1.

What is the difference between inductive and deductive approach in

linguistics?

A deductive approach (rule-driven) starts with the presentation of a rule and is

followed by examples in which the rule is applied.
An inductive approach (rule-discovery) starts with some examples from which a
rule is inferred. (All factual statements, i.e. statements capable of objective
verification, are based on observation).

2. What is the difference between onomasiological and semasiological

approaches in lexicological studies?

Onomasiological approach
 to find words that describe a given object/concept
 «how do you express X?»
 starts with the object and analyzes different words correlated with it
 helps to discover how meaning is formed

Semasiological approach
 goes from the word to find a definition
 «what does the X mean?»
 starts with the name & considers different meanings of it
 discovers semantic relations between words

3. Explain the difference between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of

lexical units.

Paradigmatic relations are based on the criteria of selection and distribution of

linguistic elements. Paradigmatic relations determining the vocabulary system are
based on the interdependence of words within the vocabulary: synonymy,
antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy.

Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear links between the units in a segmental

sequence. Syntagmatic relations are horizontal since they are based on the linear
character of speech.

4. What is the main goal of IC (Immediate Constituents) analysis?

Immediate constituent analysis, also called Ic Analysis, in linguistics, a system

of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers,
or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or
meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters
into some larger construction.) In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first
division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran
away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At
the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” The term was introduced
by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933, though the underlying
principle is common both to the traditional practice of parsing and to many modern
systems of grammatical analysis.

5. What is the task of distributional analysis? Comment on the importance of

studying distributional patterns in lexicology.
By the term "distribution" we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to
other lexical units of the same level (words relative to words \morphemes relative
to morphemes ,etc).In other words,by this term we understand the position which
lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech.
The independenceof disrtibution and meaning can be also observed at the level of
word-groups.It is only the distribution of otherwise completely identical lexical
units that accounts for the difference in the meaning of water tap and tap
water.Thus,as far as words are concerned the meaning by distribution may be
defined as an abstraction on the syntagmatic level.
- the distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find
out sameness or difference of meaning.
- distribution of stems in a compound word predicts a certain component of
meaning as the stem that stands first is understood as modifying the one that
follows.

6. What transformational procedures are used in lexicological studies?

Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations is the “re-patterning of
various distributional structures in order to discover difference or similarity of
meaning of practically identical distributional patterns”. In a number of cases,
distributional patterns are polysemous; therefore, transformational procedures will
help to analyze the semantic similarity or difference of the lexemes under
examination and the factors that account for their polysemy. If we compare the
compound words highball, highland, highlight, and high-rise, we see that the
distributional pattern of stems is identical, and it may be represented
as adj+n pattern. The first part of the stems modifies or describes the second part,
and these compounds may be assumed as ‘a kind of ball,’ ‘a kind of land,’ ‘a kind
of light,’ and ‘a kind of rise.’ However, this assumption may be wrong because the
semantic relationship between the stems is different; therefore, the lexical
meanings of the words are also different. A transformational procedure shows
that highland is semantically equivalent to ‘an area of high ground’; highball is not
a kind of ball but corresponds to “whiskey and water or soda with ice, served in a
tall glass’ or ‘a railroad signal for a train to proceed at full
speed’; highlight semantically equals to ‘the part of the surface that catches more
light’; and high-rise is semantically the same as ‘a building with many stories.’
 Although distributional structure of these compound words is similar, the
transformational analysis of these words shows that the semantic relationship
between the stems and the lexical meanings of the words is different.

7. Describe the procedure of componential analysis.

Structural linguists take a seemingly different approach to the analysis of lexemes,
known as componential analysis—that is an analysis in terms of components.
This view to the depiction of meaning of words and phrases is based upon “the
thesis that the sense of every lexeme can be analyzed in terms of a set of more
general sense components (or semantic features)”. This term was first used by
N.Trubetzkoi (1939) who introduced componential analysis to phonology.

The characteristic of componential analysis is that it attempts “as far as possible to

treat components in terms of binary oppositions” (Palmer, 1990, p.111), e.g.,
between an adult and a child, a male and female, parent and child, animate and
inanimate, and other oppositions.

+Words are related to semantic meaning not only in denotation, as the above
analyses show, but also in connotation. The analysis of the connotational meanings
of words is difficult to do because their nuances are slight and difficult to grasp,
and they do not yield themselves easily to objective investigation and verification.

8. Provide some arguments to support the conviction that lexicology deserves the
status of a separate subdivision of linguistics.
1 of the 3 main aspects of language — vocabulary (grammar and sound system).
Concerned with the words as individual items.
Examines every feature of a word – including formation, origin, usage, and
definition.

9. What is the object and the main tasks of lexicology?

The basic task of Lexicology is the study and systematic description of the
vocabulary of some particular language in respect to its origin, development and
current use. In other words, Lexicology is concerned with words and word-
combinations (or word-groups), phraseological units and morphemes which make
up words.
The object of Lexicology is a word and word-combinations or word-groups.
When we study Lexicology we should research the word and word-combinations
in different sides, for example, its origin, meaning or semantics, development,
multilevel structure.
10.What are the principal subdivisions of lexicology?
 Semasiology or semantics, including the semantic classification of English
words;
 The study of word-structure and word-formation;
 The study of word-equivalents, or idioms and phraseological units;
 A brief etymological survey of the English word-stock;
 Fundamentals of English lexicography.

11. How do we define the notion of linguistic unit and what types of
linguistic units can be singled out in English?
Linguistic unit
Any unit can be considered unit of the language on condition it:
 possesses external (sound) form and semantic content

 is not created in the process of speech but used as something already

existing and only reproduced in speech

 each linguistic unit has a constant and specific meaning

 two possible main directions of linguistic research:

 phonetics - we study the speech event without reference to its meaning

 semantics - we study the relation of the event to the features of meaning

12.Give examples to prove that forms and meanings of linguistic units are
inseparably connected.
Form in linguistics — sounds/letters/symbols arranged in a certain way to
represent meaning.
Each combination of signal units is arbitrarily tied to some peculiarities of the
practical world.
Each linguistic form has a constant and definite meaning, different from the
meaning of any other linguistic form in the same language
Each form has a particular meaning in a particular context. It implies that a
form can have different meanings in different contexts.
- Polysemy — One written form can have a range of meanings.
If the forms are different their meanings are also different.
 - Synonymy — Different forms can have close or identical meanings.
A slight change in the sound form of a linguistic unit can change its meaning
— homonymy.

13. Find at least three facts to confirm that Ferdinand de Saussure is

rightly called “the father” of modern linguistics.

Saussure was one of the founders of structuralism. In his Course in General

Linguistics (1916), he stated that language is the system of signs.
He made famous distinctions between:
signifier (sound form, sign) & signified (concept, mental image)
language (abstract; symbolic system through which we communicate) &
speech (concrete; actual utterances)
diachronic (evolutionary) & synchronic (particular point in time) aspects of
language
syntagmatic (relationship between signs according to their positions in a
given sentence or utterance) & paradigmatic (according to the membership
in particular types or classes of signs) aspects of language

14. What criteria can be applied for defining the word as a linguistic unit?
syntactic criterion
word — smallest part of the sentence
Henry Sweet “a minimum sentence”, Leonard Bloomfield as “minimum
free form”
semantic-logical criterion
word in the sentence — sign of a separate notion (Wilhelm von Humboldt)
psychological criterion
word — linguistic equivalent of a separate concept
semantic-phonological criterion
word — articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which
is spoken about (Alan Gardiner)
semantic criterion
words — meaningful units in a connected discourse (Stephen Ullmann)
 syntactic-semantic criterion
word — one of the smallest bits of isolated “meaning” into which the
sentence resolves itself (Edward Sapir)

15. Provide the definition of the word and comment on the principal
features of this linguistic unit.
Word — a linguistic unit characterized by:unity of form and content; internal
stability (in terms of the order of its morphemes); capability of functioning alone
and interchanging with other words in a sentence.

16. How do we differentiate between free, bound and complex forms of

words? Give examples.
Morphemes are the smallest units in a language that have meaning. They can
be classified as free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, or bound
morphemes, which must be combined with another morpheme to form a complete
word. Bound morphemes typically appear as affixes in the English language.
Free morphemes are considered to be base words in linguistics. Base words
that can stand alone (such as “book”) are known as free bases, while bound bases
(including Latin roots like “ject”) are not individual words in English. Most free
morphemes can be modified by affixes to form complex words.
Some linguistic forms bear partial phonetic-semantic resemblances to other
forms; examples are,
Nastya had, Ira was; going, loving; bilberry; strawberry. A linguistic form
which bears a partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to some other form is a
complex form. The common part of any (two or more) complex forms is a
linguistic form; it is a constituent (or component) of these
complex forms.
The constituents in the examples quoted are said to be: Nastya, had, Ira, was,
black, berry, straw, and-ing (-ing is a bound-form constituent in going, loving).
17. What are the characteristic features of morphemes in comparison
with words?
Morphemes, as elements which constitute a word, are usually defined as the
smallest grammatical unit.
A morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of one or more
phonemes.
for example: the morpheme "pig" has a phonetic resemblance to other
morphemes, such as big, sick, pick.
But since these resemblances are not connected with resemblances of
meaning, we cannot ascribe any meaning to the phonemes.
18. How are morphemes classified and what is the underlying principle of
their classification?
Morphemes may be classified:
 1) from the semantic point of view (Semantically morphemes fall into two
classes: root-morphemes and non-root or affixational morphemes. Roots and
affixes make two distinct classes of morphemes due to the different roles they play
in word-structure.)
2) from the structural point of view ( Structurally morphemes fall into three
types: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-free (semi- bound) morphemes.)
19. Comment on the types and combinability of stems. Give examples.
In linguistics, a stem is a part of a word responsible for its lexical meaning.
The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the stem. The
stem contains the idea of the word without relations.
For example: chronology (a stem chron-), dictation (dic-). In the form
‘untouchables’ the stem is ‘untouchable’, although in the form ‘touched’ the stem
is ‘touch’; in the form ‘wheelchairs’ the stem is ‘wheelchair’, even though the stem
contains two roots.
Also a stem is called "a base". Usually, the base is also the root. But root and
stem should be viewed from different angles.
So, stems may differ structurally, they may be root stems (cook -er), derived
stems (lone-li-ness) and compound stems (well-manner -ed).
Stems are combined with definite affixes and there are several reasons for
this:
grammatical category of stems (some suffixes can be added only to adjectives
or nouns, or verbs...),
semantic content of stems and affixes (stems negative in meaning cannot
tackle prefixes of negation),
phonetic specifics of stems and affixes (after some stems which end in lip
consonants stand suffixes with initial vowel, e.g. dist-ance).
20. Define the notion of paradigm. Explain the difference between
inflexional and derivational paradigms of words.
A paradigm is a set of related forms having the same stem but different
affixes.•Example: a derivational paradigm with the stem head;ahead, behead,
header, headlong, headship, heady, subhead.
There are 2 types of paradigms - Derivational Paradigms and Inflectional
Paradigms.
A derivational paradigm is a set of related words which have the same root
but different stems. Examples: 1. nature, natural, naturally 2. unnatural, unnaturally
3. naturalist, naturalistic, naturalistically 4. naturalize, naturalization
An inflectional paradigm is a set of related words consisting of the same stem
to which add different inflectional suffixes. •Examples: 1. brighten, brightens,
brightening , brightened, brightened 2. great, greater, greatest 3. boy, boy’s, boys,
boys’
21. What criteria can be suggested for distinguishing between inflexional
and derivational affixes?
A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed
(derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from
the original.
 On the other hand, an inflectional affix is an affix that expresses a
grammatical contrast that does not change the word class of its stem, and is
typically located farther from its root than a derivational affix and produces a
predictable change of meaning. In short, derivational affixes create new words and
inflectional affixes create new forms of the same word.
Inflectional Suffix
-s/-es eats, washes
-ed called, smiled
-ing marking, arguing, writing...
Derivational Suffix
-able excitable, portable, preventable
-age passage, pilgrimage, voyage
-aholic/-oholic workaholic, shopaholic, alcoholic...
22. Define the field of word-formation. Does word-formation always treat
composites?
In linguistics (particularly morphology and lexicology), word formation
refers to the ways in which new words are formed on the basis of other words or
morphemes. This is also known as derivational morphology.
Word formation can denote either a state or a process, and it can be viewed
either diachronically (through different periods in history) or synchronically (at
one particular period in time).
Word-formation is said to treat of composites which are analyzable both
formally and semantically.
23. Speak on the possible points of intersection between morphology and
word-formation.
Morphology and Word Formation study words, their relationships, their
constituent parts and their internal organization.
In expressive language we use lots of different words and different forms of
these words. Morphology refers to the rules that govern the different forms of
words and the formation of different words.
What is word formation?
A word is a sound or a group of sounds that are articulated to express a
thought, idea or object. These individual words can be built on by using
morphemes to create other words that share some meaning but express other
information as well. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language,
therefore morphemes do not always have to be a word.
One word can have different forms that serve different purposes in an
utterance. Morphemes can be added to the base word to create other words. The
word pain is a noun that can be built on to create different word forms e.g.
painless, painfully and pains.
24. How can research in the field of word-formation benefit from
etymology? What are the points of intersection? Give examples.
Morphology and Etymology involve looking at the structure and origin of
words. These strategies can help to better understand where words come from,
what words mean and how to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words.
 Etymology deals with the origin of a word, often by tracing its development
through history, and other related studies. And as we know that word formation on
the one hand is seen as a historical process, it can be concluded that etymology and
word formation are undoubtedly related.
25. What principles of classification of the types of word-formation are
recognized in modern lexicology?
Classification of the types of word-formation:
First way: Based upon the semantic structure of word or words.(Derivation,
Compounding)
Second way: Based on the relationship of components to the new word.
( Morphological word-building, Lexico-syntactic word-building, Lexico-semantic
word-building).
26. What types of word-formation are distinguished proceeding from the
semantic structure of words?
From the semantic structure of word or words distinguish 2 types:
A. Derivation - is the process of creating a new word out of an old word,
usually by adding a prefix or a suffix., e.g. brotherhood, childhood.
B. Compounding - is a grammatical process by which complex words are
formed from smaller elements that have word status under normal
circumstances.,e.g. red-hot, navy-blue walking-stick, newspaper, to whitewash.
27. What types of word-formation are distinguished proceeding from the
relation of word components and the new word?
From the relation of word components and the new word distinguish 3 types:
A. Morphological word-building - creating new words using morphemes and
changing the structure of the existing words after certain linguistic patterns:
derivation (is a meaningful combination of stems and affixes (childhood)),
compounding (when two or more stems add to form a new word (newspaper)),
shortening (shortening of the word (exam from examination)), sound-interchange
(when a unit in a morpheme changes and as a result come up a new lexical
meaning (food-feed)), back – formation (a new word come up from disposaling
affixes (orator from orate)), reduplication (a morphological process in which the
root or stem of a word or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight
change (sing-singing, okey-dokey, pitter-patter).
B. Lexico-syntactic word-building - the formation of new units by the
process of isolation from free word-combinations e.g. stay-at-home, happy-go-
lucky, pie-in-the-sky, добранiч, нiсенiтниця
C. Lexico-semantic word-building - any change in the meaning of word that
comes out as the result of the historical development of the language
28. Comment on the difference between morphological, morphological-
syntactic and lexico-syntactic word-building.
From the relation of word components and the new word distinguish 3 types:
A. Morphological word-building - creating new words using morphemes and
changing the structure of the existing words after certain linguistic patterns:
derivation (is a meaningful combination of stems and affixes (childhood)),
compounding (when two or more stems add to form a new word (newspaper)),
shortening (shortening of the word (exam from examination)), sound-interchange
(when a unit in a morpheme changes and as a result come up a new lexical
meaning (food-feed)), back – formation (a new word come up from disposaling
affixes (orator from orate)), reduplication (a morphological process in which the
root or stem of a word or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight
change (sing-singing, okey-dokey, pitter-patter).
B. Lexico-syntactic word-building - the formation of new units by the
process of isolation from free word-combinations e.g. stay-at-home, happy-go-
lucky, pie-in-the-sky, добранiч, нiсенiтниця
C. Lexico-semantic word-building - any change in the meaning of word that
comes out as the result of the historical development of the language
29. Word-formation rules versus grammar rules: similarities and
differences.
Word-formation rules versus grammar rules:
 not all words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable, so
they are of limited productivity
 we have to differ “actual words” (such as sandstone, unwise), and “potential
words” (such as lemonstone, unexcellent)
 study of the language can be historical or contemporary (synchronic) , so it
always provide new words, which are created every day
 today grammatical rules change: word-creation processes can be productive
or lose their productivity; can increase or decrease their applicability (for
example, the Old Englsh suffix -th, no longer used to form new words,
however, it still exists in words like length, depth, warmth and so on.
30. Explain the notion of nonce formation and give examples in English
and in Ukrainian.
A nonce word (from Middle English "for the once") is a word coined or used
for a special occasion. A compound construction made up for a particular occasion
is sometimes called a nonce formations.
Neologisms are much the same thing, brand-new words or brand-new
meanings for existing words, coined for a specific purpose. Occasionally these
words will enter the standard vocabulary.
Examples:
The poem "Jabberwocky" is full of nonce words, with two of them,
chortle(хіхікання) and galumph(в’язка маса), entering into common use.
In Ukrainian – насос, рудник, ударник, передовик

31. Comment on the notion of productivity in the

field of word-formation. What types of word-formation
are most productive in modern English and in modern
Ukrainian?
 the distinction between productive and nonproductive
is by no means straightforward. Still we can speak about
some types of word-formation being used more often than
the others for creation of new words. If we call such
means productive, then we should admit that here belong
affixation and compounding. This statement is supported
by the data provided by Merriam Webster Dictionary.
Third International Dictionary informs that about two-
fifths of English new words is nowadays formed through
affixation and about three fifths by compounding.
Oleksandr Taranenko (see an article indicated in
Additional resources) who analyzed modern tendencies in
Ukrainian word-formation also attracts attention to the
dominant role of derivation, in particular affixation, in
Ukrainian. In particular, he speaks about suffixal
feminization as the most productive phenomenon. He
claims that processes of democratization of the lingual
activity in modern Ukraine brought to life word-formation
processes of creating nouns to denote feminine gender
through derivation: банкірка, барменка, бізнесменка,
піарниця, продюсерка, роботодавиця; бойовичка,
рекетирка; ваххабітка, ісламістка, шахідка and others.
O.Taranenko analyzes some others different means of
affixations in modern Ukrainan which prove the
productivity of this type of word-formation.

32. Comment on derivation as the productive type of

word-formation and enumerate types of derivational
affixes. Give examples.
It the type where the word has only one semantic
centre, the other morphemes being affixes, e.g.
brotherhood.
It is suffixation and prefixation, zero-derivation
Derivation, also known as affixation, is one of the
most productive ways of word-formation.
It is defined as the formation of words by adding
derivational affixes to stems. Once formed derived words
become independent lexical items that receive their own
entry in a speaker’s mental dictionary. Prefixes and
suffixes differ significantly in their linguistic status.
Prefixes primarily affect a semantic modification of the
stem primary function of suffixes being, by contrast, to
change the grammatical function (for example the word
class) of the stem
There are 2 types of derived words:
1) according to the root-morpheme (e.g. woman,
womanly, womanish, womanized; добро, добрий,
доброта, добряга),
2) according to the affix morpheme(e.g. swimmer,
speaker, drinker; погонич, пiдпасич, керманич)

English denominal nouns: (Derivative suffixes)

1.-age - measure of, collection of :
baggage, frontage, mileage
2.-dom - not very productive, tends to convey
pejorative [pɪ'ʤɒrətɪv] overtones : officialdom but not in
stardom or kingdom)
3.-ery, -ry -(a) the condition of behaviour
associated with: drudgery, slavery, (b) location of:
nursery, refinery,bakery, (c) concrete aggragate :
machinery, rocketry, d) nouns rather freely formed:
gadgetry
 4.- ful - the amount contained in: spoonful, glassful
( freely formed)
5.- hood –state (only midely productive) : boyhood,
brotherhood, widowhood
7.- ing - (a) noncount concrete aggregates
( fairly freely formed with reference to the material):
tubing, panelling carpeting; (b) activity connected with:
cricketing, farming, blackberrying ( fairly freely made)
8.- ism - doctrine of, practice of : Calvinism, idealism
9.- ocracy - government by: democracy, aristocracy
10.- ship limitedly productive :
membership,dictatorship

UKRAINIAN denominal nouns

1.-ств(о), цтв(о) - властивiсть, стан: геройство,
молодецтво,
материнство, дитинство, скотарство, бджiльництво
2.- iзм, изм - вчення, iдеологiчнi напрями:
реалiзм, натуралiзм
3.- чина, щина- часовi вiдтiнки, iсторичнi рухи:
бувальщина, панщина,
4.- няк - гаї, сади за породою дерев i кущiв
дубняк, вишняк
5.- в(а) - поняття збiрностi : мошва
7.- н(я) - (pejorative): комашня
8.- ор(а) - дiтвора
9. - ин(а) - agricultural products: садовина,
городина

ENGLISH DEVERBAL
1.- age - action of, instance of:
breakage, coverage
2.- ation - the process or state of:
exploration, starvation
3.- al - the action or result of: refusal, revival
dismissal
4.- ing - results from the action:
building, opening
5.- ment - the result of: arrangement,
management,amazement

UKRAINIAN DEVERBAL
1.- анн(я), енн(я), iнн(я) - широке узагальнення
процесу дii чи стану: споживання, благання,
зазiхання, терпiння
2.- к(а) опредмечена дiя, результат процесу :
розробка, перевозка
3.- б(а), -от(а) процес, стан: боротьба, слiпота,
турбота
4.- ин(а) - метушливi, безладнi дiї бiганина,
мiшанина
5.- тв(а) – (nonproductive): битва, клятва,
6.- iзацi(я), изацi(я) - заходи:
класифiкацiя

33. Comment on shortening as the productive type of

word-formation and enumerate types of shortenings.
Give examples.
The shortened word is short compared to the source
word and has only one meaning which makes this type of
word formation easy and useful. Shortening is a unit or
written or spoken language which is created by using
some parts of the word or words, in some forms of
shortenings separate letter(s), sounds can be taken
Shortening is the process of substracting phonemes
and / or morhemes from words and word-groups without
changing their lexico-grammatical meaning.
Abbreviation is a process of shortening the result of
which is a word made up of the initial letters or syllables
of the components of a word-group or a compound word.
Graphical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a
word or a word-group only in written speech (for the
economy of space and effort in writing), while orally the
corresponding full form is used:
• days of the week and months, e.g. Sun., Tue., Feb.,
Oct., Dec.;
• states in the USA, e.g. Alas., CA, TX;
• forms of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Dr.;
• scientific degrees, e.g. BA, BSc., MA, MSc., MBA,
PhD.;
• military ranks, e.g. Col.;
• units of measurement, e.g. sec., ft, km.
• Latin abbreviations, e.g. p.a., i.e., ibid., a.m., cp.,
viz.
• internet abbreviations, e.g. BTW, FYI, TIA,
AFAIK, TWIMC, MWA.

34. Characterize conversion as a type of word

formation. What are the divergent features of conversion
in English and in Ukrainian?

Conversion is the process of coining a new word in a

different part of speech and with different distribution
characteristics but without adding any derivative element,
so that the basic form of the original and the basic form of
derived words are homonymous. This phenomenon can be
illustrated by the following cases: work - to work, love -
to love, water - to water. As a type of word-formation
conversion exists in many languages.
The main reason for the widespread development of
conversion in present-day English is no doubt the absence
of morphological elements serving as classifying signals,
or, in other words, of formal signs marking the part of
speech to which the word belongs. The word back may
illustrate the fact that the sound pattern does not show to
what part of speech the word belongs. It may be a noun, a
verb, an adjective, and an adverb. Cf.: They lay on their
backs and gazed at the sky. Back your car out of the
driveway. There is a shop in a back street behind the
station. Put that book back, please
Conversion is not characteristic of the Ukrainian
language. The only type of conversion that can be found
there is substantivation: молодий, хворий. So in
Ukrainian only adjective can become noun, and in
English same word can belong to different parts of
speech.
35. Speak on the minor and non-productive types of
word-formation in modern English.
There exists a point of view that productive means are
not merely those with the aid of which we can form new
words at a given stage of the development of the language
but those that can be used for the formation of unlimited
number of new words. There are means of word-
formation that are not used at present. For example,
lexicalization of grammatical forms, sound-interchange,
stress-interchange. The lexicalization of grammatical
form is a term used to denote the creation of an
independent word from one of word-forms. Thus a
number of English and Ukrainian nouns in the plural form
underwent lexicalization and acquired independent forms
and meaning: bead − коралик, beads − вервечка; colour
− колiр, colours − прапор. Synchronically -s in such
words is regarded not as a grammatical inflexion
expressing plurality but as a special case of affixation. It
is not used in modern English to coin new words.
Sound-interchange includes vowel and consonant
interchange. Both are nonproductive and offer no model
to form new words after, e.g.: food − to feed; a house − to
house; gold − to gild; to speak – speech; blood − to bleed;
defense – defend; present – presence. Stress-interchange
formally served as word-formation means and produced
pairs like cónflict − to conflíct.

36. Give the definition and indicate the main

characteristic features of the compound.
A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than
one stem and functioning both grammatically and
semantically as a single word (e.g. letter-box, fingertip,
term paper). Compounding is one of the most productive
means of word-formation both in English and Ukrainian.
Compounding can be studied both diachronically and
synchronically.
There are three types of compound words; closed,
hyphenated and open.A closed compound word is joined
into one word like keyboard or makeup. A hyphenated
word is two words joined with a hyphen like mother-in-
law. Open compound words are words which are used
together like police station, or fire engine.
Even if both parts of a compound contribute to the
meaning of the compound, it’s the head of a compound
that determines its category. We say that English is a
head-final language because in English the second part of
the compound determines the category of the compound.
Some languages are head-initial, with the head as the first
element in a compound.

37. What are the structural types of compounds?

There are 3 aspects of compounding: 1. structural, 2.
semantic, 3. functional. In English grammars three
structural types are distinguished:
1. Neutral - the process of compounding is realized
without any licking element (juxtaposition of two stems
(e.g. shop-window, sunflower, bedroom)
2. Morphological - two stems are combined by a
linking vowel or consonant (e.g. Anglo-Saxon,
spokesman). These compounds are few of number and
non-productive.
3. Syntactic - are formed from segments of speech
preserving in their structure numerous traces of
syntagmatic relations typical of speech (e.g.lily-of-the-
valley, mother-in-law)
In Ukrainian we distinguish:
1. Stem-combining with the help of interfixes o, e
(доброзичливий, працездатний) or without them
(триповерховий, всдихід).
2. Word-combining or juxtaposition - combining
several words or word-forms in one complex word (хата-
лабораторія, салон-перукарня).

38. Can the meaning of a compound word be

regarded as the sum of its constituent meanings?
Refers to the issue of correlation of the separate
meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning
of the compound.
Examples: 1) classroom, evening-gown, sleeping-car.
We can speak about the sum of constituent meanings,
2) blackboard, football, chatterbox. We can trace
some change in meaning, but the meaning of the
components is still transparent.
3) Ladybird, tallboy, bluestocking. Meaning of the
compounds does not correspond to the separate meanings
of constituent parts.

39. Why do you think the number of stems involved

in compounding is usually only two?
In principle any number of stems may be involved,
but in English, except for a relatively minor class of items
(normally abbreviated), compounds usually comprise two
stems only, however internally complex each may be.
Compounding can take place within any of the word
classes, but with very few exceptions, the resulting
compound word in English is a noun, a verb or an
adjective. In Ukrainian this list includes nouns, adjectives
and adverbs.
The structural cohesion and integrity of a compound
may depend upon unity of stress, solid or hyphenated
spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and
syntactic functioning or, more often, upon the combined
effect of several of these factors. The integrity of a
compound is manifested in its indivisibility, i.e. the
impossibility of inserting another word or word-group
between its elements. e.g., a sunbeam – we can insert
bright or unexpected between the article and the noun: a
bright sunbeam, a bright and unexpected sunbeam, but no
such insertion is possible between sun and beam.
Compound words created by combining two stems
with or without infix: лiсостеп, скороход.

40. What types of compounds are most commonly

encountered in English? In Ukrainian?
derived and so on and so for
41. What does the structural cohesion and integrity
of a compound depend upon?
The structural cohesion and integrity of a compound
may depend on:
1. unity of stress
2. solid or hyphenated spelling
3. semantic unity
4. unity of morphological and syntactic functioning,
!!! or, more often, combined effect of several of these
factors.
The integrity of a compound is manifested in its
indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility of inserting another
word or word-group between its elements. e.g., a sunbeam
– we can insert bright or unexpected between the article
and the noun: a bright sunbeam, a bright and unexpected
sunbeam, but no such insertion is possible between sun
and beam.
 42. Comment on the semantic integrity in bahuvrihi
compounds.
The term “bahuvrihi” refers not to the pattern of
formation but to the relation such compounds have with
their referents. Neither constituent refers to the entity
named but, the whole refers to a separate entity (usually a
person) that is claimed to be characterized by the
compound, in its literal or figurative meaning
a highbrow means ‘an intellectual’, on the basis of the
facetious claim that people of intellectual interest and
cultivated tastes are likely to have a lofty expanse of
forehead. Many bahuvrihi compounds are somewhat
disparaging (зневажливий) in tone and are used chiefly
in informal style. They are formed on one or other of the
patterns already described. e.g: birdbrain, egghead,
hardback, loudmouth, blockhead, butterfingers,
featherweight. Ukrainian: твердолобий, криворукий

43. How can semantic relations of the components of

compounds be treated in terms of syntactic relations?
There are two complicating factors when considering
the ‘syntactic’ aspects of compounds. One is that
compounds tend to have relatively fixed meanings, so that
it is difficult, for example, to modify them; the question of
syntax vs morphology may be irrelevant here. Thus, for
example, the ASL compound ‘blue-spot’ (= bruise)
cannot be morphologically modified to ‘*darkblue-spot’
(?= bad bruise); and the French compound garde-malade
(= nurse) cannot be syntactically modified to garde-
bienmalade (?= good nurse). The second problem relates
to the possibility that some compounds are the result of
lexicalization of phrases. Thus, while in English it is
generally impossible to have the inside a compound, there
is a word middle of the road which looks like a compound
but may best be analysed as a lexicalized phrase; the same
can be said for many French compounds such as pomme-
de-terre (= potato) or trompe-l’œil (= illusion), both of
which contain typically syntactic components, the
preposition de or the article l’. Compounds containing
and, such as foot-and-mouth disease may perhaps be dealt
with by claiming lexicalization of a phrase; or it may
simply be that coordination can involve parts of words
with no syntactic implications.

44. Explain the difference between endocentric and

exocentric compounds.
The relations between items brought together in
compounding must be such that it is reasonable and useful
to classify the second element in terms of the first. Such
compounds are called endocentric.
In exocentric compounds there is no semantic centre
as in scarecrow (figure of a man in old clothes set up to
scare birds away from crops). Only the combination of
both elements names the referent.
Each compound is made up of a different category of
the word on the left plus a verb on the right. But in each
case, the compound word is a verb. Even if both parts of a
compound contribute to the meaning of the compound,
it’s the head of a compound that determines its category.
We say that English is a head-final language because in
English the second part of the compound determines the
category of the compound. Some languages are head-
initial, with the head as the first element in a compound.
In many compounds, the head determines the category
and also constrains the meaning of the compound. So dog
food is a kind of food, not a kind of dog, and yoga pants
are a kind of pants, not a variety of yoga. Compounds like
this, where the meaning relationship between the head
and the whole compound is obvious, are called
endocentric. But in some compounds, the meaning
relationship is not so transparent. For example, a redhead
is a person, not a kind of head; a nest egg is money that
you’ve saved, not a kind of egg; a workout is not a
particular kind of out, and facebook is not a book at all!
Compounds where the meaning of the head does not
predict the meaning of the compound are said to be
exocentric.

45. Semantics as a subdivision of linguistics and its

tasks in the field of lexicology
Semantics refers to a branch of symbolic or
mathematical logic originated by Carnap. It is a part of
semiotics - the study of signs. Semantics is the study of
the relationship between words and how we draw
meaning from those words. People can absolutely
interpret words differently and draw different meanings
from them. The term semantics is used to denote:
1. The branch of linguistics which specializes in the
study of meaning
2. The expressive aspect of language in general;
3. The meaning of one particular word in all its
varied aspects and nuances.
 The basic study of semantics is oriented to the
examination of the meaning of signs, and the study of
relations between different linguistic units and
compounds: homonymy, synonymy, antonymy,
hypernymy, hyponymy,meronymy, metonymy,
holonymy, paronyms. A key concern is how meaning
attaches to larger chunks of text, possibly as a result of the
composition from smaller units of meaning. Traditionally,
semantics has included the study of sense and denotative
reference,truth conditions, argument structure, thematic
roles, discourse analysis, and the linkage of all of these to
syntax.

46 What are the main principles of the description of

lexical meaning?
The meaning is a system of components (semes)
constituting a structure (sememe);
Components of meaning are arranged into one
functional language unit – sememe;
The structure of meaning includes three
macrocomponents: connotative, denotative and
grammatical
There are semantic components belonging to nucleus
and periphery;
The nucleus is constituted by constant and essential
semantic components;
The semes of periphery add to the nucleus and
stipulate the semantic development of the word
(polysemy)
The border between the semes of nucleus and
periphery is indistinct.
 The semes that constitute one sememe can be repeated
in other sememes, the semes of nucleus in one sememe
can be those of periphery in a different one
meaning can differ in some semes and coincide in
others (synonyms, antonyms etc.)

47 What ideas is the referential approach to

meaning based on?
Some scholars point out that the meaning of the
linguistic sign is the concept underlying it and thus
substitute meaning for concept.Others identify meaning
with the referent.
The most convincing approach: meaning is the
interrelation of the sound-form, concept and referent of
the linguistic unit.
Referential approach to meaning. The common
feature of any referential approach is that meaning is in
some form or other connected with the referent (object of
reality denoted by the word). The meaning is formulated
by establishing the interdependence between words and
objects of reality they denote. So, meaning is often
understood as an object or phenomenon in the outside
world that is referred to by a word.

✅48. Define the notion of polysemy.

Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer
to a lexical item which can be used in a range of different
senses. (plain = ‘clear’, ‘una- dorned’, ‘obvious’)
also called polysemia
49. Explain the difference between different macro
components of meaning.
 The notional content of the word is expressed by the
denotative meaning (also called referential or
extensional ). To denote is to serve as linguistic
expression for a notion or as a name for an actually
existing object referred to by a word. The term denotatum
(Lat. denotatum, pl. denotata - означуване) is used in
different meanings. When we speak about denotative
meaning we consider it to be the notional nucleus of
meaning abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal,
emotional, subjective, communicative and other shades.
Quite often the terms denotatum and referent are being
used indiscriminatedly as synonyms.
The emotional content of the word i.e. its capacity to
evoke or directly express emotions is rendered by
connotative component of meaning (also called emotive
charge or intentional connotations) . Connotation (Lat.
connotation from connoto - маю додаткове значення) is
an emotional , evaluative or stylistic component of a
linguistic unit of regular or occasional character. Within
the connotations of a word we distinguish its capacity to
evoke or express: a) emotion (daddy - father); b)
evaluation (clique - group); c) intensity (adore - love);
d)stylistic colouring (slay - kill) etc. In a broad sense
connotation is any component which adds to to the
denotative meaning.
The complexity of the word-meaning is manifold.
Apart from the lexical meaning including denotative and
connotative meaning it is always combined with the
grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning is
defined as an expression in speech of relationship
between words based on contrastive features of
arrangements in which they occur.

✅50. Explain the notion of the semantic structure of

the word. Give the definition of the seme.
Seme is a term used by some European linguists ,to
refer to minimal distinctive semantic features operating
within a specific semantic field, (the various defining
properties of cups v. glasses, such as ‘having a handle’,
‘made of glass)

51 What are the fundamental ideas of the differential

approach to lexical meaning?
According to differential approach meaning is
constituted by a certain amount of semes on the basis of
which words are opposed to each other in lexical semantic
groups.

52 Comment of the notions of nucleus and periphery

in the description of the semantic structure of words.
The nucleus is constituted by constant and essential
semantic components;
The semes of periphery add to the nucleus and
stipulate the semantic development of the word
(polysemy)

✅53. Define the notion of the linguistic metaphor.

What makes the basis of the process of metaphorization
and what does it result in?
A metaphor is the understanding itself of one concept
in terms of another.Metaphor is a term used in lexicology
and stylistics, referring to the result of the process in
which the name of an entity is transferred to another
entity because of their similarity in some respect or
capacity.
В основі процесу метафоризації лежить здатність
людського мислення вбачати аналогію між
сутностями, які мають різну природу.
процес метафоризації – це не просто лінгвістичне
явище, яке відбувається на мовному рівні, а базується
на глибшому когнітивному процесі. (reflects
associating two things, one of which in some way
resembles the other.)

✅54. Explain the semantic phenomenon of

synesthesia.
Synesthesia-reflection of the semantic structure of
physiological associations between different types of
senses.
Example:
'warm color' is a classic example of a synesthetic
expression.

✅55. Define the notion of the linguistic metonymy.

What makes the basis of the process of metonymization
and what does it result in?
metonymy: a figure of speech in which the name of
one object is substituted for something closely associated
with it.
Example :
The White House-"The White House" is a metonymy
for "The President"
Hollywood-is used as metonymy for American
cinema.
Metonymization,involves the use of a lexical item to
evoke the sense of something that is not conventionally
linked to that particular lexical item.

✅✅56. Explain the notion of synonymy. What types

of synonyms do lexicologists single out? Give examples
of each type.
A synonym – is a word of similar or identical meaning
to one or more words in the same language.
Examples of Synonyms
Bad: awful, terrible, horrible.
Good: fine, excellent, great.
Hot: burning, fiery, boiling.
Total (повні, абсолютні) synonyms are those
members of a synonymic group which can replace each
other in any given context, without any slightest alteration
in denotative meaning or emotional meaning and
connotations.(noun – substantive; functional affix –
inflexion; scarlet fever – scarlatina)
Relative (відносні) synonyms are those which denote
different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some contexts.
(ask – beg – implore; like – love – adore; gift – talent –
genius; famous – celebrated – eminent.)
Contextual (контекстні) synonyms are similar in
meaning only under some specific distributional
conditions. We̳ ‘ll go to the baker‘s and get (buy) some
bread.

57 Speak on the notion of homonymy. Specify

sources and types of homonyms.
Homonyms are words that have the same
pronunciation and spelling as another word, but a
different meaning
For example:
ray 1) narrow beam of light;
2) a sea fish with a large flat body;
3) in music the second note of a major scale.
Origin of homonyms
● Result of a coincidence of phonetic change in two
semantically unrelated words (sea and see);
● Borrowings:
Mail (the system of delivery) was borrowed from Old
French mail (bag)
● Onomatopoeic origin or exclamation:
Hey (an exclamation used to draw attention); Hey (a
kind of country dance).
● Semantic cleft:
in bank
Check verification
Types of homonyms
Full and partial homonyms
● FULL homonyms coincide in spelling and
pronunciation in all grammatical forms (farmer’s bull and
a papal bull)
● PARTIAL homonyms coincide only in separate
forms: saw – the Past Simple form of the verb to see, saw
– a tool that has a long blade with sharp points used for
cutting wood or metal.
Types of partial homonyms:
o A homograph – word that has the same spelling, but
a different meaning and pronunciation (lead – [led] heavy
soft grey metal and [li:d] – to go with showing the way )
o A homophone is a word that has the same
pronunciation as another word, but those meaning and
spelling are different: e.g.to, too, two; there and their;
week and weak.
o Capytonyms are words that are spelled in the same
way but have different meanings when capitalised: e.g.
polish (to make shiny) – Polish (from Poland).

*In the Ukrainian language we have such groups of

homonyms:
● Homophones (стати по три – потри, вгорі – в
горі);
● Homographs (по́тяг - потя́г; за́мок - замо́к;
бра́ти - брати);
● Homoforms (покласти на віз - віз дрова; жовте
поле - поле город);
● Homomorphemes (чистий став(ок) - став, як
вкопаний).*

58 Comment on hyperbole and litotes as types of the

semantic change
Hyperbole (from Greek ύπερβολή –
overexaggeration) is based on intentional exaggeration of
the quantity and size of objects, intensity of a feature or
an act aimed at making the image of an object more
distinct and thus, the utterance- more convincing.
For example, Ukr.: півтора чоловіка (дуже мало
людей), скажу два слова, море крові, черепашача
швидкість; Eng.: haven’t seen you for ages, I hate
troubling you, a thousand thanks.

Litotes (from Greek λιτότης – simplicity) is aimed at

making the statement less categorical through the use of
indirect designation of a certain notion, namely through
the negation of the notion that is opposite to the given.
Litotes can be based on
o negation, for example, Ukr.: не заперечую
(погоджуюсь), неважко (легко); Eng.: no coward, not
bad;
o double negation, for example, Ukr.: така подія не
видається неможливою. Not characteristic of English.;
o without negation, for example, Eng.: I could do with
a cup of coffee. Not characteristic of Ukrainian.

59 What is a paronym?... a hyponym?... a meronym?

. Paronyms are words that have slight differences in
spelling or pronunciation and have different meaning.
They can be divided in two groups:
o With the same root but diff. derivational affixes:
affect – effect, alnernately – alternatively, земляний –
землистий,
o That derive from different roots: farther – further,
complement – compliment, excise – exercise, компанія –
кампанія, талан – талант.
Examples:
Artist = an expert in fine arts. Eg: Ravi Varma is a
great artist.
Artiste = an actor by profession. Eg: Nagarjuna is a
popular film artiste.

Corporal /ˈkɔː.pər.əl/ = bodily, physically. Eg: Many

countries have abolished corporal punishment.
Corporeal /kɔːˈpɔː.ri.əl/ = material, tangible. Eg: It is
very foolish to run after corporeal pleasures.

Imaginary = unreal. Eg: Modern man is living in

imaginary world.
Imaginative = Creative. Eg: John Keats was a great
imaginative poet.

Hyponyms are words that have lexical representation

and features that indicate the class to which those words
belong.
e.g. lion, tiger, leopard have a feature [ feline];
white, rose, blue [colour];
guitar, piano, violin [musical instrument].

Meronyms denotes a constituent part of, or a member

of something:
frame, wheels, brake, pedals – bicycle;
petal is meronym of flower;
flower, root, stem, etc. are meronyms of plant.
Двигун — меронім для автомобіля.

60 Comment on the notion of antonymy. What types

of antonyms are singled out in modern lexicology?
 Antonyms (from Greek anti – opposite and onama -
name) are word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such
as young and old, up and down. The meaning of the word
may be partially defined by saying what it is not.
Male means not female.
Dead means not alive.
GRADABLE ANTONYMS - two ends of the
spectrum (slow and fast)
Implicit comparison
e.g. big and little;
tall and short;
hot and cold describe opposite
ends of the scale of the temperature.
● Committedness involves an adjective’s behavior in
question
«How tall is Sara?» The question is neutral and is
used to know Sara’s approximate height and whether she
is tall, short or of average height.
In the sentence «How short is Sara?» there is some
reason to believe that Sara is shorter than average height.
● Markedness – cover term for several related
phenomena which distinguish the marked member of an
antonym pair from unmarked member. In pairs in which
antonym is derived from the other, the derived member is
said to be marked, so happy is unmarked and unhappy is
marked.
The name of the scale of length is related to unmarked
long rather than the marked short.
Complementory antonyms
● pairs that describe absolute opposites, like alive and
dead,
 If you lose the contest, than you have not won it;
If a switch is on, then it is not off.
Reverse antonyms
● comprise adjectives or adverbs which signify a
quality of verbs or nouns which signify an act or state that
reverse the quality, act or state of the other
e.g. enter/leave, appear/disappear, student/teacher,
одружений/розлучений, лікар/пацієнт;
He spoke and spoke but nobody listened;
Габріель – лікар Джона. Джон – пацієнт Габріель;
The shed is behind the house. The house is in the front
of the shed.
61. What are the principal stylistic layers of the English vocabulary?
English language is divided into three main layers unmarked - the neutral layer and
two stylistically marked layers - the literary layer, and the colloquial layer.
The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. They have no local
or dialectal character. (bookish words, terms, poetic and archaic words, barbarisms and
neologisms.)
The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. (common
colloquial words; slang; jargonisms; professional words; dialectal words; vulgar
words.)
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted
in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human
activity.

62. What words belong to the stylistically neutral layer?

Stylistically neutral layer - consists of words mostly of native origin comprises fully
assimilated borrowings such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in
their denotative meaning, e.g. table, street, sky, go, speak, long, easy, never, often, etc.
Stylistically neutral words: are not fixed to style. In groups of synonyms neutral words
fulfil the function of the synonymic dominant. Being the main source of synonymy and
polysemy, neutral words easily produce new meanings and stylistic variants. Compare:
mouse = 1) a small furry animal with a long tail; 2) I mouse = a small device that you
move in order to do things on a computer I screen; 3) mouse = someone who is quiet and
prefers not to be noticed.

63. What groups of words make up the stylistically marked layer?

 There are two great stylistically marked layers of words in English word-stock:
literary vocabulary and colloquial vocabulary. Literary vocabulary includes bookish
words, terms, poetic and archaic words, barbarisms and neologisms. Colloquial
vocabulary embraces conversational lexis, jargonisms, professionalisms, dialectal, slangy
and vulgar words. Literary vocabulary includes bookish words, terms, poetic and archaic
words, barbarisms and neologisms.

64. Specify the difference between general-literary and special-literary

bookish words.
General literary bookish words are words denoting everyday concepts, they
constitute the core of the word-stock (see, come, home, right). They are typical of
written sphere & are used in writing sphere & polished sphere (lectures, official
speech, etc.) Special literary bookish words are those vocabularies used in certain
fields, certain group of people, depends on professions, occupations, etc; they include:
terms, poetic words, archaic words, & neologisms, foreign words or barbarisms.

65. What words are called colloquial and what classes of colloquialisms can
be singled out?
Colloquialisms are expressions appropriate to informal, conversational occasions.
There are three different types of colloquialisms that we can distinguish: words, phrases,
and aphorisms. They are used in “everyday” conversation and, increasingly, through
informal online interactions. Words can be colloquialism examples if they demonstrate
the regional dialect of the speaker. Phrases and aphorisms are colloquialisms if they
aren’t literal usages, yet are widely understand within a geographical boundary. Words:
Regional differences: There are regional borders that separate the usage of the words
“soda”, “pop”, “soft drink”, and “Coke” (used as a generic term and not just to refer to
the brand). Phrases: Old as the hills; Penny-pincher; Pass the buck; Eat my dust.
Aphorisms: I wasn’t born yesterday; There’s more than one way to skin a cat; You’re
driving me up the wall.

66. What types of words belong to literary-bookish words?

All literary bookish words can be divided into general literary and special literary
words. General literary words which are also called high-flown words, appearing in the
text or oral utterance create the effect of elevated official, learned: concord, ornament,
harmony, morosity, partaking, muse, coupleuwnt, rondure, in accordance with, alacrity,
to render assistance. Besides general-literary bookish words, we may single out various
specific subgroups (special literary words), namely:
1) terms or scientific words – words or nominal groups which convey specialized
concepts used in science, technology, art, etc. (gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint,
common denominator)
2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g. whilome - ‘formerly’, aught -
‘anything’, ere - ‘before’; Archaism is the deliberate use of an older form that has fallen
out of current use.
3) barbarisms and foreign words - words of foreign origin and not entirely
assimilated. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English
language. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the
vocabulary.
4) neologisms are newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a
new sense. Neologism is any word which is formed according to the productive structural
patterns or borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.

67. What is the difference between slangism and jargonism?

The main difference between Jargon and Slang is that Jargon is a type of language
used in a particular activity, whereas Slang is a language related to some expressions that
are no standard. Jargon is a professional vocabulary that only jobholders use. Slang is a
funny language that people use socially. Jargon words are particular words that are used
in a specific profession. Slang words are not specific; they are used as funny words.
Jargon words are uncountable scientific terms. Slang words are non- specific social life
words. Many slang words evaporate, and new words take their place. Jargon is a specific
terminology only comprehended by certain people

68. Characterize neologisms as a stylistic class of words. Provide examples.

Neologism is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the
process of entering common use, but that has not yet been fully accepted into mainstream
language. Ex.: freelance, meme, nerd (boring person). New words are generally coined as
a result of the development of science and technology-terminological coinages. The
second type of new coinages is stylistic, i.e. words are coined in search of more
economical, compact and expressive means of communication. Neologism is any word
which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another
language and felt by the speakers as something new.

69. Speak on barbarisms as a stylistically marked class of words.

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin and not entirely assimilated. They bear the
appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are
part and parcel of the word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary
vocabulary. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary.Ex.:
breathalyser (English and Greek) or television (Greek and Latin). words of foreign origin
not entirely assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a
borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue.

70. Characterize terms as a class of words.

Term - word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express a concept, especially in
a particular kind of language or branch of study, but they can occur in artistic discourse to
contribute to characters’ description or create a special background. Terms are mostly
and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of
science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But
their use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles—in
newspaper style, in publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But
their function in this case changes. They do not always fulfill their basic function that of
bearing exact reference to a given concept. Ex. gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint.

71. What is an archaism and why are archaisms kept alive?

Archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its original
meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas: in poetry, law and ritual writing and
speech. Archaisms remain in the language, but they are used as stylistic devices to
express solemnity. Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new
meaning, then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e.g. «fair» in the meaning
«beautiful» is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning «blond» it belongs to the neutral
style. Their deliberate use can be subdivided into: 1) literary archaisms, which seeks to
evoke the style of older speech and writing; 2) lexical archaisms, the use of words no
longer in common use. Ex.: agone – ago, eft – again, hark – to listen. Archaisms are kept
alive by these ritual and literary uses and by the study of older literature, they are used as
stylistic devices to express solemnity.

72. Explain the difference between barbarisms and foreign words.

Barbarisms and foreignisms have the same origin. They are borrowings from other
languages. The greater part of barbarisms was borrowed into English from French and
Latin. Barbarisms are assimilated borrowings. Being part of the English word-stock, they
are fixed in dictionaries. Foreignisms are non-assimilated borrowings occasionally used
in speech for stylistic reasons. They do not belong to the English vocabulary and are not
registered by lexicographers. In printed works foreign words and phrases, are generally
italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value Barbarisms, on the contrary,
are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic
information.

73. Can we treat realia as words belonging to special literary vocabulary?

Why yes or why not?
Such words as kozachok, trembita, kolomyika and the like denote certain concepts
which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English-speaking communities. There
are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. New concepts of this
type are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality
they reflect. Words such as these can be difficult even for native speakers to learn. In this
case, realia belongs to special literary vocabulary as words that are used by certain group
of people according to their special features as national indentity, the same as any other
subgroup of special vocabulary that is understandable only by limited groups.

74. Define vulgarisms as a class of words.

Vulgar words or vulgarisms are expletives and swear words which are of an
abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state,
used now, as general exclamations; obscene words. Some words are considered profane
in some dialects of English where they are not at all bad in other dialects. A good
example is the word “bloody” which is a simple adjective in American English, but is a
curse word in British English. The function of expletives is almost the same as that of
interjections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and
the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive
prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

75. Speak on the possible points of intersection between stylistics and

lexicology.
As is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic studies this
science is very closely linked to the linguistic disciplines philology students are familiar
with: phonetics, lexicology and grammar due to the соmmоn study source. Stylistics
interacts with such theoretical disciplines as semasiology and onomasiology.
Semasiology is а branch of linguistics which in its turn is often related to the theory of
signs in general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings. Onomasiology is the
theory of naming dealing with the choice of words when naming or assessing some
object or рhеnоmеnоn. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with а transfer of nominal
meaning in а text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy, etc.) Stylistics studies many
problems treated in lexicology. These are the problems of meaning, connotations,
synonymy, functional differentiation of vocabulary according to the sphere of
communication and some other issues.