Linear Algebra

WEEK 8

WORKTEXT

 Chapter 3: Vectors and Vector Spaces

 Vector Spaces and Subspaces

 Linear Combination and Spanning Set
VECTOR SPACES AND SUBSPACES

Definition:
Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which two operations
are defined: addition, and multiplication by numbers called scalars. By addition we
mean a rule for associating with each pair of objects u and v in V an object u + v,
called the sum of u and v; by scalar multiplication we mean a rule for associating with
each scalar k and each object u in V an object ku, called the scalar multiple of u by k.
If the following axioms are satisfied by all objects u, v, w in V and all scalars k and
m, then we call V a vector space and we call the objects in V vectors.

1. If u and v are objects in V, then u + v is in V.

2. u + v = v + u
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
4. There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V, such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u
for all u in V.
5. For each u in V, there is an object −u in V, called a negative of u, such that
u + (−u) = (−u) + u = 0.
6. If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku is in V.
7. k(u + v) = ku + kv
8. (k + m)u = ku + mu
9. k(mu) = (km)(u)
10. 1u = u

To Show That a Set with Two Operations Is a Vector Space

Step 1. Identify the set V of objects that will become vectors.
Step 2. Identify the addition and scalar multiplication operations on V.
Step 3. Verify Axioms 1 and 6; that is, adding two vectors in V produces
a vector
in V, and multiplying a vector in V by a scalar also produces a vector in
V.
Axiom 1 is called closure under addition, and Axiom 6 is called closure
under
scalar multiplication.
Step 4. Confirm that Axioms 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold.

EXAMPLE 1: Rn is a Vector Space

Let V = Rn, and define the vector space operations on V to be the usual operations
of addition and scalar multiplication of n-tuples; that is,

u + v = (u1, u2, . . . , un) + (v1, v2, . . . , vn) = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2, . . . , un + vn)

ku = (ku1, ku2, . . . , kun)

The set V = Rn is closed under addition and scalar multiplication because the
foregoing operations produce n-tuples as their end result, and these operations
satisfy Axioms 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 by virtue of the theorem below on vector
operations.

THEOREM:
If u, v, and w are vectors in Rn, and if k and m are scalars, then:
(a) u + v = v + u
(b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u
(d) u + (−u) = 0
(e) k(u + v) = ku + kv
( f ) (k + m)u = ku + mu
(g) k(mu) = (km)u
(h) 1u = u

Example 2:
Consider the set V of all ordered triples of real nos. (x ,y, z) and define

(x,y,z) + (x’,y’,z’) = (x+x’,y+y’, z+z’)

and c(x,y,z) = (cx,y,z)

Is V a vector space?

Solution:
In this example, the vector addition and scalar multiplication are defined hence
Axioms 1 and 6 are satisfied. Let us verify the other conditions.

Let : u = (x,y,z)
v= (x’,y’,z’)
0 = (0,0,0)
-u= -(x,y,z) = (-x, y,z)

Axioms 2-4 would certainly hold however, in Axiom 5

u + (-u) = 0
(x,y,z) + (-x,y,z) = (0, 2y,2z) ≠ 0

∴ V is not a vector space.

Example 3:
The set of all m x n matrices under the normal operations of matrix addition
and scalar multiplication is a vector space.
This vector space will be denoted by 𝑀𝑚𝑛 .

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
A= ⋮
⋮ ⋮
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]
 𝑏11 𝑏12 ⋯ 𝑏1𝑛
𝑏21 𝑏22 ⋯ 𝑏2𝑛
B=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
[𝑏𝑚1 𝑏𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑏𝑚𝑛 ]

𝑀𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒.

Let A, B ∈ 𝑀𝑚𝑛
Axiom 1: A + B ∈ 𝑀𝑚𝑛
Axiom 6: cA ∈ 𝑀𝑚𝑛

Verifying the other Axioms,

2. A + B = B + A
3. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
0 0⋯ 0
0 0⋯ 0
4. O= A+0=0+A=A
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
[0 0 ⋯ 0]

−𝑎11 −𝑎12 ⋯ −𝑎1𝑛

−𝑎21 −𝑎22 ⋯ −𝑎2𝑛
5. -A = ⋮
⋮ ⋮
[−𝑎𝑚1 −𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ −𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]

A + (-A) = (-A) + (A) = 0

7. c (A + B) = cA + cB
8. (c + d) A = cA + dA
9. c (d A) = (cd) A
10. 1A = A
Example 4:
Let V be the set of all real –valued functions that are defined in the interval [a , b].
Let f , g ∈ 𝑉 . Define
(f + g)(t) = f(t) + g(t) and
( cf) (t) = c f(t)
Then V is a vector space.
Example 5:
Let V = R2 and define addition and scalar multiplication operations as follows: If
u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2), then define

u + v = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)

and if k is any real number, then define

ku = (ku1, 0)

For example, if u = (2, 4), v = (−3, 5), and k = 7, then

u + v = (2 + (−3), 4 + 5) = (−1, 9)
ku = 7u = (7 · 2, 0) = (14, 0)

The addition operation is the standard one from R2, but the scalar multiplication is
not. In the activity, we will ask you to show that the first nine vector space axioms
are satisfied. However, Axiom 10 fails to hold for certain vectors. For example, if
u = (u1, u2) is such that u2 ≠ 0, then

1u = 1(u1, u2) = (1 · u1, 0) = (u1, 0) ≠ u

Thus, V is not a vector space with the stated operations.

Some properties of vectors,

THEOREM: Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V, and k a scalar; then:
(a) 0u = 0 (the scalar zero times vector u is equal to the zero vector)

(b) k0 = 0
(c) (−1)u = −u
(d) If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0.

VECTOR SUBSPACES

DEFINITION:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a
vector space under the addition and scalar multiplication defined on V.

THEOREM:
If W is a set of one or more vectors in a vector space V, then W is a
subspace of V if and only if the following conditions are satisfied.
(a) If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is in W.
(b) If k is a scalar and u is a vector in W, then ku is in W.

Example 1: The Zero Subspace

If V is any vector space, and W = {0} is the subset of V that consists of the zero
vector only, then W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication since

0+0 =0 and k0 = 0

for any scalar k. We call W the zero subspace of V.

Example 2: Lines Through the Origin Are Subspaces of R2 and of R3

 If W is a line through the origin of either R2 or R3, then adding two vectors on
the line or multiplying a vector on the line by a scalar produces another vector on
the line, so W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. See figure below.

The table below shows the subspaces of R2 and of R3.

EXAMPLE 3: A Subset of R2 That Is Not a Subspace

Let W be the set of all points (x, y) in R2 for which x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0. This set is not a
subspace of R2 because it is not closed under scalar multiplication. For example,
v = (1, 1) is a vector in W, but (−1)v = (−1,−1) is not. See figure below.
Example 4:
3 3
Which of the following subset of R are subspaces of R ?
The set of the form:
1) (a,b,2)
2) ( a,b,c) where c = a + b
3) ( a,b,c) where c > 0

Proof for 1)
Test for closure:
( a1, b1 ,2)  (a2 , b2 ,2)  (a1  a2 , b1  b2 ,4) is not closed under addition

Therefore, not a subspace

Proof of 2)
Test for closure in addition:
let(a1 , b1 , c1)  w, (a2 , b2 , c2)  w  c1  (a1  b1), c2  (a2  b2)
(a1  b1  c1)  (a2  b2  c2)  (a1  a2 , b1  b2 , c1  c2)  w

Test for closure under multiplication:

( a,b,c)  w  c  a  b  kc  ka  kb
k(a,b,c)= (ka, kb, ka+kb)

Therefore a subspace. The properties were satisfied.

Proof of 3)
(a, b, c) where c > 0

Test for closure in addition:

 Let ( a1 , b1 , c1)  (a2 , b2 , c2)  (a1  a2 , b1  b2 , c1  c2) since
c1  c2 > 0  (a1  a2 , b1  b2 , c1  c2)  w therefore closed under addition
Test for closure under multiplication
Let ( a,b, c)  w, k  R, c > 0, note : if , k < 0  kc < 0 thus w is not closed under
multiplication.

Therefore not a subspace.

ACTIVITY 11

Directions: Answer the following as indicated. Submit a scanned hand-written

answers in USTeP in pdf format.

1. Let V = R2 and define addition and scalar multiplication operations as follows:

If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2), then define

u + v = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)

and if k is any real number, then define

ku = (ku1, 0)

Show that the first 9 vector space axioms are satisfied.

2. Determine whether the set of all ordered triples of real numbers (x, y, z) with
the operations
(x, y, z) Ꚛ (x’ , y’ , z’) = (x’, y + y’ , z)
and c ʘ (x , y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) is a vector space.

3. Prove the following whether the given are subspaces.

A. (a,b,c) where a = c = 0
 B. ( a,b,c ) where b= 2a+1
C. ( a,b,c) where a = - c

LINEAR COMBINATION AND SPANNING SET

Definition:

Let v1, v2, …,vk be vectors in a vector space V. A vector v in V is called a linear
combination of v1, v2, …, vk if

v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + ckvk ,

for some real numbers c1, c2, …,ck . The scalars c1, c2, …,ck are called the
coefficients of the linear combination.

Example 1:

Consider the vectors u = (1, 2,−1) and v = (6, 4, 2) in R3. Show that w = (9, 2, 7) is
a linear combination of u and v and that w’ = (4,−1, 8) is not a linear combination
of u and v.

Solution:
In order for w to be a linear combination of u and v, there must be scalars c1

and c2 such that w = c1u + c2v; that is,

(9, 2, 7) = c1(1, 2,−1) + c2(6, 4, 2) = (c1 + 6c2, 2c1 + 4c2,−c1 + 2c2)
Equating corresponding components gives
c1 + 6 c2 = 9
2 c1 + 4 c2 = 2
− c1 + 2 c2 = 7
Solving this system using Gaussian elimination yields c1 = −3, c2 = 2, so
w = −3u + 2v

Similarly, for w’ to be a linear combination of u and v, there must be scalars c1

and c2 such that w’ = c1u + c2v; that is,
(4,−1, 8) = c1 (1, 2,−1) + c2 (6, 4, 2) = (c1 + 6 c2, 2 c1 + 4 c2,− c1 + 2 c2)
Equating corresponding components gives
c1 + 6 c2 = 4
2 c1 + 4 c2 = −1
− c1 + 2 c2 = 8
This system of equations is inconsistent (verify), so no such scalars c1 and c2 exist.
Consequently, w is not a linear combination of u and v.

Example 2:

In R3 let
V1 = ( 1 ,2, 1) , V2 = ( 1, 0, 2 ) , and V3 = ( 1, 1, 0)
Is V = ( 2, 1, 5 ) a linear combination of V1 , V2 and V3 ?

Solution:
V = c1V1 + c2V2 + c3V3
( 2, 1, 5 ) = c1( 1 ,2, 1) + c2( 1, 0, 2 ) + c3( 1, 1, 0)
( 2, 1, 5 ) = (c1 + c2 + c3 , 2c1 + c3 , c1 + 2c2 )
Equating corresponding components gives
c1 + c2 + c3 = 2
 2c1 + c3 = 1
c1 + 2c2 = 5
Solving the system yields c1 = 1 , c2 = 2 , and c3 = -1
Thus, V is a linear combination of V1 , V2 and V3 .

V = V1 + 2V2 - V3

SPAN
Definition:
If S = {w1, w2, . . . , wr } is a nonempty set of vectors in a vector space V , then the
subspace W of V that consists of all possible linear combinations of the vectors in S
is called the subspace of V generated by S, and we say that the vectors
w1, w2, . . . , wr span W. We denote this subspace as

W = span{w1, w2, . . . , wr } or W = span(S)

EXAMPLE 1: The Standard UnitVectors Span Rn

Recall that the standard unit vectors in Rn are

e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1)

These vectors span Rn since every vector v = (v1, v2, . . . , vn) in Rn can be expressed
as
v = v1e1 + v2e2 +· · ·+vnen
which is a linear combination of e1, e2, . . . , en. Thus, for example, the vectors
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)
span R3 since every vector v = (a, b, c) in this space can be expressed as
v = (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = ai + bj + ck
EXAMPLE 2: A Geometric View of Spanning in R2 and R3
(a) If v is a nonzero vector inR2 orR3 that has its initial point at the origin, then
span{v}, which is the set of all scalar multiples of v, is the line through the origin
determined by v. You should be able to visualize this from the figure below by
observing that the tip of the vector kv can be made to fall at any point on the line
by choosing the value of k to lengthen, shorten, or reverse the direction of v
appropriately.

Span{v} is the line through the origin determined by v.

(b) If v1 and v2 are nonzero vectors in R3 that have their initial points at the origin,
then span{v1, v2}, which consists of all linear combinations of v1 and v2, is the plane
through the origin determined by these two vectors. You should be able to visualize
this from the figure below by observing that the tip of the vector k1v1 + k2v2 can be
made to fall at any point in the plane by adjusting the scalars k1 and k2 to lengthen,
shorten, or reverse the directions of the vectors k1v1 and k2v2 appropriately.
 Span{v1, v2} is the plane through the origin determined by v1 and v2.

EXAMPLE 3: A Spanning Set for Pn

The polynomials 1, x, x2, . . . , xn span the vector space Pn (polynomials of degree n)

since each polynomial p in Pn can be written as

p = a0 + a1x +· · ·+anxn

which is a linear combination of 1, x, x2, . . . , xn. We can denote this by writing

Pn = span{1, x, x2, . . . , xn}

EXAMPLE 4: Testing for Spanning

Determine whether the vectors v1 = (1, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 0, 1), and v3 = (2, 1, 3) span the
vector space R3.

Solution We must determine whether an arbitrary vector b = (b1, b2, b3) in R3 can
be expressed as a linear combination

b = k1v1 + k2v2 + k3v3

of the vectors v1, v2, and v3. Expressing this equation in terms of components gives

(b1, b2, b3) = k1(1, 1, 2) + k2(1, 0, 1) + k3(2, 1, 3)

or
 (b1, b2, b3) = (k1 + k2 + 2k3, k1 + k3, 2k1 + k2 + 3k3)
or

k1 + k2 + 2k3 = b1
k 1 + k 3 = b2
2k1 + k2 + 3k3 = b3

Thus, our problem reduces to ascertaining whether this system is consistent for all
values of b1, b2, and b3. One way of doing this is to use the Theorem which state
that the system is consistent if and only if its coefficient matrix

has a nonzero determinant. But this is not the case here since det(A) = 0 (verify), so

v1, v2, and v3 do not span R3.

 ACTIVITY 12

Directions: Answer the following items as indicated. Submit a scanned hand-

written answers in USTeP in pdf format.

1. Which of the following vectors are linear combinations of

X1 = (4, 2, -3) , X2 = (2, 1, -2), and X3 = (-2, -1, 0) ?

a) (1,1,1) b) (4, 2, -6)

c) (-2, -1, 1) d) (-1, 2, 3)

2. Which of the following vectors are linear combination of

p (t )  t
1
2
 2t  3, p (t )  t  3, p (t )  t  4 ?
2
2
3

a)4 t  t  1
2

b)3 t  3t  1
2

3. In each part, determine whether the vectors span R3.

(a) v1 = (2, 2, 2), v2 = (0, 0, 3), v3 = (0, 1, 1)
(b) v1 = (2,−1, 3), v2 = (4, 1, 2), v3 = (8,−1, 8)

4. Suppose that v1 = (2, 1, 0, 3), v2 = (3,−1, 5, 2), and v3 = (−1, 0, 2, 1).

Which of the following vectors are in span{v1, v2, v3}?

(a) (2, 3,−7, 3) (b) (0, 0, 0, 0)

(c) (1, 1, 1, 1) (d) (−4, 6,−13, 4)

5. Determine whether the following polynomials span P2.

p1 = 1 − x + 2x2, p2 = 3 + x, p3 = 5 − x + 4x2, p4 = −2 − 2x + 2x2

6. Let V be the vector space P2. Let S = { P1(t) , P2(t) }
where P1(t) = t2 + 2t + 1 and
P2(t) = t2 + 2
Does S span P2 ?