RADIOACTIVITY

By
T.H. MUSONDELA

felt ring soaked in alcohol

plastic lid
full of alcohol
vapour
weak radioactive
source lamp

insulation
foam dry ice

gas molecule radioactive source

(3
(3) electron
) (2
) gauze ( electrode) (1
)
(4) 400 V d.c.
spark air
(4) spark
gauze (+ electrode)

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Radio activity is the spontaneous or random disintegration in which small particles of matter, alpha and beta particles, and / or
electromagnetic radiation, gamma ray are emitted by unstable atomic nuclei.
When an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it can do so. It may give out:-An alpha particle (we use the symbol 𝛼
) , a beta particle (symbol 𝛽) or a gamma ray (symbol 𝛾)
Many radioactive substances emit alpha particles and beta particles as well as gamma rays.
COMPARE THE 3 KINDS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS IN TERMS OF THEIR NATURE
Characteristic ALPHA PARTICLE (𝜶) BETA PARTICLE 𝜷 GAMMA RAY 𝜸
Nature 𝟒 Electrons, Electromagnetic radiation.
Helium nuclei ( 𝟐 𝐇𝐞 )
Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge Positive (+2e ) Negative (-e ) Neutral ( no charge)
Speed Slow Fast Speed of light
Ionizing ability High Medium Low
Penetrating power Low Medium High
Stopped by A few cm of air or a piece of paper A few mm of aluminium foil A few cm of lead
Deflected by electric Yes Yes No
and magnetic fields

ALPHA PARTICLE (𝜶)

Alpha particle (𝜶) is a highly energetic helium nucleus,. containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
An Alpha particle Has low speed and penetrating power. Hence it can be stopped by a paper
 Has high ionizing ability Because they have a large charge, alpha particles ionize other atoms strongly
 It leaves the nucleus of an unstable atom at a speed of 16,000 kilometres per second, around a tenth the speed of light.
 Is bent by electric and magnetic fields but not as much as beta due to larger mass

BETA PARTICLE(𝜷)
Beta particle (𝜷 ) is a highly energetic or fast moving electron, released from inside a nucleus.
A beta particle is produced when a neutron in the nucleus divides into a proton and an electron. It is the electron that is rejected
from the nucleus at high speed that is the beta particle
 has a charge of -1 and mass of 1 / 2000. It has negligible mass
 has medium speed and penetrating power. Hence it can be stopped by a sheet of aluminum or plastics such as Perspex.
 Has medium ionizing ability Beta particles ionize atoms that they pass, but not as strongly as Alpha particles do.
 Is deflected strongly by electric and magnetic fields in the opposite direction contrarily to alpha particles

GAMMA RAYS (𝜸)

Gamma rays (𝜸) are electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelength (higher frequency) than x-ray.
Gamma radiation
 emission occurs when the nucleus of a radioactive atom has too much energy. It often follows the emission of a beta
particle.
 Has no charge and mass
 Has the highest speed (moves at the speed of light) and highest penetrating power. it can pass through a piece of paper
and aluminium foil but can be stopped by lead, concrete or steel of about 25mm
 has no or weak ionizing ability. Gamma rays do not directly ionize other atoms, although they may cause atoms to emit
other particles which will then cause ionization.
• Is not deflected or affected by electric and magnetic fields because it has no charge.
NB We don't find pure gamma sources - gamma rays are emitted alongside alpha or beta particles. Strictly speaking, gamma
emission isn't 'radioactive decay' because it doesn't change the state of the nucleus; it just carries away some energy

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ABSORPTION OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA

(a) Alpha stopped by paper because it has low speed and penetrating power
(b) beta goes through paper, stopped by thin metal because it has medium speed and penetrating power
(c) gamma goes through paper and metal sheet. Stopped by thick lead because it has highest speed and penetrating power
DEFLECTION OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA ELECTRIC FIELD

 (+)
Alpha
radioactive source particle


electric field Gamma
ray

 (-) beta particle

Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric field because they are charged. The deflections are in opposite direction
because they carry opposite charges. The deflection of beta is larger than alpha because mass of beta less than the mass of alpha.
Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not carry any charge.
IONIZATION OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA
Ionization is any process that changes the electrical balance within an atom. If we remove an electron from a stable atom, the
atom becomes electrically incomplete.
(strong) 
(weak)

radioactive
source

(the weakest) 
Alpha has the strongest ionization power, Beta is second in ionization power and gamma is the weakest
NB : Particles that ionize other atoms strongly have a low penetrating power (easier to be stopped or absorbed), because
they lose energy each time they ionize an atom in the material. Particles that ionize other atoms weakly have a high
penetrating power (more difficult to be stopped) or absorbed

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
All substance are made of atoms. These have electrons (e) around the outside, and a nucleus in the middle.
The nucleus consists of protons (p) and neutrons (n), and is extremely small. (Atoms are almost entirely made of empty
space!)In some types of atom, the nucleus is unstable, and will decay into a more stable atom.

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Instead of drawing the nuclei of atoms, it is easier to write about them using symbols. We write:

𝐴 Z is the atomic number (number of protons).

𝑍𝑋
X is the symbol for the element (e.g. H, Na, C, etc.).
A is the nucleon (mass ) = number (number of protons +
neutrons
Proton number is the number of protons in the nucleus. Protons are positively charged. The number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons.
Number of neutrons = nucleon ( mass ) number - atomic number (number of protons) i.e. A – Z
 A nucleon number is the total number of atom of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
EXERCISE
226
Ra is the symbol for the element radon 88 Ra
Calculate (a) the nucleon (mass) (b) the number of protons (c) the number of electrons
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with same numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Atoms are not all stable. The excess energy contained in an unstable atom is released in one of a few basic particles and
energetic waves.
Radioactive decay is the process by which unstable atomic nuclei emit subatomic particles or radiation.
When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus breaks up, emits an alpha particle or beta particle and energy, and forms a new
atom of a different element. A parent nuclide X changes into a daughter nuclide Y. Radioactive decay is not affected by external
conditions.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY SERIES
Sometimes the daughter nuclide of a radioactive does is still unstable. It will eventually decay into another nuclide which is also
unstable. This process continues as a radioactive decay series until a stable nuclide is reached.Each decay will emit either an
alpha particle or a beta particle and may be gamma rays
NUCLEAR EQUATIONS:
(a) NUCLEAR EQUATIONS FOR DECAYS CAUSED BY EMISSION OF ALPHA PARTICLES
When alpha decay occurs, mass number of the atom decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2.
The alpha decay equation is given by
A A‒4 4
Z X → Z ‒ 2 Y + 2 He
 The daughter nuclide has 2 protons less and 2 neutrons less than the parent nuclide. The proton number Z decreases
by 2 and its nucleon number A decreases by 4.

Worked Examples:
1. Write down the nuclear equation that represents the decay caused by the emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus of
218
84 P𝑜 into an isotope of lead 𝑃𝑏.
218 214 4
The answer is 84 𝑃𝑜→ 82 𝑃𝑏 + 2 𝐻𝑒
220
2. Radon with the nuclide 86 𝑅𝑛 decays into polonium (Po) by the emission of an alpha particle. Write down nuclear the
220
nuclear equation that represent the emission of alpha particle from the nucleus of 86 𝑅𝑛.
220 218 4
The answer is 86 𝑅𝑛→ 84 𝑃𝑜 + 2 𝐻𝑒
NUCLEAR EQUATIONS FOR DECAYS CAUSED BY EMISSION OF BETA PARTICLES
We can write a decay equations involving beta particles:
𝟎
𝜷= ‒𝟏 𝒆
For beta decay, mass number does not change, atomic number increases by 1. The alpha decay equation is given by
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑧 + 1 𝑌 +
4 ‒1 𝑒 + Energy thmusondela@yahoo.cm
A neutron changes to proton and electron during beta decay. Proton stays within the nucleus and electron is emitted as beta
particle. The nucleus loses a neutron but gains a proton. Proton number increase by 1, nucleon number remains unchanged
Note that it has no effective mass (compared to neutrons and protons) and has negative charge (compared to protons).
238 238 0
E.g. 92 𝑈→ 93 𝑋 + ‒1 𝑒
.

X, in this case, is N p (Neptunium). Before, the Uranium-238 had 92 protons and (238-92) 146 neutrons. After, the daughter
nucleus, Neptunium-238, has (238-93) 145 neutrons and 93 protons
Worked Examples:
234
(i).Write down the nuclear equation that represents the decay caused by the emission of alpha particle from the nucleus of 91 𝑃𝑎
into an isotope of Uranium.
234 234 0
The answer is 91 𝑃𝑎→ 92 𝑈 + ‒1 𝑒
234
(ii).Thorium with the nuclide 90 𝑇ℎ decays into protactinium (Pa) by the emission of a beta particle. Write down the nuclear
234
equation that represent the emission of a beta particle from the nucleus of 90 𝑇ℎ.

NUCLEAR EQUATIONS FOR DECAYS CAUSED BY EMISSION OF GAMMA RAYS

Gamma decay, a gamma ray is released (energy), no change to mass & atomic number. The gamma rays decay equation is given
by
A A 0
Z X→ z Y + 0𝑟
+ Energy
Gamma emission does not change the structure of the nucleus; it just makes the nucleus more stable. Gamma rays are
emitted at the same time together with either an alpha or beta particle. When a nucleus ejects an alpha or beta particle, there is
often some excess energy produced which will be released as gamma rays.
EXERCISE
226 222
In one radioactive decay, radium (Ra) gives rise to radon (Rn) as shown. 88 Ra → 86 Rn. What particle is also
produced?
BACKGROUND RADIATION
Background radiation is the unavoidable naturally occurring radiation from surroundings/environment or
present without source or there all the time etc
SOURCES BACKGROUND RADIATION : rocks in the ground bricks in buildings, nuclear waste from power stations and
bomb tests, hospitals and from even outer space
Every day of our lives we are exposed to radiation that is all around us. Most of the time this is completely harmless, background
ACCOUNTING FOR BACKGROUND
 When doing experiments with radioactivity, we have to take into account that some of the radiation we measure will have
come from all around us.
 We can account for background radiation by measuring how much of it there normally is, then subtracting this off from any
other measurements we might take
COUNT RATES.
In a lab, after 60 seconds a radiation counter detects about 20 radioactive emissions on average. We say the background count is
20 counts per minute, or 20 c p m.
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
It is possible to use other units for time - seconds or hours. Let’s look at an example e.g. a radioactive rock registers 2094 counts
in 3 hours. So the count rate is
2094
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 698 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
3
For most radioactive substances, counts per second and minute are more normal.
CORRECTED COUNT RATES
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This is when we remove the background count from that which came from our radioactive source. Let's see an example:
A student finds that her antique watch is radioactive (must be the luminous paint?). A Geiger Counter records a total of 210
counts in 2 minutes. What is the count rate, assuming a background of 20 cpm?
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝟐𝟏𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ‒ 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 .So the Corrected 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 105 – 20 =85 cpm
HALF LIFE
Radioactivity does not last forever. Once an atomic nucleus has decayed, it is not the same. A radioactive rock will contain many
billions and trillions of atoms. So the number of possible decays is vast. As radioactive samples decay, the number of non-
decayed nuclei present is less than before. So the number of decays in a given time (count rate) will fall. Scientists find it useful
to talk about the half life of a radioactive sample. This is a measure of time
 Half life is the time taken for the radioactivity to fall to half its initial value or the half-life of a radioactive substance is
the time for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.
 The half life radioactive sources depend on the type of element. For example:

Element Half Life

Uranium-238 4,468,000,000 years
Carbon-14 5,730 years
Americium-241 432 years
Hydrogen-3 4,500 days
Sodium-24 15 hours

DETERMINE THE HALF-LIFE FROM A DECAY CURVE

The graph shows a decay curve for a radioactive substance.This type of curve is called an exponential
decay, as the line never quite seems to meet the x-axis

From the graph it is noticed that the number of undecayed nuclei is halved when a time interval of one halve life has elapsed

Worked example
Determine the half-life from a decay curve (NB Half life is the time)

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 The initial amount 1200
Hint:
counts falls to its halve 600
in 15 minutes. Therefore the
Half
Half life is 15life
minutes

 Half life is the time taken for the radioactivity to fall to half its initial value.

MASS LEFT AFTER N HALF LIVES

𝒏
MASS LEFT AFTER N HALF LIVES = (𝟎.𝟓) × THE INITIAL (ORIGINAL) MASS.

1 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5 hours. A sample is tested and found to contain 0.48 g of the substance. How much of the
substance was present in the sample 20 hours before the sample was tested?
𝟐𝟎

 () 𝟏
𝟐
𝟓 𝟏
× Original sample = 0.48g. ⟹ 𝟏𝟔× Original sample = 0.48g ∴ original sample = 16 × 0.48g = 7.68

2 A radioactive substance has a half-life of 2 weeks. At the beginning of an investigation the substance emits 3000 β-particles per minute. How
many β-particles will it emit per minute after 6 weeks
𝟔

 (No emitted β-particles = () 𝟏

𝟐
𝟐
× 3000 =
𝟏
𝟖× 3000 = 375
3 A sample contains 12 000 radioactive atoms of a particular nuclide. After an interval of two half-lives, how many atoms have disintegrated?
𝟏 𝟐
 (No of atoms that remained = () 𝟐 × 1200 =
𝟏
𝟒× 12000 = 3000 ∴ No disintegrated = 12000 - 3000 = 9000 )
4 The half-life of a radioactive material is 24 years. The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of its initial value after 72 years.What is the
fraction?
𝟕𝟐
𝟏 𝟑
 the fraction = ( ) =( )
𝟏
𝟐
𝟐𝟒
𝟐 =𝟖
𝟏

5A detector is used to measure the count-rate near a radioactive source. The reading is 4000 counts per minute. After 30 minutes the count-rate
has fallen to 500 counts per minute. What is the half-life of the radioactive source? You may ignore the effects of background radiation
𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝟏 𝟑
 () 𝟏
𝟐
𝐭
× 4000 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎, ⟹ ()
𝟏
𝟐
𝐭
=
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 =𝟖=
𝟏
()
𝟐
𝟑𝟎
⟹ 𝐭 = 3 ∴ t = 30/3 = 10 minutes
6A sample of radioactive material has a mass of 64 mg and a half-life of 16 years. What is the time taken for the mass of the sample to
decrease to 8 mg?
𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟑
 [() 𝟏
𝟐
𝟏𝟔
× 64= 𝟖, ⟹ ()
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏𝟔
=
𝟖
𝟔𝟒 =𝟖=
𝟏
()
𝟐
𝒕
⟹𝟏𝟔= 3 ∴ t = 16 ×3 = 48 years
7 The half life of H-3 (Tritium) is 4,500 days. If we had 12 grams to begin with, how much would there be after 13,500 days?
𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎

 (No of atoms that remained = ()

𝟏
𝟐
𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎
× 12 =
𝟏
𝟖× 12 = 1.5
8 The count rate from a radioactive substance is measured and found to be 12 000 counts per second. Calculate the expected count rate 12
minutes later, given that the half-life of the substance is 4 minutes.
𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝟑
 The expected count rate 12 minutes later = () 𝟏
𝟐
𝟒
× 12000 = ()
𝟐
× 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 12000/8 = 1500 counts per second
9A sample contains 12 000 radioactive atoms of a particular nuclide. After an interval of two half-lives, how many atoms have
will remain undecayed?
𝟏 𝟐
 Number not disintegrated = ()𝟐 × 12000 = 12000/4 = 3000.

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Fig. 10.1 is the decay curve for a radioactive isotope that emits only β-particles.

400

300
count rate
counts / min
200

100

Fig. 10.1 0 10 20 30 40 time / min

Use the graph to find the value of the half-life of the isotope. Indicate, on the graph, how you arrived at your value.
half-life = 8 (minutes) for value with suitable working or indication on graph
THE USES OF RADIOISOTOPE
Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay and give out radioactive emissions.
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES /USES OF RADOIACTIVE MATERIALS
(a) INDUSTRIES SMOKE DETECTORS
In industries smoke detectors contain a weak radioactive source such as americium-241. Alpha particles emitted from the source
and ionized air molecules. The ionized air molecules conduct electricity and small current flows in the smoke detector. When
smoke enters the detector, the soot particles in the smoke absorb some of the alpha particles. This causes a decrease in the current
that flows in the smoke detector and trigger the alarm. Americium-241 has a long half-life, 460 years so that the substance will last
longer
(b)THICKNESS CONTROL

Rollers Source of
Beta-particles
paper pulp Sheet
of paper
detector
In paper mills, the thickness of the paper can be controlled by measuring how much beta radiation passes through the paper
to a Geiger counter.
 The counter controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. With paper we use beta because alpha will
not go through the paper .With plastic, or aluminum foil, Gamma rays are used. We choose a source with a long half-life
so that it does not need to be replaced often
 A radioactive sends radiation through the sheet material as it comes off the production line. Beta radiation is used for
thin sheets. A radiation detector on the other side of the sheet measures the intensity of the radiation passing through the
sheet. The amount of radiation received by the detector depends on the thickness of the rubber sheet. If the sheet is too
thin, the reading of the detector increases. A signal is sent from the roller control to the rollers so that the pressure on the
sheets can be reduced
(d) STERILIZING
Even after it has been packaged, gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould and insects in food. This process prolongs
the shelf-life of the food, but sometimes changes the taste. Gamma rays do not make food radioactive
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize hospital equipment, especially plastic syringes that would be damaged if heated
because they have strong penetrating and weak ionizing powers.
(f) RADIOACTIVE DATING
Animals and plants have a known proportion of Carbon-14 (a radioisotope of Carbon) in their tissues. When they die they stop
taking Carbon in, then the amount of Carbon-14 goes down at a known rate (Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years). The age of
the ancient organic materials can be found by measuring the amount of Carbon-14 that is left.

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(e) CHECKING WELDS
If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal, and a photographic film on the other side, weak points or air
bubbles will show up on the film, like an X-ray.

(c)RADIOACTIVE TRACERS
 The most common tracer is called Technetium-99 and is very safe because it only emits gamma rays and doesn't cause
much ionization. Radioisotopes can be used for medical purposes, such as checking for a blocked kidney. To do this a
small amount of Iodine-123 is injected into the patient, after 5 minutes 2 Geiger counters are placed over the kidneys.
 Also radioisotopes are used in industry, to detect leaking pipes. To do this, a small amount is injected into the pipe. It is
then detected with a GM counter above ground. A larger increase in the count rate will indicate that there is leak in that
area

(g) CANCER TREATMENT

Because Gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancer cells without having to resort to difficult surgery.
This is called "Radiotherapy” and works because cancer cells can't repair themselves when damaged by gamma rays, as
healthy cells can. It’s vital to get the dose correct - too much and you'll damage too many healthy cells, too little and you
won't stop the cancer from spreading in time. Some cancers are easier to treat with radiotherapy than others - it's not too
difficult to aim gamma rays at a breast tumour, but for lung cancer it's much harder to avoid damaging healthy cells. Also,
lungs are more easily damaged by gamma rays, therefore other treatments may be used
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS NEEDED IN THE HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Radioactive substances must always be handled with the correct procedures to prevent harmful effects to people and the environment. The
major three are
 Point radiation sources away from people.
 Wear lead lined clothing (lead absorbs more radiation than most other materials). Stronger radioactive sources should be handled
with robotic control systems behind steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels
 Wear gloves and use tongs when handling substances that emit radiation
1. Laboratory coats, long pants, and closed-toe footwear should be worn. Eating, drinking, applying cosmetic or storing food is
prohibited
2. Radiation badges containing photographic film should be worn to monitor exposure to radiation. The film is regularly developed.
The darkness of the film shows the level of exposure to radiation
3. Gloves must be worn any time an unsealed source is being used or whenever contamination is likely to occur.
Others are;
Read and follow the advice and instructions marked on radioactive sources, equipment and work manuals.
• All work surfaces and storage areas should be covered with absorbent material to contain radioactive material contamination.
• When using radioactive liquids, plastic or metal trays (stainless steel washes easily) should be utilized to contain potential spills.
• Radioactive material, especially liquids, should be kept in unbreakable containers whenever possible. If glass is used, a secondary
container is necessary
• Before eating or drinking, wash hands and forearms thoroughly.
THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
When radioactive emissions strike living cells, it can cause ionization to the molecules of the cells. This may cause the cells to be killed,
resulting in tissue damage
(a) At low doses of radiation, the damaged tissues can repair itself rapidly. High doses of radiation can cause burn effects known as radiation
burns.
(b)The ionization effect of radiation can also cause genetic damage to the molecules of the cells. This may lead to the formation of cancerous
cells and tumor development.
(c) If the radioactive substances get inside the body, the most harmful effects come from the alpha particles because they have the highest
ionization power.

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(d) If the radioactive source is outside the body, the greatest danger is from gamma sources because gamma rays have the highest
penetrating power. The alpha particles would not penetrate clothing and is highly unlikely to reach living cells in the body.
(e) Somatic effect appears in the person exposed to radiation. The seriousness of the damage depends on the dose of radiation received.
 Fatigue, nausea, hair loss, radiation burns, cataracts ,Blood disorder (leukemia), organ failure, and death
 Genetic effect affects the reproductive cells and can lead to defective offspring in the future generations of the exposed person.
Birth defects, congenital defects, premature death, chromosome abnormalities, cancer in later life

NAME COMMON DETECTORS FOR RADIOACTIVE

DETECTORS FOR RADIOACTIVE

Geiger-Muller tube (gm tube) 2. Photographic film 3. The cloud chamber 4. the spark counter

GEIGER-MÜLLER TUBE (GM TUBE)

The Geiger-Müller usually tells us the number of particles detected per minute ("counts per minute").
central wire (+)
radiation aluminium tube ()

mica end-window 400 V

admits nuclear
radiation into the argon gas at
tube low pressure
argon atom counter
e

central
wire

pulse
GM tubes work using the ionizing effect of radioactivity. This means that they are best at detecting alpha particles, because
alpha particles ionize strongly.
• The radioactive emission enters the tube through the mica window and ionizes the neon gas. The electrons and positive ions are
attracted towards the anode and cathode respectively. When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of current is produces.
The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or ratemeter. The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain period of time
Different models of GM tubes are available for detecting alpha, beta and gamma radiation. ie counts per minute / counts per
second.
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of any radioactive substance. The reading displayed by the ratemeter
is known as the background count rates. When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive emission, the background count rate is
subtracted from the count rate obtained.
Notes:
Background radiation gives reading to the GM tube even though there is no radioactive source. Background radiation is always
present due to natural radioactivity in the ground, bricks or buildings and cosmic radiation

THE SPARK COUNTER

Key
gas molecule radioactive source 1) A high voltage is applied to the
(3 electron
gauze
(3) (2 (2) A radioactive source is brought
)
) near the gauze
gauze ( electrode) (1 (3) Radiation passes through the air
) (4) The air can now conduct
(4) 400 V d.c. electricity & a spark is produced
spark air
(4) spark
gauze (+ electrode)
An early form of detector, the Spark Counter is another instrument that uses the ionizing effect of radioactivity, and for this
reason it works best with alpha particle. The spark counter consists of wire gauze and a thin wire below it.
• A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire. The voltage is adjusted until it is just below the value
required to produce sparks.
• When a radioactive source is brought near the wire gauze, the radiation ionizes the air below it. The motion of the
ions to the gauze and the wire causes sparks to be produced. The spark can be seen and heard.
 Radiation produces lots of sparks,  Radiation produces only a few sparks, and  Radiation hardly gives any.
10 thmusondela@yahoo.cm
• Spark counters are suitable for alpha particles. Beta particles and gamma rays produce too few ions to produce sparks
THE CLOUD CHAMBER
felt ring soaked in alcohol
plastic lid
full of alcohol
vapour
weak radioactive
source lamp

insulation
foam dry ice

It shows the path traveled by the ionizing radiation in air. The radioactive produces ions in the air that is saturated
with alcohol vapour. The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to make the tracks of the radiation visible. Alpha
particles are best for this because it ionization power is high
Visible Tracks In A Cloud Chamber For Alpha Particle, Beta Particle And Gamma Rays

Alpha Beta Gamma

Dense – strong ionization power The gamma rays do not produce clear or
straight tracks - the alpha particle Very fast beta particles - thin, straight
continuous tracks due to their low
has a large mass and momentum so tracks. The slower beta particles - short, ionizing power
it is not easily deflected thick tracks which curve in random
direction.

  radiation: Having a strong ionizing power, the heavy  particles give straight and thick tracks of about the same
length.
  radiation: Having a weaker ionizing power, the light particles give thin and twisted tracks. They are twisted because
the particles are small in mass and bounce off from air molecules on collision.
  Radiation: Tracks of  rays can hardly be seen. The tracks are due to some other particles produced by a complicated
mechanism involving  rays.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

In 1896, Henri Becquerel, working in Paris, discovered that Uranium compounds would darken a photographic plate, even if the
plate were wrapped up so that no light could get in. Radioactivity will darken ("fog") photographic film, and we can use this
effect to measure how much radiation has struck the film.
Workers in the nuclear industry wear "film badges" which are sent to a laboratory to be developed, just like your photographs.
This allows us to measure the dose that each worker has received (usually each month).
The badges have "windows" made of different materials, so that we can see how much of the radiation was  particles, or 
particles, or  rays.

11 thmusondela@yahoo.cm