fast enough, it attempts to hold its vertical orientation. If the top
were propelled by a spin motor at a particular speed designated by its mass, it would stay
vertical for as long as the motor ran, that is, if no external forces acted on it.

Surveying
This is the simple basis of all gyroscopes used in navigation, a spinning mass which
through its momentum becomes resistant to external forces and attempts to maintain an
orientation like the top in space. The term "resistant to external forces" is important, for a
perfect gyro cannot be built, that will not be acted upon by external force and react by
movement. How a gyro reacts to external force is a major topic in this discussion.
The classic example of a natural occurring gyroscope is the planet Earth-a spinning mass
attempting to hold a particular orientation in space established long ago. And, like all
gyros, nor is the Earth a perfect one. It reacts to external forces with some movement, or
drift, off its orientation. Fortunately, the drift is very small. The forces of the spinning
Earth-Gyro will also become important to this discussion.
The next step in basic gyro understanding is the two-degree-of-freedom gyroscope, the
same kind used in the oil industry listed in category 3 above. Free-gyros have been used
in wellbore surveying since the 1930’s.
The frames supporting the gyroscope, and allowing this freedom of rotation are referred
to as Gimbals. Because gyroscopes can be extremely complicated, we will look at
simplified gyroscopes initially, in order to understand the forces working upon them.
Figure 4-17 shows a simplified gyroscope within its housing in a typical well surveying
configuration.
Spin Rotor
Gimballing System
Gimbal
Angular Pick-off
Torquer
Gyro Case
Resolver
Figure 4-17 Simplified diagram of a typical gyroscope

Surveying
Figure 4-18 shows a more realistic view of the configuration of an actual gyroscope.
INNER GIMBAL
MERCURY SWITCH
INNER GIMBAL ASSEMBLY

OUTER GIMBAL
CAM CAGING ROD
BEARING
INNER GIMBAL
ASSEMBLY
OUTER GIMBAL
TORQUER JOURNAL
OUTER GIMBAL ASSEMBLY
Figure 4-18 Realistic view of the configuration of a typical gyroscope

The gimbals isolate the gyro from the base so, as shown in Figure 4-19, the spinning
mass can attempt to maintain its original orientation no matter how the base moves. The
gyroscopes shown in Figure 4-19 and Figure 4-21 are two-degree-of-freedom gyros.
As the probe moves downhole through different directions and inclinations, the
gimballing allows the gyro to attempt to maintain a horizontal orientation in space.
In performing a wellbore survey, the gyro is pointed in a known direction prior to
running in the well, so throughout the survey the spin axis attempts to hold its surface
orientation. Note that a compass card is aligned with the horizontal spin axis of the gyro.
Survey data is collected downhole by affixing a plumb-bob assembly over the compass .

Surveying
At each survey station a picture is taken of the plumb-bob direction with respect to the
compass card, resulting in readings of wellbore azimuth and inclination. The plumb-bob
always, as a pendulum, points down toward the Earth’s center. When the tool is inclined
off vertical, it points out the inclination of the well on the concentric rings and the
azimuth by correlation with the known direction of the gyro spin axis established at
surface. (Note: There are also electronic, surface read-out free-gyro systems which
eliminate the plumb-bob.)
Figure 4-19 Gyro rotation around outer gimbal axis
OUTER GIMBAL AXIS
INNER GIMBAL
AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-20 Gyro rotation around inner gimbal axis

Surveying
4.3.2.1 Components
A gyroscope is a spinning wheel whose spin axis can move relative to some reference
mount. For the sake of simplicity, the major components of the gyro are comprised of:
• The Spin Motor, the main characteristic of which is "angular momentum".
• The Gyro Case which is the outer enclosure.
• The Gimballing System which is the structure carrying the spin motor.
The gimballing system isolates the spinning rotor from the gyro-case:
– If the gyro-case turns around the outer gimbal axis (Figure 4-19).
– If the gyro-case turns around the inner gimbal axis (Figure 4-20).
– The Gimbal suspension, which includes:
• the ball bearings (or gimbal bearings) between the gyro-case and the outer
gimbal, and between the outer gimbal and the inner gimbal;
• the rotor bearings holding the spinning rotor in the inner gimbal.
• an Angular Pick-off which senses relative angular displacements between the
gyro gimbal and the case.
• a Torquer which enables compensation for certain types of errors and processing
the gyro at desired rates.
4.3.3 Classification of Gyroscopes

Gyroscopes are usually classified according to various characteristics, namely:
4.3.3.1 Use
• Instrument gyros such as artificial horizons and gyro compass are used for
measuring and indicating purposes.
• Control gyros are used to generate signals.
• Stabilizing gyros are used to generate torques for stabilizing purposes.
4.3.3.2 Construction and Function.

Two major types:
Single degree of freedom gyro which requires only one coordinate axis to locate the
SPIN axis with reference to the instrument mount (Figure 4-21) . In a single degree of
freedom gyro, the spin axis is stabilized against rotation around the gimbal axis but is
disturbed by rotations about the quadrature axis.
Two degree of freedom gyro in which the rotor spin axis can move with respect to the
case around two axes in an uncontrolled manner (Figure 4-22).
4.3.3.3 Restraints on the movement of the spin axis

In a Single degree of freedom gyro, the spin axis may have:
• An elastic restraint (rate gyro or gyrometer which measures the input angular
velocity).

Surveying
• A viscous restraint (rate integrating gyro which measures the input angular
displacement).
• No restraint (integrating gyro).
In a Two degree of freedom gyro, the spin axis may be:
• Completely free, except for unavoidable frictional restraints.
• Supplied with torquers for correction or measurement purposes.
INNER GIMBAL
AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Base Plate
Figure 4-21 Single degree of freedom gyro
OUTER GIMBAL
AXIS
INNER GIMBAL
AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-22 Two degree of freedom gyro

Surveying
4.3.4 Evolution of Gyroscopes used in surveying oil-wells

The First Generation of gyro survey instruments used a conventional two degree of
freedom gyro to set a directional reference point. With this type of gyro the inclination is
given by a plumb bob located inside an Angle-Unit and a camera records the survey data.
Reliable directional date depends on two things:
• The gyro must be accurately aligned to some known direction before being run
down hole.
• The gyro must maintain this heading throughout the survey.
Downhole a small camera regulated by a timer and powered by a battery pack takes
pictures of the plumb bob superimposed on the gyro compass card. These surveys supply
accurate readings when carefully operated by an experienced surveyor. The second
generation provides progress in the recording of survey data.
4.3.4.1 The Surface Read out Gyro.

• A down-hole electronics package replaces camera angle-unit and timer.
• A wire line supplies power and connects the probe with a surface computer that
monitors probe performance and prints survey data as it is gathered.
• Accelerometers instead of Angle-Units are used to measure hole inclination.
However the system still relies on conventional two degrees of freedom gyros
for directional data.
Problems with battery powered mechanical cameras are eliminated and survey data is
supplied in real time. The surface computer can monitor probe performance, therefore
time wasted by mis-runs is reduced.
North Seeking Gyroscopes, comprised of a rate integrating gyroscope and an
accelerometer. Sensitive axes of the rate integrating gyro and the accelerometer scan
components of the earth’s rotation and earth’s gravity.
Survey data is read by a downhole electronics package and transmitted to the surface
computer via a single conductor wireline. The computer calculates azimuth, inclination,
tool face and monitors probe temperature. The system requires no surface orientation and
is not subject to such problems as gimbal lock and gyro tumbling sometimes encountered
with conventional gyros.
Continuous guidance tools, comprised of a two degree of freedom gyro and an
accelerometer. Spin axis of gyro is secured in the horizontal position after being aligned
to NORTH.
Four gimbal gyroscopes comprised of a small conventional directional gyro mounted on
a pair of gimbals in such a way that the outer case can be moved to any position without
disturbing the position of the directional gyro. It is designed to eliminate gimbal error
corrections and to survey the true hole direction at any slant angle from one degree to
horizontal.
4.3.5 Forces acting upon Gyroscopes

As mentioned earlier, gyroscopes react to external force by movement or drift off their
orientation. A particular aspect of all gyros is that they react 90 degrees with respect to
the applied torque.

Surveying
In the case of a free-gyro survey system, forces causing the gyro to drift off its surface
orientation lead to azimuth error. Typical causes for drift include system shocks, bearing
wear and the one inescapable force Earth rotation. During a free-gyro survey, attempts
are made to monitor drift and correct for it.
4.3.5.1 Precession
If we exert a torque on the inner gimbal, the gyro will begin to rotate around the outer
gimbal axis. The rotation of a gyro spin axis, in response to an applied torque is called
the Precession. If the spin vector tries to move into the torque vector, the gyro will
rotates (precess) about an axis in quadrature to both the spin vector and the torque
vector. Conversely, if torque is applied about the outer gimbal axis, the gyro will rotate
about the inner gimbal axis.
4.3.5.2 Nutation
Nutation (Figure 4-23) is a wobbling of the rotor spin axis, in a two degree of freedom
gyro. It is a self sustaining oscillation which physically represents a transfer of energy
from one degree of freedom to another and back again. In a frictionless system, nutation
would persist indefinitely. In reality, gimbal bearing friction serves to damp out nutation.
Figure 4-23 Representation of nutation
In contrast to precessional motion, nutation needs no external torques to sustain it.

Nutation is more important at low spin rotor speeds. Therefore, Caging is used to
maintain spin rotor axis stationary while speed is increasing from 0 to maximum.
Caging locks the rotor to the case so that the spin axis, inner gimbal axis and outer
gimbal axis are mutually orthogonal. Caging is achieved by an electromagnet which
turns the outer and inner gimbal ring through special guides always to a certain position
in relation to the outer case axis. Once gyro reaches maximum speed, nutation is nil.

Surveying
4.3.5.3 Fundamental Precession

The precession of the earth in a slow and circular movement of the earth’s axis of
rotation around the poles of the ecliptic due, primarily, to the influence of the moon, and,
to a lesser degree, to the influence of the sun on to the swollen periphery of the earth at
the equator. With respect to the Ecliptic Pole, the celestial pole of the Earth (Figure 4-24)
travels a circle whose radius makes an angle of 23º27' with the ecliptic pole. As a result,
the plane of the earth's equator is inclined 23º27' to the plane of earth's orbit around the
sun. (Figure 4-25)
Celestial Pole
Ecliptic Pole
23° 27'
Ecliptic
Equator
Celestial
Equator
23° 27'
Figure 4-24 Relationship of celestial and ecliptic poles
Moon
Ecliptic Pole
North Pole
B
27'
23°
Ecliptic Plane
A
Equ
ator
South Pole
Figure 4-25 Origin of precession

Surveying
4.3.5.4 Origin of Precession

The moon exerts a slightly greater gravitational attraction on the earth’s point A than on
point B, because the distance between A and the moon is a little shorter than between
point B and the moon. Hence, a torque is generated which attempts to pull the earth’s
equator into the plane of the ecliptic, thereby acting to erect the earth’s axis. Because the
earth spins, it reacts to the torque by precessing.
This precession is slow requiring a period of 25,800 years to complete a single cycle. A
two degree of freedom gyro or Free Gyro (Figure 4-26) is so named because the Spin
axis may be set to any desired direction, rather than referenced only to earth’s gravity or
North.
By application of the principle of gyroscopic inertia, a free gyro tends to maintain the
orientation of the spin axis fixed in space, However, a free gyro is a short term device
which functions accurately for less than five minutes because of high drift rates. A
typical free gyro drift rate is .5° per minute. As opposed to a single degree of freedom
gyro, a free gyro indicates the Amount of Input motion rather than a Rate of motion.
OUTER GIMBAL AXIS
INNER GIMBAL AXIS
SPIN AXIS
Figure 4-26 Free gyro
4.3.5.5 Gimbal Lock

In a two degree of freedom gyro in which the spin rotor axis is supported by gimbals, the
spin rotor cannot arrive at a position parallel to the outer gimbal axis. Should outer
gimbal axis and spin rotor axis become parallel, the gyro would lose one degree of
freedom. To prevent gimbal lock, mechanical stops are utilized to restrict angular motion
about the inner gimbal axis.

Surveying
4.3.5.6 Tumbling
The use of "stops" to prevent gimbal lock may cause a problem. When the inner gimbal
strikes one of the inner gimbal axis stops, the outer gimbal turns through 180°, about its
gimbal axis. This outer gimbal axis movement, is called tumbling and results in the loss
of the orientation reference. Therefore, careful attention must be exercised for selection
of the spin axis reference.
4.3.5.7 Caging
The Caging mechanism locks the rotor assembly to the case so that spin, axis, inner
gimbal axis and outer gimbal axis are mutually orthogonal. In this caged position, the
gyro is then pointed to some reference direction and will be uncaged only after the
desired initial orientation is secured. So, when the gyro is uncaged, the ‘O' of the
compass card points to the reference direction. Thereafter, any deviation of the compass
card from the initial setting is referred to as drift. In a free gyro, the Reference is not
reset once the gyro is uncaged.
4.3.6 Directional Gyro

A directional gyro (Figure 4-27) is a two degree of freedom gyro which has its spin axis
set in a horizontal plane and which is used to measure angular motions around the
Vertical. Directional gyros are used to establish an arbitrary reference in a horizontal
plane.
Gyro Card
Outer
Gimbal
Inner
Gimbal
Torque
Direction
of Torque
Precession
Figure 4-27 Two degree gyro
The three most common operating modes of a directional gyro are:

Free Directional Gyro Mode A free directional gyro does not have torquers and is not
slaved to any sensing device. Its spin axis, accordingly, acts as an inertial reference
rather than an earth reference. This mode is used for navigation in polar regions where
magnetic headings are likely to be erroneous.
Latitude Corrected Mode permits the gyro to be precessed by an amount sufficient to
cancel out the effect of earth's rotation, resulting in a gyro whose spin axis is stationary
with respect to the earth.

Surveying
Slaved Mode uses an external reference such as:

1. A flux gate transmitter to provide a continuous azimuth torquing signal. This
arrangement keeps the gyro spin axis aligned with the magnetic meridian.
2. A gravity sensing device (Erector) to maintain a spin axis horizontal to the earth.
4.3.7 Level Rotor Gyro

The level rotor gyro is a gyro in which the spin axis is maintained level in a plane
parallel to a tangent to the earth’s surface.
In this gyro mode, in order to avoid a tilting of the gyro due to unbalance and or the
effect of friction, the inner gimbal suspension is equipped with a Mercury Switch (or an
Electrolytic level) which is operated at even the slightest deviation of the gyro axis from
the horizontal and gives a corresponding impulse to a small motor (torque motor )
mounted on the vertical axis. This motor then turns the outer frame by a very minute
amount, either to the right or to the left, depending on which side of the switch is
operated. The gyro axis is thereby returned to a horizontal position.
4.3.7.1 Apparent Drift

The apparent drift of a gyro is caused by the influence of the earth rotation. If, for
instance, a perfectly balanced gyro were located at the North Pole in a horizontal
position, so that its axis of rotation would be at right angles to the earth axis, the rotation
of-the earth would indicate an apparent 360 turn of the axis in 24 hours, or an apparent
drift of 15º per hour. At the South Pole, the same would be observed but in reversed
direction.
At the Equator, the gyro axis would be parallel to the earth axis and the gyro would not
show any apparent drift. The apparent drift caused by the rotation of the earth is
corrected by applying a special force to the inner gimbal ring. An adjustable weight in
the form of a screw is attached to the inner gimbal ring and has the effect of a vertical
power on the gyro axis. Due to the phenomenon of precession, this force turns the outer
gimbal ring. By adjustment of the screw, it can be set to offset the apparent drift at any
geographic latitude by an identical counter acting force, to the effect that the gyro turns
simultaneously with the rotation of the earth. The screw is set for the particular latitude
where the gyro is used.
4.3.7.2 Temperature Effect

Warming of the gyro can cause slight dislocations of the center of gravity due to the
varying expansion coefficients of the different materials, such as copper and steel.
Possible errors caused by rising temperature are compensated by a piece of bimetal
which is mounted on the inner gimbal frame and offsets sufficiently the unbalance
caused by temperature through a bending effect.
4.3.7.3 Intercardinal Tilt Error or Gimbal Error

The gimballing error encountered in a directional gyro is also known as intercardinal tilt
error. Gimbal errors occur when the angular motions of gimbals do not correspond to the
actual motion occurring about their reference axes.

Surveying
When a gimbal axis transducer is used, its output measures relative motion between
gimbals, which is not necessarily the actual angular motion of the base. The gimbal error
depends upon borehole inclination and the hole direction related to the reference
direction.
In order to minimize such errors, when the surface orientation is carried out, the spin
rotor axis should, eventually, be positioned in a plane parallel to the overall well
direction anticipated, so as to result in a difference as little as possible between:
4.3.8 Rate Gyroscopes

When the gyro case moves around the gyro spin axis, there is no angular deflection
transmitted to the spin axis. When the gyro case moves around the output axis, again,
there is no direct transmission of angular deflection to the gimbal assembly.
However, when the gyro case moves around the input axis, the whole angular deflection
is transmitted to the spin rotor axis. The rotation of the case around the input axis will
then result in a very strong torque applied to the spin axis.
As long as the gyro case is caused to rotate, the spin rotor axis will precess around the
output axis until the torque vector direction and the spin rotor axis are co-incident. The
rate of precession is:
• directly proportional to the applied torque:
• inversely proportional to the angular momentum.
Conversely, the gyroscopic torque is proportional to the angular rate of gyro rotation.
It is this property which is used to construct a one degree of freedom gyro, such as a Rate
Gyro. Although rate-gyros and accelerometers collect survey data in a completely
different manner than the free gyro, their operation can be most easily described through
comparison. Unlike the free-gyro, the rate-gyro system is one that measures the forces
acting on the gyro; and, unlike the plumb-bob, the accelerometer assembly measures the
force of gravity making it point toward the Earth’s center.
Figure 4-28 provides a simplistic illustration of one rate-gyro and accelerometer
configuration in a survey tool. In this case, the universal joints act as the gimballing
mechanism for the gyro, and the pivot-point for the accelerometer pendulum. The
combined readings of the accelerometer and rate-gyro at a survey station allow
calculation of wellbore azimuth and inclination.
Potentiometer Take-off
Spin
Gyro Rotor Axis
Output Gimbal Can
Axis Torsion Spring Insrument Case
Figure 4-28 Rate gyro

Surveying
4.3.8.1 Accelerometer Operation

Figure 4-29 provides a more detailed illustration of accelerometer operation. Although
the assembly can be said to have a pendulum like the plumb-bob, in this instance the
pendulum is forced to maintain its case orientation. Pick-off coils measure movement of
the magnetized mass (M) and send a signal to the torque coils, which apply an equal and
opposing force to keep the pendulum aligned.
Universal Joint
Pick-off, Torquer
Accelerometer
Outer Case
Spin Motor
Spin Axis
Bearings
Universal Joint
Pick-off, Torquer
Gyro Rotor
Figure 4-29 Rate gyro accelerometer operation
The amperage signal, or force, measured by the accelerometer when the probe is in a
well allows calculation of wellbore inclination. This is illustrated in Figure 4-30. When
the pendulum (M) is horizontal, the force component of gravity is 1 g. As shown, the
force then varies with inclination until reading zero when the pendulum is vertical. Since
the tool-accelerometer axis is aligned with the wellbore axis, the accelerometer
calculates wellbore inclination at a survey station.
Accelerometer
case
Pivot
Pendulum
Permanent magnet
Torque coils
Pick - offs
Sensitive axis
Figure 4-30 Rate gyro accelerometer principle of operation

Surveying
4.3.8.2 Rate-Gyro Operation

The rate-gyro, meanwhile, measures the Earth spin-rate vector. When the tool is stopped
at a survey station, one of the forces acting on it is the spinning Earth force. In the case
of the free-gyro system, the spin force causes the gyro to move or drift (gyro precession)
off the surface orientation as mentioned earlier. Since the rate-gyro instead measures the
Earth-rate force, for a given latitude the system can also calculate the true-north force
component (TN) due the relationship of the vectors. The purpose of the rate-gyro, then,
is at each survey station to calculate the true north direction with respect to the wellbore
azimuth, which is aligned with the tool axis.
Although more complex, the way the rate-gyro accomplishes this can be compared to the
accelerometer’s operation. Once the gyro is set spinning and becomes free in space, as
with the accelerometer, pick-off and torque coils measure the forces acting on the gyro
and keep it aligned with the case. Prior to a survey, the rate-gyro tool is calibrated in a
highly precise test stand at the service company’s facility. Just as the force components of
gravity vary to resolve wellbore inclination, the values for the Earth rate and true north
vectors vary with latitude, inclination and the direction of the tool. When the tool is
placed in the test stand, it is turned in a range of directions while its measurements of
Earth forces are modeled with respect to a known reference. Similar to the
accelerometer, then, when the rate-gyro is pointed in different directions in the stand it
measures varying component values for earth spin-rate on its sensitive axes.
When the tool is at a survey station in a wellbore, with latitude and inclination known,
the rate-gyro reading of the component of earth spin-rate will correspond to a particular
true north reference as modeled in the test stand. Calculating a survey point can be seen
as a three step process utilizing the combined readings of the rate-gyro and
accelerometer, as shown in Figure 4-31.
The sensitive axes planes in Figure 4-31 relate to the same ones shown in Figure 4-32, so
that the wellbore/tool axis is coming out of the page. As illustrated, once the
accelerometer measures gravity to calculate wellbore inclination, tool high-side is also
known. Combining the true north reading from the gyro, provides wellbore azimuth as
the angle between true north and high-side.
Accelerometer Gyro Combined

Y Y
TN TN HS
HS Y
X
AZ
X X
G
Inclination HS Toolface True North Hole Azimuth
Figure 4-31 Three step process to calculate survey from rate gyro

Surveying
Horizontal
High Side Plane
Hole AZ
X1
TN = True Y2
North AZ
Horizontal
High side Plane
Toolface
Y1
X1
I
Y2 I
I Gyro accelerometer
Sensitive axis plane
Wellbore
isx
la
in/ xis
too
Sp le a
Gravity
Ho
ER
TN
Figure 4-32 Rate gyro survey axes
Systems of the type described require an electric wireline and provide real-time data at
surface. Depth is derived from wireline measurement and the system can perform single-
or multi-shot surveys. During a multi-shot the tool is stopped at periodic stations and a
mathematical formula is applied for the overall survey calculation.
A Rate Gyro is a single degree of freedom Gyro in which the precession is limited and
controlled by a restraining spring attached between the gyro case and the gimbal
suspension (Figure 4-28). Under these conditions, the spin rotor axis will precess until
the restraining spring torque is equal to the gyroscopic torque developed as a reaction to
the rotation of the gyro case.
Since the gyroscopic torque is proportional to the rate at which the gyro case is rotated,
the angle through which the gyro axis precesses is directly a measure of the angular rate
of gyro case rotation.
In a one degree of freedom gyro, the gimbal assembly is afforded to move only a few
degrees (2 or 3 degrees) - on either side of a ’0’ reference point. Single degree of freedom
gyros can be classified depending upon the type of restraint (spring) between gyro case
and gimbals. There are three basic types, discussed below.

Surveying
4.3.9 Other Rate Gyro Systems

As mentioned previously, there are several different types of rate-gyro surveying systems
available. They vary in size, configuration, and mode of operation.
The Ferranti system is the only full navigation system as it is adapted from aerospace
technology. It has a 10 5/8 in. diameter and utilizes three gyros and accelerometers
mounted on a stabilized platform. As in aerospace, this system measures its
three-dimensional movement through space (or down the well) to calculate a survey. In
this case, the system measures the change in direction of the platform and the distance it
moves. (Essentially, more force measuring as explained above.).
The Ferranti tool is the only tool which does not use wireline measurement for depth.
There are other rate-gyro tools available which perform a survey while moving but use
the wireline for depth measurement; these systems also calculate the changes in wellbore
azimuth and inclination by measuring the forces acting on rate-gyros and accelerometers
to determine changes in tool direction.
4.3.9.1 Rate Gyro

A Rate Gyro measures the rate of precession (precession velocity), via the angular
displacement. In a Rate gyro, both the inertial torque and the frictional torque are
negligible compared with the string torque.
The Rate Gyro uses a spring restraint on the output axis. A set of Balancing Nuts is often
included in the shaft supporting the rotor can assembly so as to balance the can and rotor
after sealing. These balancing nuts must have adequate capacity, adequate sensibility,
locking means.
Stops located about 3 degrees from the zero position minimize cross coupling errors
caused by abnormal input rates about the spin axis when excessive precession occurs.
4.3.9.2 Torsion Bar Rate Gyro

In such a gyro, a torsion bar, namely a necked down section on the main shaft is used to
provide elastic (or spring) restraint. One end of the main shaft is anchored to the outer
instrument and the other end is supported in a bearing mounted in the outer casing.
A precessional angular velocity input around the input axis causes a rotation of the shaft
around the output axis. The torsion bar twists and by so doing, provides counter torque to
stop rotation. The angle of twist which measures the input velocity is picked up by a
pick-off device.
4.3.9.3 Rate Integrating Gyro

In most particulars, the rate integrating gyro is constructed in the same manner as the rate
gyro. The only opposition to motion of the gimbal can is that of the fluid viscosity. The
rate integrating gyro, almost always, uses the floated rotor construction.
The rate integrating gyro is customarily built so that very little angular motion takes
place about the precession axis. In the conventional use as a sensor, the precession angle
motion rarely exceeds 3° for non-floated rate integrating gyro, nor more than ± 2° in
floated rate integrating gyroscopes.

Surveying
The viscous restraint can be provided by the mechanical action of the flotation liquid, for
instance, in reducing the damping gap to a few tenths of millimeters. Basically, the rate
integrating gyro responds to an angular input displacement with an angular output
displacement. The output displacement is then a measure of the input displacement.
The reason for the name Integrating Gyro becomes apparent when one considers that:
• the Rate Gyro measures Angular velocity via an angular displacement.
• the Rate Integrating Gyro measures the integral of angular velocity (angular
displacement) via an output angular displacement.
4.3.9.4 Rate Integrating Gyro Use

In a rate integrating gyro, since there is no spring, there is also no automatic centering
device. Therefore, by simple drifting, the input and spin axis can easily become
misaligned. The cross coupling error becomes prohibitive and the instrument can, no
longer, be used for angular measurement. For this reason the rate integrating gyro is
mostly used as error sensor and nulling device.
4.3.9.5 Strap Down System

With the Strap Down System, the gyro, instead of being stabilized in space by gimbals is
mounted directly to the instrument case. The strap down system implies the use of wide
angle gyros with an angular freedom of ± 10 degrees. In the strap down system the
coordinate system is not stabilized with respect to inertial space but, instead, is fixed to
the instrument case.
4.3.9.6 Accuracy, quality control and why Rate Gyros?

To achieve a high range of accuracy as stated earlier and, furthermore, devise a means of
assuring it-is a significant, difficult, and expensive task. For simplicity's sake, let's say
the accuracy goal is one foot per 1,000 feet of hole. This means that in a 10,000 foot
wellbore survey, the operator is to be assured of bottom-hole location by plus or minus
10 feet.
Although other survey technologies (magnetic and free-gyro) may achieve this range of
accuracy some percentage of the time, they have no available means of quality control to
assure it. In the case of magnetics, although the technology has seen much improvement,
error variables such as magnetic interference, declination corrections, northern latitudes,
even Sun spot activity pose difficult quality control problems. The free-gyro's major
error sources are surface orientation, gyro drift and tool misalignment.
In fact, no film-based survey device has an opportunity to achieve this level of accuracy
with assurance because the film cannot be read to the accuracy required. To get in the
range of one foot/1,000 feet requires azimuth and inclination accuracies in the range of
0.1 and 0.05 degrees, respectively. Very often, the terms accuracy and resolution of
readings are confused. A survey system may be able to read survey data to 0.1 degree -
that’s resolution - but providing that level of precision is a completely different matter.
Modern aerospace guidance techniques employing rate-gyros and accelerometers provide
the only current means of both providing this range of survey accuracy and qualifying
the information. These systems can accomplish this through extensive quality control
procedures because rate-gyros and accelerometers can be calibrated for a level of
performance and monitored and checked for data quality.

Surveying
However, the accuracy of available systems varies. Reviewing a service company’s

procedures for quality control and data verification is important to assigning a
specification to a particular system. Rate-gyro and accelerometer quality also varies in its
ability to achieve accuracy, and running procedures can also degrade survey quality.
For example, if a survey probe is misaligned in the well, accurate readings degrade in the
overall survey calculation. Rate-gyro system accuracies can also vary according to
inclination and latitude. Some systems degrade, for example, above 75 degrees of
latitude and inclination because the Earth and gravity vectors become smaller and more
difficult to resolve.
4.3.9.7 Errors in Rate Gyros

Gyros may be susceptible to various errors.
Alignment and hysteresis errors Initial alignment can be mechanically adjusted so that
the error in reading is no more than one per cent This residual error can be nulled out by
the use of compensating voltages. However, some alignment error results during
operation, because of mechanical hysteresis, for instance, when a torsion bar does not
return to its ’O’ original Transducer and torsion bars are misaligned and an alignment
error results.
Coupling Errors Derivation of the equation for Rate Gyros depends upon mutual
perpendicularity between the three significant axes. When the instrument operates, the
spin axis and input axis must become misaligned and some of the spin velocity becomes
coupled with the input velocity to affect the output reading. The error can be minimized
by making the torsional spring constant large.
Anisoelastic Errors Iso-elasticity implies the equal elastic suspension of the rotor in all
directions. If a force is applied to a rotor which is isoelastically supported, the
displacement of the center of gravity of the rotor will be the same amount and in line
with the applied force regardless of the direction of the force.
Three possibilities:
• No acceleration - mass center and output axis are coincident.
• Horizontal acceleration applied - the mass center moves horizontally Mass center
and output axis no longer coincide.
• Vertical acceleration applied - Anisoelastic coefficients are given as
degrees/hour/g2.
To be acceptable, a gyro should have an anisoelastic coefficient in the order of:
0.05/hour/g2.
Cylindrical Errors Are due to the rotational motion of the input shaft resulting in a
deflection of the gimbal structure. Because of this deflection, the mass center no longer
lies along the bearing center line.
Conical Errors Anisoelastic and cylindrical errors are due to frictional effects and
imperfect mechanical properties. Conical errors are due to the geometry of the
instrument and are inherent in the instrument.

Surveying
Drift Errors or drift rates represent the output reading which may be obtained when no
input signal is applied. From the previous examples we know that torques can be
generated around the output axis because of vibratory effects for instance. These torques
will cause an output reading and the equivalent input turning rate is the Drift Error.
Some torques may be present even when the instrument is standing still. These are:
• torques due to thermal convection currents
• electromagnetic torques stemming from the signal generators
• torques due to the flexible leads feeding the gyro motor
4.3.10 Gyroscope suspension

Gyros currently use two types of suspension:
• Ball Bearings
• Flotation
Ball Bearings used in gyroscopes are about the finest that can be made. Bearings are
assembled in an air conditioned room in which the air is lint-free.
In spite of elaborate precautions, the level of Coulombs friction and stiction (vibration
generated by scraping effects) is high enough so that additional schemes are necessary to
reduce the frictional effects further.
The most critical bearing appears to be that supporting the gyro. Here, the friction does
not cause an operating problem but rather one of longevity.
The high speed of the rotor causes a severe wear problem so that after a relatively short
period of operation, wear in the bearings causes dynamic unbalance. This unbalance, in
turn, causes vibrations, tendency to drift and further wear.
Flotation The flotation principle, although designed mostly for accelerometers is also
used in gyro instruments.
Flotation is realized by simply filling the instrument casing with a fluid so that the
Gimbal Can is supported by fluid buoyancy.
Ideally, the buoyancy effect is adjusted so that the main shaft bearings are not required to
support any axial load. The function of the bearing is thus reduced to alignment and
centering. Aside from providing buoyancy, the flotation fluid also serves a cushion for
the gimbal and provides a viscous damping medium. As noted previously, a single degree
of freedom gyro requires a restraint of some sort. If no damping were present, the
instrument would have an extended oscillatory response. The damping fluid is thus
necessary to preclude the possibility of sustained oscillations. The instrument must
operate with a damping factor of 0.5 to 0.7.
4.3.11 North Seeking Gyros

The North Seeking Gyroscopes are involved with the rotation of the earth. The North
Seeking instrument has an input axis which is constrained to sweep out the horizontal
plane in order to determine the East/West direction.
As stated previously, the earth rotation component is nil in the East/West direction. So,
when the input axis is pointing to East or West (reading equal to zero), the output axis
indicates the North direction.

Surveying
Prior to starting any measurement, it is prerequisite that the spin rotor axis be secured in
Vertical Position. With the spin rotor axis slaved in vertical position, a sweeping motor
constrains the input axis to sweep out the horizontal plane. Drift and Drift Correction.
Gyroscopes are used because of their property to remain immobile in inertial space.
However most common gyroscopes do not maintain absolute immobility but drift from
their initial fixed position. The Drift Rate is the best and most important single figure of
merit used to describe the performance of a gyroscope.
For instance a gyroscope, uncorrected for the rotation of the earth and viewed by an
observer on earth, at a latitude of around 45° North appears to be drifting at the rate of
about ten degrees per hour.
4.3.12 Drift Values

Drift values may range as follows:
• 0.5° to 1° per minute for cheap gyros
• a few degrees per hour for directional gyros
• 1/100th degree per hour for inertial gyros using gimbal flotation
• 1/1000th degree per hour for some inertial gyros with spherical spinning rotors,
supported by electrical fields
4.3.12.1Nature and Source of Drift

Apparent drift caused by the rotation of the earth. The torque which may cause drift may
be separated into two main categories.
Error Torque such as gimbal error, for which adjustment or compensation may be
applied.
Uncertainty Torque the random components of drift which bear no correlation with any
inputs. The drift due to error torques is of three types:
• Non acceleration sensitive drift
– Generally caused by elastic or magnetic torques.
• Acceleration sensitive drift
– Generally caused by mass unbalance.
4.3.12.2Acceleration sensitive drift

Other sources of systematic drift rate errors may be temperature sensitive torques due to
differential expansion - torques due to the non orthogonality of the principal axes and
wheel speed change.
The random drift is due to small uncertainty torques such as caused by bearing noise,
friction, temperature gradients, all of which are time variable. Random drift is generally
determined by statistical analysis of a large number of drift tests.
The manner of measuring and compensating for both drift and gimbal error are discussed
elsewhere.

Section 5 - Drilling Tools & Deflection Methods
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
5 Drilling Tools & Deflection Methods Page

5.1 DRILLING TOOLS ................................................................................................................5-1
5.1.1 Drill Collar (DC) ......................................................................................................5-1
5.1.1.1 Short Drill Collar (SDC) .................................................................................5-2
5.1.1.2 Non-Magnetic Drill Collar (NMDC) ..............................................................5-2
5.1.1.3 Short Non-Magnetic Drill Collar (SNMDC) ..................................................5-2
5.1.2 Float Sub...................................................................................................................5-2
5.1.3 Bit Sub ......................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.4 Junk Sub....................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.5 Extension Sub ...........................................................................................................5-3
5.1.6 Heavyweight Drill Pipe (HWDP).............................................................................5-3
5.1.7 Stabilizer ...................................................................................................................5-4
5.1.7.1 Welded-blade Stabilizer ..................................................................................5-5
5.1.7.2 Integral-blade Stabilizer (I.B.) ........................................................................5-5
5.1.7.3 Sleeve-type Stabilizer......................................................................................5-7
5.1.7.4 Clamp-on Stabilizer.........................................................................................5-7
5.1.7.5 Other stabilizers ..............................................................................................5-8
5.1.7.6 Replaceable Wear Pad stabilizer(RWP) .........................................................5-8
5.1.7.7 ANDERGAUGE Stabilizer.............................................................................5-9
5.1.8 Roller Reamer...........................................................................................................5-10
5.1.9 Underreamer .............................................................................................................5-10
5.1.10 String Reamer .........................................................................................................5-11
5.1.11 Key-seat Wiper .......................................................................................................5-12
5.1.12 Turbine....................................................................................................................5-12
5.1.13 Bent Sub..................................................................................................................5-13
5.1.14 Orienting Sub..........................................................................................................5-13
5.1.15 Bent Orienting Sub (BOS)......................................................................................5-14
5.1.16 Hole Opener............................................................................................................5-14
5.1.17 Bullnose ..................................................................................................................5-15
5.1.18 Section Mill ............................................................................................................5-15
5.1.19 Whip-stock..............................................................................................................5-16
5.1.20 Drilling Jars ............................................................................................................5-16
5.1.21 Shock Absorber/Shock Sub ....................................................................................5-16
5.1.22 Rebel Tool ..............................................................................................................5-17
5.1.23 Steerable Motor ......................................................................................................5-17
5.2 DEFLECTION METHODS ......................................................................................................5-18
5.2.1 Whipstock .................................................................................................................5-18
5.2.2 Jetting........................................................................................................................5-19
5.2.2.1 Advantages of Jetting ......................................................................................5-20
5.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Jetting .................................................................................5-20
5.2.3 PDM (or Turbine) With Bent Sub ............................................................................5-20
5.2.4 Steerable Positive Displacement Motor ...................................................................5-21

Table of Contents

Figure 5-1 Flush and spiral drill collars ................................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2 Junk sub .................................................................................................................. 5-3
Figure 5-3 Dimensional data range of heavy weight drill pipe................................................ 5-4
Figure 5-4 Various types of hardfacings. ................................................................................. 5-5
Figure 5-5 Welded blade stabilizers......................................................................................... 5-6
Figure 5-6 Integral blade stabilizers........................................................................................ 5-6
Figure 5-7 Sleeve-type stabilizers ............................................................................................ 5-7
Figure 5-8 Clamp-on stabilizers............................................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5-9 Rubber sleeve stabilizer.......................................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5-10 RWP stabilizer...................................................................................................... 5-9
Figure 5-11 ANDERGAUGE stabilizer................................................................................... 5-9
Figure 5-12 Roller reamers .................................................................................................... 5-10
Figure 5-13 Under-reamer...................................................................................................... 5-11
Figure 5-14 String reamer ...................................................................................................... 5-11
Figure 5-15 Key seat wiper .................................................................................................... 5-12
Figure 5-16 Bent sub .............................................................................................................. 5-13
Figure 5-17 UBHO................................................................................................................. 5-14
Figure 5-18 Hole opener ........................................................................................................ 5-14
Figure 5-19 Bullnose.............................................................................................................. 5-15
Figure 5-20 Section mill......................................................................................................... 5-15
Figure 5-21 Shock sub............................................................................................................ 5-16
Figure 5-22 Rebel tool............................................................................................................ 5-17
Figure 5-23 Whipstock deflection method............................................................................. 5-18
Figure 5-24 Jetting deflection method ................................................................................... 5-19
Figure 5-25 Typical PDM BHA............................................................................................. 5-21
Figure 5-26 Steerable motor................................................................................................... 5-22
Figure 5-27 Steerable motor bit offset ................................................................................... 5-23
List of Tables Page

No list of tables.

Drilling Tools & Deflection Methods
5 Drilling Tools & Deflection Methods

About this chapter
Before the arrival of the positive-displacement mud motor (PDM), whip-stocks, knuckle
joints and jetting (in soft formations) were used as deflection methods. DD tools and
technology have evolved tremendously in the past 20 years. Today, there is a broad range
of PDMs for different applications.
The various methods used to deflect a wellbore are described in this chapter. Orientation
is covered separately in Chapter 11. The DD must be familiar with all the DD tools at the
rig-site and in the workshop. EQ Jars and PDMs are covered separately in this manual.
The remaining DD tools are briefly described here. More detailed information is
available from the manufacturers. Most of the DD tools are straightforward to operate.
While a directional drilling simulator is a useful aid in the teaching of DD concepts, the
only way to fully understand how a wellbore is deflected and how the various DD tools
are used is to get some on-the-job training. This chapter should provide a lot of the
background knowledge required.

exercises
1. Describe the use of an open-hole whip-stock.
2. Explain how deflection is achieved using the jetting kickoff technique.
3. Explain what determines the dogleg severity achieved with a non-steerable PDM
kickoff BHA.
4. Describe the uses and applications of:
DC, SDC, NMDC, SNMDC, I.B. stabilizer, Sleeve-type stabilizer(s), clamp-on
stabilizer, RWP, Bent Sub, UBHO, BOS, Underreamer, String Reamer, Bullnose,
Hole Opener, Key-seat Wiper, Section Mill, Shock Sub, Rebel Tool.
5.1 Drilling Tools

The major drilling tools likely to be used by the DD are discussed briefly here. For more
detailed information on a particular tool, it is necessary to refer to the "Composite
Catalog" or to the manufacturer’s data sheets.
5.1.1 Drill Collar (DC)

Drill collars are heavy, stiff steel tubulars. They are used at the bottom of a BHA to
provide weight on bit and rigidity. Flush or spiral drill collars are available. In directional
drilling, spiral drill collars are preferable (Figure 5-1). The spiral grooves machined in
the collar reduce the wall contact area by 40% for a reduction in weight of only 4%. The
chances of differential sticking are greatly reduced. Spiral drill collars usually have slip
and elevator recesses. Stress-relief groove pins and bore back boxes are optional. The
drill collars (various sizes) are normally owned by the drilling contractor.

Figure 5-1 Flush and spiral drill collars
5.1.1.1 Short Drill Collar (SDC)

Often called a pony collar, this is simply a shortened version of a steel drill collar. Short
drill collars may be manufactured or a steel drill collar may be cut to make two or more
short collars. For the DD, the SDC and the short non-magnetic drill collar (SNMDC)
have their widest application in the make-up of locked BHAs. SDCs of various lengths
(e.g. 5’, 10’, 15’) are normally provided by the DD company.
5.1.1.2 Non-Magnetic Drill Collar (NMDC)

Non-magnetic drill collars are usually flush (non-spiral). They are manufactured from
high-quality, corrosion-resistant, austenitic stainless steel. Magnetic survey instruments
run in the hole need to be located in a non-magnetic drill collar of sufficient length to
allow the measurement of the earth’s magnetic field without magnetic interference.
Survey instruments are isolated from magnetic disturbance caused by steel components
in the BHA and drillpipe. ANADRILL’s M1 MWD tool and its successors are fixed
inside their own special MWD non-magnetic drill collars. SLIM-1, however, is run
inside a standard NMDC. Stress-relief groove pins and bore back boxes are optional.
5.1.1.3 Short Non-Magnetic Drill Collar (SNMDC)

A short version of the NMDC, SNMDCs are often made by cutting a full-length NMDC.
The SNMDC may be used between a mud motor and an MWD collar to counteract
magnetic interference from below. It is also used in locked BHAs, particularly where the
borehole's inclination and direction give rise to high magnetic interference. Finally,
BHAs for horizontal wells often use a SNMDC.
5.1.2 Float Sub

This is a PIN x BOX sub which is bored out to take a float valve. It is often run above a
mud motor. In conventional rotary BHAs, a float valve is inserted either in the bit sub (in
the case of a pendulum BHA) or in the bored-out near-bit stabilizer. Poppet and flapper
designs of float valve are available. Note that some clients may not allow the use of a
float valve (because of kick-control problems). The DD should check the client's
regulations on arrival at the rig. The float sub is usually provided by the DD company.
The float valve is usually provided by the drilling contractor.

5.1.3 Bit Sub

This is a BOX x BOX sub which is run directly above the bit (hence its name) when no
near-bit stabilizer is used. It is bored out to take a float valve. Various sizes of bit sub are
normally provided by the drilling contractor.
5.1.4 Junk Sub

A junk sub is fabricated from a solid steel body with a necked-down mid-portion. A
"skirt" is fitted to the lower part of the body, around the necked-down portion, forming a
basket for junk to settle in (Figure 5-2).
The junk sub is run directly above the bit. It catches pieces of junk which are too heavy
to circulate out. Bleed holes in the skirt allow the mud to return to the system. The junk
sub is provided by the drilling contractor.
Figure 5-2 Junk sub
5.1.5 Extension Sub

This is a short sub which can be used to fine-tune a BHA. It is normally PIN x BOX. A
float sub can be used as an extension sub. The extension sub is usually provided by the
DD company.
5.1.6 Heavyweight Drill Pipe (HWDP)

This is an intermediate-weight drill string member with drill pipe dimensions for easier
handling. Its heavy wall tube is attached to special extra-length tool joints. These provide
ample space for recutting the connections and reduce the rate of wear on the OD. The
OD of the tube is also protected from abrasive wear by a centre wear pad (Figure 5-3).
Tool joints and wear pad are hard-banded. Some HWDP have two wear pads.

DIMENSIONAL DATA RANGE II

TUBE TOOL JOINT WEIGHT
Approximate
Nom. Tube Mechanical Mechanical
Weight Including
Dimension Properties Properties
Tube & Joints (lb)
Tube Section Tube Section
Eleva- Tor- Tor-

Tensile
Nom. Wall Center tor Tensile sional sional Make-up
Yield
Size ID Thick- Area Upset Upset Yield Yield Connector OD Yield Wt./ Wt./Jt. Torque
(lb)
(A) (B) ness (C) (D) (lb) (ft-lb) Size & Type (E) ID (ft-lb) ft 30 ft (ft-lb)
3 1/2 2 1/16 .719 6.280 4 3 5/8 345,400 19,575 N.C. 38(3 1/2 I.F.) 4 3/4 2 3/16 345,400 19,575 25.3 760 9,900
4 2 9/16 .719 7.410 4 1/2 4 1/8 407,550 27,635 N.C. 40(4 I.F.) 5 1/4 2 11/16 407,550 27,635 29.7 890 13,250
4 1/2 2 3/4 .875 9.965 5 4 5/8 548,075 40,715 N.C. 46(4 I.F.) 6 1/4 2 7/8 548,075 40,715 41.0 1230 21,800
5 3 1.000 12.556 5 1/2 5 1/8 691,185 56,495 N.C. 50(4 1/2 I.F.) 6 1/2 3 1/8 691,185 56,495 49.3 1480 29,400
Note: All dimensions are given in inches, unless otherwise stated.
E 18˚ D A D 18˚ E
B
5" 3" 3" 5"

25" Min. 24" 23" Min.
Figure 5-3 Dimensional data range of heavy weight drill pipe
HWDP is less rigid than DCs and has much less wall contact. Chances of differential
sticking are reduced. Its three-point wall contact feature solves two serious problems in
directional drilling. It permits high-RPM drilling with reduced torque. HWDP can be run
through hole angle and direction changes with less connection and fatigue problems.
Today, the trend in BHA design is to minimize the number of DCs in the BHA and use
HWDP to comprise a major portion of available weight on bit
HWDP is normally provided by the drilling contractor. However, it is the DD’s
responsibility to ensure there are sufficient joints of HWDP on the rig. For normal
directional jobs, 30 joints of HWDP should be sufficient.
5.1.7 Stabilizer
Stabilizers are an indispensable part of almost all rotary directional BHAs. Near-bit
stabilizers have BOX x BOX connections. They are usually bored out to accept a float
valve. String stabilizers have PIN x BOX connections. Most stabilizers have a right-hand
spiral. For directional control, 360 wall coverage (in plan view) is recommended.
Stabilizer blades are "dressed" with various possible types of hard-facing (Figure 5-4).
The leading edge of most stabilizer designs also has hard-facing applied. It is possible to
order variations of stabilizer design. Stabilizers are used to:
• Control hole deviation.
• Reduce the risk of differential sticking.
• Ream out doglegs and keyseats.

Hardfacings
Crushed tungsten carbide held in a nickel
bronze matrix. The 3 mm grain size ensures
greater concentration of carbide which is
ideal for soft formatioin drilling.
Sections through hardfacings
Trapezoidal tungsten carbide inserts held in a

sintered carbide nickel bronze matrix. This
will give a greater depth of carbide coverage -
ideal for high deviation drilling in abrasive
formations.
Tungsten carbide insert set iin a powder spray

deposit is ideal for abrasive formations. 97%
bonding guaranteed. Certified by ultrasonic
report. Recommended for non-magnetic stab-
ilizers.
Tungsten carbide inserts (button type). The in-

serts have been developed to allow cold inser-
tion and maintain close fit. A greater concen-
tration of inserts on the bottom third of the
blade and leading edge will increase surface
contact to reduce wear in highly abrasive
formations.
The oxy-acetylene process applies tough mol-

ten carbide particles of varying sizes held in a
nickel chrome matrix which provides excellent
bonding properties and greater surface wear
charactristics are achieved.
Surface hardness levels over 40HRC. Ideal for
GEO-THERMAL applications over 350˚C.
Figure 5-4 Various types of hardfacings.
There are many designs of stabilizer. The most common types are:
5.1.7.1 Welded-blade Stabilizer

The blades are welded on to the body in a high-quality process that involves pre-heating
and post-heating all components and the assembled unit to ensure stabilizer integrity and
minimize the possibility of blade failure. Blades can be straight, straight-offset or spiral
design (Figure 5-5). Welded-blade stabilizers are not recommended in hard formations
because of the danger of blade fatigue. They are best suited to large hole sizes where the
formation is softer because they allow maximum flow rates to be used. They are
relatively cheap. The blades can be built up when worn.
5.1.7.2 Integral-blade Stabilizer (I.B.)

I.B. stabilizers (Figure 5-6) are made from one piece of material rolled and machined to
provide the blades. They are more expensive than welded-blade stabilizers. The leading
edge may be rounded off to reduce wall damage and provide a greater wall contact area
in soft formations. They can have either three or four blades. I.B. stabilizers normally
have tungsten carbide inserts (TCIs). Pressed-in TCIs are recommended in abrasive
formations.

Spiral Straight Straight

Blade Blade Blade
(offset)
Figure 5-5 Welded blade stabilizers
Figure 5-6 Integral blade stabilizers

5.1.7.3 Sleeve-type Stabilizer

There are two main designs of sleeve-type stabilizer (Figure 5-7):
• Two-piece stabilizer (mandrel and sleeve). The sleeve is screwed onto the
coarse threads on the outside of the mandrel and torqued up to the recommended
value. Sleeve makeup torque is low. There is no pressure seal at the sleeve. It is
convenient to change sleeves on the drill floor. This design of stabilizer is
manufactured by several companies. It is in wide use today.
• Three-piece stabilizer (mandrel, sleeve and saver sub). The sleeve is screwed
onto the mandrel first, by hand. The saver sub is then screwed into the mandrel
and this connection is torqued up to the recommended value. In this case, there is
a mud pressure seal at the mandrel/saver sub connection. Makeup torque of this
connection is the full value for that size of API connection. Great care must be
taken (clean and dope the shoulders properly, use correct makeup torque),
otherwise downhole washouts etc. will result. It can be quite difficult any
time-consuming to change/service the sleeve. For these reasons, this design of
sleeve-type stabilizer is not as widely used today as it was some years ago.
Figure 5-7 Sleeve-type stabilizers
5.1.7.4 Clamp-on Stabilizer

Several designs are available e.g. REED, Servco-loc, EMTEC. An example is shown in
Figure 5-8. Clamp-on stabilizers allow more flexibility in BHA design. They can be
positioned on NMDCs, MWD, PDMs etc. at the required spacing to maintain directional
control. Nonmagnetic clamp-on stabilizers are available on request Some clients are
apprehensive about running clamp-on because of the danger of them moving position
downhole. Sometimes they’re difficult to take off after POOH.

Figure 5-8 Clamp-on stabilizers
5.1.7.5 Other stabilizers

Non-rotating Rubber Sleeve stabilizer (Figure 5-9): This type of stabilizer is used
somewhere above the top conventional stabilizer in the BHA, especially in abrasive
formations. The rubber sleeve does not rotate while drilling. Blade wear and wall
damage are thus minimized. A special elastomer sleeve may be used in temperatures up
to 350 °F.
Figure 5-9 Rubber sleeve stabilizer
Rockyback and Hydro-string stabilizers: Christensen designs. The sleeve is shrunk on

hydraulically to the mandrel. They are not used much today.
5.1.7.6 Replaceable Wear Pad stabilizer(RWP)

Has four long blades 90° apart composed of replaceable pads containing pressed-in TCI
compacts (Figure 5-10). RWP stabilizers are good for directional control and/or in
abrasive formations but may give excessive torque.

Figure 5-10 RWP stabilizer
5.1.7.7 ANDERGAUGE Stabilizer

The ANDERGAUGE stabilizer (Figure 5-11) is a downhole-adjustable stabilizer. It has
two positions - open (full gauge) or closed (under gauge). It is expanded to full gauge
downhole by slacking off a small amount of weight-on-bit and is then locked in place by
a hydraulic latch. To deactivate, the pumps are cut back before pulling off bottom. In this
case, the hydraulic latch locks the stabilizer in the closed position when normal pump
rate is resumed. Further information is available in the ANDERGAUGE manual.
Figure 5-11 ANDERGAUGE stabilizer

5.1.8 Roller Reamer

Roller reamers are designed to maintain hole gauge, reduce torque and stabilize the
drillstring. They can be 3-point or 6-point design (Figure 5-12). Both nearbit and string
roller reamers are available. They are particularly useful in abrasive formations.
Near-bit roller reamers help prolong bit life. They are normally bored out to accept a
float valve. A near-bit roller reamer is sometimes used in place of a near-bit stabilizer
where rotary torque is excessive. Sometimes one or more string roller reamers are also
used in a BHA. Roller reamers help to ream key seats, dog legs and ledges.
Figure 5-12 Roller reamers
Cutters are available for soft, medium and hard formations. Cutters, blocks and pins can
be changed at the rig-site.
5.1.9 Underreamer
Common applications for the underreamer are wiping out bridges and key-seats, opening
directional pilot holes, opening hole for a casing string below a BOP restriction. The tool
is opened hydraulically. It is held in the open position while hydraulic pressure is
maintained. When the pumps are shut off, the arms collapse back into the body of the
underreamer (Figure 5-13). Various formation-type cutters are available. Cutter arms and
nozzles can be changed on the rig. A "full-coverage" configuration of cutter arms must
be used. One size body accepts a range of sizes. It is recommended to run a
bull-nose below the underreamer when opening a directional pilot hole in soft formation.
This eliminates the possibility of an accidental sidetrack. Underreamers are normally
manufactured PIN UP.

Figure 5-13 Under-reamer
5.1.10 String Reamer

A string reamer is designed to increase the diameter of any key-seat through which it
passes. The body of a string reamer is sometimes made from a short length of HWDP.
The connections are usually the same as on the drillpipe. Blades are welded on the body
(Figure 5-14). The blades are hard- faced. The blades may be either straight or tapered.
The O.D. of the blades varies, but is never greater than the bit diameter.
A more expensive design of string reamer is machined from one piece of steel and
hard-facing then applied.
A string reamer is normally run in the drillpipe. It is positioned in the drillstring so that,
on reaching bottom, it is close to the top of the key-seat area. As drilling progresses, the
string reamer helps to ream out the key-seat.
String reamers with larger-O.D. bodies are designed to be run in the drill collars. They
have the same connections as the DCB.
Figure 5-14 String reamer

5.1.11 Key-seat Wiper

In a well where key-seating is a problem, a key-seat wiper (Figure 5-15) can be run
between the top drill collar and the bottom joint of HWDP. When POOH, the hard-faced
sleeve (which has an O.D. typically 1/4" greater than that of the DCs) tends to wedge in
the keyseat first. By releasing the drillstring, the sleeve is jarred out of the key-seat. The
clutch at the bottom of the sleeve is automatically disengaged. The string is then rotated
and the hole back-reamed. The sleeve re-engages the tool body. It acts as a reamer to
enlarge the key-seat and allow free passage of the drill collars. The tool can be either
single-clutch or double clutch design. The sleeve has spiral blades with TCI hard-facing
to provide fast cutting action and good resistance to wear.
Figure 5-15 Key seat wiper
5.1.12 Turbine
This tool uses centrifugal fluid mechanics. It is a totally different principle to the
positive-displacement motor (PDM). Energy is diverted from the velocity or volume of
mud flow directed onto a stationary angular stator, creating a rotating force on the
opposed angular rotor. Each rotor/stator combination is called a stage. A turbine for DD
work has many stages. Turbines (often called turbodrills) are not used much today. They
are normally run by specialists.

5.1.13 Bent Sub

A bent sub (Figure 5-16) normally is manufactured PIN x BOX. The pin connection of
the bent sub must be compatible with the box of the PDM of the same O.D. The pin is
machined at a certain offset angle to the axis of the body of the sub (high side). This
angle usually from 1° to 3° in increments of 1/2°. A scribe-line on the body of the sub,
directly in line with the centre of the pin offset, is used as the master reference for
tool-face position. A bent sub is used directly above a PDM or turbine. It forces the bit to
follow a certain arc of curvature as it drills.
Body
Offset Pin
Figure 5-16 Bent sub
5.1.14 Orienting Sub

An orienting sub is commonly called a UBHO (Universal Bottom Hole Orientation) sub.
It is a straight sub having PIN x BOX connections which are compatible with the bent
sub and/or the NMDCs. It is bored out to accept a mule-shoe sleeve. After all
intermediate connections have been torqued up fully, the key of the mule-shoe sleeve is
aligned directly above the scribe-line of the bent sub. This key is the landing-point for
the mule-shoe survey running gear. It gives the DD the tool-face position on his survey
disc. The sleeve is locked in place using two hexagonal screws (3/8" allen key required)
which are screwed in from the body of the sub. Figure 5-17 shows the situation when the
mule-shoe stinger is landed on the UBHO, with the mule-shoe slot sitting on the key of
the UBHO sleeve. This is the situation when surveying during a singleshot
kickoff/correction run sidetrack.

Mule Shoe
Orienting Assembly
"O" Ring
Sleeve
Mule Shoe
Key
"O" Ring
Screw
UHBO
Sub Body
Mule Shoe
Stinger
Figure 5-17 UBHO
5.1.15 Bent Orienting Sub (BOS)

A BOS is simply a sub which combines the features of a bent sub and a UBHO. The
offset pin is compatible with the PDM, it is bored out to take a mule-shoe sleeve etc.
5.1.16 Hole Opener

A hole opener is usually designed as a fixed-diameter tool (Figure 5-18). Hole openers
are used to open pilot holes. Various formation-type cutters are available. The cutters
and nozzles can be changed on the rig-site. The use of a bullnose (rather than a bit)
below the hole opener when opening directional pilot holes is strongly recommended.
Hole openers are usually manufactured PIN UP.
Figure 5-18 Hole opener

5.1.17 Bullnose
A bullnose is used to guide a hole opener or underreamer, particularly in deviated pilot
holes. The bullnose can be either hollow or solid. Some under reamers have no nozzles.
Thus, it is advisable to run a jet bullnose (Figure 5-19) directly below the underreamer in
such a situation. The fluid is directed upwards by the jets to clean the cutters and help the
underreaming operation. Bullnoses are usually manufactured PIN UP.
Figure 5-19 Bullnose
5.1.18 Section Mill
Figure 5-20 Section mill

This tool is used to mill a section of casing (usually prior to a cased-hole sidetrack). The
Servco K-mill (Figure 5-20) is the most common in ANADRILL. It operates on a similar
principle to the underreamer. It includes six triangular cutters which are dressed with
tungsten carbide. On reaching the depth of the top of the section, pump pressure is
applied. Three of the cutter arms expand and begin the cut-out. When the casing cut-out
is complete, the second set of three arms expands into the milling position. The Flo-Tel
feature gives a positive surface indication of casing cut-out. All six cutter arms are then
seated squarely on top of the casing and milling of the section proceeds.
5.1.19 Whip-stock
The fore-runner of the PDM as a deflection tool, whip-stock can be open-hole or cased-
hole. The open-hole whip-stock is retrievable. It is mainly used to do a deep sidetrack in
hot holes or on small rigs. The cased-hole whip-stock is used to perform a sidetrack from
inside casing. It is oriented, anchored inside the casing to allow deflection from the
casing and is left in place. Several trips are necessary to complete the cased-hole
sidetracking operation.
5.1.20 Drilling Jars

These are designed to deliver an impact either upwards or downwards. Jars are run in
deviated wells so that the string can be jarred free in case of tight hole or stuck pipe. Jars
can be either mechanical, hydraulic or hydro-mechanical design. The earthquaker (EQ)
jar is manufactured by Schlumberger. It will be covered in Chapter 6.
5.1.21 Shock Absorber/Shock Sub

Drilling shock absorbers were designed to solve the problems of drill string vibration.
The shock absorber absorbs or reduces the bit-induced vibration. The ANADRILL shock
absorber is called a SHOCK GUARD (Figure 5-21). It includes specially-designed
springs having high end load capacity and low spring rate that dampen vibration in
tension and compression.
Drilling Mud
Floating Pistion
Oil
Spring
Body
Bearing
Splines Body
Bearing
Mandrel
Mandrel
Torque-transmitting splines
Figure 5-21 Shock sub

5.1.22 Rebel Tool

The rebel tool corrects lateral drift by counteracting the bit walk. It can either slow down
the bit walk or eliminate it completely. Left-hand or right-hand paddles are available.
The paddles can be changed at the rig-site. It is most suitable in medium formations. The
rebel tool can be used at inclinations above 12° in hole sizes from 8 1/2" to 12 1/4". A
left-hand rebel tool (long paddle) is shown in Figure 5-22. With the advent of steerable
motors, the rebel tool is seldom used today.
Figure 5-22 Rebel tool
5.1.23 Steerable Motor

This is the “state-of-the-art" in terms of DD tools. It is a PDM which can be oriented or
rotated as required. A bent housing allows deflection to occur in oriented mode. Small
corrections to the well path can be made as required. BHA design allows inclination to
show minimal change in the rotary mode. Steerable motors are covered in Chapter 7.

5.2 Deflection Methods

The main deflection tools used in directional drilling are:
• Whipstocks
• Jetting
• Motors
5.2.1 Whipstock
The retrievable, open-hole whip-stock is only used in special applications e.g. rigs with
small pumps, sidetrack in deep, very hot hole.
The whip-stock is pinned to a limber BHA which includes a small bit (Figure 5-23). A
typical BHA is:
• Whip-stock + Pilot Bit + Stabilizer + Shearpin sub +1 Joint of Drill Pipe +
UBHO + Non-magnetic DC.
Figure 5-23 Whipstock deflection method
The hole must be clean before running the whip-stock. On reaching bottom, circulation is
started. The concave face of the whip-stock is oriented in the desired direction. The tool
is set on bottom. The toe of the wedge is anchored firmly in place by applying sufficient
weight to shear the pin. The bit is lowered down the whip-stock face. Rotation of the
drillstring is started About 15’ -20’ of rathole are drilled at a controlled rate.

The whip-stock is retrieved and the rathole opened with a pilot bit and hole opener.
Another trip using a full-gauge bit, near-bit stabilizer and limber BHA is then made.
About 30’ are drilled. More hole deflection is obtained. A full-gauge directional BHA is
then run and standard drilling is resumed.
It is obvious that the whip-stock deflection method of deflecting a wellbore is
time-consuming and involves several runs.
5.2.2 Jetting
This technique is used to deviate the wellbore in soft and friable formations. The well
can be kicked off and built up to maximum inclination using one BHA. Special jetting
bits can be used or it’s possible to use a standard long-tooth bit, normally using one very
large nozzle and two other blank (or very small) nozzles.
A typical jetting BHA is:
• Bit + Near-bit Stab. + UBHO + MWD + NMDC + Stab. + DC + Stab., etc.
A formation suitable for jetting must be selected. There must be sufficient room left on
the kelly to allow for jetting and drilling the first few feet after the jetted interval. The
centre of the large nozzle represents the tool face and is oriented in the desired direction.
Maximum circulation rate is used while jetting. Jet velocity for jetting should be 500
ft/sec. The drillstring is set on bottom. If the formation is sufficiently soft, the WOB
"drills off”. A pocket is washed in the formation opposite the large nozzle (Figure 5-24).
The bit and near-bit stabilizer work their way into the pocket (path of least resistance).
Enough hole should be jetted to “bury" the near-bit stabilizer. If required, the bit can be
pulled off bottom and the pocket "spudded". The technique is to lift the string about 5'
off bottom and then let it fall, catching it with the brake so that the stretch of the string
(rather than the full weight of the string) causes it to spud on bottom. Spudding can be
severe on drillstring, drilling line and derrick and should be kept to a minimum. Another
technique which may help is to "rock" the rotary table a little (15) right and left of our
orientation mark while jetting.
Step 1 Step 2
Orientated Drilling
and Jetting
Step 3
Re-Orientated
and Jetting
Figure 5-24 Jetting deflection method

After a few feet (typically 5’) have been jetted, the pumps are cut back to about 50% of
that used for jetting. The drillstring is rotated. It may be necessary to pull off bottom
momentarily due to high torque (nearbit stabilizer wedged in the pocket). High WOB and
low RPM are used to try to bend the collars above the near-bit stabilizer and force the
BHA to follow through the trend established while jetting. The remaining footage on the
kelly is drilled down. Deflection is produced in the direction of the pocket i.e. the
direction in which the large jet nozzle was originally oriented. To clean the hole prior to
connection/survey, the jet should be oriented in the direction of deviation. After
surveying, this orientation setting (tool face setting) is adjusted as required, depending
on the results achieved with the previous setting. Dogleg severity has to be watched
carefully and reaming performed as required.
The operation is repeated as often as is necessary until sufficient inclination has been
achieved and the well is heading in the desired direction. The hole inclination can then
be built up to maximum angle using 100% rotary drilling. Small direction changes can be
made if needed. The jetting method is compatible with the single-shot method or MWD.
Figure 5-24 illustrates the sequence.
Jetting BHAs are discussed in Chapter 10. In very soft formation where hole erosion
makes it impossible to keep enough WOB when drilling, a more limber ("Gilligan")
jetting BHA may be required.
5.2.2.1 Advantages of Jetting

• There is no offset in the assembly. Thus, survey errors are minimal compared to
PDM/bent sub alternative.
• Surveys can be taken much closer to the bit than when using a PDM.
• There is no reactive torque when jetting. The "tool face" can be oriented more
accurately than when using a PDM. This is particularly important when close to
other wells.
5.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Jetting

• The main problem with jetting is that that erratic, sometimes severe doglegs can
occur over short sections of hole. The problem is compounded by the fact that
these doglegs may be underestimated by normal survey practices. The calculated
dogleg is actually an average value over the total interval between surveys. Much
of this dogleg may have been created in the short section of hole which was
jetted. The actual dogleg severity in this part of the hole may be much higher
than that calculated from the surveys.
• Below 2,000’ TVD, the formation normally becomes too firm for efficient
jetting/spudding. A mud motor/bent sub kickoff would be preferable.
5.2.3 PDM (or Turbine) With Bent Sub

In this method (Figure 5-25), a bent sub is run directly above a PDM. A typical BHA is
as follows:
• Bit + PDM + Bent sub + Float sub + Orienting sub (UBHO) + Non-magnetic
DCs + Steel DCs + HWDP + DP.

Nonmagnetic
Drill Collar
Orienting Sub
Float Sub
Bent Sub
Mud Motor
Bent Sub
Angle
Bit
Figure 5-25 Typical PDM BHA
The pin of the bent sub is offset at an angle of 1°-3°. A scribe line is cut on the outside of
the body of the bent sub, above the centre of the pin offset. The bent sub allows
deflection to occur by pushing the mud motor to one side of the hole. As drilling
progresses with the drillstring locked, the bit is forced to follow a curved path. The
degree of curvature (dogleg severity) depends on the bent sub offset angle and the OD of
motor, bent sub and drill collars in relation to the hole diameter. It also depends on the
length of the motor and on the type of formation. The appropriate bit-bent sub/PDM
combination is chosen to give the desired dog-leg severity. An orienting sub (UBHO)
allows single- shot surveys to be taken as required.
Because of the high bit offset caused by the bent sub, it is advisable not to rotate this
type of BHA unless in special circumstances e.g. difficulty getting to bottom,
re-establishing orientation.
5.2.4 Steerable Positive Displacement Motor

The most common type of steerable motor (Figure 5-26). is the single bent-housing
design.
The motor housing is not straight. One of the motor housing connections (usually the
connecting rod housing) is machined at a certain precise offset angle. This is known as
the bent housing angle. The bent housing angle is usually 1.5°. At offsets greater than
this, it becomes difficult to rotate and motor life is shortened.

String Stabilizer
Optional Dump Valve
PDM Power Section
Bent Housing
(less than 2°)
Bearing Housing
Stabilizer
Figure 5-26 Steerable motor
Because the bend in the housing is quite close to the bit, the nominal bit offset is much
less than when using a straight PDM with bent sub as the deflection method. This is
shown in Figure 5-27. However, the rate of deflection (dog leg severity) achieved for a
relatively small bent housing offset angle is high.
A steerable motor can be used to perform kickoffs, correction runs and sidetracks.
However, the usual application of a steerable motor is as the major component of a BHA
which can be used in oriented ("sliding") or rotary mode. In sliding mode, the steerable
motor changes the course of the well. The BHA is designed as a "locked" assembly in
rotary mode.

The ideal use of a steerable motor is to drill a complete hole section from casing point to
casing point. In theory, provided the bit and BHA selection is good, a steerable motor
can stay in the hole until the next casing point. The extra cost to the client of running the
motor must be compensated for by significant savings in rig time - due to less round trips
and/or faster ROP.
A surface-adjustable bent housing is now available. The next technological advance will
be a downhole-adjustable bent housing.
Steerable Conventional
System Bent Sub/Mud
Motor Assembly
Side
Force
Side
Force
1" Nominal 18" Nominal

Bit Offset Bit Offset
Figure 5-27 Steerable motor bit offset

Section 7 - Downhole Motors
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval

Table of Contents
7 Downhole Motors Page

7.1 DOWNHOLE MUD MOTORS ................................................................................................7-1
7.1.1 Positive-Displacement Motors..................................................................................7-2
7.1.2 Mud Motor Hydraulics .............................................................................................7-7
7.1.3 Comparison of 1:2 vs. multilobe PDMs ...................................................................7-10
7.1.4 Hydraulic Thrust:......................................................................................................7-10
7.1.5 Mud motor operations...............................................................................................7-11
7.1.5.1 Making-up Mud Motor....................................................................................7-11
7.1.5.2 Running in with Mud Motor ...........................................................................7-12
7.1.5.3 Getting on Bottom with Mud Motor ...............................................................7-12
7.1.5.4 Drilling with Mud Motor ................................................................................7-12
7.1.5.5 POOH with Mud Motor ..................................................................................7-12
7.1.5.6 Servicing Mud Motor after POOH..................................................................7-13
7.1.6 Non-standard uses of straight-housing PDMs ..........................................................7-14
7.2 STEERABLE MUD MOTORS .................................................................................................7-14
7.2.1 Steerable Motor BHAs .............................................................................................7-17

Figure 7-1 Principles of operation of turbine and PDM .......................................................... 7-2
Figure 7-2 Typical Dump Valve Assembly.............................................................................. 7-3
Figure 7-3 Positive displacement motor................................................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-4 PDM lobe configurations ....................................................................................... 7-4
Figure 7-5 lllustrations of various motor profiles .................................................................... 7-5
Figure 7-6 Typical PDM connecting rod assembly.................................................................. 7-5
Figure 7-7 Typical PDM bearing loading ................................................................................ 7-6
Figure 7-8 Typical 1:2 lobe PDM ............................................................................................ 7-7
Figure 7-9 Typical PDM power output curve. ......................................................................... 7-8
Figure 7-10 PDM bearing “play”. .......................................................................................... 7-13
Figure 7-11 Typical adjustable bend housing steerable motor .............................................. 7-15
Figure 7-12 Nortrak DTU....................................................................................................... 7-16
Figure 7-13 Distance L used to calculate angle-build characteristics.................................... 7-17
Figure 7-14 Estimated build rates with PowerPak motor ...................................................... 7-18
Figure 7-15 Typical steerable mud motor assembly .............................................................. 7-19
List of Tables Page

Table 7-1 Comparison of 1:2 vs multilobe PDMs ................................................................. 7-10
Table 7-2 Specifications for two typical 7 3/4 in. motors...................................................... 7-10
Table 7-3 Oil categories based on aniline point..................................................................... 7-20

Downhole Motors
7 Downhole Motors
About this chapter
The positive-displacement mud motor (PDM) is the most indispensable tool at the DD’s
disposal. It is vital that the DD understand how to utilize the PDM to best advantage. The
basics of PDM design are covered in this chapter.
With the PowerPak mud motor, Anadrill has added a reliable and high-quality tool to its
range.
It is recommended that, in the short term, the DD be aware of the exact specifications of
"third party" PDMs which he may have to use.
PDM design, specifications, operating procedures, etc., are covered in this chapter. The
basics of steerable PDMs and steerable BHA design are also covered in this chapter.

exercises:
1. Draw a diagram of a PDM, showing the major components. Describe the function
and purpose of each component.
2. Explain the main differences in construction between 1:2 lobe and multilobe PDMs.
3. Explain the uses of a rotor nozzle.
4. Describe what is meant by hydraulic thrust when using a PDM.
5. Explain the procedure involved in making up a PDM with a bent sub in a kickoff
BHA.
6. Describe the basic service which is done to a PDM after POOH, prior to laying it
down. Assume water-base mud.
7. Describe what precautions are necessary when drilling with a PDM.
8. Explain what surface indication(s) the driller has of PDM operation (and possible
problems) downhole.
9. Explain the main difference(s) in design between a straight PDM and a steerable
PDM.
10. Explain how an estimate is made of the buildup rate achievable with a bent-housing
steerable BHA.
11. Give examples of typical steerable BHAs designed to build inclination from vertical
to maximum angle and to hold this inclination until the next casing point.
12. Explain the effect the upper (string) stabilizer has on steerable BHA performance.
7.1 Downhole Mud Motors

Down hole mud motors are powered by mud flow. The two major types of down hole
motor are:
• the Turbine, which is basically a centrifugal or axial pump.
• the Positive Displacement Motor (PDM).

Downhole Motors
The principles of operation of both turbine and PDM are shown in Figure 7-1. The
design of the tools is totally different. Turbines were in wide use some years ago.
However, improvements in bit and PDM design have meant that turbines are only used in
special applications today. We will look in detail at PDMs in this chapter. Turbines will
not be considered.
Turbine Motor Positive Displacement Motor
Flow
Rotation
Flow
Rotation
Figure 7-1 Principles of operation of turbine and PDM
7.1.1 Positive-Displacement Motors

The Dynadrill (1:2 lobe configuration) was the original oilfield mud motor. Mud motor
technology has since come a long way. In this manual, we will first look at the principle
of operation of all mud motors. Comparisons between various types of motors will be
made later.
Any mud motor consists of four basic parts:
1. Dump Valve Assembly
2. Power Section
3. Connecting Rod Assembly
4. Bearing and Drive Shaft Assembly.
Dump Valve Assembly: This allows the mud to fill or drain from the drillstring while
tripping. When a minimum flow rate is established, the valve piston (Figure 7-2) is
forced down, closing the ports to the annulus. Thus, all the mud is directed through the
motor. When the flow rate becomes less than this minimum value, a spring returns the
valve piston to the "open" position, opening the ports to the annulus.
To avoid the ingress of solids from the annulus when the pumps are off (especially in
loose Sand), it’s normal to run a float sub as close to the motor as possible.

Downhole Motors
Open Closed
Figure 7-2 Typical Dump Valve Assembly
The motor will function perfectly without a dump valve - It can be laid down and
replaced by a sub having the same connections or run with the ports blanked-off.
However, it is preferable to run the dump valve. It allows the drill string to fill on the trip
in the hole and, if the ports are not blocked off by formation, it allows the string to be
pulled "dry".
Power Section: The positive displacement motor is a reverse application of the Moineau
pump. Fluid is pumped into the motor’s progressive cavities. The force of the fluid
movement causes the shaft to rotate within the stator (Figure 7-3). Thus, it is a positive-
displacement motor (commonly called a PDM). The rotational force is then transmitted
through the connecting rod and drive shaft to the bit.
Flow
Rotation
Housing
Rotor
Stator
Figure 7-3 Positive displacement motor

Downhole Motors
The rotor is chrome-plated alloy steel of spiral-helix shape. The stator is a hollow steel
housing, lined with a molded-in-place elastomer rubber compound. A spiral-shaped
cavity is produced in the stator during manufacture. The rotor is produced with matching
"lobe" profile and similar helical pitch to the stator, but with one lobe less. The rotor can
therefore be matched to and inserted inside the stator. When assembled, the rotor and
stator form a continuous seal along their matching contact points. Examples of 1:2 and
5:6 rotor/stator configurations are shown in Figure 7-4.
Housing
Rotor
Stator
1 : 2 Lobe 5 : 6 Multi-lobe
Configuration Configuration for
for High Speed and Lower Speeds and
Low Torque Higher Torque
Figure 7-4 PDM lobe configurations
Each complete spiral of the stator is called a stage. A slight interference fit between rotor
O.D. and stator I.D. controls motor power. Mud motors are divided into slow-speed,
medium-speed and high-speed types. This is done by changing the pitch of the motor
stages and by the number of "lobes" and resultant cavities of the stator. Samples of the
various motor profiles that are available are illustrated in Figure 7-5.
The greater the number of lobes, the higher the motor torque and the lower the output
RPM. A D-500 Dynadrill is a 1:2 lobe motor. The Drilex PDMs and the Dynadrill
F2000S are multilobe motors. ANADRILL manufactures both 1:2 and multi-lobe motors.
Various configurations are available. (Refer to the appropriate motor specifications).
There are different applications for 1:2 lobe and multilobe motors. The power section is
often called the motor section.

Downhole Motors
1/2 5/6
Stator
Rotor
7/8 9 / 10
Stator
Rotor
Figure 7-5 lllustrations of various motor profiles
Connecting Rod Assembly: This is attached to the lower end of the rotor. It transmits the
torque and rotational speed from the rotor to the drive shaft and bit. Universal joints
convert the eccentric motion of the rotor into concentric motion at the drive shaft (Figure
7-6). On some models of mud motor, reinforced rubber "boots" cover the u-joints. These
prevent erosion by the mud.
Eccentric
Rotor
Rotor Motion
Connecting Connecting
Rod Rod Motion
Drive Shaft
Concentric
Drive Shaft
Motion
Figure 7-6 Typical PDM connecting rod assembly
Bearing and Drive Shaft Assembly: The drive shaft is a rigidly-constructed hollow steel
component. It is supported within the bearing housing by radial and axial thrust bearings
(Figure 7-7). The bearing assembly transmits drilling thrust and rotational power to the
drill bit. Most of the mud flows straight through the center of the drive shaft to the bit.

Downhole Motors
Bearing
Loading
(Loaded)
(Unloaded)
Radial Bearing/
Flow Restrictor
Off Bottom
Thrust BRG's
(Unloaded)
(Loaded)
On Bottom
Thrust BRG's
Radial Bearing/
Flow Restrictor
Rotating
Bit Sub
Bit
Figure 7-7 Typical PDM bearing loading
A typical PDM has the following main bearing elements:

a) Off-bottom Thrust Bearings: These support the hydraulic thrust and weight of
the rotor, connecting rod, drive shaft and drill bit when the tool is hanging and
rotating freely off bottom. They are normally ballbearing type design.
b) Radial Support Bearings: A sleeve-type design is used for both upper and lower
radial bearings. The radial bearings in the ANADRILL motor consist of tungsten
carbide-coated sleeves. These provide radial support for the driveshaft. They
also regulate the flow of mud through the bearing assembly. This diverted mud
(usually 4 - 10%) is used to cool and lubricate the shaft, radial and thrust
bearings. It exits to the annulus directly above the bit drive sub. The exact
percentage of mud diverted is determined by the condition of the bearings and
the pressure drop across the bit.
A sealed, oil-filled bearing is an alternative to the mud-lubricated bearing. A
sealed bearing would be recommended where corrosive muds are used, where a
lot of LCM of various sizes is pumped or where there is a requirement for a very
low pressure drop across the bit (P bit).
c) On-bottom Thrust Bearings: These transmit the drilling load from the
non-rotating motor housing to the rotating drill bit. These bearings take the load
while drilling. They are either comprised of ball-bearing races (e.g. ANADRILL
motor) or diamond friction bearings (e.g. Dynadrill F2000S).
The rotating bit (drive) sub is the only externally moving part of a mud motor. It has
standard API bit box connections.

Downhole Motors
On some designs of PDM, a crossover/saver sub is used between the stator housing and
the dump valve. It helps to protect the threads of the expensive stator.
A typical PDM (in this case, a 1:2 lobe motor) showing its major components is
illustrated in Figure 7-8.
Lifting Sub
Connecting Rod
Assembly Dump Valve
Saver Sub
(Optional)
Motor
Bearing Assembly
Assembly
Bit / Drive Sub
Figure 7-8 Typical 1:2 lobe PDM
Note
The connections between the various housings (with the exception of that directly below
the dump valve) of a conventional PDM should not be broken on the rig. They are made
up to the correct make-up torque in the shop. As discussed, the dump valve does not
affect the PDM operation. Sometimes a failed dump valve can be replaced or, provided
the correct crossover sub is available, can be dispensed with totally.
The lifting sub should be used to pick up and lay down the mud motor only.
7.1.2 Mud Motor Hydraulics

As discussed in Chapter 9, the use of a mud motor in the drillstring changes the hydraulic
calculation significantly. Various factors have to be taken into account. These are:
1. Range of flow rates allowable: Each size and type of PDM is designed to take a
certain range of volumes of fluid. Multilobe motors have a broader flow rate range
and a much higher maximum allowable flow rate than 1:2 lobe PDMs of the same
O.D. This gives better hole-cleaning capability - useful when ROP is high.

Downhole Motors
2. No-load Pressure Loss: When mud is pumped through a mud motor which is turning
freely off-bottom (i.e. doing no work) a certain pressure loss is needed to overcome
the rotor/stator friction forces and cause the motor to turn. This pressure loss and
motor RPM are proportional to flow rate. Their values are known for each size and
type of PDM. The no-load Pressure Loss is usually no greater than 100 psi.
3. Pressure Drop across the Motor (Pmotor): As the bit touches bottom and effective
WOB is applied, pump pressure increases. This increase in pressure is normally
called the motor differential pressure (P on bottom - Poff bottom). Motor torque increases in
direct proportion to the increase in differential pressure. This differential pressure is
required to pump a given volume of mud through the motor to perform useful work.
It is also called the Pressure Drop across the Motor (P motor). For a multilobe motor, it
can be 500 psi or even more.
4. Stallout Pressure: There is a maximum recommended value of motor differential
pressure. At this point, the optimum torque is produced by the motor. If the effective
WOB is increased beyond this point, pump pressure increases further. P motor
increases to a point where the lining of the stator is deformed. The rotor/stator seal is
broken and the mud flows straight through without turning the bit. The pump
pressure reading jumps sharply and does not vary as additional WOB is applied. This
is known as stallout condition.
Recent studies have shown that the power output curve is a parabola (Figure 7-9) and
not a smooth upward curve, as originally thought. If the PDM is operated at
50%-60% of the maximum allowable motor differential pressure, the same
performance should be achieved as when operating at 90% of differential. The
former situation is much better, however. There is a much larger "cushion" available
before stallout. This should result in significantly longer motor life.
Typical Power Output Curve

Multi Lobe Downhole Motor
Maximum Power
H
O
R
Stall Starts
S
E
P
O
W Dramatic
E Pressure
R Increase
Off Bottom Total Stall
PUMP PRESSURE
Figure 7-9 Typical PDM power output curve.

Downhole Motors
The greater the wear on the motor bearings, the easier it is to stall out the motor. It is
not recommended to deliberately stall out the PDM briefly on reaching bottom, even
though this tells the DD what the stallout pressure is. The motor can be damaged
even after a single stall. The DD may want to operate the motor at about 50% of
stallout differential pressure. In any case, stay within the PDM design specifications.
It is obvious that, if the pump pressure while drilling normally with a mud motor is
close to the rig maximum, stalling of the PDM may lead to tripping of the "pop-off
valve". This should be taken into account in designing the hydraulics program.
A stalled mud motor should be picked off bottom quickly. Major motor damage will
result if mud is continuously pumped through a non-rotating motor.
5. Pressure Drop across the Bit (Pbit): For a given mud weight and flow rate, the TFA
of the bit nozzles determines the pressure drop across the bit. The smaller the TFA,
the greater the bit pressure drop. This effects the volume of mud diverted to cool the
bearings. The greater the percentage of mud diverted, the greater the wear on the
bearings. For every make and type of PDM, there is a certain recommended value of
Pbit. This should not be exceeded. For the ANADRILL multilobe motors, Pbit must be
in the range 500-1500 psi.
6. Rotor Nozzle: Most multilobe motors have a hollow rotor. This can be blanked off or
fitted with a jet nozzle. When the standard performance range for the motor matches
the drilling requirements, a blanking plug is normally fitted. The rotor nozzle can be
easily replaced on the rig. (It normally entails removing the dump valve first). Use of
this rotor nozzle can:
a) increase the total mud flow through the motor (e.g. in performance drilling, for
better hole cleaning).
b) reduce the bit RPM at high flow rates. This is a useful option when using a
conventional tricone bit. It helps to prolong bit life by reducing wear on the bit
bearings etc.
In both cases, a certain percentage of the mud flow is diverted away from the
rotor/stator interface. The flow through the rotor nozzle depends on Pmotor which in
turn is directly proportional to the torque being produced by the motor. If there is
less than optimum load on the motor, the amount of fluid by-passed through the rotor
will be reduced. This results in the RPM increasing, possibly leading to premature
motor failure. Thus, if a rotor fitted with a by-pass nozzle is run at a high flow rate
and it becomes necessary to circulate off bottom, the flow rate must be cut back. The
same applies if Pmotor is reduced due to low-torque drilling conditions (hard
formation etc.). Tables are available from the various PDM manufacturers which
give the expected bypass flow for different nozzle configurations.
The selection of the rotor nozzle is critical. Excessive bypass will lead to a
substantial drop in motor performance and, consequently, drilling efficiency. If a
rotor nozzle is used at lower flow rates, the power of the motor will be greatly
reduced. Very few 1:2 motors (only those designed for specific applications) have a
hollow rotor.
Because of their design, multilobe motors have significantly higher flow rate, Pmotor
and Pbit limits than 1:2 designs. Higher flow rates lead to faster ROP and better hole
cleaning. The higher Pmotor means that increased WOB can be used, leading to much
higher motor torque and faster ROP. The higher Pbit means that smaller nozzles can be
used, leading to better drilling hydraulics there are applications for both types of motors.

Downhole Motors
From the above, it is clear that careful planning of the PDM hydraulics program is
required. This is usually done by the DD. It is an important part of his job.
7.1.3 Comparison of 1:2 vs. multilobe PDMs

Because of their different construction, as discussed above, 1:2 and multilobe motors
have significantly different characteristics. These can be summarized as follows:
Table 7-1 Comparison of 1:2 vs multilobe PDMs
1:2 PDM Multilobe PDM
High Speed Lower Speed
Low Torque Higher Torque
Low Flow Rate Higher Flow Rate
No Rotor Bypass Nozzle Rotor Bypass Nozzle
Low Pmotor Higher Pmotor
Low Pbit Higher Pbit
Low Weight-on-bit limit Higher WOB limit
Usually needs high-speed bit Can use Journal-bearing
Relatively easy to orient More difficult to orient
Use mainly with Bent Sub Use with Bent Sub or
Basis for Steerable PDM
Broader flow rate range of multilobe PDMs and much higher Pbit allows optimization of
bit hydraulics.
Increased output torque reduces the chances of stalling when using aggressive PDC bits.
It also makes it possible to run large tools (underreamers, large- diameter bits, hole
openers and core barrels) below the motor.
For the same power output, a 1:2 motor will have to be significantly longer (and have
more stages) than a multilobe motor of the same O.D.
Specifications for two typical 7 3/4" O.D. mud motors (1:2 and multilobe) are given in
Table 7-2. They illustrate the above difference.
Table 7-2 Specifications for two typical 7 3/4 in. motors
Configuration 1:2 9:10
Hole Size Range 9 7/8”-12 1/4” 9 7/8”-14 3/4”
Tool Length 20.2 ft. 24.3 ft.
Maximum WOB 20,000 lb. 65,000 lb.
Maximum Pbit 500 psi 1,500 psi
Minimum Flow Rate 300 GPM 200 GPM
Maximum Flow Rate 450 GPM 650 GPM
Maximum Flow Rate w/Rotor Nozzle N/A 800 GPM
Output Shaft RPM 275-415 55-185
Maximum Torque 1,150 ft-lbf. 4.5k-6k ft-lbf
Maximum Pmotor 360 psi 800 psi
No. of Stages 3 2
7.1.4 Hydraulic Thrust

In all positive-displacement motors, back pressure from the flow of mud through the
motor and bearing assembly creates a downward axial hydraulic thrust (Wt).
During motor drilling, the weight applied to the bit and formation creates an upward
thrust (WOB). The difference between the two thrust forces is supported by the thrust
bearing assembly and transmitted to the body of the motor.

Downhole Motors
Wt < WOB means OFF-BOTTOM bearings are loaded.

Wt = WOB means BALANCED (No bearings loaded).
Wt > WOB means ON-BOTTOM bearings are loaded.
For extended bearing life, Wt and WOB should be balanced as closely as possible. In
many extended-interval programs, it is desirable to match bit hydraulics with the weight
on bit in order to achieve the best drilling results. This is not easily achievable in
practice. When Pbit is high, the WOB required to balance the hydraulic thrust may
exceed that recommended for the PDM and the bit. Hydraulic thrust data and graphs are
available to help in optimizing bearing life.
It is important to note, however, than when using any PDM in the sliding (non-rotating)
mode, WOB read from the weight indicator is not a true value. Hole friction (drag) is
often high. In such a situation, the pump pressure gauge is the only reliable indicator of
mud motor output torque. By keeping the motor differential pressure within a specific
narrow band (less than the maximum value allowed), the driller can optimize ROP.
7.1.5 Mud motor operations
7.1.5.1 Making-up Mud Motor

• Pick up PDM, put in slips, install collar clamp, unscrew lifting sub.
• Test dump valve operation by hand (using water hose and e.g. handle of sledge
hammer).
Note
This is not possible with the ANADRILL motor!
• If testing PDM, make up bit first, use x/o and kelly/top drive. (PDM new from
base should be O.K.!).
• If testing PDM with a bent sub, keep pumping time to absolute minimum.
• Pick up MWD collar. Make up float sub & bent sub (by hand) onto collar.
• Stab bent sub pin into box of PDM.
• Align scribe line towards drawworks (or v-door).
• Pull MWD collar over with tugger so that bent sub threads are in line with PDM
box threads (i.e. horizontal).
• Put make-up tong on bent sub body.
• Rotate rotary table (and hence PDM) slowly counter-clockwise.
• When all threads are engaged, torque connections to API value using rig tongs.
• Torque all connections up to MWD collar.
• Measure angular offset from slick pin to bent sub scribe line. Bring up bent sub
scribe line mark to top of MWD collar.
• P/U NMDC(s), UBHO (if used) and PRS. Stab into box of MWD collar.
• Torque connections up to UBHO. Put UBHO in slips. Install collar clamp below
UBHO screws.

Downhole Motors
• Back out NMDC(s).

• Align key of UBHO sleeve with bent sub scribe line. Lock in place using screws.
• Make up NMDC(s) and RIH.
7.1.5.2 Running in with Mud Motor

• Hole should be circulated clean before running PDM.
• Go slowly in open hole. Driller must be careful!
• If high Bottom-Hole Temperature (BHT), break circulation periodically.
• If using float valve (normally), fill pipe at regular intervals.
• Be especially careful near bottom (fill etc.).
7.1.5.3 Getting on Bottom with Mud Motor

• About 1 single off bottom, P/U kelly. Circulate. Wash slowly to bottom.
• Clean hole using expected flow rate. Rotate slowly only if required!
• If doing single-shot kickoff, rack back kelly & work torque out of string before
orientation survey.
• If using MWD, work pipe with pumps on (rotary locked) before taking
orientation survey.
• Orient tool face before drilling.
• For "blind" sidetrack, orientation is not absolutely necessary. However, we must
keep a toolface reference. Inclination is built along an arbitrary direction before
being dropped back to vertical.
7.1.5.4 Drilling with Mud Motor

• Record off-bottom circulating pressure.
• If the standpipe pressure (SPP) is calculated and does not increase as WOB is
applied, it’s an indication that the dump valve has not closed. Pick up off bottom,
surge the pumps. Try to force the piston to close.
• As bit is lowered to bottom and drilling begins, torque demand on PDM
increases. Pressure differential across motor (P motor) increases in proportion. We
must limit Pmotor to the value recommended for the particular motor (e.g. 360 psi
for D500 Dynadrill).
• Drill with pressure gauge (WOB gauge normally not accurate in sliding mode).
• Maintain a constant SPP while drilling. This ensures a steady DWOB in
homogeneous formation. It should also ensure a steady tool-face (provided no
change in formation).
• For trouble-shooting with a PDM in the hole, please refer to the DD UOP or the
ANADRILL PowerPak PDM Manual.
7.1.5.5 POOH with Mud Motor

• Use pipe spinner in open hole.

Downhole Motors
• Rotate string slowly if necessary.

• If dump valve ports clear, we should pull "dry".
• Dump valve less likely to "work" in soft formation (ports plugged with
formation).
• Slug must be kept well above dump valve when pumped.
7.1.5.6 Servicing Mud Motor after POOH

• Break off & L/D float sub, bent sub. Rack back MWD etc.
• Put slips & collar clamp below ports of dump valve.
• Flush dump valve thoroughly. Clean ports. Check operation.
• Install PDM lift sub using chain tongs. Pick up to bit. Wash body of PDM, drive
sub and bit.
• Put water hose well down inside lift sub and tie securely to elevators.
• Put bit into bit breaker in rotary table.
• Put breakout tong securely on body of PDM (above drive sub).
• Turn on water hose while rotating bit to the right with the rotary table. Continue
until you see clean water exiting via nozzles.
• Disconnect water. Pour in a bucket of mineral oil (if available) via top of lift sub.
Rotate slowly to the right until we see oil exiting at bit.
• Measure "play" in bearings as follows (Figure 7-10).
– Hang motor free in elevators. Measure the distance between the lower part of
the bearing housing and the top of the bit sub. Call this distance A.
– Slack off the full weight of the mud motor on to the rotary table. Measure
the distance between the lower part of the bearing housing and the top of the
bit sub. Call this distance B. Bearing play = (A-B).
Clearance = (A - B)
Figure 7-10 PDM bearing “play”

Downhole Motors
Each motor has a specific value of maximum allowable bearing play. Decide whether the
PDM should be returned for servicing.
• Lay down mud motor.
• If you don’t look after your mud motor, it won’t work for you next time!
• It’s a good idea to paint on body of PDM the number of D+C (Drilling +
Circulating) hours done so far with this tool. This is especially useful for your
relief DD!
7.1.6 Non-standard uses of straight-housing PDMs

Sometimes it becomes necessary to use a straight-housing motor without a bent sub.
Typical applications of this type are:
1. High Rotary Torque: Where it becomes very difficult to rotate the drillstring (often
due to formation effects), one solution is to use a high- torque motor. The drillstring
is rotated very slowly. Rotary torque should drop drastically. The high-torque motor
does most of the work. If it’s in the tangent section of a directional well, a clamp-on
stabilizer (1/8" undergauge) is put on the bearing housing. The BHA is designed with
an undergauge string stabilizer above the motor. A lock-up situation is normally
required in this case. If the well is already vertical, the motor may be run "slick" and
an under-gauge stabilizer placed at ca. 60’ from the bit.
2. Straight-Hole Drilling: Sometimes all or part of a vertical well is drilled using a
PDM. If a diamond bit is used, a 1:2 lobe motor is best. A multilobe motor is
preferable if a tricone bit is used.
7.2 Steerable Mud Motors

The rugged, dependable multilobe motor has been used as the design basis for the
majority of steerable PDMs. There are two main designs of steerable motor:
1. Bent-housing Steerable Motor: A high-torque, multilobe motor is fitted with a bent
housing, usually having an offset angle of 0.25° - 1.5°. This tilts the axis of the bit
relative to the axis of the hole. Significant bit side force is achieved for a relatively
small bit offset.
A concentric stabilizer is placed on the bearing housing. This stabilizer is always
slightly under-gauge (e.g. 12 1/8" in 12 1/4" hole). Depending on the design of PDM,
this stabilizer may be sleeve-type (possible to change on the drill floor) or an integral
part of the bearing housing.
Because of the lack of flexibility of early steerable motors, a surface-adjustable bent
housing has been developed (Figure 7-11). This allows rig-floor adjustment of PDM
bent-housing angle from 0° (i.e. equivalent to a straight-housing motor) up to 3° (in
case of ANADRILL motor), in small increments. Please refer to relevant PDM field
manual.
The next development will be a downhole-adjustable bent housing. This is now
being developed by ANADRILL.

Downhole Motors
Dump valve
Housing
Rotor
Power section
Stator
Housing
Rotor
Stator
Surface-adjustable
bent housing
Bearing section Interchangeable

Stabilizer
Figure 7-11 Typical adjustable bend housing steerable motor
The bent housing allows the bit to build inclination and/or change the hole direction
when the rotary table-top-drive is locked and to drill straight ahead when the
drillstring is being rotated. The number of round trips is thus drastically reduced,
provided the correct bit and BHA are chosen.

Downhole Motors
Because of their high reactive torque, it is generally difficult to try to orient steerable
PDMs using single-shot surveys. It is slow and can lead to the hole being drilled off
in the wrong direction. High dog-legs can also result if control of the tool-face is
lost. There are occasions (e.g. using single-shot gyro surveys, at shallow depths)
where a kickoff may have to be started using this method. Great care must be taken.
MWD surveys should be used as soon as D&I survey errors are acceptable. Where
possible, an MWD tool is recommended at all times when using a
high-torque/steerable PDM. The combination of bit, steerable motor and remainder
of the BHA up to the top of the MWD collar is commonly called a steerable system.
Obviously, with all steerable motors, marking the reference scribe line in the correct
place on the PDM housing is critical. The offset angle between it and the MWD
toolface reference will determine our tool-face readings. With a fixed bent housing,
the scribe line is normally marked. It should be double-checked on the rig. With a
surface-adjustable bent housing, the procedure outlined in the relevant PDM manual
should be followed.
2. Double tilted U-joint Housing This type of steerable motor was developed by
Christensen (Nortrak DTU). Instead of a single bend on the PDM housing, the U-
joint housing angles first in one direction, then doubles back in the opposite
direction. The DTU angle is the mathematical resultant angle computed from the two
opposing tilt angles. Depending on the size of the PDM and the desired build rate,
the DTU angle varies from 0.13° to 0.78°. The small degree of bit offset is designed
to keep the eccentricity of the drillstring to a minimum. A slightly over-gauge hole is
drilled. An undergauge stabilizer is mounted on the bearing housing (Figure 7-12).
This stabilizer may be integral or sleeve-type.
Figure 7-12 Nortrak DTU
The power section of a Nortrak motor is a Navi-drill Mach 1 or Mach 2 PDM. The Mach
1 is a 5:6 motor. It's compatible with tricone bits. The Mach 2 is a 1:2 motor. It can be
used with standard PDC or diamond bits. The Mach 1 motor is shorter, giving about 20%
greater dogleg than the Mach 2.

Downhole Motors
Because of their inflexibility (adjustable bent housing is not possible) and unpredictable
response in certain situations (e.g. when trying to drop inclination while close to
horizontal), the DTU system has largely been superseded by the single-bend design of
steerable PDM.
7.2.1 Steerable Motor BHAs

Some of the same principles discussed in Chapter 10 (Rotary BHAs) also apply to
steerable BHAs. We will deal with single bent-housing steerable motors, although the
same principles apply to DTUs.
Let us take as an example a kickoff from vertical. The well is planned so that the
maximum angle is reached and part of the slant section drilled before the next casing
point.
In a steerable BHA, the objective is to kickoff the well and build inclination to maximum
angle along the desired hole direction. This is done mainly in the oriented (sliding)
mode. On reaching maximum angle, the drillstring is turned at a slow rate (30-60 RPM).
Ideally, in the slant section, a condition of close to zero side force at the bit should be
achieved from the steerable BHA. Thus, very little orientation should be necessary after
the maximum angle is achieved. Small corrections to the hole direction are made in the
oriented mode.
Estimation of Dogleg Severity The expected dogleg severity achievable with a specific
bit and motor (O.D. and bent housing offset angle) size is calculated using 3-point
geometry.
Where no specific information is available on a steerable motor’s angle-build
characteristics, a good estimate is got by using the following formula (Figure 7-13).
Figure 7-13 Distance L used to calculate angle-build characteristics.
L = Distance from bit to center of top stabilizer sleeve.
( Bent Hou sin g Angle ) • 200

= BUR in º/100’
L
Note
This formula is true only when we're in the build-up phase. When dropping off, the tool's
dog-leg response is different.
Expected build-up rate is usually got from the motor manufacturer. ANADRILL uses the
3DB computation. The bit is the first contact point. The second contact point is either the
bend or the stabilizer on the bearing housing. The third contact point is normally the first
stabilizer above the motor. Maximum buildup rate occurs when 100% of the drilling is
done in sliding mode.

Downhole Motors
Certain assumptions are made in predicting the dogleg severity. The hole is assumed to
be in-gauge. Formation characteristics and drilling parameters affect the response of
steerable BHAs. Thus, predicted values of dogleg severity should be used as an estimate
only until some actual data is got from steerable runs.
Results of estimated dogleg severity for a typical BHA using a PowerPak steerable motor
are shown in Figure 7-14. A typical steerable BHA is shown on Figure 7-15.
D
D 1
2
L
2
L L
1 3
Figure 7-14 Estimated build rates with PowerPak motor
The following generalizations can be made about steerable BHAs:

1. As the bent-housing offset angle is increased, bit side force increases. It becomes
more difficult to slide. In the rotary mode, it becomes more difficult to rotate. There
is more stress on the motor also. For conventional DD well, anything greater than a
1.5° bent housing is neither necessary nor recommended. However, in horizontal
drilling, bent housings of 2.5° offset have been used.
2. The motor stabilizer (on the bearing housing) is manufactured under-gauge. It is
typically V8" under gauge in 12 1/4" hole size and under. In larger hole sizes, it can
be 1/4" under-gauge.
It is important to check the gauge of the motor stabilizer on every trip, particularly in
abrasive formations. In the ANADRILL motor, with some exceptions, the motor
stabilizers are sleeve-type. It is possible to change the sleeve on the drill floor. Some
designs of steerable motor have an integral-blade stabilizer. In any case, if the motor
stabilizer wears significantly (say, more than an additional 1/16" under-gauge in
12-1/4" hole size and smaller), the sleeve (or motor) must be changed. Otherwise, in
rotary mode, inclination will probably fall.
3. If we use no string (top) stabilizer in a steerable BHA, the following consequences
arise:
• Buildup rate will increase.
• Dogleg expectancy becomes unpredictable.
• Dogleg expectancy while dropping inclination decreases.
• It's likely that hole inclination will increase in the rotary mode.
4. The closer to full-gauge the top stabilizer is, and the shorter the distance between it
and the motor, the greater the dogleg severity when we want to drop inclination
5. The top stabilizer is always at least 1/8" under gauge. It should never be greater than
the gauge of the motor stabilizer.

Downhole Motors
6. Reducing the gauge of the top stabilizer has the same effect on the dogleg severity as
keeping the original stabilizer gauge but increasing the distance between it and the
motor.
7. Try to select a bent housing such that you are oriented at least 80% of the time in the
buildup phase. Otherwise, the dogleg severity achieved with the present bent housing
is higher than it needs to be.
8. Choose the BHA (especially the gauge and position of the top stabilizer) so that you
are oriented no more than 20% of the time in the section where you want the bit to
drill straight ahead. Sliding is slower than drilling in rotary mode. As hole friction
increases, time spent trying to orient also increases. Try to minimize this!
9. Choose the correct bit. Bit life and ROP are vital in the economics of steerable vs.
conventional drilling.
10. If a dump valve is run, it is recommended to run a float sub (with float valve)
between it and the top stabilizer.
11. Experience obtained from actual wells drilled in the area will (hopefully) allow
fine-tuning of future BHAs.
NMDC
MWD
Stabilizer (12 1/16")
Dump Valve
Steerable
Motor
Stabilizer (12 1/8")
Bit (12 1/4")
Figure 7-15 Typical steerable mud motor assembly

Downhole Motors
7.3 Drilling Fluid Requirements with all PDMs

Positive-Displacement mud motors can be used with water or oil-based muds. However,
the following restrictions apply:
1. The maximum mud weight recommended is 17 ppg.
2. Sand Content should be < 1%. Sand Content above 5% will reduce tool life by as
much as 50%.
3. Diesel muds should be avoided.
4. Low-aromatic, low-toxic oil-base muds are recommended.
5. Damage to the bearings and/or plugging of the motor will be minimized if Medium
or Fine LCM are used and mixed carefully prior to pumping.
6. Aniline Point of oil-base Muds: Nitrile rubber swells and deteriorates rapidly when
subjected to fluids having a low aniline point. Aniline is a high polar aromatic liquid
chemical. The aniline point of an oil based mud is the lowest temperature at which
equal volume of aniline and the liquid being tested are completely miscible.
Some diesel or crude oils added to the mud have a low aniline point that will cause
severe deterioration to natural or synthetic rubber. The lower the aniline point, the more
severe its damaging effect on rubber parts. A down hole motor used in mud containing
oil additives with an aniline point of less than 200°F can be expected to fail in a very
short time.
Oils have been classified into three categories in regard to the aniline point:
Table 7-3 Oil categories based on aniline point
Oil 1 Oil 2 Oil 3
Aniline Point 124°C 93°C 70°C
255°F 200°F 157°F
Effect on Rubber Low Medium High
Swelling Swelling Swelling
7. High Temperatures: Motors run in oil-base muds where BHT < 200°F rarely suffer
damage. Between 200°F and 300°F, aniline point and other factors become critical.
At BHT > 300°F, stator life may be shortened even if the best available oil (or even
water-based) mud is used. The elastomer of the stator expands as BHT increases.
High-temperature stators are available. They have a larger I.D. than normal stators.
They should be used only when the circulating temperature is expected to be 200°F.
Never use an oversize (hothole) stator for normal drilling conditions, as the power of
the motor will be significantly reduced and it will be prone to stalling.
In hot holes, it is advisable to "stage" in the hole upon reaching the depth where the
BHT is estimated to be 200 ºF. Circulate to cool the hole. Repeat at regular intervals
until reaching operating depth.
8. Solids Content: Keep solids, especially drilled solids or abrasive weighting materials
(e.g. hematite, aluminum stearate) to a minimum.

Table of Contents
8 Drilling Bits Page

8.1 BITS ....................................................................................................................................8-1
8.1.1 Bit Selection..............................................................................................................8-2
8.1.2 IADC bit grading system ..........................................................................................8-5
8.1.3 Dulling characteristics ..............................................................................................8-8

Figure 8-1 Fixed cutter bit components (PDC, TSP, & natural diamonds) ............................. 8-1
Figure 8-2 Roller Cone Bit Components.................................................................................. 8-2
Figure 8-3 Roller cone (a) and PDC (b) bits. ........................................................................... 8-3
Figure 8-4 TSP diamond (a) and natural diamond (b) bits. ..................................................... 8-3
Figure 8-5 IADC dull bit grading system................................................................................. 8-6
Figure 8-6 Two thirds rule and how to measure gauge............................................................ 8-7
Figure 8-7 Broken cone............................................................................................................ 8-8
Figure 8-8 Bond failure ............................................................................................................ 8-9
Figure 8-9 Broken teeth............................................................................................................ 8-9
Figure 8-10 Balled up bit ....................................................................................................... 8-10
Figure 8-11 Cracked cone ...................................................................................................... 8-10
Figure 8-12 Cone dragged...................................................................................................... 8-11
Figure 8-13 Cone interference................................................................................................ 8-11
Figure 8-14 Cored bit ............................................................................................................. 8-12
Figure 8-15 Chipped teeth/cutters .......................................................................................... 8-12
Figure 8-16 Erosion................................................................................................................ 8-13
Figure 8-17 Flat crested wear................................................................................................. 8-13
Figure 8-18 Heat checking ..................................................................................................... 8-14
Figure 8-19 Junk damage ....................................................................................................... 8-14
Figure 8-20 Lost cone............................................................................................................. 8-15
Figure 8-21 Lost nozzle.......................................................................................................... 8-15
Figure 8-22 Lost teeth/cutters ................................................................................................ 8-16
Figure 8-23 Off center wear ................................................................................................... 8-16
Figure 8-24 Pinched bit .......................................................................................................... 8-17
Figure 8-25 Plugged nozzle.................................................................................................... 8-17
Figure 8-26 Rounded gauge ................................................................................................... 8-18
Figure 8-27 Shirttail damage.................................................................................................. 8-19
Figure 8-28 Self sharpening wear .......................................................................................... 8-19
Figure 8-29 Tracking.............................................................................................................. 8-19
Figure 8-30 Washed out bit.................................................................................................... 8-20
Figure 8-31 Worn teeth or cutters .......................................................................................... 8-20
List of Tables Page

No list of tables.
January 1997 Confidential Directional Drilling 8-i

Drilling Operations
8 Drilling Bits
About this chapter
The first thing in any drilling assembly is the bit. This chapter will help the DD gain the
knowledge necessary to make intelligent recommendations regarding bit selection. The
move toward integrated steerable systems makes it imperative that the DD has some
input in the bit selection process because if the steerable BHA is to perform as expected
the bit must not only achieve an acceptable penetration rate, but must also last for the
desired footage while allowing the DD to directionally control the hole.
After the bit is run the driller and the tool pusher and the DD usually grade the dull bit.
This makes it easier to evaluate the bit’s performance and is a valuable tool in making the
next bit selection. The second part of this chapter is dedicated to dull bit grading.

exercise:
1. Name the basic parts of a tricone, diamond, TSP, and PDC Bit.
2. Explain the criteria for bit selection.
3. Inspect a dull bit and fill out a dull grading form.
4. Use the information from offset bit records.
8.1 Bits
In drilling operations the drill bit is the first thing to go in hole. A basic understanding of
the different parts of a drill bit, general guidelines to bit selection, and specific guidelines
to bit dull grading are a major part of the directional driller’s knowledge.
Figure 8-1 Fixed cutter bit components (PDC, TSP, & natural diamonds)
January 1997 Confidential Directional Drilling 8-1

Drilling Operations
Figure 8-2 Roller Cone Bit Components
8.1.1 Bit Selection

The cutting action of the various types must be the first consideration when selecting a
bit. Each type of bit "makes" hole in a different manner.
The Roller Cone Bit crushes, gouges and deforms the rock (Figure 8-3). The drilling
efficiency is most effected by WOB. Roller Cone Bits have moving parts which must
function at the desired rotary speed.

Drilling Operations
A PDC Bit (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact) removes formation from the rock face
by shearing the rock in a similar manner to the way a machinist’s tool removes metal
from a part being turned in a lathe (Figure 8-3b).
Figure 8-3 Roller cone (a) and PDC (b) bits
A TSP Bit (Thermally Stable PDC ) has a similar cutting action to the PDC but the TSP
is more tolerant to heat so will cut much harder rock, but the cutting element itself is
much smaller than a PDC which results in smaller cuttings being made which results in a
slower penetration rate (Figure 8-4a).
Natural Diamond Bits will drill the hardest formations. The cutting action is the same
as for the PDC and TSP Bits but the size of the diamonds dictate that very small amounts
of rock are removed by each diamond (Figure 8-4b). A good analogy for the effect of
cutter size to penetration rate would be to think of various grits of sandpaper and how
each one removes some wood with each rub but the courser (largest cutters) sandpaper
removes the most wood with each pass similar to how the different bits remove different
amounts of rock with each revolution. PDC, TSP and Natural Diamond Bits drill more
efficiently with less WOB than a Roller Cone Bit but are more sensitive to the rotary
speed. Having no moving parts, the fixed cutter type bits can safely operate at high rotary
speeds for extended periods of time.
Figure 8-4 TSP diamond (a) and natural diamond (b) bits
If a bit is to be run on a downhole motor, the type or absence of bearings should be

considered. In hole sizes 12-1/4" and smaller, bits with sealed friction bearings or fixed
cutter type bits should be run on downhole motors. The usually higher than normal rotary
speeds (the surface rotary + the speed of the downhole motor) encountered on downhole
motor runs can lead to premature bearing failure and in some cases parts of the bit can be
lost in the hole.

Drilling Operations
In hole sizes larger than 12-1/4" the bearing surface area is usually large enough to
prevent damage from the excess rotary speed. Downhole motor runs usually mean that
the borehole’s path is being deflected which causes more stress to be shifted from the
face of the bit to the gauge area.
For downhole motor runs the profile of the bit will greatly effect the ability of the
deflecting tool to move the well path sideways. The effective gauge length of a Roller
Cone Bit is short which will allow it to easily be “steered" to the side.
Fixed Cutter Bits come in a multitude of shapes, but the single biggest influence on
"steerability" is the gauge length. The longer the gauge section, the better the bit will
drill straight ahead. Hence, if we want to steer our hole to a different direction, we
should choose a bit with a shorter gauge section.
Special care should be taken in selecting a drill bit for a downhole motor run that will
address:
1. Appropriate cutting structure for the formation.
2. Bearings (or lack thereof) to handle the operating speed.
3. Gauge protection.
4. Bit Profile
The best indicator of how a bit will drill in a given location is from bit records of past
performance in close offset wells. In order to do this one should become familiar with
the three-digit IADC code used to identify the various types of Roller Cone Bits so that
the examination of bit records will yield information pertinent to bit type and not bit
manufacturer.
The code has two parts:
• The first two digits designate the formation hardness and the type of cutting
structure (milled tooth or tungsten carbide insert).
• The third digit shows unique characteristics, i.e., bearing type.
The first digit indicates formation hardness and is called the formation hardness series:
1 thru 3 Milled Tooth Types

1 Soft Formations
2 Medium Formations
3 Hard Formations
4 thru 8 Insert Types
4 Very Soft
5 Soft
6 Medium
7 Hard
8 Very Hard
The second digit is called type and represents a further classification of the formation
hardness designation by the first digit:
1 Softest in its group
2 Soft in its group
3 Medium in its group
4 Hardest in its group

Drilling Operations
The third digit is called the feature classification:
1 thru 5 Anti-friction roller bearing bits

1 Standard, non-sealed
2 Air-lubricated bearing for air circulation drilling
3 Standard non-sealed w/cutters/reinforced gauge
4 Sealed roller bearing
5 Sealed roller bearing w/cutters/reinforced gauge
6 and 7 Sealed friction (journal) bearing
6 Sealed bearing with standard gauge
7 Sealed bearing with Insert reinforced gauge
8 and 9 Reserved for future use
8 Directional
9 Special application
Using this convention it is now possible to gather bit records from other wells drilled in
the area and determine which types of bits (not specific brands ) were used to drill the
various formations. By using the bit records, one can determine what was successful and
what was not. By following this convention one also learns much about how the present
well is progressing and can use this information as part of his comprehensive bit
selection criteria.
8.1.2 IADC bit grading system

The IADC Dull Grading System (Figure 8-5) can be applied to all types of roller cone
bits as well as all types of fixed cutter bits. Bits with steel teeth, tungsten carbide inserts,
natural or synthetic diamond cutters can be described with this system. A description of
the dull grading system follows with each of the components explained as they apply to
roller cone and fixed cutter bits.
1. Column 1 (I-Inner) is used to report the condition of the cutting elements not
touching the wall of the hole (Inner). The change from inner 2/3 of the cutting
structure was made to reduce variations in grading and increase under-standing of
the system.
2. Column 2 (O-Outer) is used to report the condition of the cutting elements that
touch the wall of the hole (Outer). In the previous version, this was the outer 1/3 of
the cutting structure. This change reflects the importance of gauge and heel condition
to good bit performance.
In columns 1 and 2, a linear scale from 0-8 is used to describe the condition of the
cutting structure as follows:
A measure of combined cutting structure reduction due to lost, worn and/or broken
inserts/teeth/cutters.
0 - No loss of cutting structure.
8 - Total loss of cutting structure.
Example: A bit missing half of the inserts on the inner rows of the bit due to loss or
breakage with the remaining teeth on the inner rows having a 50% reduction in
height due to wear, should be graded a 6 in column 1. If the inserts on the outer rows
of the bit were all intact but were reduced by wear to half of their original height, the
proper grade for column 2 would be 4.

Drilling Operations
IADC DULL BIT GRADING SYSTEM
CUTTING STRUCTURE BEARINGS/

OTHER
REASON
GAGE DULL
INNER OUTER DULL CHAR. LOCATION SEALS PULLED
CHAR.
I O D L B G O R
I — INNER CUTTING STRUCTURE (All Inner rows) L — LOCATION
ROLLER CONE FIXED CUTTER

O — OUTER CUTTING STRUCTURE (Gage row only) N — Nose Row CONE # C — Cone
In columns 1 and 2 a linear scale from 0 to 8 is M — Middle Row 1 N — Nose
used to describe the condition of the cutting G — Gage Row 2 T — Taper
structure according to the following: A — All Rows 3 S — Shoulder
G — Gage
STEEL TOOTH BITS A — All Areas
A measure of lost tooth height due to abrasion
and / or damage.
0 — NO LOSS OF TOOTH HEIGHT
8 — TOTAL LOSS OF TOOTH HEIGHT B — BEARING SEALS
INSERT BITS NON-SEALED BEARINGS FIXED CUTTER

A linear scale estimating E — seals effective
A measure of total cutting structure reduction due
bearing life used. ( 0 - No F — seals failed
to lost, worn and / or broken inserts.
life used, 8 - All life used, N — not able to grade
0 — NO LOST, WORN AND / OR BROKEN i.e. no bearing life X — fixed cutter bit
INSERTS remaining.)
8 — ALL INSERTS LOST, WORN AND / OR
BROKEN
G — GAGE
FIXED CUTTER BITS
I — in gage
A measure of lost, worn and / or broken cutting 1/16 — 1/16" out of gage
structure. 2/16 — 1/8" out of gage
0 — NO LOST, WORN AND / OR BROKEN 4/16 — 1/4" out of gage
CUTTING STRUCTURE
8 — ALL OF CUTTING STRUCTURE LOST, WORN
AND / OR BROKEN
O — OTHER DULL CHARACTERISTICS
Refer to Column 3 codes
D — DULL CHARACTERISTICS
(Use only cutting structure related codes)
* BC — Broken Cone LT — Lost Teeth / Cutters R — REASON BEING PULLED OR RUN TERMINATED
BF — Bond Failure OC — Off-Center Wear
BHA — Change Bottom Hole LIH — Left in Hole
BT — Broken Teeth / Cutters PB — Pinched Bit
BU — Balled Up Bit PN — Plugged Nozzle / Assembly LOG Run Logs
CM — Condition Mud PP — Pump Pressure
* CC — Cracked Cone Flow Passage
CP — Core Point PR — Penetration Rate
* CD — Cone Dragged RG — Rounded Gage
DMF — Downhole Motor Failure RIG — Rig Repair
CI — Cone Interference RO — Ring Out
DP — Drill Plug TD — Total Depth /
CR — Cored SD — Shirttail Damage
DSF — Drill String Failure Casing Depth
CT — Chipped Teeth / Cutters SS — Self-Sharpening
DST — Drill Stem Testing TQ — Torque
ER — Erosion Wear
DTF — Downhole Tool Failure TW — Twist Off
FC — Flat Crested Wear TR — Tracking
FM — Formation Change WC — Weather Conditions
HC — Heat Checking WO — Washed Out Bit
HP — Hole Problems
JD — Junk Damage WT — Worn Teeth / Cutters
HR — Hours on Bit
* LC — Lost Cone NO — No Dull
LN — Lost Nozzle Characteristics
* Show cone # or #' under location 4.
Figure 8-5 IADC dull bit grading system
3. Column 3 (D-Dull Characteristic - Cutting Structure) uses a two-letter code to

indicate the major dull characteristic of the cutting structure. Figure 8-5 lists the
two-letter codes for the dull characteristics to be used in this column.
4. Column 4 (L-Location) uses a letter or number code to indicate the location on the
face of the bit where the cutting structure dulling characteristic occurs. Figure 8-5
lists the codes to be used for describing locations on bits.
Note
“G” (gauge area) replaces “H” for this version.

Drilling Operations
Location is defined as follows:

Gauge- Those cutting elements which touch the hole wall.
Nose - The centermost cutting element(s) of the bit.
Middle- Cutting elements between the nose and the gauge.
All - All Rows
Cone numbers are identified as follows:
The No. 1 cone contains the centermost cutting element.
Cones No. 2 and No. 3 follow in a clockwise orientation as viewed looking down at
the cutting structure with the bits sitting on the pin.
5. Column 5 (B-Bearing-Seals) uses a letter or a number code, depending on bearing
types, to indicate bearing condition of roller cone bits. For non- sealed bearing roller
cone bits, a linear scale from 0-8 is used to indicate the amount of bearing life that
has been used. A zero (0) indicates that no bearing life has been used (a new bearing)
and an 8 indicates that all of the bearing life has been used (locked or lost). For
sealed bearing journal or roller) bits, a letter code is used to indicate the condition of
the seal. An “E” indicates an effective seal, an "F" indicates a failed seal(s), and an
“N” indicating "not able to grade" has been added to allow reporting when
seal/bearing condition cannot be determined.
6. Column 6 (G-Gauge) is used to report on the gauge of the bit. The letter “I” (IN)
indicates no gauge reduction. If the bit does have a reduction in gauge it is to be
recorded in increments of 1/16". The “Two Thirds Rule" is correct for three -cone
bits.
Note
The Two Thirds Rule, as used for three cone bits, requires that the gauge ring be pulled
so that it contacts two of the cones at their outermost points.
Figure 8-6 Two thirds rule and how to measure gauge
Then the distance between the outermost point of the third cone and the gauge ring is
multiplied by 2/3 and rounded to the nearest 1/16th of an inch to give the correct
diameter reduction (Figure 8-6).

Drilling Operations
7. Column 7 (O-Other Dull Characteristics) is used to report any dulling

characteristic of the bit, in addition to the cutting structure dulling characteristic
listed in column 3 (D). Note that this column is not restricted to cutting structure
dulling characteristics. Figure 8-5 lists the two-letter codes to be used in this column.
8. Column 8 (A-Reason Pulled) is used to report the reason for terminating the bit run.
Figure 8-5 lists the two-letter and three-letter codes used in this column.
8.1.3 Dulling characteristics

Following is a discussion, with photographs where possible, of the dulling characteristics
common to roller cone and fixed cutter bits. While the possible causes listed and possible
solutions for problem wear modes are not presumed to be exclusive, they do represent
situations commonly encountered in the field.
BC (Broken Cone) - This describes a bit with one or more cones that have been broken
into two or more pieces, but with most of the cone still attached to the bit (see Figure 8-
7). Broken cones can be caused in several ways. Some of the causes of BC are:
• Cone interference - where the cones run on each other after a bearing failure and
break one or more of the cones.
• Bit hitting a ledge on a trip or connection.
• Dropped drill string.
• Hydrogen sulfide embrittlement.
Figure 8-7 Broken cone

Drilling Operations
BF (Bond Failure) - The cutter has come completely off the tungsten carbide substrate.
This is abnormal and usually indicates that the cutters were poorly bonded during
manufacture (Figure 8-8)
Figure 8-8 Bond failure
BT (Broken Teeth) - In some formations, BT is a normal wear characteristic of tungsten

carbide insert bits and is not necessarily an indicator of any problems in bit selection or
operating practices (Figure 8-9) . However, if the bit run was of uncommonly short
duration, broken teeth could indicate one or more of the following: the need for a shock
sub, too much WOB and/or RPM, or improper bit application. Broken teeth is not
considered a normal wear mode for steel tooth roller cone bits. It may indicate improper
bit application or operating practices. Some causes of BT are:
• Bit run on junk.
• Bit hitting a ledge or hitting bottom suddenly.
• Excessive WOB for application. Indicated by broken teeth predominantly on the
inner and middle row teeth.
• Improper break-in or when a major change in bottomhole pattern is made.
• Formation too hard for bit type
Figure 8-9 Broken teeth

Drilling Operations
BU (Balled-Up) - A balled-up bit will show tooth wear due to skidding, caused by a
cone, or cones, not turning due to formation being packed between the cones (Figure 8-
10) . The bit will look as if a bearing had locked up even though the bearings are still
good. Some causes of balling up are:
• Inadequate hydraulic cleaning of the bottomhole.
• Forcing the bit into formation cuttings with the pump not running.
• Drilling a sticky formation.
Figure 8-10 Balled up bit
CC (Cracked Cone) - A cracked cone is the start of a broken or lost cone and has many
of the same possible causes (Figure 8-11).
Figure 8-11 Cracked cone
Some of these causes are:

• Junk on the bottom of the hole.
• Bit hitting a ledge or bottom.

Drilling Operations
• Overheating of the bit.

• Reduced cone shell thickness due to erosion.
• Cone interference.
CD (Cone Dragged) - This dull characteristic indicates that one or more of the cones did
not turn during part of the bit run, indicated by one or more flat wear spots (Figure 8-12).
Some of the possible causes are:
• Bearing failure on one or more of the cones.
• Junk lodging between the cones.
• Pinched bit causing cone interference.
• Bit balling up.
• Inadequate break in.
Figure 8-12 Cone dragged
CI (Cone Interference) - Cone interference often leads to cone grooving and broken
teeth and is sometimes mistaken for formation damage (Figure 8-13). Broken teeth
caused by cone interference are not an indicator of improper bit selection.
Figure 8-13 Cone interference

Drilling Operations
Some of the causes of cone interference are:

• Bit being pinched.
• Reaming under gauge hole with excessive WOB.
• Bearing failure on one or more cones.
CR (Cored) - A bit is cored when its centermost cutters are worn and/or broken off
(Figure 8-14). A bit can also be cored when the nose part of one or more cones is broken.
Some things that can cause bits to become cored are:
• Abrasiveness of formation exceeds the wear resistance of the center cutters.
• Improper breaking in of a new bit when there is a major change in bottomhole
pattern.
• Cone shell erosion resulting in lost cutters.
• Junk in the hole causing breakage of the center cutters.
Figure 8-14 Cored bit
CT (Chipped Teeth/Cutters) - On tungsten carbide insert bits, chipped inserts often

become broken teeth. A tooth is considered chipped, as opposed to broken, if a
substantial part of the tooth remains above the cone shell (Figure 8-15).
Figure 8-15 Chipped teeth/cutters

Drilling Operations
Part of the diamond layer and/or part of the tungsten carbide substrate has fragmented
and left a sharply irregular cutter. Some causes of chipped teeth/cutters are:
• Impact loading due to rough drilling.
• Slight cone interference.
• Rough running in air drilling application.
ER (Erosion) - Fluid erosion leads to cutter reduction and/or loss of cone shell material.
The loss of cone shell material on tungsten carbide insert bits can lead to a loss of inserts
due to reduced support and grip of the cone shell material (Figure 8-16). Erosion can be
caused by:
• Abrasive formation contacting the cone shell between the cutters, caused by
tracking, off-center wear, or excessive WOB.
• Abrasive formation cuttings eroding the cone shell due to inadequate hydraulics.
• Excessive hydraulics resulting in high velocity fluid erosion.
• Abrasive drilling fluids or poor solids control.
Figure 8-16 Erosion

FC (Flat Crested Wear) - This is an even reduction in height across the entire face of the
cutters (Figure 8-17). Interpretations of the significance of flat crested wear are
numerous, and operating factors include formation, hardfacing and operating parameters.
Figure 8-17 Flat crested wear

Drilling Operations
One of the causes of flat crested wear is:

• Low WOB and high RPM, often used in attempting to control deviation.
HC (Heat Checking) - This dulling characteristic happens when a cutter is overheated
due to dragging on the formation and is then cooled by the drilling fluid over many
cycles (Figure 8-18). Some situations that can cause heat checking are:
• Cutters being dragged.
• Reaming a slightly under-gauge hole at high RPM.
Figure 8-18 Heat checking
JD (Junk Damage) - Junk damage can be detected by marks on any part of the bit. Junk
damage can lead to broken teeth, damaged shirttail, and shortened bit runs and therefore
can become a problem (Figure 8-19). It is necessary to clear the junk out of the hole
before continuing to drill. Some common sources of junk, and therefore causes of junk
damage are:
• Junk dropped in the hole from the surface (tong dies, tools, etc.).
• Junk from the drill string (reamer pins, stabilizer blades, etc.).
• Junk from a previous bit run (tungsten carbide inserts, ball bearings, etc.).
• Junk from the bit itself (tungsten carbide inserts, etc.).
Figure 8-19 Junk damage

Drilling Operations
LC (Lost Cone) - It is possible to lose one or more cones in many ways (Figure 8-20).
With few exceptions, the lost cone must be cleared from the hole before drilling can
resume. Some of the causes of lost cones are:
• Bit hitting bottom or a ledge on a trip or connection.
• Bearing failure (causing the cone retention system to fail).
Figure 8-20 Lost cone
LN (Lost Nozzle) - While LN is not a cutting structure dulling characteristic, it is an

important "Other Dulling Characteristic" that can help describe a bit condition(Figure 8-
21). A lost nozzle causes a pressure decrease which requires that the bit be pulled out of
the hole. A lost nozzle is also a source of junk in the hole. Some causes of lost nozzles
are:
• Improper nozzle installation.
• Improper nozzle and/or nozzle design.
• Mechanical or erosion damage to nozzle and/or nozzle retaining system.
Figure 8-21 Lost nozzle

Drilling Operations
LT (Lost Teeth/Cutters) - This dulling characteristic leaves entire tungsten carbide

inserts or PDC Cutters in the hole which are far more detrimental to the rest of the bit
than are broken insert (Figure 8-22). Lost teeth often cause junk damage. Lost teeth are
sometimes preceded by rotated inserts. Lost teeth can be caused by:
• Cone shell erosion.
• A crack in the cone/crown that loosens the grip on the insert/cutters.
• Hydrogen sulfide embrittlement cracks.
Figure 8-22 Lost teeth/cutters
OC (Off-Center Wear) - This dulling characteristic occurs when the geometric center of
the bit and the geometric center of the hole do not coincide (Figure 8-23). This results in
an oversize hole. Off center wear can be recognized on the dull bit by wear on the cone
shells between the rows of cutters, more gauge wear on one cone, and by a less than
expected penetration rate. This can often be eliminated by changing bit types and thus
changing the bottomhole pattern.
Figure 8-23 Off center wear
Off center wear can be caused by:

• Change of formation from a brittle to a more plastic formation.

Drilling Operations
• Inadequate stabilization in a deviated hole.

• Inadequate WOB for formation and bit type.
• Hydrostatic pressure that significantly exceeds the formation pressure.
PB (Pinched Bit) - Bits become pinched when they are mechanically forced to a less
than original gauge (Figure 8-24). Pinched bits can lead to broken teeth, chipped teeth,
cone interference, dragged cones and many other cutting structure dulling characteristics.
Some possible causes of pinched bits are:
• Bit being forced into under-gauge hole.
• Roller cone bit being forced into a section of hole drilled by fixed cutter bits, due
to different OD tolerances.
• Forcing a bit through casing that does not drilling to the bit size used.
• Bit being pinched in the bit breaker.
• Bit being forced into an undersized blowout preventer stack.
Figure 8-24 Pinched bit
PN (Plugged Nozzle) - This dulling characteristic does not describe the cutting structure
but can be useful in providing information about a bit run (Figure 8-25). A plugged
nozzle can lead to reduced hydraulics or force a trip out of the hole due to excessive
pump pressure.
Figure 8-25 Plugged nozzle

Drilling Operations
Plugged nozzles can be caused by:

• Jamming the bit into fill with the pump off.
• Solid material going up the drill string through the bit on a connection and
becoming lodged in a nozzle when circulation is resumed.
• Solid material pumped down the drill string and becoming lodged in a nozzle.
RG (Rounded Gauge) - This dulling characteristic describes a bit that has experienced
gauge wear in a rounded manner, but will still drill a full size hole (Figure 8-26). The
gauge inserts may be less than nominal bit diameter but the cone backfaces are still at
nominal diameter. Rounded Gauge can be caused by:
• Drilling an abrasive formation with excessive RPM.
• Reaming an under gauge hole.
Figure 8-26 Rounded gauge
RO (Ring Out) - This dull characteristic describes a bit that has lost all of its cutting
structure in a ring around the face of the bit. A groove will actually be cut into the body
of the bit by the formation. Excessive pump pressure while on bottom with a decrease in
pressure back to the expected value upon pulling off bottom is a good downhole
indicator of a ringed bit. A ringed bit can be caused by junk in the hole and regardless of
the cause may leave junk in the hole. Care should be taken on subsequent runs. Some
possible causes of ringed bits are:
• Junk in the hole.
• Chert and or pyrite.
SD (Shirttail Damage) - Shirttail damage may be different than junk damage and is not a
cutting structure dulling characteristic (Figure 8-27). Shirttail wear can lead to seal
failures. Some causes of shirttail damage are:
• Junk in the hole.
• Reaming under-gauge hole in faulted or broken formations.
• A pinched bit causing the shirttails to be the outer part of the bit.
• Poor hydraulics.
• High angle well bore.

Drilling Operations
Figure 8-27 Shirttail damage
SS (Self-Sharpening Wear) - This is a dulling characteristic which occurs when cutters

wear in a manner such that they retain a sharp crest shape (Figure 8-28).
Figure 8-28 Self sharpening wear
TR (Tracking) - This dulling characteristic occurs when the teeth mesh like a gear into
the bottomhole pattern (Figure 8-29). The cutter wear on a bit that has been tracking will
be on the leading and trailing flanks.
Figure 8-29 Tracking

Drilling Operations
The cone shell wear will be between the cutters in a row. Tracking can sometimes be
alleviated by using a softer bit to drill the formation and/or by reducing the hydrostatic
pressure if possible. Tracking can be caused by:
• Formation changes from brittle to plastic.
• Hydrostatic pressure that significantly exceeds the formation pressure.
WO (Washed Out Bit) - Bit washouts are not cutting structure dulling characteristics but
can provide important information when used as an "Other” dulling characteristic
(Figure 8-30). This can occur at anytime during the bit run. If the bit weld is porous or
not closed, then the bit will start to washout as soon as circulation starts. Often the welds
are closed but crack during the bit run due to impact with bottom or ledges on
connections. When a crack occurs and circulation starts through the crack, the washout is
established very quickly.
Figure 8-30 Washed out bit
WT (Worn Teeth/Cutters) This is a normal dulling characteristic of the tungsten carbide

insert bits and steel tooth bits as well as for the fixed cutter bits(Figure 8-31). When WT
is noted for steel tooth bits, it is also often appropriate to note self sharpening (SS) or flat
crested (FC) wear.
Figure 8-31 Worn teeth or cutters

Drilling Operations
NO (No Dull Characteristics) This code is used to indicate that the dull shows no sign
of the outer dulling characteristics described. This is often used when a bit is pulled after
a short run for a reason not related to the bit, such as a drill string washout. Next we will
grade a dull roller cone bit, and discuss some possible interpretations of the wear as it
relates to bit selection and application. It should be noted that there may be more than
one "correct" dull grading for any bit. This can happen if two persons should disagree on
the primary cutting structure dulling characteristic or on what the other dulling
characteristic should be. Regardless, the new IADC dull grading system provides the
man on the rig with ample opportunity to report what he sees when examining a dull.
By using the information available from offset bit records and from examining the dull
bits on your location, you should be able to make sound recommendations as to the best
bit selections.

Section 9 - Drilling Fluids and Hydraulics
Author Mike Smith
200 Gillingham Lane
Tel: + 1 281 285 8859
Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155
Review & approval
o6-Dec-96 Final review and approval MJS

Table of Contents
9 Drilling Fluids and Hydraulics Page

9.1 DRILLING FLUIDS ...............................................................................................................9-2
9.1.1 Drilling Fluid Composition.......................................................................................9-2
9.1.1.1 Drilling Fluids Tests........................................................................................9-3
9.2 RHEOLOGY..........................................................................................................................9-5
9.2.1 Bingham Plastic Model.............................................................................................9-6
9.2.2 Power Law Model.....................................................................................................9-7
9.2.3 Casson Model ...........................................................................................................9-7
9.3 DRILLING FLUIDS PRODUCTS .............................................................................................9-8
9.3.1 Clays .........................................................................................................................9-8
9.3.1.1 Fresh Water Clays ...........................................................................................9-8
9.3.1.2 Salt Water Clays..............................................................................................9-8
9.3.2 Viscosity Agents.......................................................................................................9-8
9.3.2.1 Starch...............................................................................................................9-9
9.3.2.2 C.M.C. .............................................................................................................9-9
9.3.2.3 Polyanionic Polymers......................................................................................9-9
9.3.2.4 HEC.................................................................................................................9-9
9.3.3 Natural Polymer- Biopolymer...................................................................................9-9
9.3.3.1 Natural polymer...............................................................................................9-9
9.3.3.2 Biopolymers ....................................................................................................9-10
9.3.4 Thinners ....................................................................................................................9-10
9.3.4.1 Water ...............................................................................................................9-10
9.3.4.2 Phosphates.......................................................................................................9-10
9.3.4.3 Tannins ............................................................................................................9-10
9.3.4.4 Lignites............................................................................................................9-10
9.3.5 Weighting Material...................................................................................................9-11
9.3.5.1 Calcium Carbonate..........................................................................................9-11
9.3.5.2 Barite ...............................................................................................................9-11
9.3.6 Specific Products ......................................................................................................9-11
9.3.6.1 Lost circulation material .................................................................................9-11
9.3.6.2 Anti-foam: .......................................................................................................9-11
9.3.6.3 Chemicals Products .........................................................................................9-11
9.3.7 Products For Inverted Muds .....................................................................................9-12
9.3.7.1 Emulfor............................................................................................................9-12
9.3.8 Rheological parameters ............................................................................................9-12
9.4 DRILL STRING HYDRAULICS...............................................................................................9-13
9.4.1 General......................................................................................................................9-13
9.4.2 Flow Rate..................................................................................................................9-15
9.4.3 Surface Equipment....................................................................................................9-16
9.4.4 Mud Pumps...............................................................................................................9-16
9.5 HAND-CALCULATION OF HYDRAULICS...............................................................................9-17
9.6 HYDRAULIC OPTIMIZATION................................................................................................9-20
9.6.1 Mud Motor Runs.......................................................................................................9-20
9.6.2 Recap ........................................................................................................................9-21
9.6.3 Exercises ...................................................................................................................9-21

Table of Contents

Figure 9-1 Components of viscosity ........................................................................................ 9-6
Figure 9-2 Laminar flow ........................................................................................................ 9-14
Figure 9-3 Turbulent flow ...................................................................................................... 9-14
Figure 9-4 Slip velocity and mud velocity ............................................................................. 9-15
Figure 9-5 Hydraulics worksheet ........................................................................................... 9-17
List of Tables Page

Table 9-1 Description of surface equipment types ................................................................ 9-16

Drilling Fluids and Hydraulics
9 Drilling Fluids and Hydraulics

About this chapter
The DD should have a basic knowledge of mud systems and properties. The condition of
the mud and the smoothness of the wellbore are probably the two biggest factors
influencing the success or otherwise of a directional well. As the drive for efficiency in
drilling continues, hydraulics and hydraulic optimization becomes more important. Thus,
it is vital that the DD has a working knowledge of hydraulics, particularly that related to
running PDMs.
The DD is expected to have at least some input into the hydraulics program. In BHAs,
which utilize a PDM, the DD must know how to choose flow rate, bit nozzles, etc. The
approach to hydraulics in this manual covers the basics only. However, it is adequate for
the DD. If the DD understands everything covered in this chapter, he should be able to
discuss and recommend a reasonable hydraulics program to the drilling
supervisor/drilling superintendent.

exercises:
1. Explain the main differences between water-based and oil-based muds.
2. Explain what is meant by:
• Mud Weight, Funnel Viscosity, Plastic Viscosity, Yield Point, Gel Strength, API
Filtrate, Solids Content, Sand Content etc.
3. List the mud properties which are most likely to cause problems for the DD.
4. Explain how running a PDM effects the hydraulics calculation.
5. Show how a basic hydraulics program is designed.
6. Explain the factor(s) which influence:
• Annular Velocity (AV).
• Jet Velocity
• Hydraulic Horsepower at the Bit.
7. Explain what is meant by Slip Velocity. Show the relationship (if any) between it
and annular velocity.
8. Explain the effect an MWD collar, Andergauge stabilizer, .etc., has on the hydraulics
program.

9.1 Drilling Fluids

In the following discussion Section the term "drilling fluid" will be used in preference to
the more widely used generic name “drilling mud" to imply that the properties of the
fluid are designed and not those that occur naturally when mixing cuttings and water. In
1845, a French engineer, Fauvelle, was the first to drill a well using the technique of
water-flushed tools; water was circulated in an effort to remove the drilled cuttings. In
1800 the use of drilling fluids to remove drilled cuttings, form a wall cake, and help
reduce lost. Circulation was first documented. In 1889 the possible use of oil as a drilling
fluid was proposed, the normal fluid being a MUD composed of water and native clay. In
1916 the concept of fluid less control was proposed. Again, the term mud implies by
association a simplistic fluid when in fact present-day drilling fluids are sophisticated
products with complex rheological filtration, and chemical properties. During drilling the
functions of drilling fluids are:
• Removal of cuttings from the hole
• Cooling and lubrication of the bit and drill string
• Control of subsurface pressure
• Maintenance of a stable wellbore and isolation of fluids from the formation
• Suspension of cuttings and weighting material and release of the drilled cuttings
on the surface
• Buoyancy effect on drill string and casing
• Protect drill string and casing
• Maximization of penetration rate
• Transmission of hydraulic power to bit and downhole tools
• Control of drill string, casing, and drilling equipment corrosion
The principal functions of the drilling fluid in the rotary drilling operation are related to
the mechanical process of drilling a hole and the interaction between the drilling fluid
and the formation.
9.1.1 Drilling Fluid Composition

The term drilling fluid can be considered to encompass all of the compositions used to
assist in the production and subsequent removal of the drilled cuttings from a borehole in
the earth. Each drilling fluid can be classified as belonging to one of two broad groups,
Water-based and Oil-based.
In water-based systems, the continuous phase and major component is water, the other
components being active solids, inert solids, and chemicals. The formulation of the four
components gives rise to the diverse and varied properties of water-based fluids. Water,
as the continuous phase in any water- based fluid, may be fresh, hard, or salty. The
primary function of the liquid is to provide the initial density and viscosity which can be
modified to obtain any desirable rheological property.
The formulation of the four components gives rise to the diverse and varied properties
related to the following:

• Density
• Rheology
• Filtrate
• Chemical Inhibition
• Solids content
Any other property can be considered to be of secondary importance to these. Thus,
when the condition of the drilling fluid is discussed, it should be in terms which relate to
the above fundamental properties.
The active (colloidal) solids increase the viscosity and determine the filtration properties
of the fluid. Colloidal solids in the form of clays are added to form a colloidal
suspension; polymers can also be used to increase the viscosity and decrease the fluid
loss of water- based drilling fluids.
The inert solids in drilling fluids are weighting materials and non-reactive drilled solids.
The weighting materials are added to the fluids to increase the density in order to control
subsurface pressures.
Chemicals are added to drilling fluids to modify the behavior of the components present.
The chemicals fall into two groups, organic and inorganic. Each group may be
subdivided according to specific function such as dispersant, pH control agent, defoamer,
and lubricant.
If oil is the continuous phase of the drilling fluid, then it is classified as an oil-based
fluid. It may contain water as the discontinuous phase in any proportion up to 50%. If the
percentage of water or brine (mixture of water and electrolyte) is over 10%, then the
fluid is considered to be an Invert Emulsion.
The solid phase is essentially the same as that of the water-based drilling fluids,
containing weighting materials, drilled solids, and clays. However, the clays and other
colloids are oleophilic (oil-loving), and surfactants have to be added to stabilize the
emulsion.
When the continuous phase of the drilling fluid is gas, it is invariably associated with
some proportion of entrained water either added purposely or from the formation,
thereby forming a mist at low water concentrations or a foam at higher water
concentrations when surfactants or foaming agents are added. The gas used may be either
air or natural gas, and the resulting foam or mist carries the drilled solids to the surface.
Gas or air drilling is particularly useful when drilling in competent formations, when
drilling low pressure gas or water wells, or when there is severe lost circulation.
9.1.1.1 Drilling Fluids Tests

1 - Density The density of the drilling fluid is one of the most important characteristics
because the hydrostatic pressure controls fluid influx downhole and greatly influences
drilling efficiency. This is measured with the mud balance.

2 - Rheology Routine field measurements of the viscosity of a drilling fluid are made
with a Marsh funnel which measures a timed flow of a known volume. This is known as
the Funnel Viscosity (FV). The apparent viscosity of a mud is composed of two
variables, plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP). These values, as well as timed gel
strength measurements, which denote thixotropic properties of a drilling fluid, are made
with a direct-indicating viscosimeter.
Plastic viscosity Plastic viscosity is that part of flow resistance in a mud caused primarily
by the friction between the suspended particles and by the viscosity of the continuous
liquid phase. Plastic viscosity depends on the viscosity of the continuous phase fluid and
on the concentration of solids present and the size and shape of their particles.
Yield point Yield point is a measure of forces between particles. These forces are a result
of positive and negative electrical charges located on or near the surface of particles.
Yield point is a measurement under flowing conditions of those forces in the mud which
cause gel structure to develop when the mud is allowed to come to rest. The forces tend
to move the solids particles into an arrangement such that the attractive and repulsive
forces are best satisfied. A gel measurement is an indication of these forces under rest
conditions.
3 - Filtrate One of the most important properties of a drilling mud is the filtration rate or
water loss, which is the measure of the relative amount of mud sheath deposited on the
permeable wall of the hole. A low pressure filter press is an instrument which meets API
specifications for filtration measurements.
4 - Chemical Inhibition pH is an abbreviation for potential hydrogen ion. The pH
number ranges from 0 to 14, 7 being neutral, and are indices of the acidity (below 7) or
alkalinity (above 7) of the fluid . The numbers are a function of the hydrogen ion
concentration in gram ionic weights per liter which, in turn, is a function of the
dissociation of water as given by the following expression:
(H)(OH)
=K(H20)=1 x 10-14
H2O
The pH may be expressed as the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal (or the negative
logarithm) of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of a solution offers valuable
information as to the immediate acidity or alkalinity as contrasted to the total acidity or
alkalinity (which may be titrated). The pH scale is therefore logarithmic and each
number indicates an alkalinity ten times as great as that of the preceding number. For
example, a pH of 9 indicates an alkalinity ten times as great as a pH of 8.
There are 2 principal methods of determining the pH of drilling fluids. One of these is
based on the effect of acids and alkalis on the color of certain chemical indicators. This
is called the litmus test. The other is based on the fact that when certain electrodes are
immersed in a liquid, the voltage developed between them will vary according to the pH
of the liquid. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, the alkalinity of the high pH mud can
vary a considerable amount with no measurable change in pH. Analysis of the mud
filtrate to determine the alkalinity is more significant than pH measurement in highly
alkaline systems.
Chlorides (salt concentration) The salt or chloride test is very significant in areas where
salt can contaminate the drilling fluid. Such areas include a majority of the oil fields in
the United States.

Hardness and calcium concentration By "hard water" we mean water containing

dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. The common evidence of hardness in water is
the difficulty of producing a lather in it with soap. In many oil fields the water available
is quite hard. As is well understood, drilling clays have low yield when mixed in hard
water. The harder the water, the more clay (bentonite) it takes to make a satisfactory gel
mud. This dissolved calcium can come from anhydrite or "gyppy" formation. Calcium
salt can also be picked up in drilling cement plugs and sometimes in penetrating sections
of limey shale. Any extensive calcium contamination results in abnormally high water
loss and fast gel rate.
Resistivity of the drilling mud and filtrate Control of the resistivity of mud and mud
filtrate while drilling may be desirable to permit better evaluation of formation
characteristics from electric logs. The determination of resistivity is essentially the
measurements of resistance to electrical current flow through a sample configuration.
5- Sand Content Sand is abrasive to pumps, hose, some tools included in the BHA and
watercourse in the bit. It always carries the danger of settling in the hole when the pumps
are shut down and sticking the drill string. It weights the mud unduly and is especially
objectionable where there is a tendency to loose circulation in near-surface formations.
Control of sand content to a maximum of about 1% by volume is generally considered
good practice.
Sand content of the drilling fluid may be reduced by any one of several methods such as
extra settling tanks, centrifugal de-sander, desilter etc.... Where there is a thick section of
fine sand, penetration should be slowed to enable the pumps to handle the volume of
sand entering the fluid.
Determination of solid and liquid content Such properties of the mud as density,
viscosity, gel strength, and filtration are dependent to a considerable degree upon the
solids content of the mud. Knowledge of the volume of solids in the mud may afford an
explanation of certain undesirable properties and indicate the treatment to be used. For
example, if the solids content of a thick mud is excessive, water instead of chemicals
should be used to thin the mud. Of particular importance in heavy muds, the calculated
specific gravity of solids serves as an index of the relative amounts of clay and weight
material present.
Solids content can be determined by evaporating a weighted portion of mud and
weighting the residue. The volume of the solids can be calculated USiDg the mud weight
To estimate the solids in salt water muds, a correction must be applied for the salt
content as found by filtrate analysis. The volume of liquid in the mud can be found by
distilling the mud and condensing and measuring the liquid This method is suitable for
oil emulsion muds.
To determine the liquid and solid content in a sample of mud an electrical mini still is
used.
9.2 Rheology
The character of a flowing fluid is described by the relationship between flow rate (shear
rate) and the pressure that caused the movement (shear stress). Rheology is the study of
flow and deformation of fluids.
1- Viscosity Internal resistance a fluid offers to flow due to friction forces which arises
when one layer of fluid rubs against another.

Consider the fluid as platelets:

• of same area
• a small distance apart.
Figure 9-1 Components of viscosity
S = Frictional force on surface

τ = Stress
v = Relative speed
γ = Rate
τ = F/S
γ = V1-V2/r
µ = τ/γ
The results obtained from the Marsh funnel cannot be used in drilling fluid hydraulic
calculations. To overcome this limitation, the direct-reading Fann viscometer was
introduced and is widely used to determine the viscosity of the fluid. We need to
measure shear rate and shear stress and know the relationship between them.
2-Flow curves/models Drilling fluids are complex fluids whose flow properties do not
follow any rheological model exactly; however, some models (Bingham Plastic, Power
Law, Casson) predict drilling fluid flow properties better than others. The perfect
solution has not yet been found. The true values for circulating system pressure drops,
for example, tend to be lower than those predicted using Bingham plastic model and
higher than those predicted using the Power Law model.
Depending on the type of fluid, the relationships between t and g are different .
9.2.1 Bingham Plastic Model
τ = το + µρ * γ
When a force is applied to such a fluid, it will remain static until the force builds up the
point where it start to move. This point is define as the Yield Point.
The shear rate/shear stress relationship is represented by a straight line which doesn’t
pass through the origin of cartesian coordinates.

Plastic Viscosity is the slope of the straight line. The ratio of shear stress to a given shear
rate is called apparent viscosity.
9.2.2 Power Law Model
τ = Kγn or log τ = logk + nlog γ

The fluid begins to flow when a pressure is applied but the relation shear rate/shear
stress is no longer linear.
k = consistency index
n = flow behavior index
9.2.3 Casson Model

The Casson model is a two-component rheological model which has been used in other
industries to allow more accurate representation of high shear rate viscosities when only
low to intermediate shear rate data is available. This model can improve the prediction of
effective viscosity at the high shear rates found at the bit. The empirical equation is:
n = no0.5 + Cγ-0.5
where
n = effective viscosity at shear rate g
no = Casson viscosity at infinite shear rate
C = Casson Yield Stress
γ = Shear Rate
The Casson viscosity may be considered to be the value for the viscosity at an infinite
shear rate, while the Casson Yield Stress may be considered to be the Shear Stress
required to initiate flow. The interpretation of values of the Casson model parameters is
very similar to that of the Bingham plastic model parameters. The Casson viscosity at
infinite Shear Rate is analogous to the Bingham model Plastic Viscosity. The Casson
Yield Point is analogous to the Bingham model Yield Point. The Casson viscosity at
infinite shear rate value reflects the viscosity of the liquid phase and the concentration of
solids. The Casson viscosity at infinite shear reflects the degree of inter-particle
attraction. With the parameters given in the same units, for example, centipoise for the
viscosities and lb/100 ft2 for the Yield Stresses, the numerical value for the Bingham
Plastic Viscosity and the numerical value for the Casson Yield Stress is always less than
the numerical value for the Bingham Yield Point.
The Casson model has been found to predict the rheological behavior of both
water-based and oil-based drilling fluids well. Being a 2-parameter model, only a few
measurements are needed to determine the model parameters. The Casson model
equations are relatively simple. A major advantage is that the Casson model predicts
rheological behavior at very high Shear Rates, such as those found in flow through the
bit nozzles. The Bingham plastic model and the Power Law model often do not perform
well in these ranges. Techniques suitable for field use have been developed for
predicting the effects of temperature and pressure on the Casson model parameters of
oil-based drilling fluids.

9.3 Drilling Fluids Products

9.3.1 Clays
Functions: Viscosity agent / Supports the filtrate
Two categories:
• Montmorillonite: Soft water
• Attapulgite: Salt water
9.3.1.1 Fresh Water Clays

• Montmorillonites
• Bentonites
Manufacture:
• Mineral extracted from quarry
• Crushed
• Activated
Structure: Layered platelets
Use: Viscosity agent. Supports the filtrate
Very sensitive to the type of water used and to contaminants . The yield is decreased if
the water is hard (presence of Ca++) or if the water is salty.
9.3.1.2 Salt Water Clays

• Attapulgites
• Sepiolites
Manufacture:
• Mineral extracted from quarry
• Crushed
• Activated
Structure: Fibrous
Their yield is insensitive to the water used.
Use: Viscosity agent in salt water or brine. Does not form a filtrate bed and
therefore bentonite must also be used.
9.3.2 Viscosity Agents

• Filtrate Reducers
• Starch
• Derivatives of Cellulose
These products have not only the character of a viscosity agent but also a filtrate
reducing agent.

9.3.2.1 Starch
Origin: Potatoes, rice
Function: Filtrate reducing agent, Viscosity agent
Advantage: Cheap
Disadvantage: Ferments - destroyed at 90°C
Use:
• In saturated salted mud to reduce filtrate (30 Kg/m 3)
• In mud with lime
9.3.2.2 C.M.C.
Derivative of cellulose. By adjusting the degree of polymerization we can obtain
products which preferably will have a viscosifying character or a filtrate reducing
character.
We generally find:
• C.M.C.H.V.
– Viscosity agent
– Filtrate reducer
• C.M.C.B.V.
– Filtrate reducer
– Viscosity agent
Use:
• All water base muds (0 to 10 Kg /m3)
• Does not ferment
• Sensitive to salts
9.3.2.3 Polyanionic Polymers

• Derivatives of cellulose, these are “improved C.M.C"
• Better yield than the CMC especially with salt water
• Ability to encircle the clays
• Exists in high and low viscosity
9.3.2.4 HEC
Derivatives of cellulose, non ionized Usually used on completion Exists in high and low
viscosity
9.3.3 Natural Polymer- Biopolymer

Only these two products can have the name "polymer" in drilling muds. On their own, a
complete mud can be made.
9.3.3.1 Natural polymer

Origin: Extracted from guard beans.

Characteristics:
• High yield (8 to 10 times that of bentonite)
• Insensitive to the type of water
• Destroyed by oxygenated water or enzymes
• Difficulties at screening
Use: Drilling with lost circulation (6 to 8 Kg /m 3)
9.3.3.2 Biopolymers
Origin: Formed by bacteria from the waste of sugar refineries.
Characteristics:
• Viscosity drops at “shearing action"
• Drop pressure losses
• Increase penetration
• High yield - viscosity increased when chrome salt is added
Use:
• Low solids, low density muds
• Concentration 3 Kg /m3
• Kg of chromic chloride.
9.3.4 Thinners
Function: Lower the viscosity of the mud.
9.3.4.1 Water
Always efficient - but increase the volume and decreases the density alters the drilling
fluids characteristics.
9.3.4.2 Phosphates
• to 0.3 Kg /m3
• Very strong reaction
• Destroyed at temperature (45°C)
9.3.4.3 Tannins
Have been replaced by lignosulphonates
9.3.4.4 Lignites
Origin: Black liquid from paper works
Use:
• Disperser - favors the stability of a dispersed system
• Reduces filtrate
• Insensitive to contaminants
• Stable up to 200C

Concentration: 5 to 30 Kg /m3. Always with caustic soda (about 5/1)

Lignites: Can be used at a high temperature .
9.3.5 Weighting Material

Characteristics:
• High density
• Insoluble and chemically inert
• Finely crushed
• Non abrasive
9.3.5.1 Calcium Carbonate

• d=2.7
• Allows mud density of 1.3 to be reached
• Can be acidified
9.3.5.2 Barite
• d =4.2
• d mud reached 2.4
9.3.6 Specific Products
9.3.6.1 Lost circulation material

Problem of lost circulation can be slowed down.
Three categories:
• Granular (ea. nut shells)
• Lamellar (cellophane)
• Fibrous (straw)
We generally use a mixture of all three.
9.3.6.2 Anti-foam:
• Stearate of aluminum must be dissolved in diesel (20 Kg/100 liters)
• Anti-foams ready for use
Dosage: 0.1 to 0.3 liters per cubic meter
9.3.6.3 Chemicals Products
Caustic Soda
• Controls pH
• Increase yield of clays
• Decrease solubility of Ca and Mg

Be careful of splashes - DANGEROUS
Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash)

• Decrease solubility of Ca ++
Bicarbonate of Soda
To decrease the lime freed when drilling out cement we use about 400 Kg per cubic
meter of hard cement to be drilled out.
9.3.7 Products For Inverted Muds
9.3.7.1 Emulfor
Emulfor ST: Primary emulsifier Coating the solids with oil 25 to 40 Kg/m3
Emulfor ER: Emulsifier Filtrate reducing agent 30 to 50 Kg/m3
Emulfor BE: Gelling agent 0 to 2Kg/m3
Emulfor BH: Viscosity agent 0 to 5 Kg/m3 increase efficiency of BE
Emulfor MO: Oil wetting agent Of drilled solids and barites 0 to 5 Kg/m 3
Lime: Controls alkalinity of the mud 15 to 30 Kg/m3
9.3.8 Rheological parameters

Related to the:
• viscosity of liquid phase
• amount and size of solids
when drilling an increase in P.V will generally indicate an increase in solids content.
Yield Point (Ibs/100 ft2) yield point is a measurement of attractive forces between
particles in a fluid under flow conditions. It depends upon:
• amount and quality of solids (clay, limestone).
• electrochemical equilibrium of the fluid.
An increase of yield point is caused by a chemical contamination (salt, gyp, cement...) or
by drilling through dispersible clays. Yield point will be decreased by:
• removing the contaminant
• use of thinners to neutralize attractive forces between particles.
Apparent viscosity: It is the viscosity measured at a given shear rate and changes with
shear rate, it has no meaning unless the shear rate at which it was measured in given.
Gel strength - thixotropy: Gel strength is a measure of the attractive forces understatic
conditions. Gel structure is allowed to form after having the fluid, stationary for a while.
A fluid is said to be thixotropic if, thin when flowing it forms a gelled structure when
stationary and becomes thin again should sufficient force be applied.

9.4 Drill String Hydraulics

The main purpose of a hydraulics program is to drill the well in the most efficient
manner. This is done by circulating mud at an adequate volume and pressure to cool the
bit, clean the bottom of the hole (to prevent re-drilling cuttings), provide a jetting action
to help drill the hole by hydraulic erosion and transport the cuttings out of the hole.
While hydraulics is not the main area of responsibility of the DD, he must understand
what’s involved. There are occasions (e.g. when running a mud motor) when the DD has
to specify both flow rate and nozzle sizes. There are other occasions (e.g. when running
an Andergauge stabilizer and/or an MWD tool in the BHA) when the extra drillstring
pressure drops involved have to be estimated or calculated and communicated to the
company representative / mud engineer / toolpusher. Rig hydraulic limitations must be
known. On no account should a situation arise where, on reaching bottom, the rig is
unable to pump sufficient fluid due to the extra pressure losses introduced by DD tools.
As many rigs operate close to the rig’s maximum pump pressure (in order to maximize
ROP), the above scenario is by no means improbable. Thus, planning ahead is vital. The
DD should be able to calculate the total pressure losses in the hydraulic system. To do
this, he must first know the rig equipment.
9.4.1 General
The pressure losses in the mud circuit (for a given flow rate) are a function of:
1. Mud weight and (to a small extent) rheology.
P2 = P1W2/W1
where
W1 = Original mud weight (ppg)
W2 = New mud weight (ppg)
P1 = Pressure drop (psi) using mud weight W1.
P2 = Pressure drop (psi) using mud weight W2.

2. Type of flow (laminar or turbulent). Laminar flow is characterized by smooth flow

patterns (Figure 9-2).
Drillpipe
Laminar
Velocity Flow
Profile
Formation
Figure 9-2 Laminar flow
Turbulent flow occurs when increased annular velocities cause the layered, parallel
fluid motion to stray and become disturbed/agitated (Figure 9-3).
Mud
Flow
Figure 9-3 Turbulent flow

The upward annular velocity of the mud must exceed the downward slip velocity of
the cuttings (Figure 9-4).
AV
Mud Annular
Velocity
Vs
Cuttings Slip
Velocity
Figure 9-4 Slip velocity and mud velocity
In general, turbulent flow occurs in surface lines, drill pipe and drill collars. In the
annulus, laminar, transitional and turbulent flow can be present at the same time. Note
that, while turbulent flow is best for cuttings removal, it also erodes the hole more than
laminar flow. In turbulent flow, viscosity has little effect on flowing pressure losses.
However, mud weight has to be accounted for in the hydraulic calculation in all cases.
3. Pipe/collar dimensions and hole geometry.
9.4.2 Flow Rate

For each size of hole, there is a range of flow rates within which the operator will like to
drill (e.g. 600-700 GPM for 12-1/4" hole using a standard rotary BHA). This flow rate
has to be sufficient to clean the hole. The client may, however, prefer laminar flow in
soft formations to reduce hole washout. Mud weight, yield point and pipe rotation all
significantly increase cuttings transport efficiency. A hydraulic calculation usually
entails using a preferred flow rate as one of the inputs.
Since the composition of the BHA is normally already decided upon, the variables
become the nozzle sizes. We know what the maximum allowable standpipe pressure is.
As we will see, the pressure loss through the bit nozzles is normally a very significant
portion of the total system pressure loss.
All the individual components of the total system pressure loss are affected by the flow
rate.
Flow Rate (GPM) = Pump Discharge Volume (Gal/stroke) Pump Rate (strokes/minute)

9.4.3 Surface Equipment

In hydraulic calculations, this is taken to consist of the standpipe, hose, swivel washpipe
and gooseneck and the kelly. Four combinations of surface equipment have been chosen
- it is impractical to consider all possible combinations. These are known as Case 1, Case
2, Case 3 and Case 4. The rig specifications for each case are given in Table 9-1. On
arrival at the rig, it’s easy to find which case applies.
Table 9-1 Description of surface equipment types
Stand Pipe Hose Swivel Kelly
Type Length I.D. Length I.D. Length I.D. Length I.D.
(feet) (in.) (feet) (in.) (feet) (in.) (feet) (in.)

1 40 3 45 2 4 2 40 2 1/4
2 40 3 1/2 55 2 1/2 5 2 1/4 40 2 1/4
3 45 4 55 3 5 2 1/4 40 3 1/4
4 45 4 55 3 6 3 40 4
9.4.4 Mud Pumps

The DD must check what type of mud pumps are on the rig (usually, but not always,
triplex). He must also check the liner size being used. This will determine the Discharge
Rate of the pump (given as gallons/stroke or litres / stroke) for a certain stroke length.
Allowance should be made for pump efficiency (e.g. 97% for mud pumps in good
condition).
Mud Pump Discharge Pressure Rating must also be known. For a given mud pump, this
will be determined by the liner size. This pressure limit determines what our maximum
standpipe pressure can be. Thus, we need to know it. Most toolpushers prefer to operate
well below this pressure limit - to prolong the life of the mud pump components. The
pump operating speed (SPM) should not exceed the continuous operating RPM of the
pump or prime mover. The pressure begins declining at the mud pump discharge and
continues through the circulating system to a pressure of 0 psi where the returning mud
reaches the pits.
Total System Pressure Loss =

Pressure loss through Surface Equipment +
Pressure loss through Drill Pipe Bore +
Pressure loss through heavyweight drillpipe +
Pressure loss through Drill Collars (steel + nonmagnetic) +
Pressure loss through MWD + Pressure loss through e.g. Andergauge stabilizer +
Pressure loss through Mud Motor/Turbine +
Pressure loss through Bit +
Pressure loss in Annulus from Bit to top of Drill Collars +
Pressure loss in Annulus around HWDP and drillpipe.

9.5 Hand-calculation of Hydraulics
Figure 9-5 Hydraulics worksheet
Although there are good computer programs available (e.g. REED) for performing
hydraulic calculations, it is useful to know how to do a basic hydraulic calculation by
hand, using a non-programmable calculator. Using a Hydraulics Worksheet (Figure 5
missing), the procedure is as follows:

Lines 1 and 4: Get from rig toolpusher / company representative.

Line 2: Usually the preferred range of flow rates is in the drilling program. Check with
company representative.
Line 3: Annular Velocity (ft/min)
24.51Q
AV=
(Dh 2 − Dp 2 )
where
Q = Flow Rate (GPM)
Dh = Hole diameter (inches)
Dp = O.D. of drillstring (inches).
Note
We can calculate annular velocity for any part of the drill string. It is obvious that it’s
always lower around the drillpipe than around the collars. For a given flow rate,
annular velocity (AV) decreases as the hole size increases. However, in a larger hole
size, the volume of cuttings to be lifted by the mud increases. Those two factors combined
mean that there is often inadequate hole cleaning in shallow, large-diameter surface
holes, e.g., 26" hole phase.
In normal situations, an annular velocity which is twice the settling (slip) velocity of the
cuttings is deemed sufficient. Assume a rig has two mud pumps. If one mud pump is
down for repairs, this means that when drilling in a large hole size (e.g. 17-1/2") at high
ROP, it’s best to stop drilling and circulate with one pump. Wait until the other pump is
repaired before continuing to drill. Otherwise, there will be inadequate hole cleaning,
leading to future hole problems.
Lines 5 - 9: Get from hydraulics tables.
If a tapered drillstring is used, ensure you account for each individual size of tubular.
Line 10: Summation of pressure losses from Steps 5-9 (excluding bit) in the system,
corrected for actual mud weight used.
Line 11: Available pressure loss remaining or maximum allowable pressure drop across
the bit.
Line 12: Choose a likely combination of nozzles for that hole size, e.g., 3x13/32" nozzles
in 12-1/4" hole.
Line 13: Calculate Total Flow Area (TFA).
Cross-sectional area (csa) of each nozzle = πR2 (in2)

where
R = radius of the nozzle.
TFA is simply the sum of the nozzle cross-sectional areas.
Be careful! Unequal nozzles may sometimes be used to fine-tune the hydraulics.

Line 14: Pressure drop across the bit - this can be found from tables. Alternatively, it can
be calculated as follows:
Pbit = ( Q2 • W ) / 10858 - A2
where
Q = Flow Rate (GPM)
W = Actual Mud Weight (lbs/gal)
A = TFA (in2)
Line 15: Calculate Jet Velocity.
Jet Velocity (ft/sec) = (032086)Q/An

Where An = Area of nozzle (in2)
The jet velocities recommended by the bit manufacturers should be used as a guideline.
Roller cutters can be eroded with excessively high jet velocities.
Line 16: Total Pressure Loss = (Line 10 + Line 14).
We can see if we’ve exceeded the rig specification. If so, use an iterative procedure and
try different nozzle size(s).
Line 17: Hydraulic Horsepower at the Bit (Hbit).
Hbit = Pbit • Q/1714 (expressed in HHP)

Line 18: Percentage Hydraulic Horsepower at the Bit.
(Line 14)
% HHP at bit= X 100%
(Line 16)
Line 19: Cross-sectional area of hole
πD2 2
Cross-sectional area of hole = (in )
4
where
D = bit diameter in inches.
Line 20: Hydraulic Horsepower/in2 of hole (HSI)
(Line 17)
HSI = HHP/in2
(Line 19)
Note
Computer programs normally can select the appropriate nozzle sizes by “matching" the
TFA required to the available maximum pressure drop at the bit, for a given flow rate.
Otherwise, it asks for a different combination of nozzle sizes (an iterative procedure).

9.6 Hydraulic Optimization

The average mud hydraulics program is designed so that one half to two thirds of the
available hydraulic horsepower is expended at the bit. The higher value is usually more
effective in softer formations, due to the extra cleaning required on the bit-cutting
structure and the drilling action due to the hydraulic jetting force.
In normal drilling, as we get deeper, the horsepower available at the bit decreases. This
may become critical, especially when we drill deeper than planned or when the mud
weight has to be increased.
The required AV depends on the settling rate (slip velocity) of the cuttings, which is a
measure of the lifting capacity of the mud. The ROP will determine the volume of
cuttings for a given hole size.
Higher AV causes a higher pressure drop in the open hole section. This can contribute to
lost circulation.
9.6.1 Mud Motor Runs

When a mud motor run is planned, the maximum allowable flow rate is often
significantly less than when using a conventional rotary BHA. This is especially true of
1:2 lobe PDMs (e.g., a 7 3/4" DELTA 500 Dynadrill has a maximum recommended flow
rate of 450 GPM). Steerable and high-torque PDMs have much higher flow rate
capability.
Pressure drop across the PDM must be accounted for in the hydraulic calculation. It is
significant. Any PDM rotating off bottom will have a certain "no-load pressure loss".
This is different for each size and type of motor. The DD will also know the maximum
recommended motor differential pressure for each size and make of PDM, for a given
flow rate, mud weight etc.
Depending on the situation (hardness of formation etc.), the DD will operate the PDM
somewhere below this differential pressure. Again, high-torque motors have a much
higher allowable pressure drop across the motor than 1:2 designs.
The maximum allowable pressure drop across the bit when using a PDM varies widely
between different types of motor (1:2 lobe or multilobe etc.). The DD will know the
specifications of the particular PDM. A hydraulic calculation is performed similar to the
first situation (conventional rotary drilling ) except that we now have an additional
pressure loss in the system (Pmotor) and we have a restraint on the pressure drop across the
bit (Pbit)
When using a 1:2 type mud motor, total system pressure loss is almost always well
below the rig pressure limit (unless when run at great depths). However, with a
high-torque PDM (steerable or straight-housing), because of the high Pmotor and Pbit and
the much higher flow rate which is possible, unless the DD is careful, he could end up in
a situation where he’s not able to pump the preferred GPM, due to reaching the upper
pressure limitation of the rig.
Performance drilling with a high-torque PDM often means operating at close to the limits
of motor differential pressure and pressure drop across the bit for a certain flow rate.
Thus, careful and timely planning is vital in order to fine-tune the hydraulics. The DD
should ensure that he has all relevant specifications for the PDM(s) he has at the rig-site.
He should also leave some allowance for variations in mud properties etc.

Metric Units: For the equivalent hydraulic equations in metric units, refer to "Drilling
Data Handbook -I.F.P.”.
9.6.2 Recap
1. DD needs to be aware of basic mud properties (e.g. Mud Weight, Viscosity, Water
Loss, Yield Point, Gel Strength).
2. Do not forget to take into account pressure losses through MWD, Andergauge etc.
3. Always ensure that company representative has adequate stock of bit nozzles of
required sizes on rig.
Plan ahead! Motor runs often require the use of bigger nozzles than conventional
rotary BHAs (especially in 1:2 PDM case).
4. In the case of a PDM run, ensure that you doublecheck the hydraulic calculation.
Several factors have to be taken into account—rig pressure limit, motor
specifications, type of formation, type of bit, mud properties etc.
5. When running mud motors, the DD almost always either designs the hydraulics
program or at least has some input into it. Thus, he must know at least a minimum
amount of hydraulics!
6. The DD should know how to run a hydraulics program (on Macintosh and/or
ADVISOR).
9.6.3 Exercises
1. List the various pressure losses in the rig mud system. What do these add up to?
2. What determines the Annular Velocity?
3. What determines the Jet Velocity?
4. What determines the Hydraulic Horsepower at the bit?
5. How does the Mud Weight affect the various system pressure losses?
6. What is meant by:
a) Laminar flow.
b) Turbulent flow. Which is the best for cuttings removal?
7. What extra pressure loss(es) are involved in the hydraulic equation when using a
PDM? How do we find the maximum values for these pressure losses?
8. Get used to performing a basic hydraulic calculation, using Hydraulics tables.
9. Using a 7-3/4" D500 Dynadrill in 12-1/4" hole, at 450 GPM, with 10 ppg mud, what
is the minimum TFA we can use?

Directional Drilling
Training Manual
December 1996 ATC-003 Version 1.1
Holder:
Confidential
This information is confidential and is trade secret property of Anadrill. It must not be
copied in whole or in part, and should be filed accordingly by the holder. It must not
be shown to or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization and must
be returned to Anadrill upon request or when the holder leaves the employ of Anadrill.
© 1996 Anadrill - unpublished work
All rights reserved under copyright law.
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Description of problem/deficiency
Proposed revision
December 1996 Confidential Directional Drilling

Manual Feedback Form
Proposed revision (continued)

Acknowledgments

Table of Contents
1 Introduction Page
1.1 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING ...........................................1-1
2 Fundamentals Page
2.1 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY ................................................................................................2-1
2.2 ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY ................................................................................2-16

3.1 POSITIONING AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS ...................................................................3-1
3.2 SURVEY CALCULATION METHODS ............................................................................3-15
3.3 BASIC WELL PLANNING.............................................................................................3-24
3.4 ANTICOLLISION AND ADVANCED WELL PLANNING ...................................................3-34
4 Surveying Page
4.1 MAGNETIC & NON-MAGNETIC REQUIREMENTS ..........................................................4-1
4.2 MAGNETIC SINGLE SHOTS & MULTISHOTS ...............................................................4-15
4.3 GYROSCOPES .............................................................................................................4-19

5.1 DRILLING TOOLS .........................................................................................................5-1
5.2 DEFLECTION METHODS .............................................................................................5-18
6 Drilling Jars Page

6.1 USING DRILLING JARS .................................................................................................6-1

7.1 DOWNHOLE MUD MOTORS ..........................................................................................7-1
7.2 STEERABLE MUD MOTORS ........................................................................................7-14
7.3 DRILLING FLUID REQUIREMENTS WITH ALL PDMS ...................................................7-20

8.1 BITS .............................................................................................................................8-1

Table of Contents

9.1 DRILLING FLUIDS ........................................................................................................9-2
9.2 RHEOLOGY ..................................................................................................................9-5
9.3 DRILLING FLUIDS PRODUCTS.......................................................................................9-8
9.4 DRILL STRING HYDRAULICS ......................................................................................9-13
9.5 HAND-CALCULATION OF HYDRAULICS ......................................................................9-17
9.6 HYDRAULIC OPTIMIZATION .......................................................................................9-20

10.1 ROTARY BHA .........................................................................................................10-2
10.2 COMMON BHA PROBLEMS....................................................................................10-20
10.3 BHA EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS ...............................................................................10-22
10.4 RECAP ...................................................................................................................10-22

11.1 BHA WEIGHT..........................................................................................................11-2
11.2 TOOL HANDLING .....................................................................................................11-6
11.3 NUDGING .................................................................................................................11-7
11.4 ORIENTATION ..........................................................................................................11-8
11.5 CORRECTION RUNS................................................................................................11-16
11.6 THE OUIJA BOARD.................................................................................................11-18
11.7 CONSTANT RATE OF TURN TO TARGET..................................................................11-23
11.8 CONSTANT RATE OF DROP/BUILD TO TARGET.........................................................11-27
11.9 OPEN HOLE SIDETRACKING....................................................................................11-28
11.10 CASED HOLE SIDETRACKING ................................................................................11-32
12 DD at the Rigsite Page

12.1 ON ARRIVAL AT THE RIG .........................................................................................12-3
12.2 GENERAL DD DUTIES AS THE WELL PROGRESSES ....................................................12-5
12.3 LOCATION POLITICS ................................................................................................12-6

13.1 AN OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................13-1
14 Glossary Page
14.1 DRILLING FLUIDS ....................................................................................................14-1
14.2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING ........................................................................................14-29

List of Figures
1 Introduction Page
Figure 1-1 Side tracking ...............................................................................................1-3
Figure 1-2 Inaccessible locations .................................................................................1-4
Figure 1-3 Salt dome drilling .......................................................................................1-4
Figure 1-4 Fault controlling..........................................................................................1-5
Figure 1-5 Multiple exploration wells from a single well bore....................................1-5
Figure 1-6 Onshore drilling ..........................................................................................1-6
Figure 1-7 Offshore multiwell drilling .........................................................................1-6
Figure 1-8 Multiple sands from a single well bore.......................................................1-7
Figure 1-9 Intercepting a high pressure zone ...............................................................1-7
Figure 1-10 Horizontal wells........................................................................................1-8
2 Fundamentals Page
Figure 2-1 Cross section of earth with crust, mantle, core and inner core ...................2-2
Figure 2-2 Uplifted horst and down dropped graben....................................................2-2
Figure 2-3 Weight of overlying unconsolidated sediments (B) compacts layer (A)
into sedimentary rocks. ..............................................................................2-4
Figure 2-4 Normal Fault ...............................................................................................2-9
Figure 2-5 Reverse fault. ..............................................................................................2-9
Figure 2-6 Unconformities .........................................................................................2-10
Figure 2-7 Folding and cleavage ................................................................................2-10
Figure 2-8 Simplified diagram of the Milano, Texas fault.........................................2-12
Figure 2-9 Simple faults - normal (a), reverse (b), thrust (c) and lateral (d)..............2-12
Figure 2-10 Common types of stratigraphic traps ......................................................2-13
Figure 2-11 In map view, fault traps may be simple (a) or compound (b).................2-13
Figure 2-12 Discontinuous peripheral traps around piercement salt dome ................2-13
Figure 2-13 Artesian well ...........................................................................................2-15
Figure 2-14 The first order (straight line) equation....................................................2-18
Figure 2-15 Angles a and b are supplementary ..........................................................2-18
Figure 2-16 The sum of all angles around one point is 360°......................................2-19
Figure 2-17 This figure shows the relationship of angles ..........................................2-19
Figure 2-18 In this figure, angle a is equal to angle a’ ...............................................2-20
Figure 2-19 The sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180° .....................................2-20
Figure 2-20 ln this figure, angle a + c = angle e.........................................................2-21
Figure 2-21 This figure can be solved as above .........................................................2-21
Figure 2-22 lf angle c = 29°17’, what are angles a and b...........................................2-22
Figure 2-23 Projections from a right-angle triangle ...................................................2-22
Figure 2-24 Similiar triangles.....................................................................................2-23
Figure 2-25 Right angle triangle.................................................................................2-23
Figure 2-26 Right angle triangle.................................................................................2-24
Figure 2-27 Example of right angle triangle ..............................................................2-25
Figure 2-28 Right-angle triangle example..................................................................2-26

List of Figures
Figure 2-29 Equality of segments...............................................................................2-26

Figure 2-30 Circle and chord......................................................................................2-27
Figure 2-31 Circle and tangent ...................................................................................2-27
Figure 2-32 Circle and arc ..........................................................................................2-28
Figure 2-33 Unit circle ...............................................................................................2-29
Figure 2-34 Sign of sine, cosine and tangent in a circle.............................................2-30
Figure 2-35 Projections of lines..................................................................................2-30
Figure 2-36 Projection of lines - example .................................................................2-30
Figure 2-37 Projection of lines - perpendicular direction...........................................2-31
Figure 2-38 Projection of lines onto planes................................................................2-31
Figure 2-39 Radius of curvature definitions...............................................................2-32

Figure 3-1 Location on the earth’s surface by geographic coordinates........................3-2
Figure 3-2 The UTM system of location on the earth’s surface...................................3-5
Figure 3-3 Convergence ...............................................................................................3-6
Figure 3-4 Lambert conformal projection, USA ..........................................................3-7
Figure 3-5 Corrections to survey azimuth ..................................................................3-12
Figure 3-6 Lease definitions .......................................................................................3-12
Figure 3-7 Old style lease definitions.........................................................................3-13
Figure 3-8 Definitions of terms used in survey calculation methods .........................3-15
Figure 3-9 Tangential method definitions ..................................................................3-17
Figure 3-10 Average angle method ............................................................................3-18
Figure 3-11 Radius of curvature method....................................................................3-19
Figure 3-12 Radius of curvature method - vertical projection ...................................3-20
Figure 3-13 Radius of curvature - horizontal projection ............................................3-20
Figure 3-14 Minimum curvature - dog leg .................................................................3-21
Figure 3-15 Slant type well; R < total target displacement. .......................................3-26
Figure 3-16 Slant type well; R > total target displacement. .......................................3-27
Figure 3-17 "S" type well; (R1 + R2) <total target displacement. ..............................3-28
Figure 3-18 "S", type well; (R1 + R2)>total target displacement. ...............................3-29
Figure 3-19 Worksheet, Slant well, R < total displacement of target ........................3-30
Figure 3-20 Worksheet, Slant well, R >total displacement of target .........................3-31
Figure 3-21 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 < total displacement of target..............3-32
Figure 3-22 Worksheet, S type well, R1+R2 > total displacement of target..............3-33
Figure 3-23 Spider plot, small scale ...........................................................................3-34
Figure 3-24 Spider plot, large scale............................................................................3-34
Figure 3-25 Traveling Cylinder analysis and display.................................................3-35
Figure 3-26 Ellipsoid of certainty...............................................................................3-36
Figure 3-27 Determining lead angle...........................................................................3-37
Figure 3-28 Example of a basic well plan map ..........................................................3-37

List of Figures
4 Surveying Page
Figure 4-1 Earth’s magnetic field - rotation of liquid core...........................................4-2
Figure 4-2 Earth's magnetic field - dynamo theory ......................................................4-2
Figure 4-3 Earth’s magnetic field.................................................................................4-3
Figure 4-4 Fluctuation's in the earth's magnetic field...................................................4-3
Figure 4-5 Magnetic field strength. ..............................................................................4-4
Figure 4-6 Magnetic dip angle......................................................................................4-5
Figure 4-7 Magnetic dip angles at poles and equator...................................................4-6
Figure 4-8 Magnetic declination angle.........................................................................4-7
Figure 4-9 Drill string magnetism ................................................................................4-8
Figure 4-10 Effect of hole angle on drillstring magnetic interference ..........................4-8
Figure 4-11 Effect of azimuth on drillstring magnetic interference.............................4-9
Figure 4-12 Drillstring magnetic interference at different latitudes...........................4-10
Figure 4-13 Magnetic lines of force in the drillstring ................................................4-11
Figure 4-14 Effect of magnetic hot spot in MWD collar............................................4-12
Figure 4-15 NMDC requirements...............................................................................4-13
Figure 4-16 Deviation of Universal Gravitation Constant .........................................4-14
Figure 4-17 Simplified diagram of a typical gyroscope .............................................4-20
Figure 4-18 Realistic view of the configuration of a typical gyroscope.....................4-21
Figure 4-19 Gyro rotation around outer gimbal axis..................................................4-22
Figure 4-20 Gyro rotation around inner gimbal axis..................................................4-22
Figure 4-21 Single degree of freedom gyro................................................................4-24
Figure 4-22 Two degree of freedom gyro....................................................................4-24
Figure 4-23 Representation of nutation ......................................................................4-26
Figure 4-24 Relationship of celestial and ecliptic poles.............................................4-27
Figure 4-25 Origin of precession................................................................................4-27
Figure 4-26 Free gyro .................................................................................................4-28
Figure 4-27 Two degree gyro .....................................................................................4-29
Figure 4-28 Rate gyro.................................................................................................4-31
Figure 4-29 Rate gyro accelerometer operation .........................................................4-32
Figure 4-30 Rate gyro accelerometer principle of operation......................................4-32
Figure 4-31 Three step process to calculate survey from rate gyro............................4-33
Figure 4-32 Rate gyro survey axes .............................................................................4-34

Figure 5-1 Flush and spiral drill collars........................................................................5-2
Figure 5-2 Junk sub ......................................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-3 Dimensional data range of heavy weight drill pipe ....................................5-4
Figure 5-4 Various types of hardfacings. .....................................................................5-5
Figure 5-5 Welded blade stabilizers .............................................................................5-6
Figure 5-6 Integral blade stabilizers ............................................................................5-6
Figure 5-7 Sleeve-type stabilizers ................................................................................5-7

List of Figures
Figure 5-8 Clamp-on stabilizers ...................................................................................5-8

Figure 5-9 Rubber sleeve stabilizer ..............................................................................5-8
Figure 5-10 RWP stabilizer ..........................................................................................5-9
Figure 5-11 ANDERGAUGE stabilizer .......................................................................5-9
Figure 5-12 Roller reamers.........................................................................................5-10
Figure 5-13 Under-reamer ..........................................................................................5-11
Figure 5-14 String reamer...........................................................................................5-11
Figure 5-15 Key seat wiper ........................................................................................5-12
Figure 5-16 Bent sub ..................................................................................................5-13
Figure 5-17 UBHO .....................................................................................................5-14
Figure 5-18 Hole opener.............................................................................................5-14
Figure 5-19 Bullnose ..................................................................................................5-15
Figure 5-20 Section mill .............................................................................................5-15
Figure 5-21 Shock sub................................................................................................5-16
Figure 5-22 Rebel tool................................................................................................5-17
Figure 5-23 Whipstock deflection method .................................................................5-18
Figure 5-24 Jetting deflection method........................................................................5-19
Figure 5-25 Typical PDM BHA .................................................................................5-21
Figure 5-26 Steerable motor .......................................................................................5-22
Figure 5-27 Steerable motor bit offset........................................................................5-23

Figure 6-1 Basic jar schematic .....................................................................................6-2
Figure 6-2 Anadrill HYDRAQUAKER hydraulic drilling jar .....................................6-4
Figure 6-3 EQ jar components......................................................................................6-5
Figure 6-4 EQ jar tripping mechanism .........................................................................6-6
Figure 6-5 EQ jar "positions" .......................................................................................6-7
Figure 6-6 EQ jar - jarring ‘‘up’’ schematic .................................................................6-7
Figure 6-7 Typical fishing BHA incorporating jars ...................................................6-18

Figure 7-1 Principles of operation of turbine and PDM...............................................7-2
Figure 7-2 Typical Dump Valve Assembly..................................................................7-3
Figure 7-3 Positive displacement motor.......................................................................7-3
Figure 7-4 PDM lobe configurations............................................................................7-4
Figure 7-5 lllustrations of various motor profiles.........................................................7-5
Figure 7-6 Typical PDM connecting rod assembly......................................................7-5
Figure 7-7 Typical PDM bearing loading.....................................................................7-6
Figure 7-8 Typical 1:2 lobe PDM.................................................................................7-7
Figure 7-9 Typical PDM power output curve. .............................................................7-8
Figure 7-10 PDM bearing ‘‘play’’ ..............................................................................7-13
Figure 7-11 Typical adjustable bend housing steerable motor...................................7-15
Figure 7-12 Nortrak DTU...........................................................................................7-16
Figure 7-13 Distance L used to calculate angle-build characteristics. .......................7-17
Figure 7-14 Estimated build rates with PowerPak motor...........................................7-18
Figure 7-15 Typical steerable mud motor assembly ..................................................7-19

List of Figures

Figure 8-1 Fixed cutter bit components (PDC, TSP, & natural diamonds)..................8-1
Figure 8-2 Roller Cone Bit Components......................................................................8-2
Figure 8-3 Roller cone (a) and PDC (b) bits ................................................................8-3
Figure 8-4 TSP diamond (a) and natural diamond (b) bits...........................................8-3
Figure 8-5 IADC dull bit grading system.....................................................................8-6
Figure 8-6 Two thirds rule and how to measure gauge ................................................8-7
Figure 8-7 Broken cone ................................................................................................8-8
Figure 8-8 Bond failure ................................................................................................8-9
Figure 8-9 Broken teeth................................................................................................8-9
Figure 8-10 Balled up bit............................................................................................8-10
Figure 8-11 Cracked cone............................................................................................8-10
Figure 8-12 Cone dragged ...........................................................................................8-11
Figure 8-13 Cone interference.....................................................................................8-11
Figure 8-14 Cored bit .................................................................................................8-12
Figure 8-15 Chipped teeth/cutters ..............................................................................8-12
Figure 8-16 Erosion ....................................................................................................8-13
Figure 8-17 Flat crested wear .....................................................................................8-13
Figure 8-18 Heat checking .........................................................................................8-14
Figure 8-19 Junk damage ...........................................................................................8-14
Figure 8-20 Lost cone.................................................................................................8-15
Figure 8-21 Lost nozzle..............................................................................................8-15
Figure 8-22 Lost teeth/cutters.....................................................................................8-16
Figure 8-23 Off center wear .......................................................................................8-16
Figure 8-24 Pinched bit ..............................................................................................8-17
Figure 8-25 Plugged nozzle........................................................................................8-17
Figure 8-26 Rounded gauge .......................................................................................8-18
Figure 8-27 Shirttail damage ......................................................................................8-19
Figure 8-28 Self sharpening wear...............................................................................8-19
Figure 8-29 Tracking ..................................................................................................8-19
Figure 8-30 Washed out bit ........................................................................................8-20
Figure 8-31 Worn teeth or cutters...............................................................................8-20

Figure 9-1 Components of viscosity.............................................................................9-6
Figure 9-2 Laminar flow.............................................................................................9-14
Figure 9-3 Turbulent flow ..........................................................................................9-14
Figure 9-4 Slip velocity and mud velocity .................................................................9-15
Figure 9-5 Hydraulics worksheet ...............................................................................9-17

List of Figures

Figure 10-1 Slick and packed hole BHAs ..................................................................10-3
Figure 10-2 BHA side forces......................................................................................10-4
Figure 10-3 BHA as a hollow cylinder.......................................................................10-4
Figure 10-4 Pendulum force and weight on bit ..........................................................10-6
Figure 10-5 Single stabilizer BHA .............................................................................10-7
Figure 10-6 Two stabilizer BHA ................................................................................10-8
Figure 10-7 Negative side force .................................................................................10-8
Figure 10-8 Comparison of sideforces on single and two stabilizer BHAs ...............10-9
Figure 10-9 Buildup BHA using two stabilizers. .......................................................10-9
Figure 10-10 Effect of WOB increase on sideforce. ................................................10-10
Figure 10-11 Inclination v sideforce for 3 BHAs.....................................................10-10
Figure 10-12 Increase of side force with addition of one stabilizer .........................10-11
Figure 10-13 Undergauge near bit stabilizer ............................................................10-12
Figure 10-14 Undergauge second stabilizer .............................................................10-12
Figure 10-15 Effect of hole washout on side force...................................................10-13
Figure 10-16 BHAs for building inclination ............................................................10-14
Figure 10-17 BHAs for maintaining inclination.......................................................10-15
Figure 10-18 Typical locked up BHA for 12-1/4 in. hole ........................................10-15
Figure 10-19 BHAs for dropping inclination ...........................................................10-16
Figure 10-20 Semidrop BHA ...................................................................................10-17
Figure 10-21 Typical jetting BHA............................................................................10-18
Figure 10-22 Example of a Gilligan BHA................................................................10-19

Figure 11-1 Neutral point in the DC’s........................................................................11-3
Figure 11-2 Concept of available WOB .....................................................................11-3
Figure 11-3 Muleshoe orientation method .................................................................11-8
Figure 11-4 Gravity tool face. ..................................................................................11-10
Figure 11-5 Relationships between GTF and hole direction....................................11-10
Figure 11-6 Relative of reactive torque and gravity.................................................11-11
Figure 11-7 Vector diagram showing dogleg required to change hole direction .....11-19
Figure 11-8 The OUIJA board..................................................................................11-20
Figure 11-9 Ragland diagram ...................................................................................11-23
Figure 11-10 Calculating total turn to bit target .......................................................11-24
Figure 11-11 Rate of drop/build to target.................................................................11-27

Figure 13-1 Differential sticking ................................................................................13-3
Figure 13-2 Development of filter cake......................................................................13-3
Figure 13-3 Effect of drill solids on filter cake ..........................................................13-4
Figure 13-4 Filter cake bridging.................................................................................13-4
Figure 13-5 Erosion of filter cake...............................................................................13-5
Figure 13-6 Effect of hole deviation & mud weight on borehole stability.................13-7
Figure 13-7 Development of key seats .....................................................................13-10
Figure 13-8 Key seat wiper and string reamer..........................................................13-11

List of Tables
2 Fundamentals Page
Table 2-1 Geologic time scale ......................................................................................2-3
Table 2-2 Common evaporites .....................................................................................2-8

Table 3-1 Rectangular coordinates of a target position..............................................3-14
Table 3-2 Relative accuracy of the different methods................................................3-22
4 Surveying Page
Table 4-1 Common relative values of total magnetic field strength ............................4-5
Table 4-2 Common relative values for dip angle. ........................................................4-5

Table 6-1 Seal areas, EQ Jars .......................................................................................6-9
Table 6-2 EQ Jar maximum settings ..........................................................................6-16

Table 7-1 Comparison of 1:2 vs multilobe PDMs......................................................7-10
Table 7-2 Specifications for two typical 7 3/4 in. motors ..........................................7-10
Table 7-3 Oil categories based on aniline point .........................................................7-20

Table 9-1 Description of surface equipment types.....................................................9-16

Table 10-1 Modulus of elasticity................................................................................10-5

Table 11-1 1:2 Lobe PDM Reactive Torque Estimates.............................................11-12
Table 11-2 Deflection angle (Dog Leg Severity) in º/100 ft. ...................................11-18
Table 11-3 Sidetracking suggested BHAs to match downhole conditions ............11-31

Directional Drilling
Training Manual
December 1996 ATC-003 Version 1.1
Confidential
This information is confidential and is trade secret property of Anadrill. It must not be
copied in whole or in part, and should be filed accordingly by the holder. It must not
be shown to or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization and must
be returned to Anadrill upon request or when the holder leaves the employ of Anadrill.
© 1996 Anadrill - unpublished work
All rights reserved under copyright law.
Schlumberger
Anadrill

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Directional Drilling Training Manual

Section 10 - Bottom Hole Assemblies

Document Type UOP Template (Word 6 PC)

Software Microsoft Word 6.0 for Windows NT

Source File DDTM_10.DOC

Other Source File TM.DOT

Author Mike Smith

Author info Anadrill Technique

200 Gillingham Lane

Sugar Land TX 77478-3136

Tel: + 1 281 285 8859

Fax: + 1 281 285 8290/4155

Review & approval

Revision History 04 Dec 96 2nd Revision

06-Dec-96 Final review and approval MJS

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling

10 Bottom Hole Assemblies Page

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-i

List of Figures Page

List of Tables Page

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-ii

10 Bottom Hole Assemblies

Objectives of this Chapter

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-1

10.1 Rotary BHA

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-2

10.1.1 Rotary BHA Theory

10.1.1.1Principles of the Rotary BHA

Collars Nonmagnetic Drill

Bit Shock Sub

Near Bit Stabilizer

Figure 10-1 Slick and packed hole BHAs

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-3

Figure 10-2 BHA side forces

Figure 10-3 BHA as a hollow cylinder

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-4

Moment of Inertia I = π ( OD4 - ID4) /64

E• I = 30.0 x 106 x π • (8.04 -2.81254) / 64

E • I =30.0 x 106 x π • (7.04-2.81254) / 64

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-5

10.1.2 Slick Assembly

H = Negative Side Force

Figure 10-4 Pendulum force and weight on bit

10.1.3 Single stabilizer BHAs

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-6

Figure 10-5 Single stabilizer BHA

10.1.4 Two stabilizer BHAs

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-7

Figure 10-6 Two stabilizer BHA

S.F=-171 lb S.F=-249 lb S.F=-295 lb S.F=-210 lb

Figure 10-7 Negative side force

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-8

A comparison of side force values for a single-stabilizer pendulum BHA versus a

Figure 10-8 Comparison of sideforces on single and two stabilizer BHAs

9-1/2" 8" 7" 6"

14-3/4" 12-1/4" 9-7/8" 8-1/2"

Figure 10-9 Buildup BHA using two stabilizers.

Provisory - 06 Dec 96 Confidential Directional Drilling 10-9

S.F.=855 lb S.F.=962 lb S.F.=1,002 lb