LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Instead, AND

theb3 L of fluid enters the

lymphatic capillaries.
IMMUNITY
14.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE Lymph
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ღ - The fluid once its inside the
lymphatic capillarie, and it passes
A. Describe the functions of the lymphatic through the lymphatic vessels to
system. B. Explain how lymph is formed.
return to the blood.
Pathogen
In addition to water, Lymph
- any substance or microorganism
contains solutes derived from two
that causes disease or damage to the
sources:
tissues of the body is considered a
pathogen. (a) Substances in plasma, such as
ions, nutrients, gases, and some
⁕ Lymphatic system and the
proteins, pass from blood capillaries
components of other systems, such
into the interstitial spaces, and then
as white blood cells and phagocytes,
into lymphatic capillaries to become
continually provide protection
part of the lymph
against pathogens.
⁕ The Lymphatic system is
important for the protection of the
body, but in addition to that, this
system carries out other functions.

The functions of the lymphatic

system include:
1. Fluid balance
⇢ 30 liters (L) of fluid pass from
the blood capillaries into the
interstitial spaces each day,
⇢ 27 L pass from the interstitial
spaces back into the blood
capillaries
⇢ The extra 3 L of interstitial fluid
remained in the interstitial spaces,
edema would result, causing tissue
damage and eventually death.
(b) Substances such as hormones,
enzymes, and waste products, are
also part of the lymph.
2. Lipid absorption
⇢ The lymphatic system absorbs
lipids and other substances from the
digestive tract through lymphatic
vessels called Lacteals located in
the lining of the small intestine.
⇢ Lymphatic vessels appears white
because of its lipid content and is
called Chyle.
3. Defense
⇢ Pathogens, such as
microorganisms and other foreign
substances, are filtered from lymph
by lymph nodes and from blood by
the spleen.
⇢ Lymphatic system is involved
with fighting infections, as well as
filtering blood and lymph to remove
pathogens
14.2 ANATOMY OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ✿
A. Describe how lymph is transported.
B. Describe the structure and function of
tonsils, lymph nodes, the spleen, and the
thymus.
LYMPHATIC
CAPILLARIES AND
VESSELS
The lymphatic system includes:
• lymph • tonsils
• lymphocytes • spleen
• lymphatic vessels • thymus
• lymph nodes
⁕The Lymphatic system does not
circulate fluid to and from tissues.
⁕ Instead, the Lymphatic system
carries fluid in one direction --
from tissues to the circulatory
system
Lymphatic capillaries
- are tiny, closed-ended vessels
consisting of simple squamous
epithelium.
- lack a basement membrane, and
fluid moves easily into them.
⁕ Lymphatic capillaries are
present in most tissues of the body
Superficial group of lymphatic
capillaries
- collects excess interstitial fluids
from the dermis and subcutaneous
tissue
Deep group
- collects excess fluid from muscle,
the viscera, and other deep
structures.
Lymphatic vessels
- which resemble small veins
- have a beaded appearance
because they have one-way valves
Compression of the lymphatic
vessels causes lymph to move
forward through them.
Three factors cause compression
of the lymphatic vessels:
(1) contraction of surrounding
skeletal muscle during activity
(2) periodic contraction of
smooth muscle in the lymphatic
vessel wall
(3) pressure changes in the thorax
during breathing.
Lymphatic vessels from the right
upper limb and the right half of the
head, neck, and chest form the right
lymphatic duct, which empties into
the right subclavian vein.
Lymphatic vessels from the rest of
the body enter the thoracic duct,
which empties into the left
subclavian vein.
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
The lymphatic organs include:
(1) tonsils
(2) lymph nodes
(3) spleen
(4) thymus
Lymphatic tissue
- is characterized by housing many
lymphocytes and other defense cells
(macrophages)
- is found within lymphatic organs
as well as other organs.
- has very fine reticular fibers
Lymphocytes
- originate from red bone marrow
and are carried by the blood to
lymphatic organs.
⁕ Lymphocytes increase in
number when the body is exposed
to pathogens. The increased number
of lymphocytes is part of the
immune response that causes the
destruction of pathogens.
(1) Tonsils
There are three groups of tonsils
(1) paired palatine tonsils
(2) pharyngeal tonsils
(3) lingual tonsil
Palatine tonsils
- are located on each side of the
posterior opening of the oral cavity
- referred to as “the tonsils.”
Pharyngeal tonsil
- located near the internal opening
of the
nasal cavity.
- when the pharyngeal tonsil is
enlarged, it is commonly called the
Adenoid/s.
- an enlarged pharyngeal tonsil can
interfere with normal breathing.
Lingual tonsil
- is on the posterior surface of the
tongue.
⁕ The tonsils protect against
pathogens and other potentially
harmful material entering from the
nose and mouth.
⁕ Sometimes the palatine or
pharyngeal tonsils become
chronically infected and must be
removed.
Tonsillectomy
- the removal of the pharyngeal
tonsils
Adenoidectomy
- the removal of the palatine tonsil
(2) Lymph Nodes
Lymph Nodes
- are rounded structures, varying
from the size of a small seed to that
of a shelled almond.
- are distributed along the various
lymphatic vessels
- are found throughout the body and
they are classified as superficial or
deep
There are three superficial
aggregations of lymph nodes on
each side of the body:
(1) inguinal nodes in the groin,
(2) axillary nodes in the axilla
(armpit)
(3) the cervical nodes in the neck.
Trabeculae
- extensions of the dense connective
tissue that surrounds each lymph
node
Lymphatic nodules
- a dense aggregations of tissue
form by the the lymphatic tissue and
other cells
- are areas of tissue within lymph
nodes and other organs as well
Lymphatic sinuses
- are spaces between the lymphatic
tissue that contain macrophages on
a network of fibers.
⁕ As lymph moves through the
lymph nodes, two functions are
performed:
(1) One function is to activate the
immune system.
(2) The second function of the
lymph nodes is to remove pathogens
from the lymph through the action
of macrophages.
Germinal centers
- lymphatic nodules containing the
rapidly dividing lymphocytes
(3) Spleen
Spleen
- is roughly the size of a clenched
fist
- located in the left, superior corner
of the abdominal cavity
- has an outer capsule of dense
connective tissue and a small
amount of smooth muscle.
- functions as a blood reservoir,
holding a small volume of blood
⁕ Trabeculae from the capsule
divide the spleen into small,
interconnected compartments Cortex
containing two specialized types of - numerous and form dark-staining
lymphatic tissue: near the capsule and trabeculae
 white pulp Medulla
 red pulp - a lighter-staining, central portion
of the lobules
White pulp
T cells
- is lymphatic tissue surrounding
- maturation of a class of
the arteries within the spleen
lymphocytes
Red pulp
- is associated with the veins.

⁕ Spleen filters blood instead of

lymph.
⁕ Cells within the spleen detect and
respond to foreign substances in the
blood and destroy old and damaged
OVERVIEW OF THE
red blood cells. LYMPHTIC SYSTEM

⁕Macrophages in the red pulp (1) Lymphatic capillaries remove

remove foreign substances and fluid from tissues
worn-out red blood cells through
(2) Lymph flows through lymphatic
Phagocytosis.
(3) Lymph nodes filter lymph
Splenectomy
- removal of the spleen, may be (4) Lymph enters the thoracic duct
necessary if these techniques do not
stop the bleeding. (5) Lymph enters the blood

(6) Lacteals in the small intestine

(4) Thymus
(7) Chyle, which is lymph
Thymus
containing lipids, enters the blood.
- is a bilobed gland roughly
triangular in shape (8) The spleen filters blood and is a
- located in the superior site where lymphocytes respond to
mediastinum infections.
(9) Mature B cells in the red bone
marrow and are released into the
blood. The pre- T cells enter the
blood and migrate to the thymus.
(10) Pre-T cells derived from red
bone marrow increase in number
and become mature T cells that are
released into the blood
(11) B cells and T cells can also
respond to infections by dividing
and increasing in number.
14.3 IMMUNITY ღ
A. Define the concepts of specificity and
memory as they apply to immunity.
Immunity
- is the ability to resist damage
from pathogens, such as
microorganisms; harmful chemicals,
such as toxins released by
microorganisms; and internal
threats, such as cancer cells.
Immunity is categorized into two
systems that work together to
protect the body:
(1) Innate immunity (also called
nonspecific resistance)
(2) Adaptive immunity (also called
specific immunity).
Innate immunity
- the body recognizes and destroys
certain pathogens
- response to them is the same each
time the body is exposed.
Adaptive immunity
- the body recognizes and destroys
pathogens
- response to them improves each
time the pathogen is encountered.
⁕ Specificity and Memory are
characteristics of adaptive immunity
Specificity
- is the ability of adaptive immunity
to recognize a particular substance.
- For example, Innate immunity can
act against bacteria in general
Memory
- is the ability of adaptive immunity
to “remember” previous encounters
with a particular substance.
⁕ Bacteria are destroyed before any
symptoms develop, and the person
is said to be Immune.
14. INNATE IMMUNITY ღ
A. Define innate immunity, and describe the
cells and chemical mediators involved.
B. List the events of an inflammatory
response, and explain their significance.

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Physical barriers
- prevent pathogens and chemicals
from entering the body in two
ways:
(1) skin and mucous membranes
form barriers prevent their entry
(2) tears, saliva, and urine wash
these substances from body
surfaces.
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
Chemical Mediators
- are molecules responsible for
many aspects of innate immunity
Complement
- is a group of more than 20
proteins found in plasma.
- is similar to that of clotting
proteins
Interferons
- are proteins that protect the body
against viral infections
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
White blood cells
- are the most important cellular
components of immunity.
- are produced in red bone marrow
and lymphatic tissue and released
into the blood.
Chemotaxis
- movement of white blood cells
toward the chemicals
Phagocytic Cells
Phagocytosis
- is the ingestion and destruction of
particles by cells called phagocytes
- the most important phagocytes are
neutrophils and macrophages
 Neutrophils
- are small phagocytic white blood
cells
- first white blood cells to enter
infected tissues from the blood in
large numbers.
 Macrophages
- are monocytes that leave the
blood, enter tissues, and enlarge
about fivefold.
Cell of Inflammation
Basophils
- derived from red bone marrow,
are motile white blood cells that can
leave the blood and enter infected
tissues.
Mast cells
- derived from red bone marrow, are
nonmotile cells in connective tissue,
especially near capillaries
Cell of Inflammation

Basophils
- derived from red bone marrow,
are motile white blood cells that can
leave the blood and enter infected
tissues.

Mast cells
- derived from red bone marrow, are
nonmotile cells in connective tissue,
especially near capillaries

⁕ Inflammation is beneficial in the

fight against pathogens, but too
much inflammation can be harmful

Natural Killer Cells

Natural Killer Cells
- cells are a type of lymphocyte
produced in red bone marrow
- account for up to 15% of
lymphocytes.

INFLAMMATORY
RESPONSE
Inflammatory response
- response to injury involves many
of the chemicals and cells
previously discussed.